Chen CL 1

Why Focus on Valve ?

➢ Valves are often the least understood component of the

control loop

➢ Valves are often the most neglected component of the

control loop

➢ Valves are often the biggest contributor to poor control

loop performance
Chen CL 2

A Typical Globe Valve

Chen CL 3

Energy and Pressure Grades

Ideal/Real Flows Across An Ideal Restriction
Chen CL 4

Energy and Pressure Grades

A Valve or Orifice Is Not Ideal
Chen CL 5

Inception of Cavitation in An Orifice

Chen CL 6

Efect of Vaporization on Flow Rate

Chen CL 7

Energy and Pressure Grades Across A Valve

Chen CL 8

Valves Cost Energy

A control valve is simply an orifice with a variable area of flow
⇒ all control valves and regulators cost energy
Chen CL 9

A Full Speed Pump and Throttling Valve Cost Energy

Chen CL 10

Variable Speed Drive Saves Energy

Chen CL 11

Affinity Laws

Q1 N1
Const Impeller Diameter: =
Q2 N2
 

H1 N1
=
H2 N2
 2

bhp1 N1
=
bhp2 N2
 3

Q1 D1
Const Pump Speed: =
Q2 D2
 

H1 D1
=
H2 D2
 2

bhp1 D1
=
bhp2 D2
 3
 Chen CL 12

➢ Efficiency remains virtually constant for changes in speed

and small impeller diameter changes

➢ A 10% speed reduction (90% of nominal speed)

⇒ capacity = 90% of original operating conditions

head = 81% of original required head

bhp = 73% of nominal brake horsepower

Chen CL
Comparative Performances of Valve and
Variable Speed Drive
Item
Ease of Installation
Equipment Efficiency
Motor Efficiency
Power Factor
Operating Costs
Flexibility of Location
Exposure to Process
Specification
Ability to Control
Potential for Leaks
Installed Cost: small
large
Shutoff Capability
Maintenance: expertise
valve/drive
equipment
spare parts
Why Control Valve ?
13
Control Variable Speed
Valve Drive
- -
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
- Better
Better -
Better -
Better -
- Better
- Better
- -
 Chen CL 14

Important Issues in Control Valves

➢ Types
➢ Actions: air-failure-open ( FO), air-failure-close ( FC)
➢ Sizing
➢ Characteristics: inherent (manufactured) and installed
➢ Valves in common loops: flow, temperature, level,
pressure
➢ Software characterizer
➢ Diagnosis
Chen CL 15

Types of Control Valves

Globe Valve
A Single-Ported Two Way Valve
Chen CL 16

Types of Control Valves

Globe Valve
A Double-Ported Globe Valve
Chen CL 17

Types of Control Valves

Globe Valve
An Angle Valve and A Y-Pattern Valve
Chen CL 18

Types of Control Valves

Globe Valve
Valves with Three-Way Bodies
Chen CL 19

Types of Control Valves

Globe Valve
Anti-Cavitation Valve
Chen CL 20

Types of Control Valves

Ball Valve
Full Ball Valve
Chen CL 21

Types of Control Valves

Ball Valve
Three-Way Ball Valve
Chen CL 22

Types of Control Valves

Ball Valve
Segmented Ball Valve
Chen CL 23

Types of Control Valves

Butterfly Valve
Chen CL 24

Types of Control Valves

Diaphragm Valve
Chen CL 25

Types of Control Valves

Digital Valve

➢ A digital valve is made up of a group of on-off valve elements

installed in a common body

➢ Each valve element has a different capacity

⇒ sequence of sizes form a binary series

➢ These valves have the capability to change from one capacity to

another instantaneously
Chen CL 26

➢ Example:
☞ 6 valve elements with capacity ratios 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
1
☞ Each incremental step will vary by
63
(1 + 2 + · · · + 32 = 63)
☞ Ratio of maximum to minimum capacity will be 63 : 1
☞ 8 elements ⇒ 1, 2, . . . , 128 ⇒ 255 : 1

➢ Limited to use with clean fluids and moderate temperatures

Chen CL 27

Digital Valve Operation

➢ A collection of individual on-off valves arranged in parallel

➢ All elements have different flowrates

➢ All elements are controlled by pneumatic or electrical means upon

command from a computer/controller

➢ By adjusting the combination of open and closed valves

=⇒ desired flowrate: quick, exact, high resolution

➢ Digital Valve: adds or subtracts fixed area orifices

⇒ responds quickly

➢ Analog Valve: seeks a new orifice (opening) size

⇒ responds slowly with overshoot
Chen CL 28

➢ IF increasing number of individual on/off valves, and

valve openings are sized in a binary progression (1-2-4...)
(doubling area openings ⇒ doubling flowrates)

