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Exp. # 1
Marcet boiler
Objective:
To investigate the relationship between (pressure) and (temperature) of a saturated steam, in
equilibrium with (water).
Apparatus:
Marcet Boiler, shown in figure 1, is made of steel and fitted with a pressure gauge, a safety valve,
a water cock for testing the water level and a thermo sensor. The boiler is heated by an electrical
immersion heater. To minimize losses and to prevent direct contact to the hot surface, the boiler is
insulated. The temperature is shown on a digital electronic thermometer. An integrated limit switch
prevents the boiler from overheating.
Theory:
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called the
saturation temperature Tsat. Similarly, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure Psat.
This experiment explores the relationship between the saturation temperature and the
corresponding pressure for water.
The water inside the boiler is heated up by the electrical resistance and starts to evaporate. As
more water changes phase from liquid to vapor, more vapor accumulates inside the boiler vessel and
increases the pressure imposed on the water surface. This pressure buildup tends to increase the
resistance faced by liquid molecules as they change into vapor, consequently increasing the saturation
pressure of the remaining liquid.
For a pure substance existing as a mixture of two phases, the Clapeyron relationship relates the
pressure, heat and expansion during a change of phase provided that the two phases are in equilibrium.
The Clapeyron relationship is:
dT T (v g − v f ) Tv g
= =
dP h fg h fg
where:
vf specific volume of water.
vg specific volume of steam.
hf enthalpy of water.
hg enthalpy of steam.
hfg latent heat of vaporization = hg - hf.
T absolute temperature.
P absolute pressure.
Procedure:
• The boiler was filled with clean water through the filler plug.
• The heater element was connected to a single-phase electrical power supply.
• Switch on the master switch.
• Switch on the heater switch and heat up the boiler.
• Log the boiler pressure and temperature values in increments of approximately 0.5 bars.
• Fill the results in the data sheet table.
Analysis:
1. Fill the table of results below:
⎛ dT ⎞
3. To measure the slop ⎜ ⎟ takes previous & next values of pressure and
⎝ dP ⎠ exp ermental
temperature for each record.
4. Compare with the theoretical slop calculated using equation (1) and the steam tables or table 2.
⎛ dT ⎞
5. To measure the slop ⎜ ⎟ take the values of the specific volume & enthalpy for each
⎝ dP ⎠ theoritical
corresponding temperature record, use interpolation when required.
6. State what kinds of errors could affect our results in this experiment.
Exp. # 2
GAS CALORIFIC VALUE
Objective:
To determine the calorific value of a gaseous fuel.
Apparatus:
Boys gas calorimeter, with the following parts and instruments:
• Gaseous fuel source.
• Water source and sink.
• Gas control valve.
• Pressure reducing valve.
• “Hyde meter” (Gas meter): To measure the flow rate of the gas, where 2 liter of gas flows
per one revolution.
• The calorimeter with burner.
• Alkaline bath.
• Thermometers.
• Stopwatch.
• Graduated glass vessel.
Theory:
The calorific value of any fuel is defined as the amount of heat generated by completely burning
(1m3 or 1kg) of that fuel.
In this experiment a given amount of gaseous fuel is burned, and then the generated heat is used
to heat a measured amount of water, so:
M w × C p ( water ) × ΔTavg × (G.V )
Calorific value = .................................. (1)
Vf
Where:
Mw : The amount of water collected (L).
Cp (water) : Specific heat of water (4.18 kj/kgK).
ΔTavg. : Average difference of water temperature between inlet and outlet.
G.V : Gas volume factor which can be found from table (3) at atmospheric pressure and
average gas temperature.
Vf : Volume of burned fuel = No. of revolutions × 2 (L).
= No. of revolutions × 2 × 10-3 (m3).
Procedure:
1. Turn the gas supply on, light the burner, and adjust gas flow rate using gas control valve to give
one revolution per minute at the Hyde meter.
2. Turn on water to over head funnel, with small over flow to the sink.
3. Lift the coils from the alkali bath (allow to drain for few minutes) and lower into the calorimeter
casing.
4. Allow gas to burn and water run about 45 min. to reach the steady state.
5. Read and record the temperature of the inlet gas by the thermometer on Hyde meter.
6. When the pointer of Hyde meter at (100), turns change over funnel at 300ml beaker to measure the
amount of water.
7. Through a number of a revolutions, record inlet and outlet water temperature (Twi, Two) at each half
revolution.
