A Seminar Report on

INTRODUCTION TO VISCOSITY AND CAPILLARY VISCOMETER

In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Chemical Engineering

By
SHASHWAT SRIVASTAVA

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A Constituent Unit of MAHE, Manipal)
Manipal - 576 104

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of my friends and teachers. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all
of them. I would like to express my special thanks to my professor Mr. Sandeep Parma for
his guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information
regarding the project & also for their support in completing the project.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction To Viscosity..........................................................................................6

1.1 What Is Viscosity ........................................................................................................................6
1.2 Type Of Flow Pattern .............................................................................................................7
1.3 Newton Law Of Viscosity ...................................................................................................8
1.4 Type Of Fluids .................................................................................................................10
1.5 Factor Affecting Viscosity ....................................................................................................10
1.6 Type of Viscosity……………………………………...…………..........................................11
1.7 Why Do We Measure Viscosity……………..……………………………………………11
1.8 Viscosity Measurement………….……………….............................................................12
Chapter 2: Capillary Viscometer
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..…16
2.2 Ostwald Viscometer…………………………………………………………………….17
2.2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..18
2.2.2 Procedure……………………………………………………………………..19
2.2.3 Working………………………………………………………………………20
2.2.4 Advantages & Disadvantage………..………..………..………..………..…..20
2.2.5 Usage……………………………………………………………………..…20
2.3 Suspended Level Viscometer………………..………..………..………..……..……….20
3. Conclusion…………………..………..………..………..………..………..…..…………22
Refernce………………..………..………..………..………..………..…………...………..23

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 FIGURE INDEX
Location Description Page No.

1.2.1 REYNOLD’S DESCRIPTION OF FLOW 6

1.3 FLUID SHEAR BETWEEN TWO 7

PARALLEL PLATES

1.4 GRAPH SHOWING BEHAVIOR OF 8

DIFFERENT TYPE OF FLUIDS

1.8 TYPE OF CAPILLARY VISCOMETER 12

1.8 FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER 13

1.8 ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER 13

1.8 BUBBLE VISCOMETER 14

1.8 VIBRATIONAL VISCOMETER 14

2.1 CAPILLARY OSTWALD VISCOMTER 15

2.1 OSTWALD VISCOMETER 16

2.2 SUSPENDED LEVEL VISCOMETER 20

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 ABSTRACT

Viscosity measurement has great importance in food industry and accurate knowledge of
viscosity is necessary for various industrial processes. Viscosity is a direct measurement of a
fluid’s quality. A change in viscosity can indicate a fundamental change in the material under
test. Viscosity is a very important property of lubricating oil. The viscosity of a fluid is its
resistance to flow. It is a quantitative property of a fluid, be it liquid or gas, and can be used
as an index in quality control applications of oils, paints or other fluids where flow is a critical
property. Viscosity arises from the directed motion of molecules past each other and the
transfer of momentum. There are two related measures of fluid viscosity which are known as
dynamic and kinematic viscosity. Dynamic viscosity is the tangential force per unit area
needed to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when
maintained a unit distance away by the liquid. It is expressed in Pa.S. Kinematic viscosity is
the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density - a quantity in which zero force is
involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with
mass density. It is expressed in m2/s.

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISCOSITY

1.1 WHAT IS VISCOSITY?

Viscosity is a principal parameter when any flow measurements of fluids, such as liquids,
semi-solids, gases and even solids are made. The viscosity is defined as a fluid measures its
resistance to flow under an applied shear stress. Resistance is offered when one part of a fluid
(liquid or gas) is moved past another. The force required to slip one layer of a fluid past
another with a given velocity is called the shearing stress while the rate of movement is called
the rate of shear. Resistance to this movement is called the viscosity. The viscosity of a
liquid can therefore be defined as the force per unit area necessary to maintain a unit velocity
between two parallel planes of the liquid separated by a unit distance. This mathematically
is written as the viscosity is equal to the force per unit area(F/A) / velocity gradient
perpendicular to the planes per second (dv/dx).

