Animal Reprodcation and Developmental Biology

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Reproduction:
Reproduction means the ability to produce individuals of the same species.
There are two types of reproduction in animals; asexual and sexual.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction occurs in a single individual without production of gametes.
Higher animals do not naturally reproduce asexually.
Asexual reproduction takes place by several methods like fission, spore formation, budding (gemma-
tion), etc.
Fission : The body of a single organism divides into more than one new organism by a process called fission.
Fission may be binary or multiple.
Binary fission occurs in Amoeba, Paramecium, Planaria etc.
Binary fission may be longitudinal (Euglena) or transverse (Paramecium and Planaria).
During multiple fission, the parental body divides into many daughter organisms (e.g., Malarial parasite).
Spore Formation : A spore is a small reproductive body which is microscopic and unicellular containing a
small amount of cytoplasm and a nucleus. Spores are produced by protozoa.
Budding : Hydra may reproduce vegetatively by exogenous budding
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction involves the union of two gametes (sperms and ova) with haploid nuclei.
Gametes are produced in gonads which are mesodermal in origin (from nephrotomes or mesomeres).
Fusion of gametes is called syngamy.
Anisogametes: The male and female gametes are dissimilar in size and shape.
Male gamete is smaller in size, motile and deficient in stored nutrients called microgamete or sperm.
Female gamete is much larger in size, non-motile and laden with stored nutrients called macrogamete or
ovum.
MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Sexes are separate in human beings; males and females.
NEET_ANIMAL REPRODUCTION - 1
Prim a ry Acce ssory or
Se conda ry Sex
Se x Se x e x te rna l se x
Orga n
Orga n cha ra cter
Prostate,
Low - pitch voice,
Seminal vesicle,
Beard, Broad
Male Testis Vas deferens,
schoulder, Narrow
Epididymis,
hips
Penis
Fallopian tubes,
High - pitch voice,
Uterus,
Female Ovary smooth face, Narrow
Vagina,
shoulder, Broad hips
Mammary glands
Primary sex organs produce gametes and also secrete sex hormones.
Secondary sex organs are important in reproduction, but do not produce gametes or sex hormones.
By accessory sex characters both sexes can be distinguished externally but do not directly play any role in
reproduction.
Puberty : The age of sexual maturity is called puberty. External or accessory sex characters first appear in
puberty.
Puberty occurs in girls at the age of 11 to 14 years.
Puberty occurs in boys at the age of 14 to 16 years.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male reproductive system of man consists’of paired testes, accessory glands, a duct system and penis.
Testes
Testes are the primary male sex organs.
Testis produces spermatozoa and secretes the male sex hormone testosterone.
In mammals, the testes are located in the extra-abdominal scrotal sacs because maturation of sperm needs
low temperature.
The temperature in scrotum is 2 to 4°C below the temperature of abdominal cavity.
Scrotum communicates with abdominal cavity through inguinal canal
Testis (Caput epididymis) is connected to the dorsal abdominal wall by a spermatic cord consisting of
connective tissue, spermatic artery, spermatic nerve etc.
Gubernaculum is the ligamentous connective cord (elastic cord) which connects testes to scrotal sacs
posteriorly.
In bats, rats and otter, testes descend to scrotal sacs only during breeding season.
Whales and elephants have abdominal testes. Their body temperature is low and cooling of testes is not
required.
Cryptorchidism is nondescent of testes in scrotum. Person becomes sterile.
Orchidectomy is the surgical removal of testes. It is also known as castration.
The capsule enclosing testes of mammal is called tunica albuginea.
Partitions of testis develop from tunica albuginea.
Each testis of man contains about 750 convoluted seminiferous tubules which give rise to spermatozoa.
The germinal epithelium lining of the seminiferous tubule is made of two kinds of cells.
The most numerous are the smaller spermatogenic cells or spermatogonia which undergo spermatogenesis
to produce sperms.
A few larger, tall, columnar supporting cells are called sertoli cells or sustencular cells.
Sertoli cells are located in seminiferous tubules which nourish spermatozoa.
Seminiferous tubules are separated by interstitial connective tissue.
Cells of Leydig are found in interstitial connective tissue of testes. They secrete male hormone testoster-
one.
All the seminiferous tubules in each testis open into a network called rete testis leading to fine ductules
called vasa efferentia.
Epididymis
Several tubes called vasa efferentia arise from rete testis and conduct sperms into epididymis.
Epididymis is an irregular, narrow and highly convoluted tubule found on the inner surface of testis.
Epididymis has three parts: anterior caput epididymis, middle corpus epididymis and posterior cauda
epididymis.
Sperms achieve maturity and motility in epididymis.
Epididymis stores the sperms temporarily.
Vas deferens
Vas deferens or sperm duct arises from cauda epididymis, ascends to abdomen, passes over the urinary
bladder and receive the duct from seminal vesicle behind the urinary bladder forming ejaculatory duct.
Ejaculatory duct passes through the prostate to open into urethra shortly after its origin from urinary bladder.
The urethra receives rite ducts of prostate and Cowper’s gland pass through penis and opens to outside.
Seminal vesicles
Seminal vesicles (Uterus masculinus) are situated at the junction of vas deferens and prostate gland. They
are narrow, long pouches with muscular tissue on their wall.
About 70% of the semen is seminal fluid produced by seminal vesicles.
Seminal Fluid : Seminal fluid has a pH of about 7.4 and contains fructose, citrate, ascorbic acid, prostag-
landins and various enzymes.
The fructose is a source of energy for the spermatozoa.
Prostate Gland
Prostate is situated around the first part of the urethra. It contains prostatic utricle and acini and covered by
a capsule.
Enlargement of prostate results in prostatitis, urination is difficult or impossible.
Prostatic Fluid: Prostatic secretion forms about 20% of the volume of semen.
It is slightly acidic, pH 6.5 due to the presence of citric acid.
Prostatic secretion contains substances important for sperm mobility notably albumin and pro
teolytic enzymes fibrinolysin and fibrinogenase.
Cowper’s glands
Cowper’s glands are present in male mammals.
Cowper’s glands are yellow in colour.
These are also known as bulbourethral glands, situated beneath bladder and behind the urethra.
Cowper’s glands open into urethra before entering into penis.
Cowper’s Fluid : Secretion of cowper’s gland is slightly alkaline and is produced during sexual stimulation.
Cowper’s gland secretion acts as a lubricant for the glans penis. It also neutralizes any urine in urethra.
Urethra
Urethra is a thick-walled muscular duct and it is a common passage for both urine and semen and called
urinogenital duct.
Urethra traverse and opens at the tip of the penis as the male urinogenital aperture.
Penis
Penis is the copulatory organ. It is vascular,

spongy and erectile structure.
It has glans penis at tip covered with a fold of
skin called prepuce.
Penis contains three longitudinal columns of
spongy erectile tissue which becomes filled with
blood during sexual excitement.
Surrounding the urinogenital duct is corpus
spongiosum and above it lie two corpora
cavernosa.
Penis serves to transmit sperms into the vagina
of the female during sexual intercourse.
Ejaculation
Ejaculation or seminal emission is the forceful
expulsion of semen during sexual intercourse.
At an average ejaculation, 3 mL of semen containing about 300 million spermatozoa is emitted in man.
Note : Perineal glands and Rectal glands
These are found in rabbit not in human beings.
Perineum refers to the space between the anus and urinogenital opening.
Their odorous secretion gives the rabbit its characteristic smell (its smell serves as sex attractant for the
female).
A pair of rectal glands of unknown function is situated dorsally on the rectum.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus, cervix, vagina,
accessory genital glands, mammary glands, etc.
Ovary
The ovary is the primary female sex organ.
Ovary produces ova and secretes female sex hormones viz., estrogens and progesterone.
The ovary remains attached to the abdominal wall by a ligament called mesovarium.
The ovary is solid, the blood vessels and nerve enter ovary at hilus.
Ovary is covered by a cubical epithelium called the germinal epithelium.
Ovary contains connective tissue, stroma composed of an outer dense layer called cortex and an inner loose
layer known as medulla.
Cortex contains many small and large, spherical or oval ovarian follicles. A fully matured follicle is called
Graafian follicle.
Graafian follicle contains a large central follicular cavity or antrum with a fluid called liquor folliculi.
The follicle cells lining the cavity are termed membrane granulosa.
The hillock or mass of cells which surrounds and attaches the primary oocyte to the follicle wall is called
discus proligerous.
The oocyte of mammal is enclosed in a perforated membrane called zone pellucida.
Next to zona pellucida, cells of inner margin of discus proligerous (cumulus) present a characteristic radial
arrangement and is termed corona radiate.
Graafian follicle secretes estrogen in the blood.
Discharge of a mature ovum from Graafian follicle is known as ovulation
After ovulation, a raptured follicle turns into a yellowish solid mass of cells called corpus luteum
Corpus luteum secretes the female hormone, progesterone
(Macula lutea or yellow spot is present in eye retina)
Vagina
Uterus opens into an elastic muscular tube called vagina.
The vagina is lined by a stratified squamous
epithelium with out any glands.
During reproductive life the vagina contains Lac-

tobacillus acidophilus which keeps the vaginal
pH between 4.9 and 3.5 by producing lactic acid
from glycogen.
Vagina receives semen from male during mating.
During childbirth, it conveys the child outside.
Bartholin’s gland: On either s’de of vaginal ori-

fice is a greater vestibular gland or Bartholin’s
gland.
Bartholin’s gland occurs in female mammals
and helps in vestibular lubrication.
Bartholin’s gland of female corresponds to
bulbourethal gland (Cowper’s gland) of the male).
Hymen : The hymen is a thin mucous membrane that stretches across the opening of the vagina.
The hymen is normally ruptured during female’s first copulation.
Vestibule
Vestibule contains openings of vagina, urethra and hymen.
Numerous minute paraurethral glands or glands of Skene, homologous to prostate of male, are present
around the urethral orifice.
Labia Majora: Vestibule opens to out side through vulva or urinogenital opening guarded by two labia majora
(in rabbit).
The scrotal saris of a male mammal are homologous to labia majora of female.
Clitoris
Clitoris is a small organ consisting of erectile tissue and is homologous to the penis of the male.
MAMMARY GLANDS
A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissue and variable amount of
fat.
The glandular tissue of eachbreast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells
called alveoli.
The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens) of alveoli.
The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected tolactiferous duct
through which milk is sucked out.
ESTROUS CYCLE
The estrous cycle consists of cyclic changes in the female reproductive system of non-primate mammals
There is no menstruation at the end of estrous cycle.
The estrogen level in blood increases resulting strong sex urge in the female. This is called “period of
heat”.
The estrous cycles run only during the breeding season.
The estrous cycles remain suspended in female during non-breeding season.
The suspension of estrous cycles is called the state of anestrum.
Those animals that have only a single estrous during the breeding season are called monoestrous, e.g.,
Dog, fox, deer, bat, etc.
The animals that have a recurrence of estrous during breeding season are called polyestrous, e.g., Mouse,
squirrel, cow, sheep, pig, horse, etc.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Menstrual cycle is the cyclic changes in

the reproductive tract of primate females.
Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the
endometrium of the uterus with bleeding.
In healthy women, menstruation occurs
at intervals of about 28 days.
Menarche is the starting of menstruation in
girls at about 13 years.
Menstrual cycle consists of menstrual
phase, proliferative phase (follicular phase)
and secretory phase (luteal phase).
Proliferative phase (5th to 14th day) consists of growth of endometrium of uterus, fallopian tube and vagina.
In ovary, a Graafian follicle grows, matures and secretes estrogen during this phase.
Estrogen is the hormone active during proliferative phase.
The ovum is ejected from the follicle near the end of proliferative phase, i.e., 14th day or midway during
menstrual cycle.
Ovulation occurs under the influence of LH from pituitary.
The subsequent 14 days in which corpus luteum is active is referred to as the secretory phase.
Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum is active during secretory phase.
The uterine endometrium and glands grow further during secretory phase.
At the end of secretory phase, corpus Interim degenerates in the ovary, progesterone secretion fails, the
overgrown uterine endometrium breaks down and menstruation takes place.
Menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, LH, estrogen and progesterone.
The menstrual cycle and menstruation remain suspended during pregnancy and lactation.
Menopause (climacteric) is the period of life when menstruation naturally stops.
Menopause occurs in females at the age of 45–50 years.
Cessation of menstrual cycle is called menopause.
Ability to reproduce is lost in the female after menopause.
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi which are sur-
rounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a structural and
functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body called placenta .
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide
and excretory/waste materials produced by the embryo.
The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord which helps in the transport of sub-
stances to and from the embryo.
Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens,
progestogens, etc.
In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone
called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
Let us remember that hCG, hPL and
relaxin are produced in women only
during pregnancy.
In addition, during pregnancy the levels
of other hormones like estrogens,
progestogens, cortisol, prolactin,
thyroxine, etc., are increased.
(essential for supporting the foetal growth,
metabolic changes in the mother and
maintenance of pregnancy).
Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer called ectoderm
and an inner layer called endoderm.
A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm.
These three layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in adults.
It needs to be mentioned here that the inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which have
the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
The human pregnancy lasts 9 months.
In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart is formed.
The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by listening to the heart sound carefully through the
stethoscope.
By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and digits.
By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the major organ systems are formed, for example, the limbs
and external genital organs are well-developed.
The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth
month.
By the end of 24 weeks (second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes
are formed.
By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months which is called the gestation period.
Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of the foetus.
This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition.
Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism.
The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta which induce mild
uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which in turn stimulates
further secretion of oxytocin.
The stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion continues resulting in stronger
and stronger contractions.
This leads to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal – parturition. Soon after the
infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.
The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and starts producing milk
towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation.
This helps the mother in feeding the newborn.
The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which contains several antibodies
absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new-born babies.
Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for bringing up a healthy
baby.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
The term simply refers to healthy reproductive organs with normal functions.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health means a total well-being in all
aspects of reproduction, i.e., physical, emotional, behavioural and social.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH – PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIES

India was amongst the first countries in the world to initiate action plans and programmes at a national level.
These programmes called ‘family planning’ were initiated in 1951.

RCH - Reproductive and Child Health Care Programmes
Improved programmes covering wider reproduction-related areas are currently in operation under the popular
name ‘Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes’.
Major tasks under RCH -

Creating awareness among people.
Support for building up a reproductively healthy society.
Various steps to create to Awarness –

With the help of audio-visual and the print-media governmental and Non-governmental agencies.
Parents, other close relatives, teachers and friends, also have a major role in the dissemination of the
above information.
Introduction of sex education in schools.
Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and hygienic
sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS, etc.
Educating people, especially fertile couples and those in marriageable age group, about available birth
control options, care of pregnant mothers, post-natal care of the mother and child, importance of breast
feeding, equal opportunities for the male and the female child, etc.
Awareness of problems due to uncontrolled population growth, social evils like sex-abuse and sex-related
crimes, etc.
Better awareness about sex related matters, increased -

Number of medically assisted deliveries and better post-natal care leading to decreased maternal and
Infant mortality rates.
Increased number of couples with small families,
Better detection and cure of STDs.
Overall increased medical facilities for all sex-related problems, etc.
All indicate improved reproductive health of the society.
Successful implementation of various action plans to attain reproductive health requires -

Strong infrastructural facilities
professional expertise
material support.
These are essential to provide medical assistance
Care to people in reproduction-related problems like pregnancy, delivery, STDs, abortions, contraception,
menstrual problems, infertility, etc.
Implementation of better techniques and new strategies from time to time are also required to provide
more efficient care and assistance to people.
Statutory ban on amniocentesis.
Massive child immunisation, etc.
Research on various reproduction-related areas are encouraged and supported by governmental and non-
governmental agencies to find out new methods and/or to improve upon the existing ones.
AMNIOCENTESIS - a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid
surrounding the developing embryo
SAHELI -
‘Saheli’–a new oral contraceptive for the females
was developed by scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in Lucknow, India
POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL

Increased health facilities along with better living conditions had an explosive impact on the growth of population.
The world population which was around 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900 rocketed to about 6 billions by 2000.
Our population which was approximately 350 million at the time of our independence reached close to the
billion mark by 2000 and crossed 1 billion in May 2000.
That means, every sixth person in the world is an Indian.
A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR) as well as
an increase in number of people in reproducible age are probable reasons for this.
Through our RCH programmes, though we could bring down the population growth rate, it was only marginal.
According to the 2001 census report, the population growth rate was still around 1.7 percent, i.e., 17/1000/
year, a rate at which our population could double in 33 years.
To motivate smaller families -
by using various contraceptive methods.
Advertisements - “Hum Do Hamare Do”
Many couples, have even adopted an ‘one child norm’.
Statutory raising of marriageable age of the female to 18 years and that of males to 21 years
Contraceptive methods
An ideal contraceptive -
User-friendly, easily available.
effective and reversible with no or least side-effects.
It also should in no way interfere with the sexual drive, desire and/or the sexual act of the user.
Contraceptive methods - A wide range of contraceptive methods are presently available which could be
broadly grouped into the following categories, namely
1. Natural/Traditional
2. Barrier
3. IUDs,
4. Oral contraceptives
5. Injectables / Implants
6. Surgical methods.
1. NATURAL/TRADITIONAL - Natural methods work on the principle of avoiding chances of ovum and
sperms meeting.
(a) Periodic abstinence - is one such method in which the couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day
10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle when ovulation could be expected.
As chances of fertilisation are very high during this period, it is called the fertile period.
Therefore, by abstaining from coitus during this period, conception could be prevented.
(b) Withdrawal or coitus interruptus - is another method in which the male partner withdraws his penis
from the vagina just before ejaculation so as to avoid insemination.
(c) Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) method - is based on the fact that ovulation and
therefore the cycle do not occur during the period of intense lactation following parturition.
Therefore, as long as the mother breast-feeds the child fully, chances of conception are almost nil.
However, this method has been reported to be effective only upto a maximum period of six months
following parturition.
As no medicines or devices are used in these methods.
Side effects are almost nil.
Chances of failure, though, of this method are also high.
2. BARRIER METHODS - ovum and sperms are prevented from physically meeting with the help of
barriers.
Such methods are available for both males and females.
(a) Condoms - are barriers made of thin rubber/latex sheath that are used to cover the penis in the male or
vagina and cervix in the female, just before coitus so that the ejaculated semen would not enter into the
female reproductive tract.
This can prevent conception.
‘Nirodh’ is a popular brand of condom for the male.
Use of condoms has increased in recent years due to its additional benefit of protecting the user from
contracting STDs and AIDS.
Both the male and the female condoms are disposable, can be
self-inserted and thereby gives privacy to the user.
(b) Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults - are also barriers made of rubber that are inserted into the
female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus.
They prevent conception by blocking the entry of
sperms through the cervix.
They are reusable.
Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are usually used alongwith these barriers
to increase their contraceptive efficiency.
3. INTRA UTERINE DEVICES (IUDS) -
These devices are inserted by doctors or expert nurses in the uterus through vagina.
These Intra Uterine Devices are presently available as

(a) The non-medicated IUDs (e.g., Lippes loop).
(b) Copper releasing IUDs (CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375).
(c) The hormone releasing IUDs (Progestasert, LNG-20).
IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus.
The Cu ions released suppress sperm motility and the fertilising capacity
of sperms.
The hormone releasing IUDs, in addition, make the uterus unsuitable for
implantation and the cervix hostile to the sperms.
IUDs are ideal contraceptives for the females who want to delay pregnancy
and/or space children.
It is one of most widely accepted methods of contraception in India.
4. ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES - administration of small doses of either progestogens or progestogen–estrogen

combinations is another contraceptive method used by the females.
They are used in the form of tablets and hence are popularly called the pills.
Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting preferably

within the first five days of menstrual cycle.
After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation occurs) it has to be repeated in the same pattern till the
female desires to prevent conception.
They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent/ retard entry
of sperms.
Pills are very effective with lesser side effects and are well accepted by the females.
Saheli – the new oral contraceptive for the females contains a non-steroidal preparation.
It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects and high contraceptive value.
5. INJECTIONS OR IMPLANTS - Progestogens alone or in combination with
estrogen can also be used by females as injections or implants under the skin.
Their mode of action is similar to that of pills and their effective periods are
much longer.
Administration of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations or IUDs

within 72 hours of coitus have been found to be very effective as emergency
contraceptives
As they could be used to avoid possible pregnancy due to rape or casual unprotected intercourse.
6. SURGICAL METHODS - Also called sterilisation
Generally advised for the male/female partner as a terminal method to prevent any more pregnancies.
Surgical intervention blocks gamete transport and thereby prevent conception.
Sterilisation procedure in the male is called ‘vasectomy’.
that in the female, ‘tubectomy’.

VASECTOMY
In vasectomy, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up through a small incision on the
scrotum whereas
TUBECTOMY
In tubectomy, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or tied up through a small incision in the
abdomen or through vagina.
These techniques are highly effective but their reversibility is very poor.
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)
Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of
pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion.
Nearly 45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year all over the world which accounts to 1/5th of the
total number of conceived pregnancies in a year.
Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to avoid its misuse.
Why MTP? Obviously the answer is–to get rid of unwanted pregnancies either due to casual
unprotected intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used during coitus or rapes.
MTPs are also essential in certain cases where continuation of the pregnancy could be harmful or even
fatal either to the mother or to the foetus or both.
MTPs are considered relatively safe during the first trimester, i.e., upto 12 weeks of pregnancy.
Second trimester abortions are much more riskier.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) :
Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called sexually
transmitted diseases (STD).
Also called venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B ,
HIV leading to AIDS are some of the common STDs.
Among these, HIV infection is most dangerous.
Some of these infections like hepatitis–B and HIV can also be transmitted by sharing of injection needles,
surgical instruments, etc. with infected persons, transfusion of blood, or from an infected mother to the
foetus too.
Except for hepatitis-B, genital herpes and HIV infections, other diseases are completely curable if detected
early and treated properly.
Early symptoms of most of these are minor and include itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings,
etc., in the genital region.
Infected females may often be asymptomatic and hence, may remain undetected for long.
Absence or less significant symptoms in the early stages of infection and the social stigma attached to
the STDs, deter the infected persons from going for timely detection and proper treatment.
This could lead to complications later, which include Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases (PID), abortions,
still births, ectopic pregnancies, infertility or even cancer of the reproductive tract.
Though all persons are vulnerable to these infections, their incidences are reported to be very high among
persons in the age group of 15-24 years.
Prevention :
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
(iii) In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment if diagnosed
with disease.
INFERTILITY
A large number of couples all over the world including India are infertile, i.e., they are unable to produce
children inspite of unprotected sexual co-habitation.
The reasons for this could be many–physical, congenital, diseases, drugs, immunological or even
psychological In India, often the female is blamed for the couple being childless, but more often than not, the
problem lies in the male partner.
Specialised health care units (infertility clinics, etc.) could help in diagnosis and corrective treatment
of some of these disorders and enable these couples to have children.
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES -

However, where such corrections are not possible, the couples could be assisted to have children through
certain special techniques commonly known as assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
In vitro fertilisation (IVF–fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in the body)
followed by Embryo Transfer (ET) is one of such methods.
In this method, popularly known as test tube baby programme, ova from the wife/donor (female) and
sperms from the husband/donor (male) are collected and are induced to form zygote under simulated conditions
in the laboratory.
The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres) could then be transferred into the fallopian tube
(ZIFT–zygote intra fallopian transfer) and embryos with more than 8 blastomeres, into the uterus (IUT –
intra uterine transfer), to complete its further development.
Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilisation (fusion of gametes within the female) also could be used for
such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive.
Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube (GIFT – gamete intra fallopian
transfer) of another female who cannot produce one, but can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and
further development is another method attempted.
Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is another specialised procedure to form an embryo in the
laboratory in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum.
Infertility cases either due to inability of the male partner to inseminate the female or due to very low sperm
counts in the ejaculates, could be corrected by artificial insemination (AI) technique.
In this technique, the semen collected either from the husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced
either into the vagina or into the uterus (IUI – intra-uterine insemination) of the female.
Though options are many, all these techniques require extremely high precision handling by specialised
professionals and expensive instrumentation.
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
(Embryology)
Ontogenic development (Ontogenesis)
Blastema Complete animal (Blastozoid)
Zygote Complete Animal (Oozoid)
Embryology term was coined by Aristotle.