THEN flow range in increased substantially

1
➢ EX: 6-bit =⇒ range - 63 : 1; resolution - 63

1
EX: 20-bit =⇒ range - 1, 048, 575 : 1; resolution - 1,048,575
Chen CL 29

Advantages of Digital Valves

➢ Fast Response
☞ Analog Valve: 3 ∼ 8 sec.
☞ Digital Valve: 50 ∼ 100 msec. (milli-sec)
• Instantaneous response from zero flow to full flow
• Same speed from 1 to 2, and 0 to full

➢ Wide Rangeability
☞ Analog valve: far less than 100 to 1
☞ Digital valve: 7-bit ⇒ exceeds 100 to 1
Chen CL 30

➢ Precise Repeatability
no position error ⇒ absolutely repeatable

➢ High Resolution
☞ Analog valve: 1% of maximum flow
☞ Digital valve:
• 6-bit: r = 1 part in 63 (1.59%)
• 8-bit: r = 1 part in 255 (0.39%)
• 10-bit: r = 1 part in 1,023 (0.09%)
• 20-bit: r = 1 part in 1,048,575 (0.0001%)

➢ Flow Measurement Capability

➢ Computer Compatibility
Chen CL 31

A Globe Valve again

Chen CL 32

Overview

➢ Some Descriptive Terms:

single-seated, air-actuated, spring-opposed,
fail-closed with a plug-and-seat trim
☞ Air pressure under the diaphragm causes the stem to rise
☞ As stem rises, area of opening between valve plug and seat
increases
☞ Area of opening is maximum at maximum seat position
☞ Pressure drop across valve and valve opening determine flow rate
through valve
Chen CL 33
√
➢ Valve Coefficient: Cv (gal/ psig) (Cvmax ?)
flow rate of water through the valve
in US gallons per minute at 70oF
when ∆p across the valve is 1 psig
(function of valve opening)

➢ Flow of Liquid Through Valve:

∆p ∆p
F = Cv = Cvmax f (m)
ρ ρ
s s

☞ F : flow rate, US gpm (or, q)

☞ ∆p: differential pressure, psig
☞ ρ: specific gravity of fluid, relative to water at 70oF
☞ m%: 0 ∼ 100%; or vp: valve position, 0 ∼ 1
Chen CL 34

➢ Note: instrumentation schematic for a control valve

Chen CL 35

Action of Control Valves

Safety Consideration

➢ SAFETY is the only consideration in selecting the

action of the control valve

➢ Control valve action directly affects the action of the

feedback controller

Air-Failure-Close (AFC) ⇔ Air-Failure-Open (AFO)

or
Air-to-Open (ATO) ⇔ Air-to-Close (ATC)
m m
vp =
100 100
⇔ vp = 1 −
Chen CL 36

Example:
Chen CL 37

Sizing of Control Valve

A Basic Trade-off Problem

Process Engineer: bigger valve ⇒ lower ∆pv

⇒ smaller pump
⇒ lower operating cost
lower operability !!
Control Engineer: smaller valve ⇒ larger ∆pv
⇒ larger pump
⇒ higher operating cost
higher operability

➢ Design Logic:
to design (select) the valve and the pump on having
a process that can obtain specified qmin , qmax
Chen CL 38

Sizing of Control Valve

Select A Larger Valve

➢ Larger Valve
q = 100 gpm, ∆ph = 40 psi, f (x) = 0.5
p1 = pressure after pump
p2 = 150 psi, pressure at system output
∆pt = p1 − p2 6= f (q) (constant)
let q = qmin at f = 0.1
Chen CL 39

➢ Select one valve such that ∆pv = 20 psi

p1 = 150 + 40 + 20 = 210 psi ⇒ pump

q = Cvmax f (x) ∆pv /G
100
p

⇒ Cvmax = = 44.72 gpm/ psi ⇒ valve

0.5 201
p
q

assume ∆ph = 40 100

! q
2

⇒ ∆pv = p1 − p2 − ∆ph
q 2
= 210 − 150 − 40 100
!

