PHYSICS

EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION OF
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
OF BATTERY

AATISH
RENGAN
Class XII
ABHINAV
PUBLIC SCHOOL
PITAMPURA
NEW DELHI

1
 PHYSICS
Experimental Determination Of
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF BATTERY

SUBMISSION

This Project is submitted

before Ms. Anu Sagar Madam,

my Physics Teacher

It is my foremost duty to express my deep

regards, respects & gratitude to my teacher, for
not only the guidance & supervision but also for
the inspiration, motivation, and sense of direction
that are instilled in my persona towards biology in
special and inquisitiveness towards in general.

I submit this study report before Ms. Anu Sagar

Madam, the guiding light of this study.

The numerous helps, assistance and comforts from

lab personnel who gave me and made available
various specimens, materials chemicals and
equipments for the investigation are of great
importance and I acknowledge them with humility.

2
Aatish Rengan

3
 CONTENTS
d.e.s.r.i.p.t.i.o.n p.a.
g.e
1 MEASUREMENT OF INTERNAL 4
RESISTANCE OF AA BATTERIES
2 Abstract 5
3 Theoretical Considerations 5
4 Kirchoff”s Voltage Law 6
5 Ohm’s Law 8
6 Experimental Procedure 11
7 Results 12
8 Discussion 15
9 Conclusion 16
10 ADVANCED READINGS 17
11 The Development of battery 17
12 Battery types 18
13 Primary batteries 19
14 Secondary batteries 19
15 Lead-Acid batteries 20
16 AA batteries 22
17 AAA batteries 23
18 Nickel-Cadmium batteries 24
19 Lithium-Ion batteries 24
20 Nickel-Metal Hydride batteries 25
21 Wattage, Volts, Ampere, etc.. 26
22 Appendix 28
23 Bibliography 30

4
MEASUREMENT OF
INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF AA
BATTERIES

The main goal of this project study is to find

internal resistance of a battery with respect to
time. Information received from measurement
and calculation of internal resistance would
allow finding the battery that sustains their
energy for longest period of time

Aatish Rengan

5
Abstract

Battery is designed as a voltage source in series with resistor.

For this experiment two AA batteries were used: one of them
had Alkaline chemical composition and the other one carried
Zinc-Carbon composition. For calculation of internal resistance,
Kirchhoff's Voltage law and Ohm's law were used. The
measurements of external resistor voltage were measured every
minute until a battery drained down to approximately 0.1 V.
Two graphs in the project show a change of external voltage
over time and internal resistance over time.

Theoretical
Considerations

Figure 1: Typical battery diagram

Any battery can be defined as a device that converts "chemical

energy directly to electrical energy". [1] This is known as

6
electrochemical reaction. An electrochemical reaction is a
"reaction involving the transfer of electrons, and it is that
reaction which creates electricity". All types of battery have
three main components: the anode, the cathode and electrolyte.

The electrolyte conducts the electric current between the anode

and the cathode. At the anode, electrons are being sent to the
driving circuit. At the cathode, electrons are being accepted.
The flow of electrons always occurs from anode to cathode.

All batteries have an internal resistance. Any electrical power

source can be modeled as a voltage source in series with
impedance. This resistance is referred to as "internal resistance".
One of the primary requirements for a battery is to have a low
internal resistance. The internal resistance of a battery
determines its runtime and usually measured in milliohms. The
lower the internal resistance of a battery is, the less power is
lost. Also, a high internal resistance means that the battery will
provide less power.

For calculation of internal resistance Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

and Ohm's law were used. Measurements of external resistor
voltage were measured every minute until a battery drained
down to approximately 0.1 /V/. Two graphs in the project
shows a change of external voltage over time and internal
resistance over time.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of

the voltage rises and voltage drops around a loop must be zero.

7
A loop in the above definition means a closed path in the
circuit; that is, a path that leaves a node in one direction and
returns to that same node from another direction. When deriving
the algebraic sum of the voltages, we must assign a plus sign to
those voltages where the reference direction agrees with the
direction of the loop, and negative signs in the opposite case.
The following short example shows the use of Kirchhoff’s
voltage law.

Find the voltage across resistor R2, given that the source
voltage, VS = 100 V and that the voltage across resistor R1 is
V1 = 40 V.