Study of embryogenesis is known as Embryology.
Development Biology :
This branch deals with study of complete development of organism. Development continues till death.
Prenatal Development -
Development before the birth. Post-natal Development - Development after the birth.
The pre-natal development of animals is known as ontogenic development. This is of two types -
(1) Zygotic :
Animals develop by sexual reproduction.
The animals which are produced through zygote is known as oozoids.
Oozoids have more survival as compared to blastozoids. Oozoids have genetic variations.
The development of animals through zygote is known as embryogenesis.
(2) Blastematic :
Animals develops by any asexual structure known as blastema. Eg. Buds in Hydra.
Animals which are produced through blastema are known as blastozoids.
Development of animals through blastema is known as blastogenesis.
Formation of eggs & sperm from germ cells is known as Gametogenesis.

FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) of pituitary gland stimulate the gametogenesis.
Vitamin-E (Fertility vitamin) and vitamin -A are essential for gametogenesis and deficiency of vitamin-E
causes sterlity.
Healthy gametes are produced by vitamin-A. Due to deficiency of vitamin-A gametes remain less active.
Germinal epithelium of gonads have primordial germ cells. These repetedly divides to form gametes. PGC
are produced in extragonodial tissue normally placenta.
Normally gamete formation have 3 steps
(i) Multiplication stage (ii) Growth stage (iii) Maturation stage
Formation of sperms :
In most of animals, spermatogenesis occurs in testes.
Mammalian testes contains seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous tubules are lined by germinal epithelium
internally. Some special type cells are found in germinal epithelium known as primordial Germ cells.
These cells divide & produces sperms.
Sertoli cells are also found in germinal epithelium.Presence of sertoli cells is the unique character of
mammalian testes. Sperm are stored and kept inactive in epidydymis.
Sperm formation have 2 stages (a) Spermatocytosis (b) Spermiogenesis
(a) SPERMATOCYTOSIS :
Formation of spermatid from primordial germ cells. It have 3 stages
(i) Multiplicative stage : Primordial cells repeatedly divides and produces large number of spermatogonia.
Primordial germ cells (2n - 44xy) regularly divides and produces spermatogonia. A type
(44 xy). These A type spermatogonia regularly undergo division. So they are also called as stem spermatogonia.
It also produces B spermatogonia.
(ii) Growth stage : In this spermatids gain nutrients from sertoli cells and grows in size. B spermatogonia
(44 xy) now goes to the sertoli cells and takes up nutrition after certain limited growth they are called as
primary spermatocyte (44 xy).
(iii) Maturation stage : In this primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis. After meiosis-I secondary
spermatocytes are formed. After meiosis-II four haploid spermatids are formed. Primary spermatocyte divides
by meiosis-I and produces secondry spermatocytes. They are haploid. These are of 2 types on the basis of
chromosome number i.e. 23 + x and 23 + y (both 50% each). They further divides by meiosis-II and produces
four spermatids (23 + x, 23 + x, 23 + y, 23 + y).
(b) SPERMIOGENESIS OR SPERMATOLEOSIS : Metamorphosis of spermatid.
Formation of sperm from spermatid is called Spermiogenesis. It involves following developments.

Nucleus of spermatid move to one end, chromatin undergo condensation. Nucleus becomes light in weight
and aquires spindle shape.
Many golgi vesicle collects above the nucleus. Few vesicles develops a granule inside them, this
granule is known as proacrosomal granules (proacroblast). Later all proacroblasts fuse with each other &
form a large vesicle, which is known as acroblast. Granule of acroblast is called as Acrosomal granules.
Acroblast collects on the nucleus, Rest vesicles are known as golgi rest. These golgi rest later degenerates.
Cytoplasm of spermatid moves backward, so plasma membrane shrinks & attach with acroblast & nucleus
and head of sperm is formed.
Two centrioles of spermatid arrange in perpendicular manner, just below to nucleus. Distal centriole produces
axonema. All mitochondria of spermatid arranged spirally around the Axonema. This arrangement form the
middle part of sperm.
Axonema elongates & tail of sperm is formed.
The removed cytoplasm is absorbed by sertoli cells by phagocytosis.
HARMONE CONTROL OF SPERMATOGONESIS
Interstial cells of leydig produces testosterone that promotes sperms foramtion.
These interstitial cells of leydig are triggered by ICSH = Interstitial cells timulating harmone produced by
anterior lobe of pituitary. It is same as LH.
Under the control of FSH and testosterone sertoli cells secrete androgen binding protein (ABP). It helps
in concentrating testosterone in seminiferous tubules.
Sertoli cells also produces inhibin that supress FSH.
FSH acts on spermatogonia to stimulate sperm formation.
FSH and LH production by pitutary is regulated by hypothalamus which produces GnRF - gonadotropin
releasing harmone/factor.
High level of testosterone negatively feed back the GnRF from hypothalamus.
Relase of mature sperms from sertoli cells is known as spermiation.
Relase of sperm from testes is known as semination.
Relase of sperms from male body is known as ejaculation.
Relase of the sperm into female body is known as insemination.
Sperm has three parts :

(1) Head - Head contains two structures.
(a) Acrosome (b) Nucleus.
Acrosome is a vesicle like double membranous
structure which has hydrolytic enzymes. These
are combinely known as spermlysin. These
enzymes help in penetration of egg.
Mammalian acrosome has mainly
hyaluronidase & proacrosine enzyme. Both
are combinely known as acrosomine.
Proacrosine is an inactive enzyme, but when it
comes in contact with egg, it converts into active
acrosine.
These membranes of golgibody left on acrosome
cap are called as Galea capitis.
A space between acrosome & nucleus is known

as perforatorium.
Volume of nucleoplasm reduces due to compactness. Nucleolus disappear in nucleus of sperm. According
to few scientists Histone are also removed. Histones are replaced by protamines in sperm nucleus. These
are the alkaline protein .
(2) Middle piece- Its anterior part is narrow & called as neck of sperm. It has two centrioles.
(i) Proximal centriole or anterior knob : Proximal centriole is situated in the base of nucleus in a pit.
Proximal centriole stimulate the cleavage in fertilized egg.
(ii) Distal centriole or posterior knob : Distal centriole acts as a basal granule & produces axonema
filament. Axonema is surrounded by 9 solid protein fibres in middle piece of sperm.
In middle piece many mitochondria are

arranged spirally around to axonema.
This spiral sheath of mitochondria around the axonema is known Nebenkern sheath.
At the end part of middle piece sperm has another centriole which is known ring centrioles. The function of
ring centriole is unknown.
Basal part of head & middle piece has a thin layer of cytoplasm which is called as Manchette.
(3) Tail - It is a long flagellum, its basal body is distal centriole. Tail is divided into two parts-
(a) Main piece (b) End piece
Main piece of axonema surrounded by two solid protein fibres.A Thin layer of cytoplasm present in main piece
of the tail.
End piece of tail consist of only axonema and 9 + 2 arrangement.
In humans sperm formation is completed in 74 days.

In one ejaculation 4 ml semen have 400 million sperms.
If sperm count is less = Oligospermia.
If there are dead sperms = Necrospermia.
If there are no sperm = Azoospermia.
(a) SHAPES OF SPERM HEAD :

Spherical head e.g. Teleost fishes
Lanceolate e.g. Amphibia & Reptilia
Cork screw (Spiral) e.g. Birds
Spoon shaped e.g. Mammals (man)
Hook shaped e.g. Rat
(b) TAIL OF SPERM

Tailless sperm (Non flagellated sperm)
e.g. (a) Ascaris - Amoeboid
(b) Cray fish (Astacus) - Star shaped
(c) Crab & lobster - Small, rod like, apex has three hooks.
Toad fish -Biflagellated.
In Grasshopper and many arthropods. Many heads of sperms are combined and form a sperm boat.
After reaching to egg the sperms become separate.
In Pila - Two types of sperms are found -
(1) Eupyrene (one tail)
(2) Oligopyrene (4-6 tail)
(c) SIZE OF SPERMS

Smallest sperm -Crocodile and Amphioxus (.02 mm).
Longest sperms of chordata are present in Discoglossus (2mm).
Longest sperm of Animal kingdom present in Drosophila bifurca (5.8 cm)
Sertoli cells provide nutrition to developing
sperms.Developing sperm attached with sertoli
cells & gets nutrition.
Sertoli cells forms Blood Testes Barrier. This

protects sperms from body immune system.
Two types of hormones are secreted by sertoli

cells-
(A) AMH (anti mularian hormone) - This hormone
inhibits development of female genital organs in
male embryo. Although some vestigeal female
genital organs persist in male.
Eg. (i) Seminal vesicle/uterus masculinus - it is a vestigeal of part oviduct (mularian duct).
(ii) Prostatic utricle/vagina masculinus - it is a vestigeal part of vagina.
(B) Inhibin hormone - It inhibits the secretion of FSH, and controls the production of sperms.
Sertoli cells also produces androgen binding proteins.
Formation of ova in ovary is called oogenesis.

It also have simlar stages like sperm formation. i.e. Multiplicative, growth, maturation & differentiation.
(A) Multiplicative stage :

Under the influence of FSH the primordial germ cells regularly divides and produces large number of
oogonia (2n). This stage is completed in early embryonic stage in most of the mammals in which number of
developing egg cell increases.
(B) Growth Stage : Many changes occurs during growth phase in oogonia. All these changes are divided in
two substages by. Raven.
(1) Previtellogenesis (2) Vitellogenesis
(1) Previtellogenesis - This sub-stage involves two types of changes-
(a) Changes in Nucleus -
Karyoplasm increases. In few animals number of nucleolus also increase.
DNA activity increases & DNA rapidly produces (transcribes) different types of RNA.
The increase in activity of DNA is known as Gene amplification or Gene Redundency.
Due to these changes nucleus of egg become large in size. The large nucleus of egg is now known as
Germinal vesicle.
(b) Changes in cytoplasm -
The rate of protein synthesis in cytoplasm increases and different types of proteins and enzymes are
formed. Due to this egg increases in size.
Increases the number of cells organelles especially Golgi bodies, E.R., and Mitochondria.
The mitochondria increase in number and they form a group which is known as mitochondrial clouds.
Later the Mitochondria, Golgibodies and ER arranges in a ring which surrounds to nucleus. This ring is
known as Balbiani ring or vitelline ring.
Vitelline membrane is formed by golgibody. Golgi bodies also produces cortical granules. These are
covered with unit membrane & filled by mucopolysaccharide. At the time of fertilization cortical granules
forms the fertilization membrane.
The cortical granules are absent in the eggs of rats, insects, birds & guinea pig.
A space is present between the plasma membrane and vitelline membrane, it is known as perivitelline
space. A fluid is filled in this space which is known as Perivitelline fluid.The E.R. disappear at the end
of Pre- vitellogenesis.
(2) Vitellogenesis -
Yolk is the stored food. It is stored for the use of future embryo. Yolk is stored in this phase. Small amount of
yolk is produced by the egg but most of the yolk is produced in liver.
The yolk which is formed by liver is soluble and liquid. The mitochondria of egg, converts it into insoluble and
viscous form by the help of kinase enzymes (mitochondria group of egg are known as yolk nuclei). After
growth stage primary oocytes are formed.
(C) Maturation stage and Differentiation stage : The primary oocyte now undergo meiosis there occurs
unequal meiosis. After meiosis-I one large secondary oocyte and small first polar body is formed. Secondary
oocyte becomes quiscent and it starts further division only after the begning of fertilization. Meiosis-II is also
unequal. So finally one functional ovum and 3 polar bodies are formed.
TWO TYPES OF YOLK IS FOUND IN ANIMALS

(a) Granular yolk - Formed of microgranules. Eg. most of the protostomia (Invertebrates) animals.
(b) Yolk platelets - In most of the chordates. The yolk is found in the form of large granlues and disc like
granules. e.g. Deuterostomia animals (Vertebrates)
VARIOUS STORED SUBSTANCES IN YOLK
(1) Phospholipid - It is present in large amount (mainly lecithin) - 32-33%
(2) Proteins - Different types of proteins are found in yolk.
Eg. (i) Simple proteins - Albumins 16-17%, Globin, Globulin (Albumin maximum)
(ii) Phospho proteins - Phosvitin, Ovovitellin
(iii) Lipoprotein - Lipovitellin
(3) Carbohydrate - It prsent in least amount in yolk (1%).
The most common carbohydrate which is present in yolk is Mannose.
The percentage of substances is variable in different animals
Eg. In yolk of frog- Phospholipid - 32-33%, Protein - 16-17%, Carbohydrate - 1%, Water - 48-49%
S.No. Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
1. It occurs in the testes It occurs in the ovaries

2. Spermatogonia change to primary Oogonia change to primary oocytes
spermatocytes
3. A primary spermatocyte divides to form A primary oocyte divides to form one
two secondary spermatocytes secondary oocyte and one polar body
4. A secondary spermatocyte divides to A secondary oocyte divides to form one
form two spermatids ovum and one polar body (ootid)
5. No polar body is formed Polar bodies are formed
6. A spermatogonium forms four An oogonium forms one ovum
spermatozoa
7. Sperms are minute, have no yolk and Ova are much larger often with yolk
motile and nonmotile.
8. Meiosis is generally completed in the Meiosis is often completed after sperm contact
testes and thus mature sperms are in the female reproductive tract or in
released from the testes water in case of external fertilization
(1) ON THE BASIS OF AMOUNT OF YOLK

(a) Alecithal eggs - Yolk is present in very less amount almost negligible. e.g. Eutheria mammals.
(b) Microlecithal or oligolecithal or Meiolecithal egg- Yolk is present in less amount e.g. Metatheria,
Protochordata, Echinodermata
(c) Mesolecithal - Yolk is present in moderate amount. e.g. Amphibia, Petromyzon, Dipnoi-[lung fishes]
(d) Megalecithal or Polylecithal - Yolk is present in large amount. e.g. Insects, Reptiles, Birds, Prototheria
(Monotremata) Egg laying mammals.
(2) ON THE BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION OF YOLK
(a) Isolecithal or Homolecithal - Yolk is distributed uniformally in eggs. e.g. Alecithal and microlecithal
eggs.
(b) Moderately telolecithal - Yolk is concentrated in lower part of egg and cytoplasm in upper part e.g. Frog
and other amphibia.
(c) Discoidal egg or Highly telolecithal- Yolk found in large amount and cytoplasm is found in the form of
disc. e.g. Polylecithal eggs of reptilia, Birds, Prototheria.
(d) Centrolecithal - Yolk is concentrated in centre of egg and cytoplasm is found in the form of a thin layer
surrounding yolk. (Peripheral cytoplasm) e.g. Insect.
Telolecithal and centrolecithal eggs are heterolecithal or anisolecithal eggs.
(3) ON THE BASIS OF SHELL
Two of types (a) Cleidoic eggs (b) Non-cleidoic egg
(a) Cleidoic egg - These eggs contain a thick and hard outermost shell. This hard shell is permeable for
gases. Yolk, Salts and Water is present in large amount in cleidoic eggs. Cleidoic egg is a terrestrial adaptation.
e.g. Birds & Reptiles, Prtotheria mammal and Insects.
(b) Non cleidoic egg - Egg membranes are soft in these eggs e.g. All viviparous animals and in oviparous
animals which lays eggs in water.
All membranes (covering) which are present outside to plasma membrane of oocyte or ovum is known as egg
membranes now instead on membrane envelop term is used. Envelop containing oocyte or ovum is called as
egg.
Egg envelope on the basis of origin are of three types.
(1) Primary egg envelops - These are secreted by egg.e.g. - Vitelline membrane (Zona pellusida & Zona
Reticulata)
(2) Secondary egg envelops - These are secreted by ovary. e.g.- Chorion on insects.
(3) Tertiary egg envelops - These are secreted by oviduct. e.g.- Jelly coat of frog, Albumin, shell membrane
and shell of Hen.
(1) EGG OF INSECT

These are megalecithal polylecithal & centrolecithal eggs.
The cytoplasm of insect egg is limited to periphery only whole central
place is filled by yolk.
Two types of egg envelops are present on egg of insects.
Inner - Vitelline membrane - Primary egg membrane.
Outer - Chorion - Secondary egg membrane. Chorion is thick, hard and ornamented. This ornamentation is
taxonomically important in insects. Egg membrane is absent on a definite place, this place is known as
micropyle. Micropyle is a place to enter for sperms in egg. Acrosome is absent in sperms of insects.
(2) EGG OF FROG
These are Mesolecithal and telolecithal egg.
Two types of egg membranes are present on frog egg.
(i) Inner - Vitelline membrane - Primary egg
membrane. It is secreted by egg cell.
(ii) Outer - Jelly coat - Tertiary egg membrane
(Secreted by oviduct).
All eggs are layed at a time. These eggs are attached
together by jelly coat. This group is called as spawn.
Spawn formation in frog occurs after false copulation
(amplexus).
Importance of Jelly coat
Air bubbles are present in jelly coat. These provide
buyoancy.
Jelly coat protects egg from outer mechanical injury.
The jelly is tasteless hence it prevents the eggs from being eaten by water snails, aquatic insects, fishes and
birds.
It prevents infection of bacteria and fungal spores.
The jelly reflects sun-rays, due to melanin it is also protected from UV rays.
The jelly is able to keep the eggs warm.
Like other eggs frog egg also have two poles :
(i) Animal pole - Cytoplasm and nucleus are found in this pole.
(ii) Vegetal pole - It mainly have yolk white yolk is filled in this pole. It is heavy so it is found in lower side.
In animal pole in cytoplasm melanin pigments are also present. Melanin protect the egg from harmful radiation
and helps in camouflage.
Sperm enters into egg through animal pole. The entry site of sperm in egg forms anterior part of embryo.
Along with entrance of sperm determines the future polarity. The entrance path of sperm determine the the
plane of cleavage in egg. First cleavage of egg starts from right angle of the entrance path of sperm.
From opposite direction of entry of the sperm ,melanin granules move towards the sperm .So a clear region
is formed between animal pole and vegetal pole. This clear region is known as “Grey crescent”. It produces
drosal lip of blastopore in future.
(3) EGG OF CHICK
These are megalecithal or polylecithal, discoidal and
clidoic : Yolk is present in large amount and cytoplasm is
found in the form of a disc. This disc is known as Germinal
disc.
Beneath the germinal disc yolk is present. On the basis of

colour and content yolk is of 2 types–
(i) Yellow yolk – It have more phospholipids.
(ii) White yolk – It is rich in protein. Phospholipids are in
less amount.
Both types of yolks are arranged in alternative and concentric layers. Innermost and outermost layer is of
white yolk.
A stalk like structure of white yolk is present just beneath the germinal disc. This is known as latebra and
upper part of latebra is known as Isthmus of pander.
Primary envelop vitelline membrane is found around the egg.