8. At the completion of the last revolution. Turn change over funnel to sink, then record the values of
the water temperatures, the inlet gas temperature and amount of water collected.
9. Record the atmospheric pressure.
10. Fill the results at tables 1 & 2.
Analysis:
1. Find the average difference of water temperature.
2. At atmospheric pressure and average inlet gas temperature, find the gas volume factor (G.V) from
table 3.1 & 3.2.
3. Calculate the calorific value using equation 1.
Results:
Twi
Two
Table: 1
Table: 2
o
Patm Temperature( C) Patm.
mm mm
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hg Hg
730 1.095 1.098 1.101 1.105 1.108 1.111 1.116 1.121 1.126 1.132 1.137 1.142 1.148 1.154 1.160 730
732 1.092 1.095 1.098 1.101 1.105 1.108 1.113 1.118 1.123 1.128 1.134 1.139 1.145 1.151 1.157 732
734 1.089 1.092 1.095 1.098 1.102 1.105 1.110 1.115 1.120 1.125 1.131 1.136 1.142 1.148 1.154 734
736 1.085 1.088 1.092 1.095 1.099 1.102 1.107 1.112 1.117 1.122 1.128 1.133 1.139 1.145 1.151 736
738 1.081 1.085 1.088 1.092 1.095 1.099 1.104 1.109 1.114 1.119 1.125 1.130 1.136 1.142 1.148 738
740 1.077 1.081 1.085 1.088 1.092 1.096 1.101 1.106 1.111 1.116 1.122 1.127 1.133 1.139 1.145 740
742 1.074 1.078 1.082 1.085 1.089 1.093 1.098 1.103 1.108 1.113 1.119 1.124 1.130 1.136 1.142 742
744 1.071 1.075 1.079 1.082 1.086 1.090 1.095 1.100 1.105 1.110 1.116 1.121 1.127 1.133 1.139 744
746 1.068 1.072 1.076 1.079 1.083 1.087 1.092 1.097 1.102 1.107 1.113 1.118 1.124 1.130 1.136 746
748 1.065 1.069 1.073 1.076 1.080 1.084 1.089 1.094 1.099 1.104 1.110 1.115 1.121 1.126 1.132 748
750 1.062 1.066 1.070 1.073 1.077 1.081 1.086 1.091 1.096 1.101 1.107 1.112 1.118 1.123 1.129 750
752 1.059 1.063 1.067 1.070 1.074 1.078 1.083 1.088 1.093 1.098 1.104 1.109 1.115 1.120 1.126 752
754 1.056 1.060 1.064 1.067 1.071 1.075 1.080 1.085 1.090 1.095 1.101 1.106 1.112 1.117 1.123 754
756 1.053 1.057 1.061 1.064 1.068 1.072 1.077 1.082 1.087 1.092 1.098 1.103 1.109 1.114 1.120 756
758 1.050 1.054 1.058 1.061 1.065 1.069 1.074 1.079 1.084 1.089 1.095 1.100 1.106 1.111 1.117 758
760 1.047 1.051 1.055 1.058 1.062 1.066 1.071 1.076 1.081 1.086 1.092 1.097 1.103 1.108 1.114 760
762 1.044 1.048 1.052 1.055 1.059 1.063 1.068 1.073 1.078 1.083 1.089 1.094 1.100 1.105 1.111 762
764 1.042 1.046 1.049 1.053 1.056 1.060 1.065 1.070 1.075 1.080 1.086 1.091 1.097 1.102 1.108 764
766 1.039 1.043 1.046 1.050 1.053 1.057 1.062 1.067 1.072 1.077 1.083 1.088 1.094 1.099 1.105 766
768 1.037 1.041 1.044 1.047 1.050 1.054 1.059 1.064 1.069 1.074 1.080 1.085 1.091 1.096 1.102 768
770 1.034 1.038 1.042 1.045 1.048 1.052 1.057 1.062 1.067 1.072 1.078 1.083 1.089 1.094 1.100 770
772 1.031 1.035 1.039 1.042 1.045 1.049 1.054 1.059 1.064 1.069 1.075 1.080 1.086 1.091 1.096 772
774 1.029 1.031 1.035 1.038 1.041 1.046 1.051 1.056 1.061 1.066 1.072 1.077 1.083 1.088 1.094 774
776 1.026 1.029 1.032 1.036 1.039 1.043 1.048 1.053 1.058 1.063 1.069 1.074 1.080 1.085 1.091 776
778 1.024 1.027 1.030 1.033 1.037 1.040 1.045 1.050 1.055 1.060 1.066 1.071 1.077 1.082 1.088 778
780 1.021 1.025 1.028 1.031 1.033 1.038 1.043 1.048 1.053 1.058 1.063 1.068 1.074 1.079 1.085 780
o
Pamt. Temperature( C) Patm.