q(x)
⇒ q(x) = 44.72 × f (x) × 210 − 150 − 40 100
r  2
Chen CL 40

f (x) = 1 ⇒ qmax = 44.72 × 1 × 210 − 150 − 40 100

q

qmax = 115 gpm

! qmax
2

min
f (x) = .1 ⇒ qmin ≡ 44.72 × .1 × 210 − 150 − 40 100
q

qmin = 33.3 gpm

! q
2

qmax 115
= = 3.46 (turndown ratio)
33.3
⇒
qmin
Chen CL 41

Sizing of Control Valve

Select A Small Valve

➢ Smaller Valve
q = 100 gpm, ∆ph = 40 psi, f (x) = 0.5
p1 = pressure after pump
p2 = 150 psi, pressure at system output
∆pt = p1 − p2 6= f (q) (constant)
let q = qmin at f = 0.1
Chen CL 42

➢ Select one valve such that ∆pv = 80 psi

p1 = 150 + 40 + 80 = 270 psi ⇒ pump

q = Cvmax f (x) ∆pv /G
100
p

⇒ Cvmax = = 22.36 gpm/ psi ⇒ valve

0.5 801
p
q

assume ∆ph = 40 100

! q
2

⇒ ∆pv = p1 − p2 − ∆ph
q 2
= 270 − 150 − 40 100
!

q(x)
⇒ q(x) = 22.36 × f (x) × 270 − 150 − 40 100
r  2
Chen CL 43

max
f (x) = 1 ⇒ qmax = 22.36 × 1 × 270 − 150 − 40 100
q

qmax = 141 gpm

!q
2

f (x) = .1 ⇒ qmin ≡ 22.36 × .1 × 270 − 150 − 40 100

q

qmin = 24.2 gpm

! qmin
2

qmax 141
= = 5.83 > 3.46
24.2
⇒
qmin
 Chen CL 44

Control Valve Capacity

➢ Cv coefficient: flow in US gpm of water that flows

through a valve at a pressure drop of 1 psi across valve

➢ Liquid:

∆pv ∆pv
q = Cv = Cvmax f (vp) (liquid flow, US gpm)
Gf Gf
s s

∆pv : pressure drop across valve, psi Gf : specific gravity

gal min lb
w = q min 60 h
8.33G f gal = 500Cv Gf ∆pv lb/h
!
!
  p
Chen CL 45

➢ Compressible Flow: (Masoneilan Inst. Inc.)

p1
qs = 836Cv Cf √ (y − 0.148y 3)

T gas or vapor
w = p1 3
 GTq

(1+0.0007TSH ) (y 0.148y ) steam flow

 2.8Cv Cf p1 G 520 (y − 0.148y 3)

−
y = p1
 1.83Cv Cf

Cf
1.63 q ∆pv

qs : gas flow, scfh (ft3/h at standard conditions of 14.7 psia, 60oF )

G : gas specific gravity w.r.t. air, = M W/29
T : temperature at valve inlet, oR =o F + 460
Cf : critical flow factor (0.6 ∼ 0.95)
p1 : pressure at valve inlet w : gas flow, lb/h
TSH : degree of superheat
∆p = p1 − p2 pressure drop across valve
Chen CL 46
Chen CL 47

➢ Compressible Flow: (Fisher Controls)

502 59.64 ∆pv

qs = Cg GT p1 sin C1 p1
rad
q h q i

➢ Note: the above sine function is basically the same

function of y
Chen CL 48
Chen CL 49
 Chen CL 50

Control Valve Capacity: Example

From Fig. C-10-1a, a 3-in. Masoneilan valve with full trim has a
capacity factor of 110 gpm/(psi)1/2 when fully opened. The pressure
drop across the valve is 10 psi.

(a) Calculate the flow of a liquid solution with density 0.8 g/cm3
(1.0 g/cm3 for water).

10
q = 110 0.8 = 389 gpm
q

w = 500(110) (0.8)(10) = 155, 600 lb/h

p
 Chen CL 51

(b) Calculate the flow of gas with average MW of 35 when valve inlet
conditions are 100 psig and 100oF .

G = 35/29 = 1.207 p1 = 100 + 14.7 = 114.7 psia

T = 100 + 460 = 560oR Cf = 0.9
10
y = 1.63
0.9 114.7 = 0.535
114.7 3
q

[0.535 0.148(0.535)
(1.207)(560)
qs = 836(110)(0.9) √ −
0.512
w = 2.8(110)(0.9)(114.7) 1.207 520
560 (0.512) = 17, 240 lb/h
| {z }] = 187, 000 scf
q
 Chen CL 52

(c) Calculate the flow of gas from part (b) when the inlet pressure is
5 psig. Calculate the flow both in volumetric and mass rate units,
and compare the results for a 3-in. Fisher Control valve.