Remaining all envelops of chick egg are secreted by oviduct after fertilization. These are tertiary envelops.
[Birds do not have copulatory organs but still they perform internal fertilization]. Egg of chick is filled with
liquid albumin which is called as “White of egg”. It is produced by Isthumus part of oviduct. Dense albumin
on the sides of egg upto shell membrane are coiled chord like structures.These are called as Chalaza. It
keeps the ovum upward.
Two shell membranes are present just beneath the shell. These are made up of keratin. A air pocket or air
space is found between shell membranes in broad (wider) part of egg.
The outermost part of egg is a shell made up by calcium carbonate [CaCO3]. This shell is porous for exchange
of gases.
The oviduct of birds is differentiated into three parts –
(i) Anterior part – Magnum part – Fertilization of egg occurs in this part. After fertilization this part
secretes liquid albumin arround the egg.
(ii) Middle part – Isthmus – Keratin shell membranes are secreted around the egg by this part.
(iii) Posterior part – Nidamental part – This part secretes a shell of CaCO3 around the egg.
(4) EGG OF EUTHERIAN MAMMALS :
Eggs are alecithal, non-clidoic and microscopic (0.1mm) in metatheria and eutheria. In prototheria egg are
same as hen egg. .
Two membranes or egg envelops are present on the egg –

(i) Inner envelop : Zona pellucida – Primary egg membrane produced by egg itself. In few mammals zona
pellucida is linear and called as zona radiata.
(ii) Outer envelop : Corona radiata – formed by follicular cells of ovary. Follicular cells are attached with
surface of egg through Hyaluronic acid.
Hyaluronidase enzyme is present in Mammalian sperm, which dissolves hyaluronic acid and the corona
radiata cells are separated from egg surface. This helps in sperm entery.
Egg cytoplasm have very less or negligible amount of yolk.
On the basis of ovulation mammals are of two types
(i) Induced or Reflex ovulators – Animals in which ovulation is induced by copulation. eg. All mammals
which have a fix breeding period. The chances of fertilization increases to 100% in it e.g. Rabbit
(ii) Spontaneous ovulators – Ovulation is not depended upon the copulation. Egg passes out in oviduct
from ovary after fix period. The chances of fertilization are very low in these animals.
DEFINITION - Fusion of a haploid male gamete and a female gamete to form a diploid cell, the zygote, is
called fertilization.
First Newport studied the entry of sperm into the egg in frog.
O. Herting observed the fusion (amphimixis)of egg nucleus and sperm nucleus in Sea urchin.
Fusion of gametes in the fertilization is called as syngamy. Fusion of cytoplasm is plasmogamy and
fusion of nucleus is karyogamy.
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
A. On the basis of place of fertilization.
(a) Internal fertilization - In this fertilization occurs in the body of female. By the process of copulation
(Mating) male deposits sperms in the body of female. This process is mainly seen in terrestrial animals and
endoparasites. e.g. Few Nematods, Insects, Birds, Reptiles and mammals.
(b) External fertilization - Fertilizaton occurs outisde the body of female. Mostly in water or in cocoon in few
cases. eg. Most of the invertebrates, frog, fish etc.
B. On the basis of individuals involved
(a) Self fertilization - It is only possible when animal is hermaphrodite i.e. It have both sex organs. Self male
gametes fertilizes female gametes. It is rare in animal kingdom. eg. Tapeworm.
(b) Cross fertilization - In this gametes of different individuals fuses with each other. It occurs in unisexuals
and most of the hermaphrodites animals also. Hermaphrodites ensures it by protogyny (Maturation of egg
first) or protoandry (Maturation of sperms first).
MECHANISM OF FERTILIZATION
Fertilization completes in three steps.
(A) APPROACH OF SPERM TO EGG : Sperms fuses with egg just by chance, certain adaptations are found in
animals to increase the chances of fusion of sperms and egg. These are also called as approximation of
gametes.
These are -
(i) Sperms are produced and released in large amount : In humans 100 million sperm/ml of semen are
present. In one ejaculation 3 to 5 ml of semen are introduced in female body at a time.
(ii) Size of egg is very large as compaired to sperms : This increase the possiblities of fusion. The size
of egg about 0.1 mm while the sperm of human is of 60 .
(B) ATTACHMENT OF SPERM WITH OVUM :

Some special types of glycoproteins are found on the surface of eggs and sperms which are helpful in their
attachment.
Fertilzin is found on the surface of egg. Fertilizin was discovered by R.R. Lillie. Antifertilizin are present
on the surface of sperms. It is a type of acidic protein. (discovered by Ballinsky). Fertilizin and antifertilizin
are specific for each species of animals (species specificity). By the reaction of both sperm and egg, both
combine each other, this reaction is known as agglutination. The mechanism resembels like key-lock
mechanism.
GAMONS
On the surface of egg and ova some hormones are also present. These hormones are known as Gamons.
Androgamones are found on surface of the sperms and Gyanogamones are found on the surface of
eggs. Androgamones are of two types –
(i) Androgamone I – Conserves the energy of sperms, inactivates them.
(ii) Androgamones II – Dissolves the viscous layers of egg and forms rough surface on the egg. This helps
in attachment.
Gyanogamones are of two types – Present on egg surface
(i) Gyanogamones I : When sperm reach to the surface of egg then the Gyanogamones I neutrilize the
androgamone I. Therefore sperm becomes more active.
(ii) Gyanogamone II : This hormone makes the head of sperm viscous. And viscous sperm head attaches
strongly with rough surface of egg. Gamones are hypothetical hormones these are not yet isolated nor their
chemical nature is known.
(C) ACROSOME REACTION

The enzymes of acrosome dissolves the egg membranes, head of sperm now attaches with plasma membrane
of egg.
After it the inner membrane of Acrosome spread out and form a simple tube. This tube is known as Acrosomal
filament. This filament joins and stimulates the plasma membrane of egg.
In mammals the acrosomal filament is not formed because of hyperactivity of sperm. so that the sperm can
stimulate the plasma membrane of egg without the aid any filament.
(D) ACTIVATION OF EGG : The stimulus of sperm induces many changes in ovum. These changes are collectively
called as egg activation or Gynogenesis.
Joining of sperm to egg plasm membrane activates adenyl cyclase enzyme. It converts ATP to CAMP, C-
AMP is a second messanger thant induces various developmental chain reactions in egg cytoplasm.
The plasma membrane of egg extends outside at the contact place of sperm and forms a reception cone or
fertilization cone. Later the sperm is drawn into the cytoplasm of egg from reception cone. The process of
entry of sperm into egg is a type of phagocytosis.
The stimulation of sperm induces 2nd maturation division in egg and egg form a polar body and the ova
becomes mature.
Along with entry of sperm cortical granules ruptures & releases mucopolysaccharide. These form a membrane
which surrounds the egg it is known as Fertilization membrane. This membrane forms on inner side
vitelline membrane. Along with the perivitelline space becomes broad and increases amount of fluid in it. The
fertilization membrane and liquid in perivitelline space prevent the entry of another sperm into the egg.
The egg plasma membrane becomes more permeable for Na +, H+ and Ca ions. The Ca ions
neutralize the cytostatic factor. This factor inhibite the cleavage to start in unfertilized egg. The egg is
triggered for cleavage after neutralization.
By the stimulation of cytostatic factor sperm induces H+ – Na+ pump in plasma membrane of egg.
Few informosomes activates m–RNA quickly synthesizes different types of enzymes thus metabolic rate of
egg increases.
The stimulus of sperm induces the NAD kinase enzyme and this enzyme converts NAD into NADP and due
to availability of high NADP the respiratory rate of egg increases. Rapid oxidation of stored food occurs and
energy is released for egg metabolism.
(E) AMPHIMIXIS : In most animals head and middle part of sperm enters into egg and tail remain outside but in
few animals only head part of sperm enters into egg e.g. Hydra, Neries. In mammals the whole sperm enters
into the egg.
MONOSPERMY OR POLYSPERMY
Generally only one sperm enters into a egg, this phenomenon is known as Monospermy.
Rarely more than one sperm enters in one egg, this phenomenon is known as polyspermy.
Polyspermy is of two types –
(a) Pathological Polyspermy – All the nucleus of sperms fuse with nucleus of egg. Egg degenerate and embryo do
not develop.
(b) Physiological polyspermy – Nucleus of only one sperm fuse with nucleus of the egg and all the other sperms
dies in cytoplasm of egg. The dead sperms in cytoplasm of egg are known as “merocyte”. It is commonly found
in polylecithal eggs of Reptiles, Aves, Prototheria etc.
Just after entry sperm rotates at 180°. Thus middle part of sperm comes in anterior position and head
becomes posterior in position.
Sperm and egg nuclei moves in egg cytoplasm, these are called as path.
(i) Sperm penetration path : The movement of sperm nucleus in a straight line from entry site.
(ii) Sperm copulation path – The movement of sperm nucleus towards egg nucleus.
(iii) Egg copulation path – The movement of egg nucleus towards sperm nucleus.
(iv) Cleavage path – The movement of both pronucleus towards animal pole.
Diagram of the successive stages in the union of egg and sperm during fertilization
Proximal centriole is given to egg cell. Sperms diastal centriole aquires opposite pole position in egg and
start to develop spindle fibres, as the mammalian egg lacks centrioles of its own. The centrioles of egg
degenerates during second maturation division. The nucleus of sperm is enlarged by absorbing water from
cytoplasm of egg. Now this nucleus of sperm is known as male pronucleus.
Egg nucleus also slightly enlarges and now called as female pronucleus, both pronuclei fuses & moves by
cleavage path.
The nuclear membranes of both pronucleus degenerate and chromosomes form pairs with each others. With
this fusion the amphimixis is completed.
Greek word Parthenos Without marriage ; genesis Development

Development of embryo without fertilization is known as parthenogenesis
The animal produced by parthenogenesis is called as parthenote (Parthenote = Without father)
C. Bonnet discovered the parthenogenesis in Sea urchin.
Parthenogenesis is of two types –
(A) Natural Parthenogenesis : Here it occurs by its own in nature : e.g. Honey bee, Termites, Wasp,
Aphids, Grasshoppers, Sea urchin, Daphnia, Cyclops etc.
Natural parthenogensis is of two types on the basis of chromosome sets in the egg cell.
(1) Haploid Parthenogenesis or Arrhenotoky

Eggs are formed by meiosis, so eggs are haploid. These eggs have power of fertilization but these haploid
eggs develop into male animals without fertilization. The development of male from unfertilized egg and
developement of female from fertilized egg is known as arrhenotoky. E.g. Honey bee. The queen bee lays
two types of eggs are – fertilized or diploid and unfertilized or haploid. Fertilized egg forms female. Worker
are sterile females. Queen is fertile female. Drone are formed by unfertilized eggs so these males are
haploid. In drones sperms forms without meiotic division.
(2) Diploid Parthenogenesis or thelytoky
In this eggs are formed without meiosis thus the eggs are diploid. These diploid eggs develops in to female
without fertilization. E.g. (i) Lacerta sexicola armeniaca – (lizard) (ii) Carassius auratus gibelia – (fish)
(B) Artificial Parthenogenesis : In this the development of embryo from unfertilized egg is induced by
artificial mathods.
Diping the eggs in sea water for some time.
Irradiation of eggs
Shaking the eggs.
Electric shock
Temperature Shock – In this method eggs kept on 50°C temp and suddenly keep on 0° C temp.
By injected of blood containing niddle in egg (of same species).
All these methods are used in different animals but its success rate is very less.
On the basis of Life cycle pattern parthenogenesis is of 2 types –
(1) In few animals parthenogenesis occurs along with sexual reproduction. So reproduction occurs by both
method i.e. sexual and parthenogenesis. It is known as cyclic parthenogenesis or incomplete
parthenogenesis. eg. Aphids, wasp.
(2) In few animals only parthenogenesis is present this is termed as complete parthenogenesis or non cyclic
parhtenogenesis. Fertilization is not found in life cycle of these animals.
Animals in which the complete parthenogenesis occur they do not have males, in species.
e.g. (1) Lacerta (2) Carassius
The term cleavage was coined by Von Baer.

Cleavage was first seen by Swammerdam in frog.
Splanzani studied first & second cleavage in the toad.
Initial repeated mitosis divisions in zygote or fertilized eggs are called as cleavage.
The daughter cells formed by cleavage are known as blastomeres.
The interphase is of very short duration only s-phase occurs. [Replication of DNA] G1 & G2 stages are absent.
Due to negligible growth stage there is no overall growth.
The size of Blastomeres gradually decreases. In successive divisions. Blastomeres increase in number. As
egg is a large cell. K. I. of egg is less in early stages.
K.I. (Karyoplasmic index) of somatic cells is 500 times greater than the egg cell. Cleavage increases the K.I.
of cell in cleavage, initially the karyoplasmic index is low but at the end it becomes equal to the somatic cells.
Oxygen consumption increases.
During cleavage in blastomere nucleolus, E.R. and golgibody remain absent. These all cells
organelles appears in post gastrula stages.
Cleavage Typical mitosis
1. Cleavage occurs in the Mitosis occurs in all body cells
zygote or parthenogenetic egg.
2. Interphase is short and blastomeres Interphase is long and daughter
do not grow during it. cells grow to normal size during it.
3. Size of blastomeres decreases as Size of daughter cells remains
their number increases nearly constant due to growth.
4. The total mass of blastomeres The total mass of daughter cells
remains same as that of the zygote becomes more than that of parent cell
5. DNA replication occurs much faster DNA replication occurs at the normal rate.
6. Nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio increases Nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio do not
as cleavage progresses change
(1) Sach’s law - Cleavage divisions occurs repeatedly. Each successive division is at right angle to the earlier.
(2) Hertwig law - At the time of cleavage the formation of spindle fibres occurs in longest axis of the egg.
(3) Pflugger’s - During cleavage formation of spindle fibres takes place in the region of lesser resistance or
less yolk.
(4) Balfour’s law - The rate of cleavage is inversaly proportional to the amount of yolk.
1
The rate of cleavage (So if yolk is more in eggs than rate of clevage is less)
Amount of yolk
PLANES OF CLEAVAGE
These planes are of four types -
(1) Meridional plane - It passes through centre from animal pole to
vegetal pole axis. This plane divides the egg into two equal
blastomeres. eg. First and second clevage division in frog, first
clevage in most of the mammasl.
(2) Vertical plane - It passes longitudinally from the side of the animal & vegetal pole axis. it forms the unequal
blastomere. eg. III clevage in chick, fourth in rabbit.
(3) Equatorial plane - This plane is transverse and it passess through the equator i.e. at 90° to the AP-VP axis.
First clevage in humans.
(4) Latitudinal plane - It is transverse but it passes above/below the equatorial cleavage and two unequal
blastomere are formed. eg. III clevage in frog.
In most animals first two cleavage are meridional. They occurs at right angle to each other. Third cleavage is
equatorial.
CLEVAGE PLANES IN FEW ANIMALS
(1) In frog first two cleavage are meridional but third cleavage is latitudinal and fourth cleavage is vertical.
(2) In chick- First two cleavage - Meridional
Third cleavage - Vertical
Fourth cleavage - Latitudinal
(3) In mammals - First cleavage - equatorial
Second and third cleavage - Meridional
PATTERN OF CLEAVAGE
On the basis of arrangement of blastomere cleavage is of four types-
(1) Radial cleavage - In this regular clevage divisions are at right angle to the earlier. So the cells are placed
just one above the other. So the upper four blastomere are arranged just above the lower four blastomeres.
e.g. Mostly Deuterostomia animals. Echinodermata, Chordata.
(2) Spiral cleavage - In this cleavage planes are oblique. In this cleavage four blastomere of lower plane rotate
clock wise or anticlock wise. If the blastomere rotates clock wise than cleavage is called as Dextral spiral
cleavage e.g. Mollusca. And if the blastomere rotates anticlock wise than cleavage is called as Sinistral
Spiral Cleavage e.g. Helminthes (Aschelminthes and platyhelminthes), Annelids.
(3) Bilateral cleavage- Due to unequal holoblastic clevage bilateral symmetry is established. Blastomere of
one lateral side are small in size and another four lateral blasotmere are large in size. e.g. Amphibia, Tunicata
(Urochordata), Cephalochordata animals.
(4) Biradial cleavage - First two cleavage are meridional and third cleavage is vertical so eight blastomeres are
formed. In which four central blastomere are large and four blastomere are small e.g. Ctenophora.
(1) On the basis of fate of blastomere

It is of 2 types –
(a) Determinate (b) Indeterminate
(a) Determinate clevage - (Mosaic development)
The fate of the blastomere is fixed. In this cleavage a specific blastomere forms a specific part of embryo. In
this clevage if any blastomere of embryo is removed or destroyed than the related part of embryo will not form.
e.g. Annelida, Mollosca, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda.
(b) Indeterminate cleavage - (Regulative development)
The fate of blastomeres is not fixed. Each blastomere has capacity to form the complete embryo.
There will be no effect on embryo formation if any blastomere or part is removed from embryo e.g. Deuterostomia
animals (Echinoderms, Chordates). Due to totipotent nature of blastomere they can form indentical twins,
when these cells are separated.
(2) On the basis of amount of yolk cleavage is of two types -
(a) Holoblastic - Complete cleavage
(b) Meroblastic - Incomplete cleavage
(a) HOLOBLASTIC CLEAVAGE : Cleavage takes places in whole egg. This type of cleavage is found in those
eggs which have less or moderate amount of yolk.
Holoblastic cleavage is of 2 types -
Equal Holoblastic - Resulting blastomere are of equal size e.g. Isolecithal
or Microlecithal eggs.
Unequal Holoblastic - Rapid cleavage occurs in animal pole and resulting blastomeres are small in size.
These are called as micromere. Vegetal pole has more amount of yolk so cleavage occurs slowly and
blastomeres are of large size. These are called as megamere eg. frog egg.
(b) MEROBLASTIC CLEAVAGE : Cleavage do not occur in yolk containing part of egg. Yolk part of egg
remains undivided. Cleavage occur only in cytoplasmic part (where yolk is less or almost absent) of egg.
e.g. Megalecithal or polylecithal eggs.
Meroblastic cleavage is of two types-
(i) Discoidal meroblastic cleavage e.g. Discoidal eggs (Reptiles, Birds & Prototheria)
Cleavage occurs only in the part of germinal disc. Due to cleavage a disc of blastomere is formed, upon the
yolk this disc is called germinal disc.
(ii) Superficial meroblastic cleavage e.g. Centrolecithal egg of insect
Free nuclear divison starts in central cytoplasm so many daughter nuclei are formed by the division of zygote
nuclei. After that all daughter nuclei comes in the peripheral cytoplasm. Few remains in the center. Later
cytoplasmic layer surrounds the nuclei and numerous cells are formed in periphery & few cells at center.
Significance of Cleavage
(i) Cleavage restores the cells size and nucleo-cytoplasmic K.I. ratio characteristic of the species.
(ii) Cleavage develops multicellular body.
Morula Regular divisions in zygote makes it a solid ball of blastomeres. This solid ball like embryo resembells
mulberry fruit, therefore it is called as morula.
Blastula In a cluster of morula blastomeres soon develops a cavity. This cavity is called blastocoel or
segmentation cavity. All blastomere get arranged in one or more layer around the blastocoel. This layer is
called blastoderm. This hollow ball like stage is called as blastula.
(A) Identical twins : When blastomeres of the early clevage stage is removed, then each one is capable to
develop into a complete individual
In Armadillo 8 celled embryo divides naturally into four pieces. So armadillo produces four young ones at a
time, these are monozygotic twins. Rarely human being produces identical twins. Being developed from
single zygote they have similar genetic character. These are called as identicle twins or maternal twins.
Sometimes some parts of two monozygotic twins are partially attached to each other. They are known as
Siamese twins.
(B) Fraternal twins :

These are dizygotic. They are produced by two different fertilized egg.
Their genetic characters are different so non-identical. They may have similar or disimilar sex.
In cattle if twins develops and one is male and other is female than normally female becomes sterile. This is
called as free martins. It is due to the hormonal effect.
(1) Coeloblastula - Cavity of blastocoel is wide and large. Blastomeres are small in size. Large blastocoel is
completly surrounded by blastomere. e.g. Coelentrata, Echinodermata, Cephalochordata, Amphibia, Sponges.
Coeloblastula of sponge and amphibia is called amphiblastula. In amphiblastula the blastomere cavity is
eccentric and towards the animal pole. Amphiblastula of sponge is a free swimming larva. Flagella are
present on blastomere for swimming.
(2) Stereoblatula - Its cavity is narrow blastomeres are large in size. e.g. Neries, few mollusca and few
coelentrata.
(3) Disoblastula - In this blastula a cavity is present between blastoderm and yolk. This cavity is called as
subgerminal cavity. e.g. in Reptiles, Aves and Prototheria.
(4) Periblastula or Superficial blastula - It develops from supercial clevage blastocoel is absent. A surface
layer of blastomere is present around the yolk e.g. Insect.
(5) Blastocyst- It develops in mammals (eutheria and metatheria) as a result of holoblastic cleavage. Outer
cells are called as trophoblasts and this layer is trophoderm.
This layer attaches to the uterine wall. Group of inner cells
forms the embryo this group is called as inner cells mass
(embryonic knob). The blastocoel is present below the inner
cells mass. Trophoblast are attached to inner cells mass by
cells of Raubur. This cavity is also called as albuminous cavity.
Inner cells mass looks like a small knob at one pole. The knob
gives rise to the embryo initially it is called as embryonal knob.
The side of blastocyst to which embryonal knob is attached is
known as the animal pole and the opposite side as the
abembryonic pole.
In late blastula fate of cells is fixed. So we can mark different cells by various means to show their future
development. These map were first time develed by Vogt. Marking of cells is performed by-
(1) Carbon particles (2) Vital stains
(3) Radioactive substances (4) Self differentiation
Gastrulation is the stage in which cells aquire specific position by migration and arrangement. Formation of
gastrula is known as gastrulation.
During gastrulation following process takes place-
(1) Differentiation of blastomeres and formation of germinal layers as endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.
(2) Morphogenetic movement occurs.
(3) Formation of archenteron
(4) Deletion of blastocoel
METHOD OF GASTRULATION - It includes epiboly and emboly.
(1) Epiboly - It involves the movement of the blastomeres which forms ectoderm i.e. it results in the formation
of ectoderm. For example in frog the ectodermal micromeres rapidly divide & move to cover the whole embryo
except the blastopore by amoeboid movement. There is “spreading and stretching” of the blastomeres which
form ectoderm.
In few animals a speicial type of epibody is found. That is epiauxasis. In this process the micromeres
forming ectoderm are formed by two sources.
(a) New micromeres are formed by the division of old ones.
(b) Megameres also form micromeres by budding. e.g. Ctenophora, Annelida, Mollusca, Fishes.
(2) Emboly – In this process the chorda mesodermal & endodermal blastomeres migrate inward.
There are various methods of emboly,
which are as follows –
(a) Invagination (b) Involution (c) Polyinvagination or Ingression (d) Delamination
(a) Invagination -
It is most simple and common method. The movements of “infolding” or “inward bending” of the endoderm and
mesoderm is known as invagination. In this process, the vegetal half of the blastula is pushed in or invaginated.
Thus a simple spherical body becomes a double–walled cup.
The original blastocoel becomes virtually obliterated and the cavity arising through the invagination is called
the primary gut or archenteron. The opening of this cavity to the exterior is called the blastopore. The
blastopore, in future forms mouth in protostomia or anus in deuterostomia.
In frog megameres invaginate by forming bottle shape structure. The archenteron is lined by these yolk
loaded megamer vegetal cells which give rise to endoderm.
(b) Involution :
The term involution means a “turning in” or “rolling under” of chorda mesodermal cells along the blastopore lip.
The blastocoel get greatly reduced after involution. In frog future mesodermal and pharangeal endodermal
cells shows involution. First comes to blastopore by rolling and after entering in they moves to respective
places.
(c) Polyinvagination or Ingression : It is the “inward migration” of mesoendoderm forming cells from the
external layer of the blastula or blastodisc into the blastocoel. Gastrulation by polyinvagination was described
by Pasteels (1945) in reptiles, birds and eutherian mammals.
(d) Delamination : Diffferent cell layers separate from each other.
Ectoderm
(i) Somatic – Epidermis, Skin derivatives, Cutaneous receptors, Olfactory organ. Eye lens, Membranous
labiryinth (Internal ear) Stomodeum and Proctodeum.
(ii) Neural Crest – Bracheal skeleton, Nerve ganglia, Sensory Nerve, Adrenal Medulla.
(iii) Neural tube Ectoderm – Brain, Spinal Cord, Cranial & Spinal Motor Nerve, Retina & Optic Nerve
Endoderm
Mesenteron, Liver, Pancreas, Respiratory Surface, Parathyroid, Thyroid Gland. Lining of Vagina and Urethra.
Accessory Reproductive Gland., Middle ear cavity
Mesoderm - It produces maximum part.
(i) Notochordal Mesoderm – Notochord
(ii) Epimere – (a) Dermatome – Dermis
(b) Sclerotome – Vertebral Column
(c) Myotome – Appendicular Skeleton & Skeletal Muscle
(iii) Mesomere – Excretory organ (Kidney), Reproductive tract
(iv) Hypomere – Two parts
(a) Somatic Layer– Parietal Peritonium
(b) Splanchnic Layer– Visceral Peritonium, Mesenteries, Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood Cells, Gonads,
Muscles of Viscera, Adrenal Cortex.
The formation of the nervous system is known as neurulation. The embryonic stage which possesses a
neural plate, is called a neurula.
After the closure of the blastopore, the ectodermal epithelium of the future nervous system, situated on the
mid-dorsal axis of the embryo, becomes differentiated from the rest of the ectoderm in the form of a neural
plate.
The cells of the neural plate become thick and elongated. They arrange themselves into a columnar epithelium.
In contrast, the cells of the epidermis remain more or less flat and arranged as a stratified epithelium usually
two cells thick. These cells gradually start invagination.
The neural folds become higher and meet dorsally in the median line forming a tube which subsequently
separates from the parent ectoderm. This is the brain with brain cavities. The remainder part of the neural tube
later form spinal cord.
Neural crest : After the separation of neural tube from the epidermis, these cells occupy the space between
the neural tube and the overlying epidermis. This irregular flattened mass of cells is called the neural crest.Neural
crest give rise to the branchial skeleton, dorsal root ganglia, sensory nerves, sympathetic nervous system
and medullary part of the adrenal gland.
A. The events of human reproduction