Mm mm
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Hg Hg
730 1.166 1.173 1.180 1.187 1.194 1.201 1.208 1.216 1.223 1.231 1.236 1.247 1.256 1.266 1.275 730
732 1.163 1.169 1.176 1.183 1.190 1.197 1.205 1.212 1.220 1.227 1.235 1.244 1.253 1.263 1.272 732
734 1.160 1.166 1.173 1.180 1.187 1.194 1.201 1.209 1.216 1.224 1.231 1.240 1.249 1.259 1.268 734
736 1.157 1.164 1.171 1.178 1.185 1.191 1.198 1.205 1.212 1.220 1.228 1.237 1.246 1.255 1.264 736
738 1.154 1.161 1.168 1.174 1.180 1.187 1.194 1.202 1.209 1.217 1.224 1.233 1.242 1.251 1.260 738
740 1.151 1.158 1.164 1.171 1.178 1.184 1.191 1.199 1.206 1.214 1.221 1.230 1.239 1.247 1.256 740
742 1.148 1.155 1.161 1.168 1.175 1.181 1.188 1.196 1.203 1.210 1.218 1.227 1.235 1.244 1.252 742
744 1.145 1.152 1.158 1.165 1.172 1.178 1.185 1.193 1.200 1.208 1.215 1.223 1.232 1.240 1.249 744
746 1.142 1.148 1.155 1.161 1.168 1.174 1.181 1.189 1.196 1.204 1.211 1.220 1.228 1.237 1.245 746
748 1.138 1.145 1.151 1.158 1.165 1.171 1.178 1.186 1.193 1.201 1.208 1.216 1.225 1.233 1.242 748
750 1.135 1.142 1.148 1.155 1.161 1.167 1.174 1.182 1.169 1.197 1.204 1.212 1.221 1.229 1.238 750
752 1.132 1.139 1.145 1.152 1.158 1.164 1.171 1.179 1.186 1.194 1.204 1.209 1.218 1.226 1.235 752
754 1.129 1.136 1.142 1.149 1.155 1.161 1.168 1.175 1.183 1.190 1.197 1.205 1.214 1.222 1.231 754
756 1.126 1.133 1.139 1.146 1.153 1.158 1.165 1.172 1.180 1.187 1.194 1.202 1.211 1.219 1.228 756
758 1.123 1.130 1.136 1.143 1.149 1.155 1.162 1.169 1.176 1.183 1.190 1.198 1.207 1.215 1.224 758
760 1.120 1.127 1.133 1.140 1.146 1.152 1.159 1.166 1.173 1.180 1.137 1.195 1.204 1.212 1.221 760
762 1.117 1.124 1.130 1.137 1.143 1.149 1.156 1.163 1.170 1.177 1.134 1.191 1.200 1.208 1.217 762
764 1.114 1.120 1.126 1.133 1.139 1.145 1.152 1.159 1.167 1.174 1.131 1.189 1.197 1.206 1.214 764
766 1.111 1.117 1.123 1.129 1.136 1.142 1.149 1.156 1.163 1.170 1.177 1.185 1.194 1.202 1.210 766
768 1.108 1.114 1.120 1.126 1.132 1.139 1.146 1.153 1.160 1.167 1.174 1.182 1.190 1.199 1.207 768
770 1.105 1.111 1.117 1.123 1.130 1.136 1.143 1.150 1.157 1.164 1.171 1.179 1.187 1.196 1.204 770
772 1.102 1.108 1.114 1.120 1.126 1.133 1.140 1.147 1.154 1.161 1.168 1.176 1.184 1.193 1.201 772
774 1.099 1.105 1.111 1.117 1.123 1.130 1.137 1.144 1.151 1.158 1.165 1.173 1.131 1.189 1.197 774
776 1.096 1.102 1.108 1.114 1.120 1.127 1.134 1.141 1.147 1.154 1.161 1.169 1.177 1.186 1.194 776
778 1.093 1.099 1.105 1.111 1.117 1.124 1.131 1.138 1.144 1.151 1.158 1.165 1.173 1.181 1.189 778
780 1.090 1.096 1.102 1.108 1.114 1.121 1.128 1.155 1.141 1.148 1.155 1.162 1.169 1.176 1.183 780
Exp. # 6
Nozzle Test
Objective:
1. To study pressure and velocity distribution along a nozzle.
2. To find critical pressure ratio and efficiency of a nozzle.
Theory:
A nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross sectional area in which a steadily flowing fluid can be
made. The flow can be accelerated by a pressure drop along the duct. There are many applications in
practice which require a high – velocity stream of fluid such as, gas turbines, jet engines, rockets and flow
measurement.
Consider a stream of fluid at a pressure Pi, enthalpy hi and velocity Vi enters a nozzle. Applying
steady flow steady state energy equation
V2 V 2
q w (he hi ) ( e i ) g ( Z e Z i ) ......…………………… [ 1 ]
2 2
Where Pe, Te, he, Ve, and Ze are exit state or any second state through the nozzle.
Since q, w and ǻZ are equal to zero for nozzles, then
V2 V 2
hi i he e ......…………………… [ 2 ]
2 2
Or
§ k 1 ·
¨ ¸
Te ª Pe º © k ¹ ......…………………… [ 6 ]
« »
Ti ¬ Pi ¼
The nozzle efficiency is defined by the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop (irreversible expansion) to
isentropic enthalpy drop:
Figure 1: h-s diagram of the actual and Figure 2: Pressure distribution along the nozzle for different back
isentropic expansion processes of the nozzle. pressures.
Apparatus:
Figure 1 show the test unit of the nozzle which
consists of the followings:
x Three different types of nozzles:
o Convergent – divergent nozzle.
o Convergent nozzle.
o Divergent nozzle.
x Pressure gauges for inlet and exit.
x 8 pressure gauges to measure the pressure
distribution along the nozzle.
x Digital thermometer to measure inlet and exit
temperature.
x Pressure regulator with filter and control
valves.
Procedure:
1. Connect the air supply to the inlet valve.
2. Adjust the inlet air pressure to the required value.
3. Take readings of inlet pressure, exit pressure, inlet temperature, exit temperature, mass flow rate
and the gauge pressures from P1 to P7.
4. Adjust the mass flow rate using the exit valve and record your results.
5. Fill your readings in the table of results.
Analysis:
1. Calculate T, V, and A at different sections and compare areas with the given values.
2. Calculate the nozzle efficiency (Ș).
3. Plot P, V and T variation along the nozzle.
4. Find the ratio of (Pe/Pi).
5. Plot the mass flow rate m (kg/s) against the ratio (Pe/Pi), then determine the point at which the
chocking phenomena occurs, compare with the value (0.5275).
6. Calculate the speed at the chocking point using previous experiment data.
7. State four applications of nozzles and write the governing equations of one application.
Datasheet:
Pi Pe P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 Ti Te m Nozzle
o o
(Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) (Bar) ( C) ( C) (g/s) Efficiency
4 4 %
4 3 %
4 2 %
4 1 %
4 0 %
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) (m ) (m )
Exp. # 4
Refrigeration Cycle
Objective:
To find the coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle.
Theory:
A refrigerator is a machine whose function is to remove heat from a low temperature region, and
dissipated it to a high temperature region (surroundings). According to the Clausius statement of second
law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will not transfer from a cold body to a hotter one unless
work is added to the system. So the refrigerator will require an external work, which is the compressor
work.
If the function of the system is to use the dissipated heat at high temperature e.g. for space
heating, then the machine is called a heat pump.
The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle has four thermodynamic processes which can be
drawn on P-h diagram (Fig 1) where:
Process (1-2)
The compressor increases the pressure and temperature (i.e. enthalpy) of the refrigerant.
Process (2-3)
Condensation through the condenser at a constant pressure and temperature, so at point (2)
refrigerant is saturated liquid.
Process (3-4)
Refrigerant expands from high pressure P2 to low pressure P3 at constant enthalpy.
Process (4-1)
Refrigerant boils and evaporate in the evaporator at a constant pressure and temperature.
3 2
4 1
Figure 1
Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle is defined as: the amount of heat removed from
the cooling space to the work done by the compressor:
QL
COPR =
W
And …
W = Q H - QL
QL = mref * (h1 – h4)
QH = mref * (h2 – h3)
mref = ρref * VR
Where:
QL heat absorbed at evaporator (kW).