F
A
µ= du
dy

1.1.1 UNITS OF VISCOSITY

SI Unit of viscosity is Pascal-Second.
F
µ= A
du
dy

= mN2 x ms
m

=mNs2 or ms
Kg

P (Poise) = 0.1 Pa.s

cP (Centipoise) = 0.001 Pa.s
Viscosity of water at 25C is 1cP.

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1.2 TYPE OF FLOW PATTERN

1.2.1 REYNOLD EXPERIMENT

The purpose of the Reynolds experiment is to illustrate laminar, transitional (intermittently
turbulent) and fully turbulent pipe flow and determine the condition under which these type
of flow occur. The equipment consists of a hydraulic bench, an Osbourne Reynolds apparatus,
dye, stopwatch. The critical velocity averaged over the cross section at which laminar flow
changes to transitional, or a transitional to turbulent, is a function of pipe diameter d, fluid
density ρ and the fluid viscosity µ.

REYNOLD EXPERIMENT FOR DIFFERENT TYPE OF FLOW

At low discharge, every fluid molecule followed a straight path that was parallel to boundaries
of the tube. This type of flow is called laminar flow.

At medium discharge, every fluid molecule followed a wavy but a parallel path that was not
parallel to boundaries of the tube.

At high discharge, every fluid molecule followed very complex path that led to mixing of
dye.

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By experiment we concluded that for Reynolds number less than 2100 we observe laminar
flow, between 2100 and 4000 we observe transitional flow and for Reynolds number greater
than 4000 we observe turbulent flow.

1.3 NEWTON LAW OF VISCOSITY

A fluid can be distinguished from a solid in this discussion of viscosity by its behavior when
subjected to a stress. An elastic solid deforms by an amount proportional to the applied stress.
However, a fluid when subjected to a similar applied stress will continue to deform, i.e., to
flow at a velocity that increases with increasing stress. A fluid exhibits resistance to this stress.
Viscosity is that property of a fluid which gives rise to forces that resist the relative movement
of adjacent layers in the fluid. These viscous forces arise from forces existing between the
molecules in the fluid and are of similar character as the shear forces in solids.[1]

FLUID SHEAR BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL PLATES

In the above figure a fluid contained between two infinite (very long and very wide) parallel
plates. Suppose that the bottom plate is moving parallel to top plate and at a constant velocity
of Δvz m/s faster relative to the top plate because of steady force F newton being applied. This
force is called the viscous drag, and it arises from the viscous forces in the fluid. The plates
are Δy m apart. Each layer of liquid moves in the z direction. The layer immediately adjacent
to the bottom plate is carried along at the velocity of this plate. The layer just above is at a
slightly slower velocity, each layer moving at a slower velocity as we go up in the y direction.
In above figure the velocity profile is linear with y direction. It has been found experimentally
for many fluids that the force F in newton is directly proportional to the velocity Δvz in m/s,
to the area A in m2 of the plate used, and inversely proportional to the Δy distance in m. Then
Newton's law of viscosity for laminar flow is defined as,
𝑭 ∆𝑽𝒙
= −𝝁( )
𝑨 ∆𝒚

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Where µ is known as proportionality constant called viscosity of the fluid. If we let Δy
approach to zero, then, using the definition of derivative,

𝑑𝑉𝑥
𝜏 = −𝜇( )
𝑑𝑦

Where 𝜏yz is F/A or shear stress per unit area. Subscript yz denotes that the area is
perpendicular to y axis and distance y from origin and z denotes direction of force. Negative
force denotes the velocity decrease as the y increases. The Newton’s law of viscosity is not
applicable to turbulent flow, according to Newton’s law of viscosity, for a given shear stress
acting on a fluid element, the rate at which the fluid deforms is inversely proportional to the
viscosity and in turbulent flow the rate of fluid is not inversely proportional because the flow
pattern is very complex and also due to the eddy formation. The fluid which obey newton law
of viscosity is called Newtonian fluids. Ex. Water, honey and thin motor oil.