The solution using Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

-VS + V1 + V2 =0,

or VS = V1 + V2

hence: V2 = VS – V1 = 100-40 = 60V

8
Another way to state Kirchhoff’s voltage law is: the applied
voltage of a series circuit equals the sum of the voltage drops
across the series elements.

Note that normally we don’t know the voltages of the resistors

(unless we measure them), and we need to use both Kirchhoff’s
laws for the solution.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between

two points is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance,[1] one arrives at the usual
mathematical equation that describes this relationship:

where I is the current through the conductor in units

of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the
conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.

9
More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is
constant, independent of the current.

Ideal batteries differ from real batteries; a real battery has an

internal resistance – due to the nature of the battery. The nature
of the real battery is determined by its internal chemical
reaction.

Nature of Battery and Internal Resistance

The darkened ends of the battery represent the products of the chemical
reaction used to produce an emf. The green portion shows the unused
reactants, which must now pass through the dark regions to produce an
emf. The products contribute to the internal resistance of the battery.

The battery produces an emf. The internal resistance of the

battery is r. Since the established circuit is a series one, Ir = IR =
IT.

Now, if an ideal voltmeter was placed in parallel across the

rheostat, the measured voltage should theoretically be equal to
the potential difference across the real battery, measured by
another ideal voltmeter.
Since in a series circuit Vr + VR = VT, it can be said that:

VT = emf = Vr + VR = Vr + VBATT

The equation describing internal resistance can be derived using

the above Equation

emf - Vr = VBATT, and Vr = Ir by definition

10
 so emf - Ir = VBATT

Figure 2 shows a typical battery in series with load resistor.

Figure 2: Diagram of a battery in parallel with Resistor

• r is the unknown internal resistance

• Rload is external parallel resistor, i.e., ~0.08 /Ω/.
• is e.m.f. E.M.F = voltage across internal resistance+
voltage across load (open circuit voltage (V0))
• • i is the current flowing into the circuit

•
Using basic Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, the equation of the circuit
becomes:

In the project R=10 Ω. The goal is to derive the formula to find

r. Thus, Equation (1) can be rewritten as:

11
Initial voltage (V0) will be calculated in the
beginning of the experiment for each battery.
V will be measured every minute.
Using this information, it will be possible to

determine internal resistance (r).

Experimental Procedure
In this experiment I have used two kinds of AA batteries with

different chemical composition: alkaline or carbon Zinc.

Dura Cell Alkaline

Heavy Duty Carbon - Zinc

Table 1: Chemical Composition in batteries

In addition to the batteries, a multimeter, breadboard, controlled

resistance box, and a breadboard kit were used in this
experiment.

Figure 3: Diagram of Circuit that was used to find voltage over time

In the beginning of the experiment, the open circuit voltage (V0)

was measured with the multimeter at the battery terminals. The
resistance that was used was 0.08/Ω/.
The next step was to connect the resistance box to the breadboard

12
so that the voltmeter would be able to measure the parallel
resistance.
This data would be used in the Equation

Since this formula uses open

circuit voltage, and the voltage across the external resistor, , the
measurement were taken every 1 minute to have more precise
data. The information was typed into an Excel Spreadsheet, and
using the above equation for internal resistance (r) the internal
resistance would be determined.

Results
The results in the beginning of the experiment were the initial

voltage of the battery for each chemical composition.

Table 2: Initial Voltage of "Duracell" and "Heavy duty" batteries
Duracell 1.5861
Heavy duty 1.6521

The Figure 4 shows the change the voltage across the external
resistor with respect to time. The final voltage measurement was
approximately 0.1 V.

Using the Equation for Internal Resistance (r), it was possible

to find internal resistance of the battery as it changes with
respect to time as plotted in Figure (4). The values of internal
resistance are given in Excel Spreadsheet as the Appendix.

13
Figure 4: Graph of external voltage change with respect to time.

14
Figure 5: Graph of Internal Resistance plotted over time

15
Discussion
After careful analysis of the diagrams, it becomes possible to
conclude that external voltage and internal resistance have the
same properties.