QH heat rejected from condenser (kW).
W compressor work (kW).
h1, h2, h3, and h4 are enthalpies at the given temperature and pressure (experimentally) in (kJ/kg).
mref is the refrigerant flow rate (kg/s).
VR volume flow rate of refrigerant (m3/s).
ρref is the refrigerant density (kg/m3), for R134a take ρref = 1220 kg/m3.
For ideal cycle, take:
P2 = P3
P4 = P1
h4 = h3 …… for throttling process.
Apparatus:
Experiment’s rig consists of refrigeration
circuit assembled on a metal board. All instruments
for reading pressure, temperature, and flow rates
are included and installed in place.
1. Compressor.
2. Water connections.
3. Throttle valve.
4. Pressure switch.
5. Variable-area flow meter.
6. Manometer.
7. Dial thermometer.
8. Evaporator.
9. Expansion valve.
10. Filter dryer.
11. Condenser with fan.
Procedure:
1. Connect water from the tap to the inflow of the circuit and adjust the flow rate to about 10 L/hr.
2. Connect the system to the mains power. Switch on compressor and fan.
3. After steady state reaches take the readings of pressure, temperature and flow rates.
4. Readjust the value of the water flow rate, wait for steady state then take same readings.
Results and analysis:
Exp. # 5
Gas Turbine
Objective:
1- To investigate the overall performance of gas turbine cycle.
2- To investigate the performance of gas generator, power turbine and combustion chamber.
Theory:
Brayton cycle - the Ideal Cycle for Gas-turbine Engine
• A compressor takes in fresh ambient air (state 1), compresses it to a higher temperature and
pressure (state 2).
• Fuel and the higher pressure air from compressor are sent to a combustion chamber, where fuel
is burned at constant pressure. The resulting high temperature gases are sent to a turbine (state
3).
• The high temperature gases expand to the ambient pressure (state 4) in the turbine and produce
power.
• The exhaust gases leave the turbine.
Part of the work generated by the turbine is sent to drive the compressor. The fraction of the
turbine work used to drive the compressor is called the back work ratio.
Since fresh air enters the compressor at the beginning and exhaust are thrown out at the end,
this cycle is an open cycle.
By utilizing the air-standard assumptions, replacing the combustion process by a constant
pressure heat addition process, and replacing the exhaust discharging process by a constant pressure
heat rejection process, the open cycle described above can be modeled as a closed cycle, called ideal
Brayton cycle Fig.2. The P-v and T-s diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle are shown on fig.3.
⎛ k −1
⎞
⎛ P2 ⎞ k
W&comp & pT 1 ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟
= mc ⎜ 3
⎜ ⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where P is the pressure, T is the temperature, Wcomp is the compressor input work and k is the specific
⎛cp ⎞
heat ratio = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ cv ⎠
• 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
& p (T 3 −T 2 )
Q&in = mc 4
& p (T 4 −T1 )
Q&out = mc 7
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold air-standard assumption is given as
⎛T ⎞
T 1 ⎜ 4 − 1⎟
W& Q& − Q& Q& & p (T 4 −T 1 )
mc ⎝ T1 ⎠
ηth ,Brayton = &turb = in & out = 1 − &out = 1 − = 1− 8
Q Q Q & (T −T )
mc ⎛T ⎞
in in in p 3 2
T 2 ⎜ 3 − 1⎟
⎝T 2 ⎠
Since P2 = P3 and P4 = P1 and Considering equations 2 and 5
k −1
T ⎛P ⎞ k
1
ηth ,Brayton = 1− 1 = 1− ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 1− k −1 9
T2 ⎝ P2 ⎠ (r ) p
k
Where rP = P2/P1 is the pressure ratio. In most designs, the pressure ratio of gas turbines range from
about 11 to 16.
Actual Gas-turbine Cycle
The actual gas-turbine cycle is different from the ideal Brayton cycle since there are
irreversibilities. Hence, in an actual gas-turbine cycle, the compressor consumes more work and the
turbine produces less work than that of the ideal Brayton cycle. The irreversibilities in an actual
compressor and an actual turbine can be considered by using the isentropic efficiencies of the
compressor and turbine. They are:
k −1
⎛ P2 ⎞ k
−1
rev . work & p (T 2s −T 1 ) ⎜⎝ P1 ⎟⎠
h2s − h1 mc
ηc ,ise = = = = 10
actual work h2a − h1 mc & p (T 2 −T1 ) T2
−1
T1
Similarly For Turbine
T4
1−
T3
ηtur ,ise = k −1 11
⎛P ⎞ k
1− ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ P3 ⎠
Another difference between the actual Brayton cycle and the ideal cycle is that there are pressure drops
in the heat addition and heat rejection processes. Fig 4 shows the T-s diagram for both actual and ideal
cycles.