p1 = 5 + 14.7 = 19.7 psia

y = 1.290 ⇒ [y − 0.148y 3] = 0.972
qs (0.972) = 61, 000 scfh
(1.207)(560)
= 836(110)(0.9) √ 19.7
= 5, 620 lb/h

520 10
Fisher: qs = 4280 (1.207)(560) (114.7) sin 59.64
35.7 114.7
q h q i

= 204, 000 scfh (9% higher)

520 10
qs = 4280 (1.207)(560) (19.7) sin 59.64
35.7 19.7
q h q i

= 68, 700 scfh (13% higher)

Chen CL 53

Sizing of Control Valves: Example

A control valve is to regulate the flow of steam into a distillation
column reboiler with a design heat transfer rate of 15 million Btu/h.
The supply steam is saturated at 20 psig. Size the control valve for
a pressure drop of 5 psi and 100% over-capacity.

∆H = 930 Btu/lb latent heat of cond., from steam table

⇒ qs = 15, 000, 000/930 = 16, 130 lb/h
p1 = 20 + 14.7 = 34.7 (valve inlet pressure)
Cf = 0.8
1.63 5
y = 0.8 34.7 = 0.773 y − 0.148y 3 = 0.705
Gf 16,130 gpm
q

Cv = f ∆pv
= (1.83)(0.8)(34.7)(.705) = 450 √
psi
gpm
q

Cvmax = 2.0Cv = 900 √

psi

⇒ Cv = 1000 (select a valve with this Cv )

Chen CL 54

Fisher: G = 18/29 = 0.621 C1 ≈ 35

qs = (16, 130)(380)/18 = 341, 000 scfh (380 scf/lbmole)

5
sin 59.64
35 34.7 = sin(0.647) = 0.603
h q i

341,000
Cg = 520
= 15, 000
(0.621)(710)
(34.7)(0.603)
q

gpm
⇒ Cg = 30, 000 Cv = Cg /C1 = 30, 000/35 = 856 √
psi
Chen CL 55

Sizing of Control Valves: Example

The following figure shows a process for transferring an oil from a
storage tank to a separation tower. The tank is at atmospheric
pressure, and the tower works at 25.9 in.Hg absolute (12, 7 psia).
Nominal oil flow is 700 gpm, its specific gravity is 0.94, and its
vapor pressure at the following temperature of 90oF is 13.85 psia.
The pipe is 8-in. Schedule 40 commercial steel pipe, and the
efficiency of the pump is 75%. Size a valve to control the flow of oil.
From liquid flow correlations, the frictional pressure drop in the line
is found to be 6 psi.
 Chen CL 56

Note: the liquid may flash if we place valve at entrance of tower

(12.7 psia < 13.85 psia)
⇒ Place valve at pump discharge: hydrostatic pressure is
2 2 2
ft)/(144 in / ft
24.4 psia
12.7 + |(62.3 lb/ft )(0.94)(60
{z }) = 37.1 psia

Select ∆pv = 5 psi

700 gal 1 ft3 5 lbf 144 lbf 1 kW-min 8200 h $0.03 1
annual oper cost = 1 min 7.48 gal 1 in2 1 ft2 44250 ft-lbf 1 yr 1 kW-h 0.75
= $500/yr

gpm
Cvmax = 2(700) 0.94
5 = 607 √
psi
q

⇒ select an 8-in. Masoneilan valve with Cv = 640

 Chen CL 57

Valve Inherent Characteristics

q(x)
➢ Inherent Characteristics:
qmax ∆pv =c
 

∆pv
G
x : 0 ∼ 1 (= vp)
r

Cv
∆pv
(valve full open)
q(x) = |Cvmax {z
× f (x)} ×

G
qmax = Cvmax × 1 ×
r

q(x)
⇒ = f (x) (ratio of flow area)
qmax ∆pv =c
 

linear
=


Rx−1 equal percentage



 x

quick opening


 −
Chen CL 58

Valve Inherent Characteristics

Chen CL 59

Valve Inherent Characteristics

➢ Note: equal percentage ?

df (x)
= kf (x)
dx
df (x)
= kdx
f
⇒

a + ln[f (x)] = kx

a = k (x = 0 f = 0; x = 1 f = 1)