Major events are -
(a) Formation of gametes
(b) Cyclic changes in female body
(c) Coitis = Intercourse
(d) Zygote formation by fertilization
(e) Embryonic development with cleavage and formation of morula, blastocyst.
(f) Gastrula, neurulation and organogenesis
(g) Placenta formation
(h) Parturation
(i) Milk feeding and parental care
I. Formation of gametes : Gametogenesis
It occurs in gonads. In males the testies produces spermatozoa in seminiferous tubules. In females ovaries
produces ova or egg cell. Both gametes originates from primordial germ cells or PGC. These cell are
produced outside gonads in embryonic life. PGC are produced by extra embryonic mesoderm. Later they
migrate to the yolk sac endoderm and ultimately reach to the developing gonads of embryo. In human
gamete production starts at Puberty i.e. 9-11 yrs in girls and 11-13 in boys.
II. Cyclic changes in female body : At the time of puberty female body undergo various changes. There
starts menstrual cycle. In this twenty eight day cycle, three important stages occurs.
(a) Folicular stage : FSH triggers ovum development in each cycle. Developing ovum produces estrogen.
Estrogen harmone brings various changes, development of sex organs and secondary sexual characters.
Endometrium becomes thick and vascular. When estrogen level becomes high in blood its negative feed
back occurs and FSH production stops. Now in its place pituitary produces LH. It causes ovulation, i.e.
expulsion of ovum from ovary.
(b) Leutal stage : Remanant of ovum forms corpus leuteum. It produces progesterone. If further develops
reproductive organs, mammary glands. Egg comes in right place and if get fertilized then further this cycle
remains suspended. If there is no fertilization then the progesterone level increases in blood. High level of
progesterone negatively feed back hypothalamus. It stops GnRF and in response pituitary stops production
of LH. In absence of LH corpus leuteum degenerates as white body corpus albicans.
(c) Menstruation : This is a degressive stage. Some amount of blood and disintegrated mucosa (the
endometrium) is sloughed off and discharged from uterus. Low level of progesterone now gives positive feed
back to hypothalamus and it produces Gn-RF. It stimulates pituitary to produce FSH, and new cycle
beings.
III. Coitius : It is an act of mating or intercourse Human are terrestrial animal performs internal fertilization.
Male diposite semen in the female body by physical intimacy.
IV. Fertilization
(a) Once given in vagina, sperms crosses uterus and oviduct. Ejaculation of semen in the vagina gradually
increases its motility. Peristalitic contraction of uterus and oviduct increases. Oviduct mucosa secrets
slimy fluid which helps in sperm movement.
(b) The phenomenon of sperm activation in female genital tract in mammals is known as capacitation. It
occurs in 5-6 hours. Finally sperms reach ampulla of oviduct & fuses to ovum.
(c) By acrosome hydrolytic enzymes are released these helps in penetration via egg membrane. These
enzymes are collectively called as sperm lysine. Important are -
(i) Hyaloronidase - Acts on joning ground substance hyaloronic acid between follicle cells and corona
cells.
(ii) CPE - Corona penetrating enzymes.
(iii) Zona lysine - Acrosine - digest zona pellucia,
(d) Monospermy occurs in humans. With the attachment of sperm with ova it activates. Its membrane,
undergo depolarisation. Cortical reaction produces fertilization membrane that prevents Polyspermy.
(e) Meiosis-II is completed by ovum. Its nuclei enlarges as female pronucleus. Entered male nucleus
enlarges and called as male pronucleus.
(f) Both pronucleus joins after nuclear membrane disintegration. Spindle develop. The fertilized egg or
zygote now proceed for cleavage.
(V) Embryonic development
(a) These are rapid, rhythmic, repeated mitotic division.
(b) There is no growth phase. Only ‘S’ phase occurs.
(c) In mammals cleavage divisions are slowest in animal kingdom & asynchrunous.
(d) Cells produced by cleavage are called as blastomeres.
(e) There is holoblastic cleavage.
(f) At 16 cells stage it is called as Morula, that resembles mulberry fruit.
(g) By the process of compaction two types of cells are formed
(i) Peripheral cells and (ii) Inner cell mass
(h) Peripheral cells becomes trophoblast = Trophoectoderm
These later helps in formation of extraembryonic membranes and placenta.
(i) The embryo develops from inner cells mass.
(j) The trophoblast cell secrete fluid into the morula to form blastocoel. Now this stage is calles as blastocyst.
(k) About one week after fertilization blastocyst undergo implantation. Blastocyst establishes itself in
uterus wall.
(l) There occurs many changes in endometrium of uterus after implantation. Now it is called as decidua.
Decidua have three parts -
(i) Decidua basalis - Between embryo and Myometrium
(ii) Decidua capsularis - Between embryo and uterine cavity.
(iii) Decidua perietalis - Remaining part.
(VI) Gastrulation
Blastocyst undergo various changes to develop three germ layer. Cell of blastocyst moves in a different
ways that helps in attaiment of new shape. It is called as morphogenetic movement. In humans first
endoderm develops, followed by mesoderm and ectoderm.

(VII) Neurulation
In this ectoderm depresses and forms a neural tube. It give rise to CNS. Later other parts also develop.
(VIII) Organogenesis
Formation of different organs. Gradually many organs starts functioning. Foetus establishes itself.
(IX) Formation of extra embryonic membranes and placenta.
(a) There develops four extra embryonic membranes.
(1) Amnion - Provide fluid medium around embryo. It prevents desiceation and acts as shock absorber.
(2) Yolk sac - Develops as evolutionary process. It is small and degenerate.
(3) Chorion - Helps in placenta formation, nutrition and respiration.
(4) Allantois - Helps in placenta formation, respiration and excreation
(b) Human placenta is chorioallantoic.
(c) Placenta is temporary association between foetal and maternal tissue. Foetal part is chorion and maternal
part is decidua basalis.
(d) Chorionic villi enters in uterine mucosa and develops the firm contact. Vill are bathed in mothers blood
because maternal uterine mucosa (epithelium), connective tissue layer and blood capillary lining is
degenerated. This type of placenta is called as Haemochorial.

(e) Role of placenta :
(i) Placenta acts as filter.
(ii) Soluble inorganic, organic nutrients, hormones, antibodies against diphtheria, small pox, scarlet fever,
measles can pass through it.
(iii) It helps in respiration, excreation.
(iv) It produces - Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
- Chorionic thyrotropin
- Chorionic corticotropin
- Chorionic somatommatropin
- Placental progesterone and estrogen
- HCG favours growth of corpus leuteum.
- Relaxin that helps in parturation by softening connective tissue of pubic symphysis.
(f) The umbilical cord connects foetus to placenta.
(g) By 3 months all the systems of the baby are formed. Later their growth and minor structural modification
occurs. Progesterone is continually required for pregnancy therefore it is called as pregnancy harmone.
(X) Labour - The process of child birth is labour or parturition different harmones works for it.
(a) Cervix opens wide.
(b) Uterine smooth muscles undergo contraction under the influence of oxytocin.
(c) Due to powerful contraction amion ruptures and fluid “Water” flow out.
(d) Baby comes out. Blood flow via umblicle cord, ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale stops.
(e) Infant lungs expand and breathing beging.
(f) Placenta and the remains of umblical cord are expelled as “after birth”.
Note - Nitric oxide is very important in expansion of blood vessel. If it is not synthesized in adequate
amount the circulation and lungs expansion do not occur properly.
(XI) Milk feeding

The first milk which comes out from the mother is called as colostrum. It is rich in calories and protein. It
have various antibodies. It provides passive immunity to newborn. Milk secretion is regulated by prolactin
high level of oxytosin stimulate prolactin production.
Inhibitory peptide : It is present in milk. If milk remains in mammory glands (breasts) this accumulated
peptide inhibits milk production.
(1) Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) - Father of zoology and Father of embryology. He wrote a book - De Generation
Animalium. In this book he described the development of Chick.Aristotle proposed “Theory of Entelechy”,
According to this theory ova has soul which initiate the development of embryo.
(2) Preformation theories : - According to these theories, the germ cells (ova or sperm) contain preformed
miniature human beings. Swammerdam (1637) was an Ovist. According to ovists, the ovum contain a
preformed miniature human being called “Mankin”. Hartsoeker (1656) was an Spermist. He coined the
name “Homunculus” for the miniature human being which occur inside the sperm. Hartsoeker compared
the sperm with seed and egg with soil.
(3) Hartsoeker - He was a spermist. He compared the sperm with seeds and egg with soil. Seeds get nutrition
from soil and grow. Egg provides the nutrition to embryo.
(4) Leeuwenhock (1623) - At first he saw the sperm of human and called “Animalcule”. He was a spermist.
(5) C.F. Wolff (1769) - He gave Theory of epigenesis. According to this theory, there occurs an undifferentiated
material inside germ cells. After fertilisation, this material undergoes step by step development to form the
embryo. This sequential development is called epigenesis.
(6) Pander (1817) - Described the formation of three germinal layers in embryo of chick. i.e. Ectoderm, Mesoderm,
Endoderm.
(7) Karl Ernest Von Baer (1828) - “Father of modern Embryology”.
He coined the term Sperm, Ova and Cleavage. He proposed a law, which is known as Baer’s law-
According to this law, in the embryonic development of an animal, the general structures are formed first and
the special structures are formed later.
In the embryonic development of man, the characters of Phylum Chordata will appear first and after it the
characters of Subphylum Vertebrata, Class- Mammalia, Order Primates, finally the species specific characters
will appear.
All chordates seen similar in primary stages.
(8) Schleiden & schwann (1838)- They describe the cellular nature of sperm and ova.
(9) Galtsaaf & Walton (1842) - First study of fertilization and embryonic development.
(10) Weismann (1855) - He gave the Germplasm Theory or theory of continuity of germplasm.
According to this theory multicellular organism have two types of fluid in its body-
(a) Somatoplasm in somatic cells nomal body cells.

(b) Germplasm in germ cells i.e. gametes.
Only germplasm is capable of development. According to this theory some units are found in germplasm for
development. These units are called ids or determinates by Weismann. Variation are heriditable, which are
presents in Germplasm.
(11) Muller -He described the Recaptulation theory.
This theory was explained in detail by Haeckel (1864). And he gave the name Biogenetic law to it.
According to this law “Ontogeny repeats phylogeny”. According to it every living organism repeats the
phylogeny during embryonic development in short. Every living organism pass through the stages during
embryonic development, through which his species originate. Recaptulation theory proves the Baer law.
(12) Wilhelm Roux (1888)- He is honoured as Father of experimental embryology. He proposed the Mosaic
theory.
He studied the embryonic development of frog. He saw some presumptive areas in egg before the fertilization,
which forms different parts of embryo. Such eggs are known as mosaic egg. The presence of presumptive
area before fertilization is known as Promorphology.
If a part of egg get damaged then the structure will not develop which is related to it.
(13) Hens Driesh (1891) - He gave Regulatory theory.
He performed his experiments on the Sea Urchin.
He saw that in egg of Sea urchin have not any presumptive areas and every part of egg is capable to form
complete embryo. Such eggs are known as Regulative egg. These are found in most of the deuterostomia.
(14) Bovery (1901) - He proposed Gradient theory. Child, Horstadius, Runstorm supported this theory.
This theory support and explain Mosaic theory.
According to it the metabolic gradient is found in egg. Different part of egg has different metabolic rate.
Metabolic rate varies from animal pole (A.P.) to Vegital Pole (V.P.) in frog. It declines from AP VP. Child
called this theory as “Metabolic Axial Gradient theory”. Horstadius (1955) and Runstron (1967) called it
double gradient theory.
(15) Spemann (1935) - He gave the Theory of embryonal induction or Theory of organizer.
According to this theory some special types of tissues are found in embryo, which are known as organiser.
These organisers secrete the chemicals which are known as Evocators. Evocators induces formation of
special types of structures in embryo. Spemann studied of organisers in embryo of frog. He saw that dorsal
lip of blastopore induces the formation of structure of head in embryo. If a part of blastopore is removed then
abnormal head of embryo is formed.
This theory is beneficial to know abnormilities in embryo. Later Mangold supported it by theory of inducers.
(16) T.H. Morgan (1955) - He coined the term “Analytical embryology” for the experimental embryology. Morgan
worked on embryology of Drosophila.
(17) R.D. Graff - Observed and studied mammalian follicle cell in ovary.
Type (I) : Very Short Answer Type Questions : [01 Mark Each]
1. What is amniocentesis ?
2. Give an example of non-medication IUDS
3. In Human, is the sperm or egg responsible for the sex of the Embryo.
4. Expand (i) ICSH (ii) FSH.
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Marks Each]
5. Mention the sites of action of the hormones GnRH and FSH during spermatogenesis in human
males. Give one function of each of the hormones.
6. Draw a diagram of T.S. of a part of seminiferous tubule of testis of an adult human male and label any
four parts in it
7. Describe the function copper releasing IUDS
8. Give the name of contraceptine methods
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions: [03 Mark Each]
9. Describe the contraceptine lactotional amenorrhea method

10. Give the ideas for better awareness about sex related matters of reproductive health
11. Draw a labeled diagram of human sperm
12. State any two differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
13. Describe the following assisted reproductive technologies
(i) IVF (ii) ZIFT (iii) GIFT (iv) ICSI (v) AI
OR
Describe the surgical methods of contraceptive with well labelled diagram

14. Write a brief account of the structute and functions of male reproductive system [5 Marks]
OR
Describe vasectomy and tubectomy with diagram.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Male Reproductive System
1. The product of the first maturation division of germ cell in testis are known as
(1) Spermatids (2) Oocytes
(3) Secondary spermatocytes (4) Sperms
2. The head of epididymis is called
(1) caput epididymis (2) cauda epididymis (3) gubernaculum (4) vas deferens
3. If the vasa deferentia of a man are surgically cut or blocked
(1) sperms in the semen become nonmotile (2) spermatogenesis will not take place
(3) testosterone will disappear from blood (4) semen will be without sperms
4. The duct which carries sperms from testis to epididymis is
(1) Vasa efferentia (2) Vasa differentia (3) Ureter (4) Seminiferous tubules
5. Sugar fructose is present in the secretion of
(1) Bartholin's gland (2) Cowper's gland (3) Perineal glands (4) Seminal Vasicle
6. Cowper's glands are found in
(1) Female amphibians (2) Male mammals (3) Female mammals (4) Male amphibians
7. Which gland in mammals secretes alkaline juice for lubrication?
(1) Pineal body (2) Prostate gland (3) Cowper's gland (4) Testis
8. Seminal fluid has sperms and secretions of
(1) Follicles, ureters and prostate gland
(2) Prostate, Cowper's and Bartholin's gland
(3) Seminal vesicle, prostate and Cowper's glands
(4) Seminal vesicle, ureters and prostate gland
Female Reproductive System