Two Shaft Gas Turbine Unit comprising single shaft compressor/turbine unit combustion chamber
for operation on propane, butane or propane/butane mixtures, power turbine, calibrated electrical
machine for torque and power measurement, ignition system, oil tank, circulating pump, cooler and filter,
five color instrument panel with flow diagram, fitted inlet air flow meter, fuel flow meter, tachometers (2),
multi point thermocouple instrument, sensitive pressure gauges (3), manometer, oil pressure gauge and
fuel supply pressure gauge. Complete with starting air compressor set and all controls.
Procedure:
1- Connect cooling water, drain, gas and electric supply to the unit.
2- Set the air inlet control to start position.
3- Close the gas valve and open the bottle valve.
4- Set the dynamometer excitation to maximum.
5- Start the oil pump.
6- Press the reset button.
7- Start the blower.
8- Ste the gas pressure to 2 bar using reducing valve.
9- Press ignition button and open gas valve to give 0.5g/s.
10- Open gas valve slowly to give a gas generator speed to 1000 rps.
11- Turn the air inlet control to run position.
12- Switch off the blower.
13- Take readings and fill the results on table 1.
14- Vary the load on power turbine to get a set of readings.
Analysis:
1. Overall performance (power and plant efficiency)
Electrical output power Pelec = Volts × Ampere
760 288
Corrected electrical output power P(elec)corrected = Pelec × ×
P atm
T amb . + 273
Where Patm is the atmospheric pressure in mmHg
P(elec )corrected
Turbine output power Pout(turbine) =
%Efficiency
Where % efficiency is efficiency figure taken from Fig. 5, taking into account drive, alternator and rectifier
circuit efficiencies.
The fuel rate m& f ( mix )corrected = Correction factor × m& reading
Find correction factor From fig. 12 based on Tg
Then the plant efficiency η is given by:
Corrected output power turbine
η=
m& f ( mix )corrected × Cv
Cv is the calorific value of the gasses fuel = 46 × 10 KJ/Kg
3
T 2 +T 3 Cp
At , find from fig. 15
2 R
Cp
The actual energy added to air = m& air × × R × (T 3 −T 2 )
R
The air flow rate m& a is given by:
5. Heat Rejection
QL= ma * (Cp/R) * R *(T5-T1)
Where Cp/R is from fig. 15
6. Flow curves
N GG P
Plot against 3
T3 P4
N PT P
Plot against 4
T4 P5
Plot N PT against η
Where NGG and NPT is the speed of gas generator and power turbine.
2. APPARATUS:
Two stage piston type air compressor, operated by an electrical motor coupled by
means of pulleys and V-belt.
The compressed air outgoing from the first stage of the compressor passes through a
water/air heat exchanger (intercooler), then it is sucked by the second stage. The outlet
air from the second stage passes through a second exchanger (after cooler) and it is sent
to the storage tank. (See fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Two stage piston type air compressor
3. THEORY:
3.1 P-V Diagram for an ideal compressor (fig. 2).
P
3
P2 2
P1 1
4 V
Fig. 2
1-2: Compression process: both valves are closed; air is compressed from P1 to P2.
2-3: discharge process: Exit valve is open, air is supplied to the tank at P2.
3-4: Expansion process: both valves are closed; air in clearance volume expands to
original state P1.
4-1: intake process: inlet valve is open; air enters the cylinder at state 1, and mixed with
air already present in the clearance volume.
P
3.2 Compression of gases (process 1-2). 2 2 2
1. Isothermal compression:
The compression of gases occurs at constant
temperature (fig.3) from state 1 to state 2. T1 T2 T3
1
The equation of path for this process is given by : 1 1
V
PV = constant........................ (1) Fig. 3
V P P
W iso = PVLn 2 = PVLn 1 = mR T 1 Ln 1 ................ (2)
V1 P2 P2
⎛ n −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
n ⎛
mR T 1⎜ ⎜
P 2 ⎞ n − 1⎟
WP=
n −1 ⎜ ⎝ P1 ⎠
⎟ ⎟
.......... (4)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where n is the polytropic index.