External voltage decreases over the time and internal

resistance increases over the same amount of time. The
external voltage constantly decreases and this is showed in
Figure 4. At the same time, internal resistance constantly
increases over the same amount of time. This is shown in
Figure 4. Using Ohm's law it would be possible to get the
same result, since Ohm's law shows inverse relationship
between current and time. According to Figure (4) and Figure
(5), it is possible to conclude that the battery that has faster
increase in internal resistance will be worse at sustaining
energy and power. For both batteries measurements were taken
until voltage become 0.1 V, so it is possible to conclude that
the battery that held the charge for the longest time is the
higher-quality battery.

Even though, the electrical component of the battery was very

important, the chemical process in a battery actually produced
the power; with voltage decreasing an internal resistance
would increase and this would produce a "high mW reading
that will trigger an early 'low battery' indication on a
seemingly good battery" [3]. Duracell battery maintained its
charge of 0.08412 V at 50 minutes of time elapsed.

16
Conclusion
The goal of this experiment was to determine the internal
resistance of a battery, and compare its performance against
that of others. Since, in this experiment two different batteries,
with two different chemical compositions were used, it was
easy to see a decrease in external voltage and an increase in
internal resistance with respect to time. After
the equivalent circuit was created, the basic Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law and Ohm's Law were applied to find internal
resistance. With the data, it becomes possible to find the
battery that can maintain the energy for the longest time.

Duracell sustained a charge of 0.08412 Volt for 50

Minutes

17
ADVANCED READING

The Development of
Battery
Batteries are a portable source of electricity. Modern batteries
have become amazing powerhouses for today’s portable
devices. They have a fascinating history, with men and women
across the world striving to harness the remarkable properties of
electricity and make them available everywhere.

All kinds of batteries are crucial in modern life. In 1800,

after extensive experimentation, repeatedly of
Galvani's experiments many times with many
different materials, Alessandro Volta, a university
professor in Padova, developed the voltaic pile.
The original voltaic pile consisted of a pile of zinc
and silver discs and between alternating discs, a
piece of cardboard that had been soaked in
saltwater. A wire connecting the bottom zinc disc
to the top silver disc could produce repeated
sparks.

Batteries are used in many ways. Some are disposable, others

are rechargeable. Batteries become a primary source of power
for a lot of electrical devices. They can be used in many

18
different electrical devices, for example: boats, cars, watches,
radios, phones and Mp3 players, etc.

A battery has a positive and a negative electrode. The positive

electrode is called a cathode, and the negative electrode is called
an anode. In batteries, each electrode contains a different
metal. In an alkaline battery, the anode metal is manganese
dioxide and the metal in the cathode is zinc.

To separate the anode from the cathode there is an electrolyte.

The negative electrons want to get to the cathode but the
electrolyte blocks the way. To power a light, for example, the
electrons go though a circuit, powers the light and arrives at the
positive end (cathode) of the battery.

Battery Types
Batteries are divided into two broad categories: primary and
secondary batteries.

Different chemicals can be combined to make batteries. Some

combinations are low cost but also low power, others can store
huge power at huge prices. Lead-acid batteries offer the best

19
balance of capacity per dollar and it’s a common battery used in
stand-alone power systems.

Primary batteries
Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly.
Disposable batteries are to be used once and discarded.
Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials
may not return to their original forms. Common types of
disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline
batteries. In general, these have higher energy densities than
rechargeable batteries,[36] but disposable batteries do not fare
well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms.

Secondary batteries
Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are
usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state.
Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by
applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during its use.

20
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery.
Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels
make its use common where a large capacity (over
approximately 10 Ah) is required or where the weight and ease
of handling are not concerns.

Lead-Acid Batteries
The lead-acid battery cell consists of positive and negative lead
plates of different composition suspended in a sulfuric acid
solution called electrolyte. When cells discharge, sulphur
molecules from the electrolyte bond with the lead plates and
release electrons. When the cell recharges, excess electrons go

21
back to the electrolyte. A battery develops voltage from this
chemical reaction. Electricity is the flow of electrons.

In a typical lead-acid battery, the voltage is approximately 2

volts per cell regardless of cell size. Electricity flows from the
battery as soon as there is a circuit between the positive and
negative terminals. This happens when any load (appliance) that
needs electricity is connected to the battery.