9. Graafian follicles are found in
(1) ovary of mammals (2) testis of mammals (3) liver of mammals (4) ovary of frog
10. The follicle that ruptures at the time of ovulation promptly fills with blood, forming
(1) corpus luteum (2) corpus albicans (3) corpus callosum (4) corpus haemorrhagicum
11. Main function of corpus luteum is to
(1) secrete progesterone (2) facilitate ovulation
(3) facilitate fertilization (4) facilitate passage of ova in oviducts
12. Fertilization of ovum takes place in rabbit, man and other placental mammals in
(1) ovary (2) fallopian tube (3) cervix (4) uterus
13. Expanded proximal part of oviduct in female is
(1) Uterus (2) Fimbriated funnel (3) Vestibule (4) Fallopian tube
14. Graafian follicles contain
(1) oogonial cells (2) corpus albicans
(3) corpus luteum (4) theca externa and theca interna
15. Discharge of mature ovum from Graafian follicle is known as
(1) oogenesis (2) abortion (3) fertilization (4) ovulation
16. Atretic follicles are found in the
(1) Liver (2) Testis (3) Thymus (4) Ovary
17. The Mullerian duct in the female amniotes develops into
(1) Ureter (2) Oviduct (3) Uterus (4) Seminal receptacle
18. Bartholin's glands of female correspond to which glands in male?
(1) Cowper's glands (2) Inguinal glands (3) Rectal glands (4) Prostate glands
19. Clitoris in female mammal is
(1) homologous to penis of male (2) analogous to penis of male
(3) non-functional (4) overgrown structure
20. Acrosome is made up of
(1) Golgi bodies (2) Mitochondria (3) Ribosomes (4) Centrioles
21. Acrosome aids the sperm to
(1) Find ovum (2) Swim
(3) Higher activity (4) Penetrate vitelline membrane of ovum
SPERMATOGENESIS
22. Enzyme hyaluronidase is synthesized in
(1) Lysosome of acrosome (2) Golgi bodies of acrosome
(3) Head of sperm (4) Tail of sperm
23. Temperature in scrotum necessary for sperm formation should be-
(1) 2ºC above body temperature (2) 2ºC below body temperature
(3) 4ºC above body temperature (4) 4ºC below body temperature
24. Acrosome is found in
(1) Ovum (2) Sperm (3) Zygote (4) Embryo
25. Germ cells in vertebrate gonads originate by
(1) mitosis (2) meiosis
(3) both mitosis and meiosis (4) maturation without cell division
26. Correct sequence of cell stages in spermatogenesis is
(1) spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatogonia, spermatozoa
(2) spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatozoa
(3) spermatocytes, spermatogonia, spermatids, spermatozoa
(4) spermatogonia, spermatids, spermatocytes, spermatozoa
27. The actual genetic part of a sperm is its
(1) Head (2) Middle piece (3) Acrosome (4) Tail
28. Middle piece of a mammalian sperm contains
(1) centriole only (2) nucleus and mitochondria
(3) centriole and mitochondria (4) mitochondria only
29. Conversion of spermatid into a spermatozoa is called
(1) Spermatogenesis (2) Vitellogenesis (3) Spermiogenesis (4) Cytokinesis
30. The nucleus of a sperm is located in
(1) Acrosome (2) Head (3) Middle piece (4) Tail
31. Number of chromosomes in primary spermatocyte of frog is
(1) same as in secondary spermatocyte (2) same as in spermatid
(3) half of that in spermatogonium (4) same as in spermatogonium
32. How many secondary spermatocytes are required to form 400 spermatozoa?
(1) 40 (2) 100 (3) 200 (4) 400
33. Centrioles of sperm control -
(1) Movement of tail (2) Haploid number of chromosomes
(3) Help in fertilization (4) None of the above
34. Axial filament of sperm is formed by-
(1) Distal centriole (2) Proximal centriole
(3) Mitochondrial spiral (4) DNA
35. Tail-less sperm occurs in -
(1) Frog (2) Ascaris (3) Amphioxus (4) Rabbit
36. How many sperms are produced from one primary spermatocyte ?
(1) 8 (2) 6 (3) 2 (4) 4
37. How many sperms are formed from a secondary spermatocyte ?
(1) 4 (2) 8 (3) 2 (4) 1
38. Duration of spermatogenesis in man at 50ºC -
(1) Not possible (2) 3.5 months (3) 2.5 months (4) 1 month
39. Spermatogonia as a result of growth phase forms-
(1) Sperms (2) Spermatids
(3) Primary spermatocyte (4) Secondary spermatocyte
40. Spermiogenesis changes
(1) Spermatogonium to primary spermatocyte (2) Primary spermatocyte to secondary spermatocyte
(3) Secondary spermatocyte to spermatid (4) Spermatid to sperm.
41. Sperms produce an enzymatic substance for dissolving egg coverings. It is called
(1) Hyaluronic acid (2) Hyaluronidase (3) Androgamone (4) Diastase
42. The apical part of the sperm which comes in contact to the ovum during fertilization -
(1) Acromione (2) Acromegaly (3) Acronia (4) Acrosome
43. Sperm boat is formed in -
(1) Locust (2) Ant (3) Fishes (4) Ascaris
44. Sperms in the sperm bank are stored at -
(1) 4ºC (2) –4ºC (3) –179ºC (4) –1000ºC
OOGENESIS
45. Eggs from ovary are released in-
(1) Oviduct (2) Kidney (3) Ureter (4) Coelom
46. In human females at the time of birth there are two million ova; how many of them normally reach maturity in
the course of normal reproductive life?
(1) 500 (2) 1000 (3) 5000 (4) 2000
47. Which of the following lays cleidoic eggs?
(1) birds (2) insects
(3) oviparous mammals and birds (4) all of the above
48. Vitelline layer around the egg is deposited by -
(1) Ovary (2) Oviduct (3) Egg itself (4) Coelom
49. An egg of bird was coated with varnish and then incubated. The egg did not hatch because the developing
embryo-
(1) Could not excrete and died
(2) Could not utilize yolk in the presence of excess amount of nitrogenous wastes
(3) Died because of depleted O2 supply
(4) Died because of toxic effect of varnish
50. Human females possess 44 + XX chromosomes. The secondary oocyte shall have-
(1) 44 + XX (2) 22 + X (3) 22 (4) 44
51. Noncellular layer is -
(1) Theca interna (2) Membrana granulosa (3) Corona radiata (4) Zona pellucida
52. What is the total number of polar bodies formed during oogenesis in the ovary ?
(1) 4 (2) 3 (3) 1 (4) 2
53. Megalecithal eggs occurs in -
(1) Frog (2) Mammals (3) Birds (4) Human
54. The amount of mDNA in a primary oocyte in comparison to nuclear DNA is-
(1) Less (2) More (3) Equal (4) Not fixed
55. Minute cells separating from ova are
(1) Primary oogonia (2) Polar bodies (3) Secondary oogonia (4) Primary spermatogonia
56. A freshly laid unfertilized egg of hen contains
(1) One cell (2) A million cells (3) 1000 cells (4) 100 cells
57. Freshly released human egg has
(1) Two Y-chromosome (2) One X-chromosome
(3) Two X-Chromosomes (4) One X-chromosome and one Y-chromosome
58. What kind of eggs would be present in Elephant
(1) Microlecithal and isolecithal (2) Microlecithal and telolecithal
(3) Mesolecithal and homolecithal (4) Macrolecithal and centrolecithal
59. The eggs of some mammals have more yolk.They are
(1) Aquatic mammals (2) Metatherians (3) Protherians (4) Eutheroans
60. Insect egg is
(1) Homolecithal (2) Telolecithal (3) Centrolecithal (4) Alecithal
61. Term "alecithal" was coined by -
(1) Kent (2) Aristole (3) Bear (4) Torry
62. Largest egg is of-
(1) Elephant (2) Whale (3) Shark (4) None
FERTILIZATION
63. The fertilization membrane is secreted because -
(1) It checks the entry of more sperms after fertilization
(2) It checks the entry of antigens in ovum
(3) It represents the left out tail of sperm
(4) It represents the plasma membrane of sperm
64. In man the sperm released from the testis take the following route to reach the ureter-
(1) Vasa efferentia, Bidder canal, uriniferous tubules and nephrostome
(2) Vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens and urethra
(3) Vasa efferentia, Bidder's canal, nephrostome
(4) Vasa efferentia, collecting tubules and bidder canals
65. Sperms move actively in female genital tract by-
(1) Creeping (2) Gliding (3) Swimming (4) Jet propulsion
66. The rate of active movement of sperm is -
(1) 1.5 – 3.0 cm/min (2) 1.5 – 3.0 mm/min (3) 1.5 – 3.0 m/min (4) 1.5 – 3.0 m/hr.
67. The fertilization in mammals including man takes place in -
(1) Vestibule (2) Vagina (3) Uterus (4) Fallopian tubes
68. What is true about the process of fertilization ?
(1) Only acrosome of sperm enters the egg
(2) Two haploid nuclei fuse but the fusion nucleus divides immediately to form two haploid nuclei
(3) Entry of sperm activates the egg to complete meiosis
(4) Only one sperm enters an egg
69. Egg is liberated from ovary in -
(1) Secondary oocyte stage (2) Primary oocyte stage
(3) Oogonial stage (4) Mature ovum stage
70. Fertilization is -
(1) Union of diploid spermatozoa with diploid ovum to form diploid zygote
(2) Union of haploid sperm with haploid ovum to form haploid zygote
(3) Union of haploid sperm with haploid ovum to form diploid zygote
(4) Union of diploid sperm with haploid ovum to form triploid zygote
71. First step in activation of ovum during process of fertilization is-
(1) Formation of fertilization membrane (2) Fertilizin&antifertilizin reaction
(3) Penetration of sperm in ovum (4) Formation of fertilization cone
72. Cortical granules are associated with-
(1) Oogenesis (2) Spermatogenesis (3) Cleavage (4) Fertilization
73. Fertilizins are emitted by
(1) Immature eggs (2) Mature eggs (3) Sperms (4) Polar bodies
74. Which chemical of the egg attracts and holds sperm?
(1) Fertilizin (2) Antifertilizin (3) Agglutin (4) Antiagglutin
75. After a sperm has penetrated on ovum, entry of other sperm is prevented by
(1) Condensation of yolk (2) Formation of pigment coat
(3) Development of vitelline membrane (4) Development of fertilization membrane
76. One gamete has -
(1) Both alleles of a gene (2) One allele of a gene
(3) All alleles of a gene (4) None of these
CLEAVAGE
77. If an unfertilized egg is pricked with a microneedle it will-
(1) Die immediately (2) Start dividing (3) Remain undivided (4) None of the above
78. During cleavage, nucleocytoplasmic ratio is -
(1) Maintained (2) Decreased (3) Increased (4) Variable
79. In embryo, cleavage brings about -
(1) Increased DNA content (2) Increased mass of protoplasm
(3) Increased size (4) Change in shape and size
80. Determinate cleavage is found in-
(1) Coelentrates (2) Annelids (3) Nematodes (4) All the above
81. Coeloblastula is found in-
(1) Labeo (2) Snakes (3) Star fish (4) Unio
82. The superficial blastula is the characteristic of-
(1) Birds (2) Reptiles (3) Insects (4) Annelids
83. Cleavage differs from mitosis because-
(1) In cleavage, there is no growth phase
(2) In cleavage, consumption of O2 increases
(3) In cleavage, nucleus-cytoplasmic ratio increases
(4) All of the above
84. During cleavage all divisions are-
(1) Equal (2) Reductional (3) Mitotic (4) Determinate
85. In some eggs the future organs can be demarcated as to the regions even before the beginning of
cleavage. It is-
(1) Regulated development (2) Mosaic development
(3) Gynogenesis (4) Indetermined development
86. What is true of cleavage -
(1) Daughter cells or blastomeres grow in size equal to parent cell
(2) Blastomeres separate
(3) Cytoplasm of blastomeres increases after each division
(4) There is no growth of daughter cells
87. A morula can be differentiated from blastula in -
(1) Presence of cavity (2) Presence of more yolk
(3) Presence of yolk (4) Absence of cavity
88. A zygote is completely divided into two by a cleavage furrow. The cleavage type is-
(1) Equatorial (2) Meroblastic (3) Radial (4) Holoblastic
89. Development of fertilized egg starts from
(1) Invagination (2) Regeneration (3) Cleavage (4) Implantation
90. During cleavage, what is true about cells ?
(1) Nucleocytoplasmic ratio remains unchanged (2) Size does not increase
(3) There is less consumption of oxygen (4) The division is like meiosis
91. Meroblastic cleavage takes place in
(1) Hydra (2) Amphioxas (3) Frog (4) Chick
92. Meroblastic segmentation occurs during the development of
(1) Pigeon (2) Human (3) Frog (4) Dog Fish
93. In centrolecithal eggs, the cleavage is
(1) Equal holoblastic (2) Unequal holoblastic (3) Meroblastic discoidal (4) Meroblastic superficial
94. A zygote is completely divided into two by a cleavage furrow. The cleavage type is-
(1) Equatorial (2) Meroblastic (3) Radial (4) Holoblastic
95. The morula stage of man is bounded by-
(1) Shell (2) Vitelline membrane (3) Zona radiata (4) Albumin
96. Blastopore is
(1) Opening of neural tube (2) Opening of gastrocoel
(3) Future anterior end of embryo (4) Found in blastula
GASTRULA AND NEURULA

97. Morphogenetic movement involve-
(1) Movement of organs (2) Movement of small cell masses
(3) Movement of large cells masses (4) Differentiation of cells
98. Vertebral column develops from-
(1) Notochord (2) Nerve cord (3) Mesoderm (4) Endoderm
99. The hypoblast (inner germ layer of gastrula) forms the -
(1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Endoderm (4) None of the above
100. During gastrulation blastomeres move from the surface to their destination in the embryo. These movements
are called-
(1) Migratory movement (2) Formative movements
(3) Morphogenetic movements (4) All of the above
101. Gastrula end stage is characterised by -
(1) End of blastocoel (2) Blastopore
(3) Formation of neural tube (4) End of archenterone
102. Archenteron begins forming in
(1) Early gastrula (2) Late gastrula (3) Early morula (4) Blastula
103. In mammals, the archenteron/primitive gut is lined with -
(1) Ectoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Endoderm (4) Mesoderm and endoderm
104. The best definition of the process of gastrulation is that it is a process where the
(1) Simple layered blastula becomes two layered (2) Archenteron is formed
(3) Cells move to occupy their definite position (4) Zygote gets converted into larva
105. During embryo development, blastocoel of blastula is replaced by a new cavity in gastrula. lt is
(1) Coelenteron (2) Archenteron (3) Splanchnocoel (4) Haemocoel
106. Gastrulation involves the differentiation of
(1) Ectoderm and endoderm (2) Ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm
(3) Ectoderm and mesoderm (4) Mesoderm and endoderm.
107. During gastrulation is formed -
(1) Notochord (2) Nerve cord (3) Myotome (4) Archenteron
108. Gastrula end stage is characterised by
(1) End of Blastocoel (2) Blastopore
(3) Formation of neural tube (4) End of archenteron
109. Termination of gastrulation is indicated by -
(1) Obliteration of blastocoel (2) Obliteration of archenteron
(3) Closure of blastopore (4) Closure of neural tube
110. Embryologists can presume future organs of embryo in
(1) Morula (2) Blastula (3) Early gastrula (4) Post gastrula.
111. Cells become variable in morphology and function in different regions of the embryo. The process is
(1) Differentiation (2) Metamorphosis (3) Organisation (4) Rearrangement
112. If chorda mesoderm evaginates instead of invagination
(1) Only ectodermal and endodermal structures develop
(2) Only mesodermal and endodermal structures develop
(3) No development occurs
(4) Only ectodermal and mesodermal structures develop
113. If the ectoderm from neural tissue area is removed from the embryo and transplanted in place of presumptive
belly ectoderm, embryo will develop
(1) Without a neural tube (2) With a neural tube
(3) With two ectodermal coats (4) With two neural tubes.
114. Formation of notochord is
(1) Neurulation (2) Notogenesis (3) Morulation (4) Blastulation
115. Notochord grows from
(1) Neuropore (2) Prechordal plate (3) Hypochordal rod (4) Chorda-mesoderm
116. Notochord develops from
(1) Primary ectoderm (2) Primary endoderm
(3) Primary mesoderm (4) Both 1 and 2
117. True coelom is lined by
(1) Mesoderm (2) Mesoderm and ectoderm
(3) Endoderm (4) Ectoderm
118. Skeleton and muscles originate from
(1) Yolk plug (2) Mesoderm (3) Endoderm (4) Ectoderm
119. Ontogenetically liver and pancreas are
(1) Ectodermal (2) Mesodermal (3) Endodermal (4) None
120. The mesoderm gives rise to all the following structures in the fully developed animal except
(1) Muscular system (2) Nervous system (3) Circulatory system (4) Gonads
121. Vascular and excretory organs are formed from
(1) Endoderm (2) Mesoderm (3) Ectoderm (4) Mesendoderm
122. Sensory receptors, such as retina, develop from
(1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm
(3) Mesoderm (4) Mesoderm and endoderm
123. In which organ the bulk is formed of endoderm
(1) Intestine (2) Liver (3) Heart (4) Kidney
124. Choose the correct one
(1) Mesoderm-Skeleton (2) Mesoderm-Brain (3) Ectoderm-Liver (4) Endoderm-Epidermis
EMBRYONIC MEMBRANE
125. Foetal membranes produced by trophoblast are-
(1) Chorion and allantois (2) Chorion and amnion
(3) Amnion and allantois (4) Allantois and yolk sac
126. Splanchnocoel is -
(1) Haemocoel (2) Pseudocoel (3) True coelom (4) None of these
127. Extra-embryonic membranes of the mammalian embryo are derived from -
(1) Inner cell mass (2) Trophoblast (3) Formative cells (4) Follicle cells
128. Amnion is helpful to embryo in
(1) Nutrition (2) Protection from shock
(3) Excretion (4) Respiration.
129. Amnion is a membrane which develops on the outside of embryo in
(1) Fish (2) Cockroach (3) Toad (4) Lizard
130. Allantosis of the mammalian embryo helps in
(1) Respiration (2) Excretion (3) Protection (4) Nutrition
131. Umblical cord contains -
(1) Umblicus (2) Placenta (3) Discus proligerus (4) Allantoic artery and vein
PLACENTA
132. Chorionic gonadotropin is secreted by -
(1) Pituitary (2) Ovary (3) Placenta (4) Uterus
133. Human placenta is -
(1) Haemochorial (2) Syndesmochorial
(3) Yolk sac (4) Haemo-endothelial
134. Placenta is -
(1) Channel for providing essential requirement for growth of embryo
(2) Storage organ
(3) Conductor for nerve impulse
(4) Meant for protecting the embryo from shocks
135. Zonary placenta occurs in -
(1) Herbivorous mammals (2) Carnivorous mammals
(3) Both 1 and 2 (4) Birds
136. Role of placenta is to
(1) Provide nutrition to developing embryo (2) Protect embryo from shock
(3) Act as storage organ (4) Convey nerve impulses
137. Parasitic mode of nutrition occurs in
(1) Amphibian embryo (2) Mammalian embryo (3) Avian embryo (4) Reptilian embryo.
138. The placental barrier between the foetal and maternal blood is minimum in
(1) Goat (2) Pig (3) Cow (4) Man
FROG EMBRYOLOGY
139. In simplest type of placenta, Six barriers separate maternal blood from foetal blood. How many barriers
are lost in human placenta ?
(1) One (2) Two (3) Three (4) Four
140. The process by way of which a larva or miniature adult comes out of the egg membranes is called-
(1) Hatching (2) Emboly (3) Epiboly (4) Ingression
141. Metamorphosis in frog does not occur in the absence of-
(1) Thyroid (2) Pituitary (3) Adrenal cortex (4) Adrenal medulla
HUMAN EMBRYOLOGY
142. Menopause occurs in females at the age of-
(1) 55-60 years (2) 50-55 years (3) 45-50 years (4) 37-42 years
143. Menstrual cycle is generally of -
(1) 21 days (2) 28 days (3) 30 days (4) 40 days
144. In menstrual cycle ovum is released during-
(1) Beginning (2) Midway (3) End (4) Any time
145. Menstrual cycle is controlled by -
(1) Estrogen and progesterone of ovary (2) FSH and LH of pituitary
(3) Both 1 and 2 (4) FSH of pituitary
146. Lutea phase is the other name of -
(1) Follicular phase (2) Proliferative phase
(3) Menstrual flow phase (4) Secretory phase
147. Human embryo completes development in-
(1) 180 days (2) 300 days (3) 250 days (4) 266 days
148. The delivery of child or child birth is called -
(1) Labour (2) Parturition (3) Implantation (4) Insemination
149. Mesoderm proliferates from-
(1) Trophoblast (2) Cephalic end of embryonic disc
(3) Caudal end of embryonic disc (4) Ectoderm of embryonic disc
150. Gestation period in human is -
(1) 10 weeks (2) 28 weeks (3) 32 weeks (4) 38 weeks
151. Onset of pregnancy -
(1) Stimulates testosterone secretion (2) Inhibits further ovulation
(3) Leads to degeneration of ovary (4) Inhibits fusion of egg and sperm nuclei
152. On fertilization, the urine of mother contains
(1) LH (2) Progesterone (3) FSH (4) hCG
153. In human beings, the developing embryo resides in
(1) Fallopian tubes (2) Uterus (3) Ovaries (4) Vagina
GROWTH REPAIR REGENERATION AGEING