The polytropic index is a general process, and all other processes is a special case of the
polytropic one, so when: (see fig. 4)
n=0 P = constant (isobaric process) W = P (V2-V1) = mR (T2-T1).
n = ∞ V = constant (isochoric process) W = 0.
P
n=1 T = constant (isothermal process) W = mRT1 Ln 1 .
P2
⎛ ⎛ n −1⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎛
W = ⎜ mR T 1⎜ ⎜
P 2 ⎞ n ⎟ − 1⎟ .
n=γ S = constant (isentropic process)
⎜ ⎜ ⎝ P1 ⎠
⎟ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
Fig. 4
The compression produced by a very fast reciprocating compressor is very close to the
adiabatic type, since the short period of time in which transformation take place don’t
allow an effective thermic exchange with the out side. But for intermediate speed
compressors
(500-1000 rpm) the compression occurs according to the polytropic process. The work
done on air through compression decreases as n decreases, for this reason the
compressor cylinder should be cooled. The compression work is minimum when n=1
(i.e.) for isothermal process. The isothermal efficiency is defined as:
Isothermal Work
ηiso = ...................................................(5)
Actual indicated Work
The P-V diagram for a reversible two stage compressor is shown in fig. 5 , air is
compressed from Pa to intermediate pressure P1 , in the low pressure cylinder and then
Transferred to the high pressure cylinder for final compression to P2 .
Equation 4 indicates that the work required decreases as the inlet temperature decreases,
so an inter cooler is fitted between the stages. Cooling the air leaving the first stage to T1
before it enters the second stage, the work required to drive the second is reduced, fig. 5
illustrate this, shaded area represents the saving in work.
4. PROCEDURE:
1. Turn on the power supply to start the compressor.
2. Turn on the cooling water and adjust flow rates to a suitable value.
3. Adjust the compressor speed to 1200 rpm using the potentiometer.
4. Open the exit valve, so that the second stage pressure P2 is 2 bars.
5. Record all temperatures, pressures, voltmeter, ammeter and the manometer readings.
6. Readjust the exit valve, so that P2= 3 bar, and record all values as step 4.
7. Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 for different values of P2.
8. Fill the results at table 1.
9 . Turn off the compressor, turn off the cooling water and allow air to release, and drain
water from cylinder and coolers.
5. RESULTS:
Ambient temperature Ta = T1= °C Atmospheric pressure Pa = P1= bar
Tes Speed Electrical After After After After Air
t Power stage 1 inter stage 2 Second flow
coole cooler
r
rate
No. rpm V I P2 T2 T3 P4 T4 T5
volts amp
1
Table: 1
6. CALCULATIONS:
1. Polytropic index (n)
n
PV = constant
n n
P1V1 = P2V2
n
P2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ............................................................................................... (10)
P1 ⎝ V 2 ⎠
From gas law P1V1 = mRT1
P2V2 = mRT2
P1 V1 T1
So = ............................................................................ (11)
P2 V2 T2
P n T
Ln 2 = Ln 2
P1 n − 1 T1
⎛ ⎛ n2 − 1 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
For second stage ( Wp)2 = n 2 ⎜ ⎜
mR T 3 ⎜⎛ P 4 ⎞ n2
− 1⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
n2 − 1 ⎝P ⎠
⎜ ⎜ 3 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
3. Indicated isothermal efficiency:
( )
(ηiso)1 = W( iso) 1 for the first stage.
Wp
1
( )
(η iso)2 = W( iso) 2 for the second stage.
Wp
2
(W iso)1 + (W iso)2
η iso =
(W p)1 + (W p)2
for the compressor.
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Exp. # (7)
Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Insulation Materials
Objective:-
The purpose of this experiment is to determine thermal resistance of multilayer insulation
materials.
Theory:-
Several standards have been drawn up to define an acceptable method of thermal
conductivity measurements, which are as follows: -
1. steady state method: -
The thermal conductivity is determined from measurements of temperature gradient in
the material and the heat input.
2. Transient method: -
The hot wire method is based on transient conditions. The linear heat source is a wire to
which is welded a thermocouple. The thermal conductivity is determined from the rate of
the thermocouple reading.