1.4 TYPE OF FLUIDS

In the above discussion we said that the fluids which obey newton law of viscosity is called
Newtonian fluids but there are many fluids which do not obey newton law of viscosity these
fluids are called non Newtonian fluids.

GRAPH SHOWING BEHAVIOR OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF FLUIDS

From the graph we can say that for Newtonian fluids, viscosity remains constant with the
increase of shear rate. Non Newtonian fluids show thixotropic behavior which is, the fluids

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viscosity increases or decreases with change in shear rate. Dilatant (Shear thickening) is non
Newtonian fluid whose viscosity increases which increase of shear rate. Ex. Quicksand and
ketchup. Pseudoplastic (Shear thinning) is non Newtonian fluid whose viscosity decrease
with increase of shear rate. Ex. Blood. A Bingham plastic is a viscoplastic material that
behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high stress. Ex. Mustard,
chocolate.

1.5 FACTOR AFFECTING VISCOSITY

[4]
The major factor which effect the viscosity of the fluid are as the follow: -

1. Temperature: -
In liquids, when the temperature increases (energy added) the particles move faster
and begin to move away from each other. Because the particles are moving around
more they can flow more; their viscosity is lower.

DEPENDENCE OF TEMPERATURE WITH VISCOSITY

Where A is a constant known as the Arrhenius constant, En is the activation energy
for flow, R is the ideal gas constant, and R is the temperature of the liquid using an
absolute scale
2. Concentration: -
Concentration is the amount of substance that is dissolved in a specific volume. An
increase in concentration will usually result in an increase in viscosity.
3. Attractive force: -
Particles of the same substance have an attractive force on one another. Some
substances have a strong attraction while some substances have a weaker attraction.
The stronger the attraction of particles, the Higher the viscosity.
4. Particle size: -
The size of the particles of a substance will greatly affect its viscosity. Small
particles can move more easily past each other and can therefore flow faster,
meaning they have a lower viscosity Large particles would mean a higher viscosity.

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1.6 TYPE OF VISCOSITY

[3]
Viscosity is a fundamental material property when studying fluid flow for any application.
The two most common types of viscosity are dynamic and kinematic. Dynamic viscosity(µ)
is the fluid internal resistance to flow while kinematic viscosity (𝜈) refers to the ratio of
dynamic viscosity to density.
𝜂
𝜈= .
𝜌

Based on the expression above, two fluids with the same dynamic viscosities can have very
different kinematic viscosities depending on density and vice versa. In a simple words
dynamic viscosity gives you information on the force needed to make the fluid flow at a
certain rate, while kinematic viscosity tells how fast the fluid is moving when a certain force
is applied. Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under
gravitational forces. It is determined by measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed
volume of fluid to flow a known distance by gravity through a capillary within a calibrated
viscometer at a closely controlled temperature. Unit of viscosity is m2/s. It is referred as
diffusivity of momentum and is analogous to thermal diffusivity (α) in heat transfer.

1.7 WHY MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY IS IMPORTANT?

Viscosity measurement is very crucial in any industry. Let’s take the example of food
industry, Viscosity measurements are used in the food industry to maximize production
efficiency and cost effectiveness. It affects the rate at which a product travels through a pipe,
how long it takes to set or dry, and the time it takes to dispense the fluid into packaging. The
production process has to be designed with the viscosity of the product in mind, making sure
that pipes are angled to optimize flow, or that dispensers provide the right amount of force to
induce flow, but not so much that the packaging will overfill. Viscosity is also a characteristic
of the texture of food. The product’s viscosity must be measured and monitored during
production to ensure that each batch is consistent and will go through the production process
efficiently. In an adhesive industry, to choose the right viscosity of adhesive, we must
consider how the adhesive must flow or not flow, on a part of after adhesive is applied. Low-
viscosity adhesives will flow more readily than high-viscosity ones, so if you want an