154. Growth is –
(1) Increase in size (2) Increase in weight
(3) Synthesis of new proptoplasm (4) All of the above
155. Growth occurs when –
(1) Anabolism is higher than catabolism
(2) Catabolism is higher than anabolism
(3) Protoplasmic synthesis is more than apoplasmatic synthesis
(4) Apoplasmatic synthesis is more than protoplasmic synthesis
156. Auxetic growth is characterised by –
(1) Increase in cell number (2) Growth without increase in cell number
(3) Both increase in cell number and cell growth (4) Expansion in transverse direction
157. Accretionary growth is due to –
(1) Reserve cells (2) Meristematic cells (3) Embryonic cells (4) Differentiated cells
158. Adult females tend to have less weight than adult males due to lesser development of–
(1) Muscles (2) Skeleton
(3) Both muscles and skeleton (4) Fat
159. As compared to whole body, the head of new born human baby is–
(1) One–third (2) One–half (3) One–fifth (4) One–fourth
160. Apporoximate age of sexual maturity in human being is –
(1) 10–14 years (2) 8–11 years (3) 10–13 years (4) 11–16 years
161. Growth at the end of childhood and during puberty is controlled by –
(1) Thyroxine (2) Thymosin
(3) Somatorophic hormone (4) Thyroxine and somatotrophic hormones
162. Repetitive regeneration is found in –
(1) Tadpole (2) Molluscs (3) Hydra (4) Human beings
163. Reparative regeneration occurs in –
(1) Invertebrates (2) Vertebrates
(3) Both invertebrates and vertebrates (4) A few vertebrates
164. Restorative regeneration is common in –
(1) Vertebrates (2) Mostly invertebrates
(3) In some verebrate groups (4) In some invertebrate groups
165. Salamander and Axolotl larve regenerate –
(1) Limbs, eye structures and intestine (2) Jaws and external gills
(3) Both '1' and '2' (4) Trunk
166. What is true about regeneration–
(1) beak in birds (2) Tails in lizards (3) Fish fins (4) All the above
167. Autotomy is recorded in –
(1) Legs in crabs (2) Tail of lizards
(3) Viscera in holothurian (4) All of the above
168. Morphallaxis is –
(1) Reconstruction of the whole body (2) Growth of lost limb
(3) Healling of injury (4) Regeneration with the help of blastema
169. Factors controlling regeneration seem to be–
(1) Neural (2) Hormonal
(3) Both neural and hormonal (4) Genetic
170. Gerontology is the branch of science that deals with–
(1) A sexual reproduction (2) Ageing
(3) Embryo development (4) Asxual reproduction
171. During ageing, collagen present in intercellular spaces become–
(1) Destroyed (2) Impermeable and rigid
(3) More elastic (4) All of the above
172. In an ageing person, there is a –
(1) Increase in mucopolysaccharide
(2) Gradual alteration in components of connective tissue
(3) Increasing colagen rigidity of connectvie tissue
(4) Both '2'and '3
173. According to immunity theory, ageing is due to–
(1) Accumulation of errors
(2) Reduced functioning of endocrine glands
(3) Degeneration of thymus
(4) Accumulation of waste products
174. With the advancenment of age, hair of males start thinning due to–
(1) Falling of hair (2) Low ATP formation
(3) Reduced rate of protein synthesis (4) None of the above
175. Regeneration of Hydra is–
(1) Morphollaxis by interstitial cells (2) Epimorphosis by interstitial cells
(3) Epimorphosis by archaeocytes (4) Epimorphosis by glandular cells
NCERT Questions
176. Choose the incorrect statement from the following:
(1) In birds and mammals internal fertilisation takes place
(2) Colostrum contains antibodies and nutrients
(3) Polyspermy is prevented by the chemical changes in the egg surface
(4) In the human female implantation occurs almost seven days after fertilisation
177. Identify the wrong statement from the following:
(1) High levels of estrogen triggers the ovulatory surge.
(2) Oogonial cells start to proliferate and give rise to functional ova in regular cycles from puberty onwards.
(3) Sperms released from seminiferous tubules are poorly motile / non-motile.
(4) Progesterone level is high during the post ovulatory phase of menstrual cycle.
178. Spot the odd one out from the following structures with reference to the male reproductive system:
(1) Ret testis (2) Epididymis (3) Vasa efferentia (4) Isthmus
179. Seminal plasma, the fluid part of semen, is contributed by.
i. Seminal vesicle
ii. Prostate
iii. Urethra
iv. Bulbourethral gland
(1) i and ii (2) i, ii and iv (3) ii, iii and iv (4) i and iv
180. Spermiation is the process of the release of sperms from:
(1) Seminiferous tubules (2) Vas deferens
(3) Epididymis (4) Prostate gland
181. Mature Graafian follicle is generally present in the ovary of a healthy human female around stet:
(1) 5 – 8 day of menstrual cycle (2) 11 – 17 day of menstrual cycle
(3) 18 – 23 day of menstrual cycle (4) 24 – 28 day of menstrual cycle
182. Acrosomal reaction of the sperm occurs due to:
(1) Its contact with zona pellucida of the ova
(2) Reactions within the uterine environment of the female
(3) Reactions within the epididymal environment of the male
(4) Androgens produced in the uterus
183. Which one of the following is not a male accessory gland?
(1) Seminal vesicle (2) Ampulla
(3) Prostate (4) Bulbourethral gland
184. The immature male germ cell undergo division to produce sperms by the process of spermatogenesis.
Choose the correct one with reference to above.
(1) Spermatogonia have 46 chromosomes and always undergo meiotic cell division
(2) Primary spermatocytes divide by mitotic cell division
(3) Secondary spermatocytes have 23 chromosomes and undergo second meiotic division
(4) Spermatozoa are transformed into spermatids
185. Match between the following representing parts of the sperm and their functions and choose the correct
option.
Col. A Col. B
A. Head i. Enzymes
B. Middle piece ii. Sperm motility
C. Acrosome iii. Energy
D. Tail iv. Genetic material
options:
(1) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii (2) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii
(3) A-iv, B-i, C-ii, D-iii (4) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv
186. Which among the following has 23 chromosomes?
(1) Spermatogonia (2) Zygote
(3) Secondary oöcyte (4) Oögonia
187. Match the following and choose the correct options:
A. Trophoblast i. Embedding of blastocyst in the endometrium
B. Cleavage ii. Group of cells that would differentiate as embryo
C. Inner cell mass iii. Outer layer of blastocyst attached to the endometrium
D. Implantation iv. Mitotic division of zygote
Options :
(1) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv (2) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i
(3) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv (4) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i
188. Which of the following hormones is not secreted by human placenta?
(1) hCG (2) Estrogens (3) Progesterone (4) LH
189. The vas deferens receives duct from the seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as:
(1) Epididymis (2) Ejaculatory duct (3) Efferent ductule (4) Ureter
190. Urethral meatus refers to the:
(1) Urinogenital duct (2) Opening of vas deferens into urethra
(3) External opening of the urinogenital duct (4) Muscles surrounding the urinogenial duct
191. Morula is a developmental stage:
(1) Between the zygote and blastocyst (2) Between the blastocyst and gastrula
(3) After the implantation (4) Between implantation and parturition
192. The membranous cover of the ovum at ovulation is:
(1) Corona radiata (2) Zona radiata (3) Zona pellucida (4) Chorion
193. Identify the odd one from the following:
(1) Labia minora (2) Fimbriae (3) Infundibulum (4) Isthmus
194. The method of directly injecting a sperm into ovum in assisted by reproductive technology is called:
(1) GIFT (2) ZIFT (3) ICSI (4) ET
195. Increased IMR and decreased MMR in a population will:
(1) Cause rapid increase in growth rate (2) Result in decline in growth rate
(3) Not cause significant change in growth rate (4) Result in an explosive population/exp
196. Intensely lactating mothers do not generally conceive due to the:
(1) Suppression of gonadotropins (2) Hyper secretion of gonadotropins
(3) Suppression of gametic transport (4) Suppression of fertilisation
197. Sterilisation techniques are generally fool proof methods of contraception with least side effects. Yet, this
is the last option for the couples because:
i. It is almost irreversible
ii. Of the misconception that it will reduce sexual urge/drive
iii. It is a surgical procedure
iv. Of lack of sufficient facilities in many parts of the country
Choose the correct option:
(1) i and iii (2) ii and iii (3) ii and iv (4) i, ii, iii and iv
198. A national level approach to build up a reproductively healthy society was taken up in our country in:
(1) 1950s (2) 1960s (3) 1980s (4) 1990s
199. Emergency contraceptives are effective if used within:
(1) 72 hrs of coitus (2) 72 hrs of ovulation
(3) 72 hrs of menstruation (4) 72 hrs of implantation
200. Choose the right one among the statements given below:
(1) IUDs are generally inserted by the user herself
(2) IUDs increase phagocytosis reaction in the uterus
(3) IUDs suppress gametogenesis
(4) IUDs once inserted need not be replaced
201. Following statements are given regarding MTP. Choose the correct options given below:
i. MTPs are generally advised during first trimester
ii. MTPs are used as a contraceptive method
iii. MTPs are always surgical
iv. MTPs require the assistance of qualified medical personnel
(1) ii and iii (2) ii and iii (3) i and iv (4) i and ii
202. From the sexually transmitted diseases mentioned below, identify the one which does not specifically
affect the sex organs:
(1) Syphilis (2) AIDS (3) Gonorrhea (4) Genital warts
203. Condoms are one of the most popular contraceptives becuase of the
following reasons:
(1) These are effective barriers for insemination
(2) They do not interfere with coital act
(3) These help in reducing the risk of STDs
(4) All of the above
204. Choose the correct statement regarding the ZIFT procedure:
(1) Ova collected from a female donour are transferred to the fallopian tube to facilitate zygote formation.
(2) Zygote is collected from a female donour and transferred to the fallopian tube
(3) Zygote is collected from a female donour and transferred to the uterus
(4) Ova collected from a female donour and transferrerd to the uterus
205. The correct surgical procedure as a contraceptive method is:
(1) Ovarieetomy (2) Hysterectomy (3) Vasectomy (4) Castration
206. Diaphragms are contraceptive devices used by the females. Choose the correct option from the state-
ments given below:
i. They are introduced into the uterus
ii. They are placed to cover the cervical region
iii. They act as physical barriers for sperm entry
iv. They act as spermicidal agents
(1) i and ii, (2) i and iii, (3) ii and iii, (4) iii & iv
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which statement is false ? (3rd CBO)
(1) Cell division to form a blastocyst begins after the fertilized egg is implanted in the endometrium of the
uterus .
(2) The placenta contains cells derived both from the embryo and the mother
(3) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the production of sperm in the
male testes
(4) human males can continue to produce sperm throughout life whereas females stop producing eggs
during menopause.
2. If an adult human female took a drug that inhibited the release of LH (luteinizing hormone) which of the
following would not occur ? (7th CBO)
(1) The menstrual cycle
(2) Release of an ovum from a mature follicle
(3) Secretion of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) from the pituitary
(4) Secretion of estrogen by the follicle cells
3. Extra embryonic membranes in chick are shown in the given figure amnion, allantois, chorion and yolk
sac are labelled in the figure respectively as : (2nd NSO I L)
(1) 4,1,2 and 3 (2) 4,1,3 and 2 (3) 1,4,3 and 2 (4) 1,4,2 and 3
4. The correct sequence in the formation of spermatozoa is : (2nd NSO I L)
(1) Spermatogonia spermatids spermatocytes spermatozoa
(2) Spermatids Spermatogonia spermatocytes spermatozoa
(3) Spermatids Spermatogonia primary spermatocytes secondary
(4) Spermatogonia primary spermatocytes secondary spermatocytes spermatozoa
5. Trace a sperm cell from the structure where it is produced till fertilization of the egg : (2nd NSO II L)
(1) Seminiferous tubule (2) Vasa deferens
(3) Uterus (4) Fallopian tube
(5) Vagina (6) Epididymis
(7) Urethra
(1) 6,1,2,7,5,3,4 (2) 1,6,2,7,5,3,4 (3) 1,6,2,7,5,4,3 (4) 1,2,6,7,5,3,4
6. How are mature human sperm and ova similar ? (2nd NSO I L)
(1) They are approximately the same size
(2) They are formed before birth
(3) They each have a flagellum that provides motility
(4) They are produced from puberty until death
(5) They both have the same number of chromosomes
7. Fetilization in humans usually takes place in : [KVPY_2009_SB]
(1) Uterus (2) Graafian follicle (3) Ovary (4) Fallopian tube
8. Soon after the three germ layers are formed in a developing embryo, the process of organogenesis
starts. The human brain is formed from the [KVPY_2011_SB]
(1) ectoderm (2) endoderm
(3) mesoderm (4) partly endoderm and partly mesoderm
AIIMS CORNER
1. Cumulus covers (AIIMS 1999)
(1) ovum (2) embryo (3) ovary (4) all of these
2. Both corpus luteum and macula lutea are (AIIMS 2003)
(1) found in human ovaries (2) a source of hormones
(3) characterised by a yellow colour (4) contributory in maintaining pregnancy
3. The phase of menstrual cycle in humans that lasts for 7-8 days is (AIIMS 2003)
(1) luteal phase (2) menstruation (3) follicular phase (4) ovulatory phase
4. A cross section at the midpoint of the middle piece of a human sperm will show (AIIMS 2005)
(1) centriole, mitochondria and 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
(2) centriole and mitochondria
(3) mitochondria and 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
(4) 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules only
5. Which one of the following events is correctly matched with the time period in a normal menstrual cycle?
(1) release of egg : 5th day (AIIMS 2005)
(2) endometrium regenerates : 5-10 days
(3) endometrium secretes nutrients for implantation : 11-18 days
(4) rise in progesterone level : 1-15 days
6. The early stage human embryo distinctly possesses (AIIMS 2003)
(1) gills (2) gill slits (3) external ear (pinna) (4) eye brows
7. Which one of the following statements with regard to embryonic development in humans is correct ?
(1) cleavage divisions bring about considerable increase in the mass of protoplasm (AIIMS 2003)
(2) in the second cleavage division, one of the two blastomeres usually divides a little sooner than the
second
(3) with more cleavage divisions, the resultant blastomeres become larger and larger
(4) cleavage division results in· a hollow ball of cells called morula
8. Acrosome reaction in sperm is triggered by (AIIMS -2008)
(1) capacitation (2) release of lysin (3) influx of Na+ (4) release of fertilizin
9. How many sperms are formed from a secondary spermatocyte? (AIIMS -2008)
(1) 4 (2) 8 (3) 2 (4) 1
10. Grey crescent is the area (AIIMS -2008)
(1) at the point of entry of sperm into ovum (2) just opposite to the site of entry of sperm into ovum
(3) at the animal pole (4) at the vegetal pole
11. In humans at the end of first meiotic division, the male germ cells differentiate into the (AIIMS 2009)
(1) primary spermatocytes (2) secondary spermatocytes
(3) spermatids (4) spermatogonia
12. Contraceptive oral pills help in birth control by (AIIMS 2009)
(1) killing the sperms in uterus (2) preventing implantation
(3) preventing ovulation (4) both (b) and (c)
13. What do A, B, C and D represent ? (AIIMS 2010)
A B C D
(1) infundibulum fertilization myometrium morula
(2) infundibulum fertilization endometrium blastocyst
(3) isthmus fertilization myometrium blastocyst
(4) isthmus fertilization endometrium morula
14. What is the function of copper-T ? (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Checks mutation (2) Stops fertilization
(3) Stops zygote formation (4) Stops d of blastocoel
Direction :
The following questions consist of two statements one labelled ASSERTION (A) and the another
labelled REASON (R). Select the correct answers to these questions from the codes given below :
(1) Both Assertion and Reason are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(2) Both Assertion and Reason are true but R is not correct explanation of A
(3) Assertion is true but Reason is false
(4) Assertion is false but Reason is true
15. Assertion: Failure of testes to descend into the scrotum causes sterility in man.
Reason: Higher temperature in the abdomen than in the scrotum is not suitable for spermatogenesis.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
16. Assertion : A woman passes out HCG in the urine after conception or implantation.
Reason : Excess hormones are either metabolised or excreted by the kidneys. Presence of HCG in urine
is the basis for pregnancy test.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
17. Assertion : Cervix is the only visceral organ that contains the largest and the most powerful sphincter
muscle in the body.
Reason : Cervix opens into the vagina by external os.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
18. Assertion : In a Graaffian follicles, the primary oocyte and the follicle cells may be regarded sibling cells.
Reason : Both arise from the same parent cell, the oogonium , by mitotic divisions.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
19. Assertion : Testes are located in the scrotum outside the coelom.
Reason : A vaginal coelom (Tunica vaginalis) partly surrounds the testis in the scrotum.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
20. Assertion : Ovum retains most of the contents of the primary oocyte and is much larger than a
spermatozoa.
Reason : Ovum needs energy to go about in search of a spermatozoa for fertilization.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
21. Assertion : Testes originate in the abdomen but later descend into the scrotum under the influence of
testosterone.
Reason : The interstitial (Leydig’s) cells of the testes secrete male sex hormone, the testosterone.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
22. Assertion : Infection of urethra is more common in the males than in the females.
Reason : Urethra is shorter in the males than in the females.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
23. Assertion : Sperm entry causes a rearrangement of materials in the ooplasm.
Reason : Path of the male pronucleus toward the female pronucleus is marked in the ovum as
fertilization path.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
24. Assertion : Twins may arise from a single egg or from two eggs.
Reason : One egg gives rise to identical twins by separation of blastomeres, and two eggs produce
fraternal twins.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
25. Assertion : A sperm sticks to an egg for fertilization and is species specific.
Reason : Interaction of surface receptors, fertilizin of the egg and antifertilizin on the sperm head,
makes them adhere together and are as enzyme-substrate
(1) (2) (3) (4)
26. Assertion : Zona pellucida disappears when blastocyst reaches the uterus.
Reason : Role of zona pellucida is to check the implantation of the blastocyst at an improper site or ectopic
pregnancy.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
27. Assertion : Human body is pigmentless at the time of birth.
Reason : Pigment appears just before the birth of a baby.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
28. Assertion : Cleavage in human zygote is holoblastic and indeterminate
Reason : Human egg contains abundant yolk in ooplasm.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
29. Assertion : Placenta is connected to the foetus by an umbilical cord.
Reason : Foetal components of the placenta are derived from the chondroblast.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
30. Assertion : Human embryo develops a yolk sac beneath it.
Reason : Yolk sac stores excretory products for protecting embryo against toxic effect the embryo.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
31. Assertion : Testosterone is only produced by the testes of matured males.
Reason : Its production is stimulated by GH.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
32. Assertion : A number of small ovarian or Graafian follicles are found embedded in the cortical stroma of
an ovary.
Reason : These follicles are initially formed during embryonic development by proliferation of primordial
germ cells of germinal epithelium.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
33. Assertion : Upto morula stage, the cells divide without any increase in size. (AIIMS 1997)
Reason : Zona pellucida remains intact till cleavage is complete.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
34. Assertion : In a woman after hysterectomy (removal of uterus), the ovarian cycle is stopped.
Reason : Stoppage of FSH secretion. (Haryana PMT 2000)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
35. Assertion : In morula stage, the cell divides without increases in size.
Reason : Zone pellucida remains till cleavage. (Haryana PMT 2000)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
36. Assertion : Holoblastic cleavage, with almost equal sized blastometers is a characteristic of placental
mammals.
Reason : Eggs of most mammals, including humans are of centrolecithal type. (AIIMS PMT 2000)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
37. Assertion: Holoblastic cleavage with almost equal sized blastomeres is a characteristic of placental ani-
mals. (AIIMS 2003)
Reason : Eggs of most mammals, including humans, are of centrolecithal type.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
38. Assertion : Amniocentesis is a process of foetal sex determination. (AIIMS 2009)

Reason : Metabolic errors and other diseases can be diagnosed prenatally by this process.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
39. Assertion : MammaIian ova produces hyaluronidase (AIIMS 2009)

Reason : The eggs of mammal are microlecithal and telolecithal
(1) (2) (3) (4)
40. Assertion : In a Graafian follicle, the primary oocyte and the follicle cells may be considered sibling cells.
Reason : Both are derived from oogonia.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
41. Assertion : In humans, the gamete contributed by the male determines whether the child produced will be
male or female.
Reason: Because male gametes are X and Y type
(1) (2) (3) (4)
42. Assertion : In the testes, spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules and testosterone
secretion takes place in the interstitial cells.
Reason : Testosterone brings about growth and maturation of secondary sex organs and also development
of accessory sex character.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
43. Assertion : Parturition is induced by neural signal in maternal pituitary.
Reason : At the end of gestation period, the maternal pituitary release prolactin which causes uterine
contractions. (AIIMS 2010)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
PART- 1
1. The part of Fallopian tube closest to the ovary is (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Infundibulum (2) Cervix (3) Ampulla (4) Isthmus
2. Vasa efferentia are the ductules leading from (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Rete testis to Epididymis (2) Vas deferens to epididymis
(3) Epididymis to urethra (4) Testicular lobules to rete testis
3. Which one of the following statements about human sperm is correct. (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) The sperm lysins in the acrosome dissolve the egg envelope facilitating fertilisation
(2) Acrosome serves as a sensory structure leading the sperm towards the ovum
(3) Acrosome serves no particular function
(4) Acrosome has a conical pointed structure used for piercing and penetrating the egg resulting in fertilisation.
4. The signals for parturition originate from (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Placenta as well as fully developed foetus (2) Oxytocin released from maternal pituitary
(3) Fully developed foetus only (4) Placenta only
5. In vitro ferilisation is a technique that involves transfer of which one of the following into the fallopian tube
(1) Either zygote or early embryo upto 8 cell stage (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(2) Embryo of 32 cell stage
(3) Zygote only
(4) Embryo only, upto 8 cell stage
6. Sertoli cells are found in (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) adrenal cortex and secrete adrenaline
(2) Seminiferous tubules and provide nutrition to germ cells
(3) Pancreas and secrete progesterone
(4) Ovaries and secrete progesterone
7. Seminal plasma in human males is rich in (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) glucose and calcium (2) DNA and testosterone
(3) ribose and potassium (4) fructose and calcium
8. Which one of the following statements about morula in humans is correct (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) It has far less cytoplasm as well as less DNA than in an uncleaved zygote
(2) It has more or less, equal quantity of cytoplasm and DNA as in uncleaved zygote
(3) It has more cytoplasm and more DNA than an uncleaved zygote
(4) It has almost equal quantiity of cytoplasm as an uncleaved zygote but much more DNA
9. Cution released from copper-releasing Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs) (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Increase phagocytosis of sperms (2) Suppress sperm motility
(3) Prevent ovulation (4) Make uterus unsuitable for implantation
10. The second maturation division of the mammalian ovum occurs (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Until after the ovum has been penetrated by a sperm
(2) Until the nucleus of the sperm has fused with that of the ovum
(3) In the Graafian follicle after the first maturation division
(4) Shortly after ovulation before the ovum makes entry into the fallopian tube
11. The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on its head are usually observed during which
month of pregnancy AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Fifth month (2) Sixth month (3) Third month (4) Fourth month
12. The permissible use of the technique amniocentesis is for (AIPMT Pre. 2010)
(1) Artificial insemination
(2) Transjfer of embryo into the uterus of a surrogate mother
(3) Detecting any genetic abnormality
(4) Detecting sex of the unborn foetus
13. Signals from fully developed foetus and placenta ultimately lead to parturition which requires the release of
(1) Ralaxin from placenta (2) Estrogen from placenta
(3) Oxytocin from maternal pituitary (4) Oxytocin from foetal pituitary (AIPMT Mains 2010)
14. In human female the blastocyst (AIPMT Mains 2010)
(1) Gets implanted in endometrium by the trophoblast cells
(2) Forms placenta even before implantation
(3) Gets implanted into uterus 3 days after ovulation
(4) gets nutrition from uterine endometrial secretion only after implantation
15. Which one of the following is the most widely accepted method of contraception in India, as at present ?
(1) Cervical caps (2) Tubectomy (AIPMT Pre. 2011)
(3) Diaphragms (4) IUDs’ (Intra uterine devices)
16. The ciliated columnar epithelial cells in humans are known to occur in : (AIPMT Pre. 2011)
(1) Eustachian tube and stomach lining (2) Bronchioles and Fallopian tubes
(3) Bile duct and oesophagus (4) Fallopian tubes and urethra
17. The testes in humans are situated outside the abdominal cavity insides pouch called scrotum. The pupose
served is for : (AIPMT Pre. 2011)
(1) maintaining the scrotal temperature lower than the internal body temperature
(2) escaping any possible compression by the visceral organs
(3) providing more space for the growth of epididymis
(4) providing a secondary sexual feature for exhibiting the male sex
18. If for some reason, the vasa efferentia in the human reproductive system get blocked, the gametes will not
be transported from : (AIPMT Pre. 2011)
(1) testes to epididymis (2) epididymis to vas deferencs
(3) ovary to uterus (4) vagina to uterus
19. The figure given below depicts a diagrammatic sectional view of th female reproductive system of humans,
which one set of three parts out of I-VI have been correctly identified ?
(1) (II) Endometrium (III) Infundibulum, (IV) Fimbriae

(2) (III) Infundibulum, (IV) Fimbriae, (V) Cervix,
(3) (IV) Oviducal funnel, (V) Uterus, (VI) Cervix
(4) (I) Perimetriurn, (II) Myometrium, (Ill) Fallopian tube (AIPMT Pre. 2011)
20. The technique called gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) is recommended for those females:
(1) who cannot produce an ovum (AIPMT Main 2011)
(2) who cannot retain the foetus inside uterus.
(3) whose cervical canal is too narrow to allow passage for the sperms
(4) who cannot provide suitable environment for fertilisation
21. What happens during fertilisation in humans after many sperms reach close to the ovum?
(AIPMT Main 2011)
(1) Secretions of acrosome helps one sperm enter cytoplasm of ovum througth zona pellucida
(2) All sperms except the one nearest to the ovum lose their tails
(3) Cells of corona radiata trap all the sperms except one
(4) Only two sperms nearest the ovum penetrate zona pellucida
22. About which day in a normal human menstrual cycle does rapid secretion of LH (Popularly called LH-
surge) normally occurs? (AIPMT Main 2011)
th th th th
(1) 14 day (2) 20 day (3) 5 day (4) 11 day
23. Which one of the following conditions of the zygotic cell would lead to the birth of a normal human female
child ? (AIPMT Main 2011)
(1) Two X chromosomes (2) Only one Y chromosome
(3) Only one X chromosome (4) One X and one Y chromosome
24. Which on of the following statements is false in respect of viability of mamalian sperm? (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Sperm is viable for only up to 24 hours.
(2) Survival of sperm depends on the pH of the medium and is more active in alkaline medium.
(3) Viability of sperm is determined by its motility.
(4) Sperms must be concentrated in a thick suspension
25. What is the figure given below showing in particular ? (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Ovarian cancer (2) Uterine cancer

(3) Tubectomy (4) Vasectomy
26. Signals for parturition originate from : (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Both placenta as well as fully developed foetus
(2) Oxytocin released from maternal pituitary
(3) Placenta only
(4) Fully developed foetus only
27. In a normal pregnant woman, the amount of total gonadotropin activity was assessed. The result expected
was (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) High level of circulating FSH and LH in the uterus to stimulate implantation of the embyro
(2) High level of circulatting HCG to stimulate endometrial thickening
(3) High level of FSH and LH in uterus to stimulate endometrical thickening
(4) High level of circulating HCG to stimulate estrogen and progesterone synthesis
28. The test-tube Baby Programme employs which one of the following techniques (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
(2) Intra uterine insemination (IUI)
(3) Gamete intra fallopian transfer (GIFT)
(4) Zygote intra fallopian transfer (ZIFT)
29. The Leydig cells found in the human body are the secretory source of (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Progesterone (2) intestinal mucus (3) glucagon (4) androgens
30. The secretory phase in the human menstrual cycle is also called : (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(1) luteal phase and lasts for about 6 days
(2) follicular phase lasting for about 6 days
(3) luteal phase and lasts for about 13 days
(4) follicular phase and lasts for about 13 days
31. Identify the human developmental stage shown below as well as the related right place of its occurrence in
a normal pregnant woman, and select the right option for the two together. (AIPMT Mains 2012)
Options :
De ve lopm e nta l sta ge S ite of occurre nce

(1) Late morula M iddle P art of Fallopian tube
(2) B las tula E nd part of Fallopian tube
(3) B las toc y s t Uterine wall
(4) 8 – c elled morula S tarting point of Fallopian tube
32. Read the following four statements (A-D) : (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(A) Colostrum is recommended for the new born because it is rich in antigens.
(B) Chikengunya is caused by a Gram negative bacterium.
(C) Tissue culture has proved useful in obtaining virus-free plants.
(D) Beer is manufactured by distillation of fermented grape juice.
How many of the above statements are wrong ?
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) One
33. Estrous cycle is indication of (MPPMT 1993)