Good care and caution should be used at all times when

handling a battery. Improper battery use can result in explosion.
Read all documentation included with your battery in its
entirety.

A common lead–acid battery, the modern car battery, can,

deliver a peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of
liquid electrolyte battery is the sealed valve regulated lead–acid
battery (VRLA battery),

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell"

types, which are sealed units and are, therefore, useful in
appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells
of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost)
include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. By far,
Li-ion has the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market.
Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due
to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools,

22
two-way radios, and medical equipment. NiZn is a new
technology that is not yet well established commercially.

AA Batteries
The AA battery (sometimes called "double-A"), is the most
common battery size. The AA standard actually refers to the
physical dimension of the battery: cylindrical, measuring 1.988"
(50mm) in height with a diameter of 0.571" (14.5mm). The AA
battery is also called an R6. Based on this physical standard, a
large number of different AA batteries have actually been
developed. They differ in performance, electrical specification,
and suitability for various applications.

Zinc-Carbon AA batteries have been available for the longest

amount of time.

Alkaline AA batteries are the best general purpose AA battery

available today. They provide more power then Zinc-Carbon
AA batteries, and also work much better at lower temperatures.
The cheapest alkaline AA battery comes close to a Zinc-Carbon
battery in price, but still exceeds it in performance. The
Duracell Ultra M3 is a top-of-the-range alkaline AA battery,

23
that outlasts not just Zinc-Carbon AA batteries, but also several
other alkaline AA batteries.

More recently lithium AA batteries have emerged to power high

drain devices, such as digital cameras. They clearly outperform
any alkaline AA battery.

The most economical and environmentally friendly version of

the AA battery is the NiMH rechargeable AA battery.
Recharging a set of NiMH AA rechargeables use less dangerous
materials than the previous generation of NiCd rechargeable
batteries.

Rechargeable AA batteries are also typically rated at a voltage

of 1.2V, rather than the 1.5V nominal voltage of the pre-
charged batteries.

AAA Batteries
The AAA battery (also called R03 or "triple-A"), is the smaller
version of the AA battery.

All AAA batteries have a height of 1.752" (44.5mm) and a

diameter of 0.413" (10.5mm). Most AAA batteries use alkaline
technology, with a voltage of 1.5V. The AAA battery is
however also available as a rechargeable battery. The NiMH
AAA rechargeable battery is rated at 1.2V.

24
Both types of batteries may carry any of several main chemical
compositions such as: Zinc-Carbon, Alkaline, Lead acid,
Lithium ion.

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
• Enabled the early use of portable power tools, camcorders,
laptop computers and cellular phones.
• Was standard for portable computers until 1992.
• NiCad batteries have been virtually displaced by NiMH and
Li-ion.

• Low energy density by weight makes it less desirable for

portable computers.

• NiCad batteries have a memory that prevents efficient topping

up.

• NiCads pollute the environment.

• Low cost and high power capability make it the best
technology for motor driven portable devices such as power
tools.

• Uses nickel hydroxide and cadmium electrodes with

potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
Batteries

25
• Very good power to weight ratio
• Found in high end laptop computers and cellular phones
• Now taking market share away from NiMH
• Outputs 3v per cell therefore NOT directly interchangeable
with normal 1.5v batteries. (sold a unit that replaces 2, 1.5v
batteries)

• Made from layered sheets of aluminum foil coated with cobalt

oxide, which acts as the cathode with the anode made from a
thin copper sheet coated with carbon materials.
• The thin film cathode and anode are separated by a sheet of
plastic, rolled up together in a spiral and immersed in a liquid
electrolyte medium of Lithium.
• These batteries produce the same energy as NiMH batteries
but are 40% smaller, half the weight, and are better for the
environment because they don't contain toxic materials such as
cadmium or mercury.
• Currently more expensive than a comparable NiMH battery.
• There are safety issues when charging - Ensure Li-ion
batteries are only charged using a battery charger specifically
built for the purpose.

Nickel-Metal Hydride
Batteries
Introduced in 1990 Rapidly took market share away from Ni-Cd
batteries in the portable computing industry. They differ from

26
Ni-Cd only by their negative electrode which is made of a metal
alloy capable of storing a large amount of electrons. Metal
hydride is produced as the charging product. The ergy density is
almost 50% greater than Ni-Cd.