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adhesive to stay exactly where you put it after dispensing – rather than spread out – a high-
viscosity adhesive is ideal. When it comes to hydraulic oils, Viscosity is a critical property of
as it affects the performance and efficiency of complete systems as well as the wear rates of
individual components like pumps and valves. As oil temperature rises, viscosity drops and
it flows more easily to a point. If the oil gets too thin, volumetric efficiency suffers and the
system becomes less responsive and can lead to overheating, high wear and shorter
component life. At the other extreme, if fluid viscosity is too high, mechanical efficiency is
low and that leads to friction during startup, sluggish operation and, in the worst case,
cavitation and mechanical failure. Viscosity also plays an important role when it comes to
combustion of fuel. Controlling the viscosity of fuel oil is an important aspect of an efficient
combustion. A high viscosity fuel oil leads to improper atomization which in turn leads to
incomplete combustion. High viscosity fuel prevents correct atomization, which takes place
in the fuel injectors. An efficient atomization is the basic need for the healthy mixing of fuel
and heated air, without which, no ignition or combustion can be derived. Thus, it is absolutely
important to set the viscosity value in the right range. Viscosity of high fuel oils can be
reduced by raising its temperature with the help of a fuel oil heater. This can be done by using
either, automatically regulated heaters in order to maintain a constant temperature or by using
a manual control which can be adjusted according to the requirement.

1.8 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT

Viscosity of liquid is measured using viscometer. Viscometers are used to measure viscosity
in most circumstances. They work for fluids whose viscosity does not change under varying
flow conditions; rheometers must be used when the viscosity does change with flow
conditions. Viscometers usually work by comparing a stationary object and a fluid flow, or
vice versa. Hence, a viscometer could be placed in a fluid flow or moved through a stationary
fluid. The flow must have a Reynolds number in the laminar region in order to record accurate
values. The measure of the resistance is taken by measuring the drag resistance during relative
motion through the fluid. There are several types of viscometers available, some for use in
laboratories and others used as portable viscosity testers.

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1. Capillary viscometer: These viscometers are often used in laboratory settings. Users can
obtain the dynamic viscosity by measuring how long it takes the fluid to flow between two
points of a capillary of known radius; it is necessary to know the fluid’s density to calculate
viscosity in this manner.

TYPE OF CAPILLARY VISCOMETER

2. Falling sphere viscometer: As the name implies, these viscometers use a falling sphere to
measure viscosity. The time taken for the falling sphere, whose density and radius are known,
to move between two markings is measured, and then users can calculate viscosity. This
model is also typically used in the lab. They work on principles derived from Stokes’ Law,
which gives drag force on a sphere.

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 Falling sphere viscometer

3. Rotational viscometer: Rotational viscometers measure the resistance of fluids to torque.

There are several types of rotational viscometers: Stabinger viscometer was developed in
2000, while the Stormer viscometer is commonly used to measure viscosity of paints. The
Stabinger viscometer uses a proprietary unit, the Krebs Unit (KU).

ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER

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5. Bubble Viscometer: Bubble viscometers measure the time it takes for bubbles to rise through
a liquid. These viscometers are most often used for resins or varnishes. These viscometers are
fast, and very useful for measuring viscosity in the field. Models that use the alphabetical
comparison method measure viscosity in stokes, which is equal to 1 cm2s-1.

BUBBLE VISCOMETER

6. Vibrational Viscometer: By measuring the vibrational waves using a vibrating rod

submerged in fluid, viscosity is calculated by analyzing the dampening of the vibration.