(1) Breeding period (2) Estrogen secretion (3) Menopause (4) Pregnancy
34. Ovulation occurs under the influence of (CBSE 1994; Karnataka CET 1994)
(1) Progesterone (2) Estrogens (3) FSH (4) LH
35. Growth and maturation of Graafian follicle is controlled by (MPPMT 1995)
(1) FSH-LH (2) FSH-LTH (3) GH-ADH (4) ACTH-LH
36. Monoestrous animals have (MPPMT 1995)
(1) one menses each month (2) one ovulation each month
(3) one breeding season in a year (4) one egg
37. Estrous cycle is characteristic of (CBSE 1995)
(1) Mammals (2) Human females
(3) Mammalian females (4) Mammalian females other than primates
38. When is progesterone secreted? (MPPMT 1996)
(1) before ovulation (2) after ovulation
(3) at the time of parturition (4) after parturition
39. Which of the following is immortal? (BHU 1997)
(1) Germ cells (2) Pituitary cells (3) Brain cells (4) All of these
40. 100 eggs and 100 sperms can be produced from ........... meiotic divisions respectively
(Kerala PMT 1997)
(1) 100 , 100 (2) 100 , 25 (3) 25 , 25 (4) 25 , 100
41. Primary sex cells contain (JIPMER 1997)
(1) as many chromosomes as the sperm (2) haploid set of chromosomes
(3) as many chromosomes as the ovum (4) diploid set of chromosomes
42. Male hormone is (JIPMER 1998)
(1) Corpus luteum (2) Testosterone (3) Progesterone (4) Gonadotropin
43. Cells of Leydig are found in (CPMT 1998)
(1) Kidney of frog (2) Kidney of rabbit (3) Testis of frog (4) Testis of rabbit
44. Oogenesis compreses (MPPMT 1998)
(1) multiplication phase (2) growth phase (3) maturation phase (4) all of these
45. Acrosome is found in the sperm at (MPPMT 1998)
(1) top of head (2) neck (3) middle piece (4) tail
46. The function of vas deferens is to (RPMT 1998)
(1) store the sperms (2) conduct the sperms (3) mature the sperms (4) none of these
47. After ovulation the collapsed ovarian follicle shrinks and becomes filled with cell to form (CBSE 1999)
(1) corpus atresia (2) corpus adiposum (3) corpus luteum (4) corpus albicans
48. The growth of corpus luteum is initiated by (CBSE 1999)
(1) Luteinizing hormone (2) Prolactin
(3) Human chorionic gonadotropin (4) Follicle stimulating hormone
49. How many ova and sperms would be produced from 100 secondary oocytes and 100 secondary spermato-
cytes during gametogenesis in humans? (CPMT 1999)
(1) 100 ova, 100 sperms (2) 100 ova, 200 sperms
(3) 50 ova, 100 sperms (4) 200 ova, 200 sperms
50. Which one of the following is haploid ? (RPMT 1999)
(1) Oogonia (2) Primary spermatocyte
(3) Primary oocyte (4) Secondary oocyte
51. Sperms move by (MPPMT 1999)
(1) Head (2) Acrosome (3) Middle piece (4) Tail
52. Fallopian tube is the part of (MPPMT 1999)
(1) Vas deferens (2) Uterus (3) Ureter (4) Oviduct
53. Corpus luteum is found in (MPPMT 1999)
(1) Ovary (2) Oviduct (3) Uterus (4) Vagina
54. In males, the essential hormones for secondary sexual characteristics are (MPPMT 1999)
(1) Progesterone (2) Testosterone (3) Relaxin (4) Estrogen
55. In females, the essential hormones for secondary sexual characteristics are (MPPMT 1999)
(1) Progesterone (2) Testosterone (3) Estrogens (4) Relaxin
56. The process by which ova are formed is known as (MPPMT 1999)
(1) Oviparity (2) Ovulation (3) Oviposition (4) Oogenesis
57. Which one of the following pairs is diploid? (PCS 2000)
(1) Spermatid and sperm (2) Spermatogonia and spermatid
(3) Primary and secondary spermatocyte (4) Spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes
58. The Mullerian duct in the female amniotes develops into (PCS 1995; MPPMT 2000)
(1) oviduct (2) ureter (3) seminal receptacle (4) uterus
59. Cervix is a part (MPPMT 2000)
(1) of kidney (2) of fallopian tube (3) of epididymis (4) between uterus and vagina
60. Progesterone production fails during (MPPMT 2000)
(1) lactation (2) menopause (3) gestation (4) menstruation
61. Which one of the following is not a phase of the menstrual cycle? (PCS 2000)
(1) Estrous phase (2) Luteal phase (3) Follicular phase (4) Menstrual phase
62. Testosterone is secreted by (Kerala PMT 2001)
(1) Mast cells (2) Sertoli cells (3) Kupffer cells (4) Leydig cells
63. Antrum is the cavity of (Karnataka CET 2001)
(1) Ovary (2) Blastula (3) Gastrula (4) Graafian follicle
64. Number of polar bodies formed in frog during oogenesis is (CPMT 2001)
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
65. Oogonium is (PCS 2001)
(1) haploid (2) diploid (3) triploid (4) euploid
66. In the male human being, sperms contain autosomes and (BHU 2001)
(1) only one Y-chromosome
(2) only one X-chromosome
(3) both X and Y-chromosome
(4) either X or Y-chromosome
67. Which type of cell division occurs in the gonads? (RPMT 2001)
(1) Mitosis only (2) Meiosis only
(3) Both mitosis and meiosis (4) Amitosis and meiosis
68. The cytoplasm surrounding the mitochondria found in the middle piece of the sperm is called
(JIPMER 2002)
(1) acrosome (2) microsome (3) manchette (4) centrosome
69. Mainly which type of hormones control the menstrual cycle in human beings? (CBSE 2002)
(1) LH (2) Progesterone (3) FSH (4) FSH, LH, Estrogen
70. Erection of penis in mammals is an example of (PCS 2002)
(1) exoskeleton (2) endoskeleton (3) bony skeleton (4) hydrostatic skeleton
71. Which of the following is correct about mammalian testes? (Orissa JEE 2002)
(1) Graafian follicles, sertoli cells, leydig cells
(2) Sertoli cells, seminiferous tubules, leydig cells
(3) Graafian follicle, leydig cell, seminiferous tubule
(4) Graafian follicles, sertoli cells, seminiferous tubules
72. In human female which of the following is incorrect? (Orissa JEE 2002)
(1) menstruation takes 4 days (2) menstrual cycle takes 28 days
(3) menopause occur at an age of 45-55 years (4) the ovulated egg released during pregnancy die
73. Which one pair out of the following represents one and the same thing? (IAS 2002)
(1) Atrio-Ventricular Node (AVN) - Pacemaker
(2) Corpus luteum - Yellow spot
(3) Factor X (Stuart Factor) - Thromboplastin
(4) Mitral valve - Tricuspid valve
74. Head of sperm consists of (St. Johns MC 2002)
(1) nucleus (2) acrosome (3) mitochondria (4) acrosome and nucleus
75. Which of the following is primary sex organ? (St. Johns MC 2002)
(1) vagina (2) ovary (3) uterus (4) fallopian tube
76. Acrosome is a type of (JKCMEE 2003)
(1) lysosome (2) flagellum (3) ribosome (4) basal body
77. Binary fission is a form of (CPMT 2003)
(1) sexual reproduction (2) asexual reproduction
(3) both of these (4) none of these
78. The nutritive cells found in seminiferous tubules are (Kerala PMT 2003)
(1) Sertoli cells (2) Leydig cells (3) Chromaffin cells (4) Spermatogonial cells
79. Spermatogenesis is induced by (CPMT 2003)
(1) FSH (2) MSH (3) ACTH (4) HCG
80. In spermatogenesis the phase of maturation involves (Karnataka CET 2003)
(1) The growth of spermatogonia into primary spermatocyte
(2) The formation of spermatogonia from gonocytes through mitosis
(3) The formation of spermatids from primary spermatocytes through meiosis
(4) The formation of oogonia from the spermatocytes through meiosis
81. Graafian follicles are formed from (Pb. PMT 2003)
(1) stroma of ovaries
(2) columnar epithelium of testes
(3) germinal epithelium of ovaries
(4) assembly of ribosomes in bacteria
82. In females, the hormone inhibin is secreted by (AMU 2003)
(1) theca cells (2) zona pellucida (3) granulosa cells (4) corpus luteum
83. Bartholin's glands are situated (CBSE 2003)
(1) at the reduced tail end of birds (2) on either side of vagina in humans
(3) on either side of vas deferens in humans (4) on the sides of the head of some amphibians
84. The number of chromosomes in a mature gamete gets halved during (BHU 2003)
(1) meiosis II (2) formation of first polar body
(3) formation of second polar body (4) division of secondary oocyte and spermatocyte
85. Ovulation in females is under the control of (Pb. PMT 2003)
(1) LTH (2) ADH and LH (3) FSH and LH (4) LTH and TSH
86. Onset of menstruation is due to (DPMT 2003)
(1) increase in the level of progesterone (2) fall in level of progesterone
(3) increase in level of FSH (4) none of these
87. Fertilization of egg by the sperm in the female genital tract takes place in (CMC, Vellore 2003)
(1) uterus (2) ovary (3) vagina (4) oviduct (fallopian tube)
88. Which of the following hormones does not play any role in menstruation? (JKCMEE 2003)
(1) GH (2) FSH (3) LH (4) All of these
89. One million oocyte and one million secondary spermatocyte will give (Jharkhand CECE 2003)
(1) 2 million ova and 2 million sperms (2) 1 million ova and 1 million sperms
(3) 2 million ova and 1 million sperms (4) 1 million ova and 2 million sperms
90. Shortest phase in the menstruation cycly of women is (MH-CET 2003)
(1) menses (2) luteal phase (3) ovulatory phase (4) follicular phase
91. Which of the following statements is correct? (MH-CET 2003)
(1) corpus luteum changes into corpus albicans
(2) corpus luteum degenerates after fertilization
(3) corpus luteum persists throughout the pregnancy
(4) corpus luteum is not formed during the pregnancy
92. Ovulation in the human female normally takes place during the menstrual cycle (CBSE 2004)
(1) at the mid secretory phase (2) at the end of the proliferative phase
(3) just before the end of the secretory phase (4) at the beginning of the proliferative phase
93. In which of the following organisms testes descends into scrotum in breeding season but in non-breeding
season goes up? (AFMC 2004)
(1) Frog (2) Bat (3) Shrew (4) Kangaroo
94. Nebenkern is a part of (Karnataka CET 2004)
(1) Foetus (2) Graafian follicle (3) Human ovum (4) Human sperm
95. Arrhenotoky is related to (Orissa JEE 2004)
(1) parthenogenesis (2) wax formation (3) both (1) and (2) (4) none of these
96. Middle piece of sperm contains (Orissa JEE 2004)
(1) Mitochondria and Golgi (2) Centriole and Golgi body
(3) Axial filament and Golgi body (4) Mitochondria and axial filament
97. The cellular layer that disintegrates and regenerates again and again in humans is (MPPMT 2004)
(1) dermis of skin (2) cornea of the eye
(3) endometrium of uterus (4) endothelium of blood vessels
98. Which one is unpaired gland in male reproductive system? (MH-CET 2004)
(1) Seminal vesicle (2) Cowper's gland (3) Prostate gland (4) Lacrimal gland
99. Cauda epididymis leads to (MH-CET 2004)
(1) Rete testis (2) Vas deferens (3) Vas efferens (4) Ejaculatory duct
100. Corpus luteum is developed from (VVMC-Safdarjung 2004)
(1) Oocyte (2) Graafian follicle (3) Nephrostome (4) None of these
101. Ovary secretes large quantity of estrogen during (PCS 2004)
(1) Pregnancy (2) Lactation (3) Preovulatory periods (4) None of these
102. Ovulation takes place in a month during (Pb. PMT 2004)
(1) 11-14 days (2) 14-16 days (3) 15-28 days (4) 21-26 days
103. The term blastogenesis is used for (PCS 2004)
(1) Formation of blastula (2) Formation of blastocoel
(3) Formation of blastomeres (4) Asexual reproduction
104. In most mammals, the testes are located in scrotal sac for (VVMC-Safdarjung 2004)
(1) spermatogenesis (2) sex differentiation
(3) more space to visceral organs (4) independent functioning of kidney
105. Parthenogenesis is a term of (Orissa JEE 2005)
(1) budding (2) regeneration (3) sexual reproduction (4) asexual reproduction
106. In males testes are contained in the scrotal sacs because (Kerala PMT 2005)
(1) other organs do not make space for the testes in the abdominal cavity
(2) testes in the abdomen will hamper maturation of sperms
(3) it provides temperature that is slightly lower than body temperature required for formation of functional
sperms
(4) it facilitates ejaculation
(5) testes in the abdomen will accelerate maturation of sperms
107. Sertoli cells are present in (Har. PMT 2005)
(1) testis (2) ovary (3) blood (4) lymph
108. Wolffian duct form (DPMT 2005)
(1) urethra (2) oviduct (3) epididymis (4) ejaculatory duct
109. Spermatogenesis is (Har. PMT 2005)
(1) formation of sperm (2) formation of ovary (3) formation of zygote (4) formation of body
110. Spermatogonia formed by which cell division? (Har. PMT 2005)
(1) amitosis (2) mitosis (3) meiosis I (4) meiosis II
111. Sperms formed from 4 primary spermatocytes are (CPMT 2005)
(1) 4 (2) 1 (3) 16 (4) 32
112. Enzyme present in sperm is (BCECE 2005)
(1) spermin (2) lactic acid (3) sperm lysin (4) hydrolytic enzyme
113. Acrosome of sperm is formed from (CPMT 2005)
(1) Nucleus of spermatid (2) Centrosome of spermatid
(3) Mitochondria of spermatid (4) Golgi complex of spermatid
114. Which of the following groups of cells in the male gonad, represent haploid cells? (Karnataka CET 2005)
(1) Spermatogonial cells (2) Primary spermatocytes
(3) Germinal epithelial cells (4) Secondary spermatocytes
115. Sperm's acrosome has (Manipal 2005)
(1) hyaluronic acid and proacrosine (2) hyaluronidase and proacrosin
(3) hyaluronic acid and fertilizin (4) fertilizin and proacrosin
116. In the urinogenital organs of rabbit which one of the following part is present in male but not in female?
(CPMT 2005)
(1) Vagina (2) Urethra (3) Fallopian tube (4) Vasa deferens
117. Graafian follicle is maintained by (JIPMER 2005)
(1) estrogen (2) prolactin (3) luteinizing hormone (4) follicle stimulating hormone
118. The structure that develops at the site of release of ovum from mammalian ovary during embryonic
development is (JIPMER 2005)
(1) corpus tectum (2) corpus callosum (3) corpus luteum (4) corpus mammalian
119. Ovulation takes place in/on (Har. PMT 2005)
(1) ovary (2) about the 14th day (3) both (1) and (2) (4) none of these
120. If mammalian ovum fails to get fertilized, which one of the following is unlikely? (CBSE 2005)
(1) Corpus luteum will disintegrate (2) Primary follicle starts developing
(3) Estrogen secretion further decreases (4) Progesterone secretion rapidly declines
121. If a germ cell in a female gonad and a germ cell in a male gonad begin undergoing meiosis simultaneously,
what will be the ratio of ova and sperms produced? (Karnataka CET 2005)
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 1 : 2 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 2 : 1
122. In gastrulation, which is/ are formed ? (Jharkhand CECE 2005)
(1) Endoderm (2) Mesoderm
(3) Ectoderm, endoderm (4) Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.
123. Match the following with correct combination
A Hyaluronidase 1 Acrosomal reaction
B Corpus luteum 2 Morphogenetic move ments
C Gastrulation 3 Progesterone
D Capacitation 4 Mammary gland
E Colostrum 5 Sperm activation (Kerala PMT 2005)
(1) A = 5, B = 2, C = 4, D = 1, E = 3 (2) A = 1, B = 3, C = 2, D = 5, E = 4
(3) A = 3, B = 2, C = 5, D = 4, E = 1 (4) A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, D = 4, E = 5
(5) A = 4, B = 2, C = 5, D = 3, E = 1
124. At menopause there is rise in urinary excretion of (Orissa JEE 2005)
(1) FSH (2) STH (3) LTH (4) MSH
125. Acrosome of sperms is/are modified (AMU 2006)
(1) lysosome (2) ER (3) Golgi complex (4) mitochondria
126. Which of the following represents a condition where the motility of the sperms is highly reduced?
(Karnataka CET 2006)
(1) Oligospermia (2) Athenopermia (3) Azoospermia (4) Polyspermy
127. The embryo at 16 celled stage is known as (BHU 2006)
(1) morula (2) gastrula (3) blastula (4) balstomere
128. The hormone that initiates ejection of milk, stimulates milk production and growth of ovarian follicles are
respectively known as (Kerala PMT 2006)
(1) PRL , OT and LH (2) OT, PRL and FSH (3) LH, PRL and FSH (4) PRH, OT and LH
129. Withdrawal of which of the following hormones is immediate cause of menstruation ? (CBSE PRE 2006)
(1) FSH (2) FSH-RH (3) Progesterone (4) Oestrogen.
130. Find out the wrong statement. (Kerala 2007)
(1) Amnion is the outer layer containing amniotic fluid that acts as shock absorber to the soft embryo.
(2) Yols-sac is a foetal membrane that helps in the nourishment of the embryo in general.
(3) In mammals allantois is not excretory in function.
(4) Chorio-allantoic membrane develops villi and contributes much to the development of placenta.
(5) Amnion and chorion develop as upward projecting folds of somatopleure called amniotic folds.
131. Capacitation of sperms occurs in (DPMT-2007)
(1) female genital tract (2) vas deferens (3) vas efferens (4) vagina
132. Fertilization of sperms and ova takes place in (DPMT 2007)
(1) ampulla of oviduct (2) isthmus of oviduct (3) fimbrae of oviduct (4) none of these.
133. Which of the following controls the function of sertoli cells? (OPMT 2007)
(1) FSH (2) estrogen (3) ACTH (4) C/ Testosterone.
134. Which accessory genital gland occurs only in mammalian male? (Kama taka CET 2007)
(1) Prostate gland (2) Perineal gland (3) Cowper's gland (4) Bartholian gland.
135. Accessory sexual character in female is promoted by (MP PMT 2007)
(1) androgen (2) progesterone (3) oestrogen (4) testosterone.
136. If to parents are not participating in a process then one thing is sure but other is not, that is -
(1) Sexual reproduction (2) Vegetative reproduction (Kamataka CET 2007)
(3) Asexual reproduction (4) Both (2) and (3)

137. Cryptorchidism is a condition in which (MP PMT 2007)
(1) testis does not descend into scrotal sac (2) sperm is not found
(3) male hormones are not reactive (4) ovaries are removed.
138. Sertoli cells are found in testis. These cells are (MPPMT 2007)
(1) nurse cell (2) reproductive cell (3) receptor cell (4) none of these
139. In the human female, menstruation can be deferred by the administration of - (CBSE PMT 2007)
(1) Combination of estrogen and progesterone (2) FSH only
(3) LH only (4) Combination of FSH and LH.
140. In human secretion, which of the following is used to confirm implantation of embryo ? (Gujrat CET-2007)
(1) Gastrula (2) Trophoblast (3) Inner mass of cell (4) Blastocyst.
141. Inhibition of secretion of which of the following hormones is necessary for disintegration of corpus uteum ?
(Gujarat CET 2007)
(1) LH (2) Progesterone (3) LTH (4) FSH.
142. In human adult females oxytocin (CBSE 2008)
(1) stimulates growth of mammary glands
(2) stimulates pituitary to secrete vasopressin
(3) causes strong uterine contractions during parturition
(4) is secreted by anterior pituitary.
143. In humans, at the end of the first meiotic division, the male germ cells differentiate into the
(1) secondary spermatocytes (2) spermatids
(3) spermatogonia (4) primary sprmatocytes. (CBSE 2008)
144. Which extra embryonic membrane in ·humans prevents desiccation of the embryo inside the uterus?
(1) Allantois (2) Yolk sac (3) Amnion (4) Chorion. (CBSE 2008)
145. Human egg is (Kamataka CET 2008)
(1) centrolecithal (2) alecithal (3) telolecithal (4) megalecithal.
146. In oogenesis haploid egg is fertilized by sperm at which stage? (Orissa JEE 2008)
(1) Primary oocyte (2) Secondary oocyte (3) Oogonium (4) Ovum.
147. Spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by
(1) spermiation (2) spermatogenesis (3) meiosis (4) spermatosis
(5) spermiogenesis. (Kerala PMT 2008)
148. In telolecithal eggs yolk is present (J & K CET 2008)
(1) On one side (2) On both sides (3) Towards vegetal pole (4) Through out the egg.
149. Foetal ejection reflex in human female is induced by : (CBSE 2009)
(1) Release of oxytocin from pituitary
(2) Pressure exerted by amniotic fluid
(3) Differentiation of mammary glands
(4) Fully developed foetus and placenta
150. Which one of the following is the most likely root cause why menstruation is not taking place in regularly
cycling human female? (CBSE 2009)
(1) Fertilisation of the ovum
(2) Maintenance of the hypertrophical endometrial lining
(3) Maintenance of high concentration of sex hormones in the blood stream
(4) Retention of well developed corpus luteum
151. The correct sequence of spermatogenetic stages leading to the formation of sperms in a mature human
testis is- (CBSE 2009)
(1) Spermatogonia — Spermatid — Spermatocyte — sperms
(2) Spermatocyte — Spermatogonia — Spermatids — sperms
(3) Spermatogonia — Spermatocyte — Spermatid — sperms
(4) Spermatid — Spermatocyte — Spermatogonia — sperms
152. A change in the amount of yolk and its distribution in the egg will affect- (CBSE 2009)
(1) Formation of zygote (2) Fertilisation
(3) Pattern of cleavage (4) Number of blastomeres produced.
153. Seminal plasma in humans is rich in- (CBSE 2009)
(1) Fructose and certain enzymes but poor in calcium
(2) Fructose and calcium but has no enzyme
(3) Fructose, calcium and certain enzymes
(4) Glucose and certain enzymes but has no calcium
154. Given below is a diagrammatic sketch of a portion of human male reproductive system. Select the correct
set of the names of the parts labelled A, B, C, D. (CBSE 2009)
A B C D
(1) Ureter Seminal vesicle Prostate Bulbourethral gland
(2) Ureter Prostate Seminal vesicle Bulbourethral gland
(3) Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Prostate Bulbourethral gland
(4) Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Bulbourethral gland Prostate gland
PART- 2
2008
1. (a) Expand IUD. (2 Marks)
(b) Why is hormone releasing IUD considered a good contraceptive to space children?
2. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a sectional view of human seminiferous tubule. (5 Marks)
(b) Differentiate between gametogenesis in human males and females on the basis of
(i) time of initiation of the process.
(ii) products formed at the end of the process.
2009
3. Why do some women use “saheli” pills? (2 Marks)
4. (a) When and how does placenta develop in human female? (5 Marks)
(b) How is th placenta connected to the embryo?
(c) Placenta acts as an endocrine gland. Explain.
2010
5. How do copper and hormone releasing IUDs act as contraceptives? Explain. (2 Mark)
6. (a) Give a schematic representation showing the events of spermatogenesis in human male.
(b) Describe the structure of a human sperm. (5 Marks)
2011
7. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of the human female reproductive system. (5 Marks)
(b) Enumerate the events in the ovary of a human female during :
(i) Follicular phase
(ii) Luteal phase of menstrual cycle
8. (a) Write the specific location and the functions of the following cells in human males : (5 Marks)
(i) Leydig cells
(ii) Sertoli cells
(iii) Primary spermatocyte
(b) Explain the role of any two accessory glands in human male reproductive system
2012
9. Where is acrosome present in humans? Write its function. (1 mark)
10. (a) Where do the signals for parturition originate from in humans? (2 mark)
(b) Why is it important to feed the newborn babies on colostrum?
11. Give reasons for the following : (2 mark)

