Introduction to Biology Chapter 16.

1 Notes
LIFE’S OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

- Hereditary information is encoded in DNA

- DNA program directs the development of the following traits:
• Biochemical
• Anatomical
• Physiological
• Behavioral (to some extent)
GENETIC MATERIAL

- Genes are located in chromosomes, which are made up of protein and DNA
- First study case: DNA transforms bacteria
• Transformation (a change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation fo foreign DNA) was
discovered when heat-killed pathogenic cells were mixed with nonpathogenic cells they became
pathogenic.
• A virus is DNA
• Phage (type of bacterial virus)
- Second case study: Viral DNA can program cell
• Radioactive isotopes of phosphorus and sulfur were put into the DNA and proteins (in that order)
• Phosphorus gets encoded into DNA and not protein and vice versa
• Radioactivity was found in the pellet with DNA phage, therefore DNA was the hereditary material
CHARGAFF’S RULES

- The composition of DNA varies between species

- The percentages of A and T bases are roughly equal and the percentages of G and C bases are roughly
equal.

STRUCTURE

- DNA (deoxyribose) and RNA (ribose) are both sugars but RNA has one more oxygen atom

16.2
REPLICATION AND REPAIR

- It begins at origins of replications where the two DNA strands are separated, creating a “bubble.”
- Replication proceeds in both direction from each origin.
- Enzyme Helicase unwinds the double helix on the replication fork, exposing more template DNA for
replication.
- Molecules from the single strand binding protein keep the strands from rewinding.
- Primase synthesizes a short RNA strand (primer) that compliments one of the DNA strands.
- DNA polymerase then adds DNA nucleotides to the 3 prime end of the primer. It continues to lengthen
the new DNA strand by adding nucleotides complementary to the template strand. The new stand
made is called the leading strand.
- Meanwhile, the lagging strand (despite the name) is being made at the same time. Commented [1]:
Anything with parenthesis relates to enzymes during the
• First, an RNA primer forms the beginning of each fragment. The rest of each fragment is then creation of the lagging strand
synthesized by DNA nucleotides in a 5 prime to 3 prime direction. (An enzyme primase removes a
single strand binding protein and makes an RNA primer to begin an Okazaki Fragment.)
• The resulting segments are called Okazaki Fragments. (DNA polymerase adds the complementary
DNA nucleotides to synthesize the rest of the fragment)
• (The assembly process continues as primase makes new RNA primers and DNA polymerase add DNA
nucleotides to create more Okazaki fragments)
• (After the fragments are made, another DNA polymerase replaces each RNA primer with DNA.)
• Next, each RNA primer is replaced with DNA.
• Then, the gaps are closed to form the lagging strand. (Ligase links the Okazaki Fragments to form the
lagging strand)
- Quick summary: Helicase continuously untwists the double helix. DNA polymerase assembles a
continuous leading strand while primase, other DNA polymerases, and ligase all work to form the
lagging strand.