VIBRATIONAL VISCOMETER

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 CHAPTER 2: CAPILLARY VISCOMETER

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Capillary viscometer is cost-effective, uses small amounts of sample fluid and can measure
viscosity under various shear rates. According to the Hagen–Poiseuille’s equation, the pressure
drop of laminar flows in a capillary at a given flow rate is proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.
When an enclosed air volume is connected to the upstream of the capillary, the pressure drop can
be calculated with the change of the connected air volume, which is reflected by the displacement
change of the air–liquid interface in the connecting capillary to the enclosed air volume. Based on
these principles, the viscometer was assembled with readily accessible materials, and required no
internal sensors or extensive programming. capillary viscometers measure the time taken to
discharge the sample fluid through a section of capillary. Therefore, a capillary viscometer usually
measures kinematic viscosity. The orifice of the kinematic viscometer tube produces a fixed
resistance to flow. Different sized capillaries are available to support fluids of varying
viscosity. The time taken for the fluid to flow through the capillary tube can be converted to
a kinematic viscosity using a simple calibration constant provided for each tube. The
commonly used capillary viscometer is Ostwald viscometer. The other capillary viscometers
are suspended level viscometer and cannon fernsk viscometer.

CAPILLARY OSTWALD VISCOMTER

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2.2 OSTWALD VISCOMETR

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Ostwald viscometer, also known as U-tube viscometer or capillary viscometer is a device

used to measure the viscosity of the liquid with a known density. The method of determining
viscosity with this instrument consists of measuring the time for a known volume of the liquid
(the volume contained between the marks A and B) to flow through the capillary under the
influence of gravity. Ostwald viscometers named after the German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald
(1853-1932).

OSTWALD VISCOMETER

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Ostwald viscometer is based on Poiseuille’s Law. According to this law, the rate of flow of
liquid through a capillary tube having coefficient ɳ, is given by: -

Where, v= volume of liquid in ml

t=flow rate in second through capillary
r=radius of the capillary in cm
l=length of the capillary in cm
p=hydrostatic pressure in dyne/sq. cm
ɳ=viscosity coefficient in poise

2.2.2 PROCEDURE

A clean and dry viscometer is fixed vertically in a thermostat such that the upper mark is well
below the water level of the thermostat. Series of the standard mixtures of constituent ‘A’ and
‘B’ are prepared. 15ml of mixture no.1 is pipetted into the lower bulb. A rubber tubing is
connected to the other bulb to suck the liquid. Now the liquid is sucked through the rubber
tube till the liquid level inside the capillary is well above the upper mark. Then it’s is allowed
to flow down. A stop watch is started just at the instant the liquid level passes the upper mark
and stopped at the instant when it passes the lower mark. The time flow is noted. Viscometer
is cleaned, dried and experiment is repeated with other standard mixture.

2.2.3 WORKING

In an Ostwald viscometer the measured distance the liquid travels, L, will be always a[6]
constant; the radius, r will always be a constant; and by procedure the volume of liquid, V will
also be constant. Poiseuille’s equation can then be simplified to:

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 𝜂 = 𝐾𝑃𝑇 --------(1)

Where K is a constant and

The hydrostatic pressure is P proportional to the density of the fluid being measured. In our
experiment we will be measuring the mass of equal volumes of liquid so that the viscosity
will be proportional to the masses measured. Therefore, we have the relation:

𝜂 𝛼 𝐾𝑚𝑡---------(2)

Where K and t are defined above and m is the mass of the liquid.
For finding the viscosity of liquids it is important to calibrate the viscometer using a reference
liquid. Water is a commonly used reference liquid. The viscosity of water at 30.0 °C is 0.8007
centipoise (cP). Knowing the values for the reference liquid and relation (3), we get:

----------(3)
Where: ηr is viscosity coefficient of the reference sample (water), mr is the mass of the
reference sample, and tr is the time flow of the reference sample. Note that K cancels out.
The other variables are the viscosity coefficient, mass, and time flow of the sample
respectively.

With an Ostwald viscometer we can measure the time flow of a liquid (mass can be measured
using standard laboratory procedures, e.g. a relative density bottle and a scale) and determine
its viscosity by solving equation (4) for η.