(a) The human testis are located outside the abdominal cavity.
(b) Some organisms like honey-bees are called parthenogenic animals.
12. Explain the function of Umbilical cord (1 Mark)

13. The following is the illustration of the sequence of ovarian events “a” to “i” in a human female :
(5 Mark)
(a) Identify the figure that illustrates corpus luteum and name the pituitary hormone that influences its
formation.
(b) Specify the endocrine function of corpus luteum. How does it influence the uterus? Why is it essential?
(c) What is the difference between “d” and “e” ?
(d) Draw a neat labelled sketch of Graafian follicle.
BOARD LEVEL EXERCISE : HINT & SOLUTIONS
1. AMNIOCENTESIS - a foetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid
surrounding the developing embryo
2. The non-medicated IUDs (e.g., Lippes loop).
3. Sperm – because male is heterozygous (50 % Androsperm + 50% Gynosperm)
4. (i) ICSH- inter stitial cells Stimulating Hormone.
(ii) FSH - Follicle Stimulating Hormone.
5. The gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by hypothalamus. The increased level of GnRH
stimulates the anterion pituitary which then secretes the FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH
(luteinising hormone). FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factor which help in
spermatogenesis.
6.
7. The Cu ions released suppress sperm motility and the fertilising capacity of sperms.
8. Contraceptive methods - A wide range of contraceptive methods are presently available which could be
broadly grouped into the following categories, namely
1. Natural/Traditional
2. Barrier
3. IUDs,
4. Oral contraceptives
5. Injectables / Implants
6. Surgical methods.
9. Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) method - is based on the fact that ovulation and
therefore the cycle do not occur during the period of intense lactation following parturition.
Therefore, as long as the mother breast-feeds the child fully, chances of conception are almost nil.
However, this method has been reported to be effective only upto a maximum period of six months
following parturition.
As no medicines or devices are used in these methods.
Side effects are almost nil.
Chances of failure, though, of this method are also high.
10. Better awareness about sex related matters, increased -
Number of medically assisted deliveries and better post-natal care leading to decreased maternal and
Infant mortality rates.
Increased number of couples with small families,
Better detection and cure of STDs.
Overall increased medical facilities for all sex-related problems, etc.
All indicate improved reproductive health of the society.
11.
12. Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

(i) It is the process of formation of haploid It is the process of formation of haploid ova
spermatozoa from diploid male germ cells from the gamete mother cells (oogonia) in
of the testes. the ovary.
(ii) A spermatogonium produces four sperm- An oogonium forms only one ovum.
atozoa (sperms).
13. ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES -

However, where such corrections are not possible, the couples could be assisted to have children
through certain special techniques commonly known as assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
In vitro fertilisation (IVF–fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in the body)
followed by Embryo Transfer (ET) is one of such methods.
In this method, popularly known as test tube baby programme, ova from the wife/donor (female) and
sperms from the husband/donor (male) are collected and are induced to form zygote under simulated
conditions in the laboratory.
The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres) could then be transferred into the fallopian tube
(ZIFT–zygote intra fallopian transfer) and embryos with more than 8 blastomeres, into the uterus (IUT –
intra uterine transfer), to complete its further development.
Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilisation (fusion of gametes within the female) also could be used for
such transfer to assist those females who cannot conceive.
Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube (GIFT – gamete intra fallopian
transfer) of another female who cannot produce one, but can provide suitable environment for fertilisation
and further development is another method attempted.
Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is another specialised procedure to form an embryo in the
laboratory in which a sperm is directly injected into the ovum.
Infertility cases either due to inability of the male partner to inseminate the female or due to very low
sperm counts in the ejaculates, could be corrected by artificial insemination (AI) technique.
OR
SURGICAL METHODS - Also called sterilisation
Generally advised for the male/female partner as a terminal method to prevent any more pregnancies.
Surgical intervention blocks gamete transport and thereby prevent conception.
Sterilisation procedure in the male is called ‘vasectomy’.
that in the female, ‘tubectomy’.
VASECTOMY
In vasectomy, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up through a small incision on the
scrotum whereas
TUBECTOMY
In tubectomy, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or tied up through a small incision in the
abdomen or through vagina.
These techniques are highly effective but their reversibility is very poor.
14. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male reproductive system of man consists’of paired testes, accessory glands, a duct system and penis.
Testes
Testes are the primary male sex organs.
Testis produces spermatozoa and secretes the male sex hormone testosterone.
In mammals, the testes are located in the extra-abdominal scrotal sacs because maturation of sperm needs
low temperature.
The temperature in scrotum is 2 to 4°C below the temperature of abdominal cavity.
Scrotum communicates with abdominal cavity through inguinal canal
Testis (Caput epididymis) is connected to the dorsal abdominal wall by a spermatic cord consisting of
connective tissue, spermatic artery, spermatic nerve etc.
Gubernaculum is the ligamentous connective cord (elastic cord) which connects testes to scrotal sacs
posteriorly.
In bats, rats and otter, testes descend to scrotal sacs only during breeding season.
Whales and elephants have abdominal testes. Their body temperature is low and cooling of testes is not
required.
Cryptorchidism is nondescent of testes in scrotum. Person becomes sterile.
Orchidectomy is the surgical removal of testes. It is also known as castration.
The capsule enclosing testes of mammal is called tunica albuginea.
Partitions of testis develop from tunica albuginea.
Each testis of man contains about 750 convoluted seminiferous tubules which give rise to spermatozoa.
The germinal epithelium lining of the seminiferous tubule is made of two kinds of cells.
The most numerous are the smaller spermatogenic cells or spermatogonia which undergo spermatogenesis
to produce sperms.
A few larger, tall, columnar supporting cells are called sertoli cells or sustencular cells.
Sertoli cells are located in seminiferous tubules which nourish spermatozoa.
Seminiferous tubules are separated by interstitial connective tissue.
Cells of Leydig are found in interstitial connective tissue of testes. They secrete male hormone testoster-
one.
All the seminiferous tubules in each testis open into a network called rete testis leading to fine ductules
called vasa efferentia.
Epididymis
Several tubes called vasa efferentia arise from rete testis and conduct sperms into epididymis.
Epididymis is an irregular, narrow and highly convoluted tubule found on the inner surface of testis.
Epididymis has three parts: anterior caput epididymis, middle corpus epididymis and posterior cauda
epididymis.
Sperms achieve maturity and motility in epididymis.
Epididymis stores the sperms temporarily.
Vas deferens
Vas deferens or sperm duct arises from cauda epididymis, ascends to abdomen, passes over the urinary
bladder and receive the duct from seminal vesicle behind the urinary bladder forming ejaculatory duct.
Ejaculatory duct passes through the prostate to open into urethra shortly after its origin from urinary
bladder.
The urethra receives rite ducts of prostate and Cowper’s gland pass through penis and opens to outside.
Seminal vesicles
Seminal vesicles (Uterus masculinus) are situated at the junction of vas deferens and prostate gland.
They are narrow, long pouches with muscular tissue on their wall.
About 70% of the semen is seminal fluid produced by seminal vesicles.
Seminal Fluid : Seminal fluid has a pH of about 7.4 and contains fructose, citrate, ascorbic acid, prostag-
landins and various enzymes.
The fructose is a source of energy for the spermatozoa.
Prostate gland
Prostate is situated around the first part of the urethra. It contains prostatic utricle and acini and covered by
a capsule.
Enlargement of prostate results in prostatitis, urination is difficult or impossible.
Prostatic Fluid: Prostatic secretion forms about 20% of the volume of semen.
It is slightly acidic, pH 6.5 due to the presence of citric acid.
Prostatic secretion contains substances important for sperm mobility notably albumin and pro
teolytic enzymes fibrinolysin and fibrinogenase.
Cowper’s glands
Cowper’s glands are present in male mammals.
Cowper’s glands are yellow in colour.
These are also known as bulbourethral glands, situated beneath bladder and behind the urethra.
Cowper’s glands open into urethra before entering into penis.
Cowper’s Fluid : Secretion of cowper’s gland is slightly alkaline and is produced during sexual stimulation.
Cowper’s gland secretion acts as a lubricant for the glans penis. It also neutralizes any urine in urethra.
Urethra
Urethra is a thick-walled muscular duct and it is a common passage for both urine and semen and called
urinogenital duct.
Urethra traverse and opens at the tip of the penis as the male urinogenital aperture.
Penis
Structure:
Penis is the copulatory organ. It is vascular, spongy and erectile structure.
It has glans penis at tip covered with a fold of skin called prepuce.
Penis contains three longitudinal columns of spongy erectile tissue which becomes filled with blood during
sexual excitement.
Surrounding the urinogenital duct is corpus spongiosum and above it lie two corpora cavernosa.
Penis serves to transmit sperms into the vagina of the female during sexual intercourse.
OR
Vasectomy and tubectomy are permanent methods of contraception and are also known as sterilisation.
These methods are generally advised to male/female partner as a terminal method to prevent any more
pregnancies. It blocks gamete transport and thereby prevent conception. In vasectomy, a small part of
the vas deferens is removed or tied up through a small incision on the scrotum whereas in tubectomy a
small part of the fallopian tube is removed or tied up through a small incision in the abdomen or through
vagina. These techniques are highly effective but their reversibility is very poor.
EXERCISE - 1
1. (3) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (4) 6. (2) 7. (3)

8. (3) 9. (1) 10. (1) 11. (1) 12. (2) 13. (2) 14. (4)
15. (4) 16. (4) 17. (2) 18. (1) 19. (1) 20. (1) 21. (4)
22. (2) 23. (2) 24. (2) 25. (3) 26. (2) 27. (1) 28. (3)
29. (3) 30. (2) 31. (4) 32. (3) 33. (1) 34. (1) 35. (2)
36. (4) 37. (3) 38. (1) 39. (3) 40. (4) 41. (2) 42. (4)
43. (1) 44. (3) 45. (4) 46. (1) 47. (4) 48. (3) 49. (3)
50. (2) 51. (4) 52. (2) 53. (3) 54. (1) 55. (2) 56. (1)
57. (2) 58. (1) 59. (3) 60. (3) 61. (1) 62. (3) 63. (1)
64. (2) 65. (3) 66. (2) 67. (4) 68. (4) 69. (1) 70. (3)
71. (2) 72. (4) 73. (2) 74. (1) 75. (4) 76. (2) 77. (2)
78. (3) 79. (1) 80. (4) 81. (3) 82. (3) 83. (4) 84. (3)
85. (2) 86. (4) 87. (4) 88. (4) 89. (3) 90. (2) 91. (4)
92. (1) 93. (4) 94. (4) 95. (3) 96. (2) 97. (2) 98. (1)
99. (3) 100. (4) 101. (3) 102. (1) 103. (3) 104. (3) 105. (2)
106. (2) 107. (4) 108. (1) 109. (1) 110. (3) 111. (1) 112. (2)
113. (4) 114. (2) 115. (4) 116. (3) 117. (1) 118. (2) 119. (3)
120. (2) 121. (2) 122. (1) 123. (2) 124. (1) 125. (2) 126. (3)
127. (2) 128. (2) 129. (4) 130. (2) 131. (4) 132. (3) 133. (1)
134. (1) 135. (3) 136. (1) 137. (2) 138. (2) 139. (3) 140. (1)
141. (1) 142. (3) 143. (2) 144. (2) 145. (3) 146. (4) 147. (4)
148. (2) 149. (3) 150. (4) 151. (2) 152. (4) 153. (2) 154. (4)
155. (1) 156. (2) 157. (1) 158. (3) 159. (4) 160. (4) 161. (4)
162. (3) 163. (3) 164. (4) 165. (1) 166. (4) 167. (1) 168. (1)
169. (3) 170. (2) 171. (2) 172. (4) 173. (3) 174. (3) 175. (1)
176. (3) 177. (2) 178. (4) 179. (2) 180. (1) 181. (2) 182. (1)
183. (2) 184. (3) 185. (2) 186. (3) 187. (2) 188. (4) 189. (2)
190. (3) 191. (1) 192. (1) 193. (1) 194. (3) 195. (3) 196. (1)
197. (4) 198. (1) 199. (1) 200. (2) 201. (3) 202. (2) 203. (4)
204. (2) 205. (3) 206. (3)
EXERCISE - 2
1. (1) 2. (2) 3. (4) 4. (4) 5. (2) 6. (5) 7. (4)
8. (1)
EXERCISE - 3
1. (1) 2. (3) 3. (3) 4. (3) 5. (2) 6. (2) 7. (2)
8. (3) 9. (3) 10. (2) 11. (2) 12. (4) 13. (2) 14. (4)
15. (1) 16. (1) 17. (2) 18. (1) 19. (1) 20. (3) 21. (2)
22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (1) 25. (1) 26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (3)
29. (3) 30. (3) 31. (4) 32. (1) 33. (2) 34. (2) 35. (2)
36. (4) 37. (3) 38. (2) 39. (4) 40. (1) 41. (1) 42. (2)
43. (4)
EXERCISE - 4
PART- 1
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (2) 7. (4)
8. (4) 9. (2) 10. (1) 11. (1) 12. (3) 13. (3) 14. (1)
15. (4) 16. (2) 17. (1) 18. (1) 19. (2) 20. (1) 21. (1)
22. (1) 23. (1) 24. (1) 25. (3) 26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (4)
29. (4) 30. (3) 31. (3) 32. (1) 33. (1) 34. (4) 35. (1)
36. (3) 37. (4) 38. (2) 39. (1) 40. (2) 41. (4) 42. (2)
43. (4) 44. (4) 45. (1) 46. (2) 47. (3) 48. (1) 49. (2)
50. (4) 51. (4) 52. (4) 53. (1) 54. (2) 55. (3) 56. (4)
57. (4) 58. (1) 59. (4) 60. (2) 61. (1) 62. (4) 63. (4)
64. (3) 65. (2) 66. (4) 67. (3) 68. (3) 69. (4) 70. (4)
71. (2) 72. (4) 73. (2) 74. (4) 75. (2) 76. (1) 77. (2)
78. (1) 79. (1) 80. (3) 81. (3) 82. (4) 83. (2) 84. (2)
85. (3) 86. (2) 87. (4) 88. (1) 89. (4) 90. (3) 91. (1)
92. (2) 93. (2) 94. (4) 95. (1) 96. (4) 97. (3) 98. (3)
99. (2) 100. (2) 101. (3) 102. (2) 103. (4) 104. (1) 105. (4)
106. (3) 107. (1) 108. (3) 109. (1) 110. (2) 111. (3) 112. (3)
113. (4) 114. (4) 115. (2) 116. (4) 117. (4) 118. (3) 119. (3)
120. (2) 121. (3) 122. (4) 123. (2) 124. (1) 125. (3) 126. (2)
127. (1) 128. (2) 129. (3) 130. (5) 131. (1) 132. (1) 133. (1)
134. (1) 135. (3) 136. (4) 137. (1) 138. (1) 139. (1) 140. (2)
141. (1) 142. (3) 143. (1) 144. (3) 145. (2) 146. (2) 147. (5)
148. (3) 149. (4) 150. (4) 151. (3) 152. (3) 153. (2) 154. (3)
PART- 2
1. (a) Intra uterine devices.
(b) IUDs are considered a good contraceptives because
(i) they make the uterus unsuitable for implantation.
(ii) they increase the phagocytosis of sperms within uterus and the Cu ions released suppress sperm
motility and the fertilising capacity of sperms.
2. (a) See page no.-19
(b)
3. "Saheli" contains a non-steroidal preparation and is a one-a-week pill, with high contraceptive value with
very less side-effects. Therefore, it is considered an improved form of contraceptive pills.
4. (a) Placenta develops after implantation of embryo in human female in the uterus. After implantation,
finger-like projections called chorionic villi are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood. The
chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and together form a structural and
functional unit between developing embryo and maternal body called placenta.
(b) An umbilical cord connects placenta with the embryo.
(c) The placenta also acts as an endocrine gland as it secrets the following hormones:
(i) Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
(ii) Human placental lactogen (hPL)
(iii) Progestogens
(iv) Estrogens
The increased production of these hormones during pregnancy is essential for supporting the foetal growth
and metabolic changes in the mother.
5. The copper releasing IUDs release Cu ions which supprerss sperm motility and the fertilising capacity of
sperms.
The hormone releasing IUDs make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the
sperms.
(b) See page no.-21
(b)
(i) In the follicular phase, following events occur :
1. The primary follicles in the ovary grow to form a fully mature Graafian follicle.
2. The endometrium of uterus regenerates through proliferation.
3. The secretion of gonadotropins (L.H. and FSH) gradually increases.
(ii) In the luteal phase, following events occur :
1. The parts of Graafian follicle remaining after the rupture, transform as the corpus luteum.
2. The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone.
8. (i) Leydig cells –
Location - Interstitial space.
Function - Synthesis and secretion of testicular hormones called androgens.
(ii) Sertoli cells –
Location - Seminiferous tubules
Function - Provide nutrition to the germ cells.
(iii) Primary spermatocyte –
Location - Inner wall of seminiferous tubules.
Function - Undergo meiotic divisions to form secondary spermatocyte and then haploid sperms.
(b) Male accessory glands include paired seminal vesicles, prostate gland and paired bulbourethral glands.
Secretion of these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain
enzymes. The secretions of bulbourethral glands also help in the lubrication of the penis.
9. Acrosome is present in sperm in human body.
Function - Acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes that help in dissolving membranes of the ovum for
fertilisation.
10. (a)The signals for parturition originate from th e fully developed foetus and the placenta, which trigger the
release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscles and induces stronger
uterine contractions leading to expulsion of the baby. Relaxin hormone released by the ovary widens the
vagina to facilitate birth.
(b) Colostrum contains antibodies (IgA), to (passively) immunise the baby.
11. (a) In human male, the pair of testis are located outside the body cavity within a pouch called scrotum or
scrotal sac. In the scrotum, the temperature remains 2-2.5ºC lower than the internal body temperature
which is essential for the formation of sperms.
(b) They (drones/males) develop from unfertilised eggs.
12. Umbilical cord : Transports nutrients and respiratory gases and metabolic wastes to and from mother and
foetus.
13. (a) Corpus luteum is illustrated by 'g' and the hormone influencing its formation is luteinisning hormone
(LH).
(b) Produces the hormone progesterone, causes proliferation of the endometrium which gets highly
vascularised. It is essential for the implantation of the fertilised ovum and maintains the same during
pregnancy.
(c) "d" is the developing tertiary follicle.
"e" is the Graafian follicle.
(d) see page no. 8

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HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Budding : Hydra may reproduce vegetatively by exogenous budding

MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Penis is the copulatory organ. It is vascular,

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

During reproductive life the vagina contains Lac-

Bartholin’s gland: On either s’de of vaginal ori-

through which milk is sucked out.

Menstrual cycle is the cyclic changes in

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH – PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIES

These programmes called ‘family planning’ were initiated in 1951.

Major tasks under RCH -

Various steps to create to Awarness –

Better awareness about sex related matters, increased -

Successful implementation of various action plans to attain reproductive health requires -

‘Saheli’–a new oral contraceptive for the females

POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL

To motivate smaller families -

by using various contraceptive methods.

Advertisements - “Hum Do Hamare Do”

Many couples, have even adopted an ‘one child norm’.

User-friendly, easily available.

effective and reversible with no or least side-effects.

As no medicines or devices are used in these methods.

Side effects are almost nil.

Chances of failure, though, of this method are also high.

Such methods are available for both males and females.

This can prevent conception.

‘Nirodh’ is a popular brand of condom for the male.

They are reusable.

3. INTRA UTERINE DEVICES (IUDS) -

These Intra Uterine Devices are presently available as

IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus.

It is one of most widely accepted methods of contraception in India.

4. ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES - administration of small doses of either progestogens or progestogen–estrogen

Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting preferably

Administration of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations or IUDs

Surgical intervention blocks gamete transport and thereby prevent conception.

Sterilisation procedure in the male is called ‘vasectomy’.

that in the female, ‘tubectomy’.

Second trimester abortions are much more riskier.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) :

ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES -

Blastema Complete animal (Blastozoid)

Zygote Complete Animal (Oozoid)

Embryology term was coined by Aristotle.

Formation of eggs & sperm from germ cells is known as Gametogenesis.

Sperm formation have 2 stages (a) Spermatocytosis (b) Spermiogenesis

Formation of sperm from spermatid is called Spermiogenesis. It involves following developments.

Sperm has three parts :

A space between acrosome & nucleus is known

In middle piece many mitochondria are

End piece of tail consist of only axonema and 9 + 2 arrangement.

In humans sperm formation is completed in 74 days.

(a) SHAPES OF SPERM HEAD :

(b) TAIL OF SPERM

(c) SIZE OF SPERMS

Longest sperm of Animal kingdom present in Drosophila bifurca (5.8 cm)

Sertoli cells forms Blood Testes Barrier. This

Two types of hormones are secreted by sertoli

Sertoli cells also produces androgen binding proteins.

Formation of ova in ovary is called oogenesis.