Wattage, Volts, Amps,

etc.
One watt delivered for one hour equals one watt-hour. Wattage
is the product of current (amps) multiplied by voltage.

watt = amps x volt

One amp delivered at 120 volts is the same amount of wattage

as 10 amps delivered at 12 volts:

1 amp at 120 volts = 10 amps at 12 volts

To figure out how much battery capacity it will require to run

an appliance for a given time, multiply the appliance wattage
times the number of hours it will run to yield the total watt-
hours. Then divide by the battery voltage to get the amp hours.

27
For example, running a 60-watt light bulb for one hour uses 60
watt-hours. If a 12-volt battery is running the light, it will
consume 5 amp-hours (60 watt-hours divided by 12 volts equals
5 amp-hours).

[1]All batteries have an internal resistance. Any electrical power

source can be modeled as a voltage source in series with
impedance. This resistance is referred to as "internal resistance".
[2] One of the primary requirements for a battery is to have a
low internal resistance. The internal resistance of a battery
determines its run time and usually measured in milliohms. The
lower the internal resistance of a battery is, lesser is the power
lost. Also, a high internal resistance means that the battery will
provide less power.

28
 Appendix
1.Cell Used : Heavy Duty (Carbon- 2. Cell Used : Duracell -
Zinc) Alkaline
Battery Voltage 1.6514 Battery Voltage 1.5958
(Initial) (Initial)
External 0.08 Ω External Resistance 0.08 Ω
Resistance (R) (R)
Time Voltage Internal Time Voltage Internal
(Min Change Resistance (Mins) Change Resistanc
s) (V) (r) (V) e (r)
1 0.571 1 0.0691401
0.151369527 0.856 87
2 0.4028 2 0.0888677
0.247984111 0.756 25
3 0.3925 0.256591083 3 0.7126 0.0991524
4 0.404 4 0.1024292
0.247009901 0.6998 66
5 0.3973 5 0.1044855
0.252524541 0.692 49
6 0.3948 6 0.1072455
0.254630193 0.6818 27
7 0.3865 7 0.1091318
0.2618163 0.675 52
8 0.379 8 0.1119759
0.268580475 0.665 4
9 0.372 9 0.1141362
0.275139785 0.6576 53
10 0.3618 10 0.1179593
0.285152018 0.6449 74
11 0.3386 11 0.1234486
0.310171294 0.6275 06
12 0.3352 12 0.1250497
0.314128878 0.6226 91
13 0.3189 13 0.1266429
0.334274067 0.6178 27
14 0.3042 14 0.1283289
0.354293228 0.6128 82
15 0.2891 15 0.1300427
0.376976825 0.6078 77
16 0.2762 16 0.1324900
0.398320058 0.6008 13
17 0.26238 17 0.1346334
0.423513987 0.5948 9

29
18 0.24981 18 0.1375596
0.448849926 0.5868 46
19 0.23615 19 0.1399586
0.479441033 0.5804 49
20 0.2258 20 0.1429938
0.505084145 0.5725 86
21 0.2138 21 0.1459539
0.537923293 0.565 82
22 0.2052 22 0.1492816
0.563820663 0.5568 09
23 0.19382 23 0.1534320
0.601622124 0.5469 72
24 0.17985 24 0.1583124
0.654567695 0.5357 88
25 0.1721 25 0.1638662
0.687646717 0.5235 85
28 0.1486 0.809044415 28 0.4829 0.1843694
35
30 0.1318 0.922367223 30 0.4441 0.2074667
87
35 0.0972 1.279176955 35 0.1924 0.1843694
35
0.1909337
86

30
 Bibliography
 [1] Battery (electricity)." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 3

August 2011. Web. 2 July 2011. "

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)

 [2] Internal resistance. " Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 3

August 2011. Web. 2 August 2011. "

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_resistance

 [3] I. Buchmann, April, 2001.

http://www.buchmann.ca/Article11-Page1.asp [Accessed August

3, 2011]

 Figure 1: http://www.plumhollow.ca/go-wind/faq-alternative-
energy

 Figure 2 and 3:

http://www.physics.udel.edu/~watson/phys345/class/04- battery-

testers.html

31