------------(4)

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2.1.4 ADVANTAGE

1. Measure precise viscosities for many diverse fluids

2. Small and portable
3. Inexpensive
4. Easy to use

2.1.5 DISADVANTAGE

1. Basic models cannot be used for high viscous fluids

2. Difficult to clean the capillary tubes

2.1.6 USAGE

Capillary viscometers are used to measure the viscosity of a wide range of diverse fluids.
Common examples include petroleum products, lubricants, adhesives, and sealants.

2.2 SUSPENDED LEVEL VISCOMETER

An Ubbelohde type viscometer or suspended level viscometer is a measuring

instrument which uses a capillary based method of measuring viscosity It is recommended
for higher viscosity cellulosic polymer solutions. The advantage of this instrument is that the
values obtained are independent of the total volume. The Ubbelohde viscometer is closely
related to the Ostwald viscometer. Both are u-shaped pieces of glassware with a reservoir on
one side and a measuring bulb with a capillary on the other. A liquid is introduced into the
reservoir then sucked through the capillary and measuring bulb. The liquid is allowed to travel
back through the measuring bulb and the time it takes for the liquid to pass through two
calibrated marks is a measure for viscosity. The Ubbelohde device has a third arm extending
from the end of the capillary and open to the atmosphere. In this way the pressure head only
depends on a fixed height and no longer on the total volume of liquid.

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SUSPENDED LEVEL VISCOMETER

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 CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSION

The viscosity of a fluid means the resistance of the fluid to shear or angular deformation. In
easy meaning, it is like a frictional force in a fluid which create resistance to flow. This
frictional forces in fluid flow resulting from the cohesion and momentum interchange
between molecules in the fluid. It is due to the viscous force that arises in the fluid. Viscosity
is a critical property of hydraulic oil. Complete system performance and efficiency are the
main parameters of hydraulic oil. These two parameters are affected by viscosity. Also for
using valves and pumps viscosity is an important element. In lubrication, the viscosity is the
most needed characteristic of lubricating oil. For greases, the viscosity is an important
element too. If the temperature of the fluid is low then the viscosity is high, at that time oil
cannot be pumped. On the other hand, if the temperature is high then the velocity of oil will
be excessive, that means viscosity is so low and this can cause high friction in any pipe then
wear. Viscosity is a measure of whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. By the help of
Viscosity, we can know the behavior of viscosity which helps to design a machine in
mechanical engineering, to build a ship, to work in marine condition. Because of high
viscosity some fluid stay in steady condition. If there are no viscosity fluid would have no
internal resistance and so it will flow forever before facing any barrier. From the behavior of
viscosity with temperature, we can find whether the fluid is liquid or gas. For increasing the
temperature, the viscosity will increase for gas. On the other hand, increasing the temperature
will decrease the Viscosity for Liquid.

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 REFERNCE

[3]https://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/294/absolute-kinematic-viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity and its measurement

[4]https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/9661/10/10_chapter%204.pdf.
Factor affecting viscosity

https://civiltoday.com/water-resource-engineering/fluid-mechanics/240-viscosity

https://www.cscscientific.com/viscosity

https://blog.rheosense.com/what-are-the-differences-between-dynamic-and-kinematic-
viscosities

https://www.brighthubengineering.com/marine-engines-machinery/41864-what-is-
viscosity-regulator/

https://opentextbc.ca/physicstestbook2/chapter/viscosity-and-laminar-flow-poiseuilles-
law/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/viscometer

[5]https://blog.viscosity.com/blog/measuring-the-different-types-of-viscosity-with-
viscometers. Viscosity measurement

https://currentprotocols.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/0471142913.fah0102s
00
[1] Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N.,”TRANSPORT PHENOMENON”,
John wiley&Sons, 1st edition, 1960, Newton law of viscosity.

[2] James O. Wilkes,” FLUID MECHANICS FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS”, Prentice

Hall,2nd edition, October 9, 2005. What is viscosity

[6] https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=2&brch=190&sim=339&cnt=1 Working of Ostwald

viscometer

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