⇒ ln[f (x)] = k(x − 1)

f (x) = ek(x−1) = Rx−1

Chen CL 60

Valve Installed Characteristics

q(x)
➢ Installed Characteristics:
qmax ∆pt=c
 

∆pv
G
q(x) = Cvmax × f (x) × x:0∼1
r

∆pt − ∆ph
G
= Cvmax × f (x) ×
r

max q(x)
∆p − ∆p h qmax
v
u  2

G
= Cvmax × f (x) ×
u
t t

max
∆pt − ∆ph × 1
qmax
G
s

= Cvmax × 1 ×
 Chen CL 61

Valve Installed Characteristics

max q(x) 2
q(x) h qmax
= f (x) max
v  

⇒
u

qmax ∆pt=c
  u ∆p − ∆p

∆pt − ∆ph
t t

q(x) ∆pt
⇒ = f (x) max > f (x)
qmax
s

∆pt=c
 

∆pt − [1 − f 2(x)] ∆ph

1

2 ∆ph
1 − [1 − f (x)] ∆pt
= f (x) s  max 

1
1 − [1 − f 2(x)] (1 − β)
f (x)
= f (x) p

β + (1 − β)f 2(x)
= p
Chen CL 62

Valve Installed Characteristics

∆pv
where η =
∆pt
 

∆pv
ηmax = = β
∆pt
 q(x)

∆pv
η =
∆pt q
 qmax

q(x) f (x)
note:
qmax ∆pt=c q
 

1 − [1 − f 2(x)] 1 − η maxq
= r h  i
Chen CL 63

Valve Installed Characteristics again

∆pL
∆pL = kLGf q 2 kL = Gf q 2
q2
∆pv = Gf C 2 (Cv = Cvmax f (x))
v

1 2
∆po = ∆pv + ∆pL = C 2 + kL G f q
v
 

0
1+kLCv
⇒ q = √ Cv 2 ∆p Gf
q

∆p0
qmax = √ Cvmax 2
1+kLCvmax Gf
q

q Cv 1+kLCv2max
qmax = 1+kLCv2
∆po=c C vmax
  r

f (x)
| {z }
Chen CL 64

Valve Installed Characteristics: Example

For last example, find the maximum flow through the valve, the
installed flow characteristics, and the rangeability of the valve.
Assume both linear and equal percentage characteristics with
rangeability parameter of R = 50. Analyze the effect of varying the
pressure drop across the valve at nominal flow.
Chen CL 65

6 psi psi
kL = (0.94)(700 gpm)2
= 13.0 × 10−6 (gpm )2
∆po = ∆pv + ∆pL = 5 + 6 = 11 psi (constant)
640 11
1+(13.0×102 )(640)
qmax = √ −6 0.94 = 870 gpm (< 2 × 700)
q

Linear:
(640)(0.95) 11
q.95 = √ 0.94 = 862 gpm
q

11
q.05 = √ (640)(0.05) 0.94 = 109 gpm
1+(13.0×10−6)(640)2
862 .95
1+(13.0×10−6)(640)2 q

rangeability = 109 = 7.9 (inherent range = .05 = 19)

Equal %:
0.95−1
(640)(50 ) 11
q.95 = √ 0.94 = 839 gpm
1+(13.0×10−6)(640)2
0.05−1
(640)(50 )
q

11
q.05 = √ 0.94 = 53.2 gpm
1+(13.0×10−6)(640)2
839 500.95−1
q

rangeability = 53.2 = 15.8 (inherent range = 500.05−1

= 34.8)
Chen CL 66

valve pressure drop, psi

2 5 10
total pressure drop 8 11 16
calculated Cvmax 960 607 429
required valve size 10-in. 8-in. 8-in.
actual Cvmax 1000 640 640
maximum flow, gpm 779 870 1049
linear rangeability 5.4 7.9 7.9
Equal % rangeability 10.8 15.8 15.8
Chen CL 67

Installed flow characteristics:

(a) linear inherent characteristics.
(b) equal percentage characteristics with α = 59
Chen CL 68

Application I: Fluid Transfer

Self-Regulated Processes
Chen CL 69

Application I: Fluid Transfer

Liquid Transferred by Pressure Difference
Chen CL 70

Application I: Fluid Transfer

Liquid Transferred by Pressure Difference
Chen CL 71

Application I: Fluid Transfer

A Flow-Controlled Pump
Chen CL 72

Application I: Fluid Transfer

Steam Ejector
Chen CL 73

Application II: Heat Transfer

Steam Heaters and Dryers
Chen CL 74

Application II: Heat Transfer

Heat Exchangers
Chen CL 75

Application II: Heat Transfer

Antifreeze Applications
Chen CL 76

Application III: Chemical Reactions

A pH Control System
Chen CL 77

Application III: Chemical Reactions

Combustion Processes
Chen CL 78

Application III: Chemical Reactions

Vaporized Control for Safety