3. Heat Flow meter method: -
The specimen under test is placed between a hot plate and the heat flow meter, which is
attached to a cold plate. The apparatus is surrounded by insulation. The hot and cold
plates are maintained at suitable constant temperatures measured by surface
thermocouples. A calibration constant for the individual apparatus is derived from testing
a sample of known constant thermal conductivity.
By measuring the heat flow meter output and he mean temperature of the test sample, the
thermal conductivity is calculated using this calibration constant.
The thermal conductivity is a material property defined by the following
equation:-
(Tc − Th )
q x = − kA
Δx
The minus sign is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics, which requires
that heat must flow in the direction of lower temperature. If more than one material is
present, as in the multilayer wall shown in the figure 1, the analysis would proceed as
follows:
q1− 2 = q 2−3 = q3− 4
Or
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T3 ) (T − T4 )
q x = k a . A. = k b . A. 2 = k c . A. 3
Δx a Δxb Δx c
Solving these equations gives:
T1 − T4 T1 − T4 (T − T4 )
q= = = 1
Δx a Δx b Δxc Ra + Rb + Rc R
+ +
k a .A kb .A kc .A
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 7: Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Insulation Material Page 1 of 4
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Where:
Ra, Rb, Rc : thermal resistances of each material in oC/W.
R : thermal resistance of the multilayer material in oC/W.
Equation (1) can be introduced by:
Thermal potential difference
Heat Flow =
Thermal Resistance
Which is quite like Ohm's law in electric circuit theory, therefore we can represent these
layers of materials in figure as three electric resistances in series:-
a Ra Rb Rc
b q
c
Figure 1
1 2 3 4
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 7: Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Insulation Material Page 2 of 4
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Apparatus:-
The thermal conductivity of building and insulating materials unit is shown in figure 1.
Readings
Time (s) T1 (oC) T2 (oC) HMF (mV)
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 7: Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Insulation Material Page 3 of 4
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
• Draw T1, T2 versus time and show the steady state region.
• Calculate the equivalent thermal resistance R of the multilayer insulation materials.
• Compare the experimental value of R with the theoretical one, given the table of material
properties below.
K (w/m.K) Thickness (mm) ρ (kg/m3)
Cork board 0.043 3 160
Plaster Board 0.182 10 720
Plaster Gypsum 0.170 11 800
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 7: Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Insulation Material Page 4 of 4
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Exp. # (8)
Double pipe concentric tube heat exchanger
Objective:-
To study the performance and the characteristics of double pipe, water to water,
concentric tube heat exchanger in both parallel and counter flow.
Theory:-
One of the most common, conductive-convective, heat exchanger types is the concentric tube
heat exchanger.
These exchangers are built of coaxial tubes placed the ones inside the others. When both the
fluids enter from the same side and flow through the same direction we have the parallel flow
(cocurrent flow), otherwise, if the fluids enter from opposite sides and flow through the contrary
direction we have the countercurrent flow.
Usually the countercurrent flow is more efficient from the heat transfer point of view.
This type of heat exchangers can also be built with the internal tube made with longitudinal fins
which could be placed either in its internal surface or in its external one or both.
This configuration is useful mainly if one of the fluids is a gas or a liquid with a very high
viscosity and it's very difficult to have a good thermal convection coefficient.
The heat transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid is given by the following equation:
q = U × A × LMTD
Where: U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
A is the internal exchange surface area between the two fluids.
ΔT1 − ΔT 2
LMTD is a log mean temperature difference, and it's given by
ln(ΔT1 / ΔT 2 )
ΔT1=T hot in- T cold in ΔT2=T hot out- T cold out for the parallel flow exchanger.
ΔT1=T hot in- T cold out ΔT2=T hot out- T cold in for the counter flow exchanger.
Counter flow
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 8: Double pipe concentric tube heat exchanger Page 1 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Parallel flow
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 8: Double pipe concentric tube heat exchanger Page 2 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Procedure:-
1. Adjust V5 and V6 valves to get the parallel flow circuit.
2. Adjust the hot circuit valve V3 so as to obtain the required flow rate m hot with turbulent
rate.
3. Adjust the cold circuit valve V4 so as to obtain the required flow rate m cold with
turbulent rate.
4. Wait until the stationary heat flow between the two fluids is obtained and measure the
values of inlet, intermediate and outlet temperature of the two circuits
5. Keep the hot flow rate m hot at a constant level; increase the cold flow rate, wait for
steady state then repeat the temperature reading.
6. Repeat same procedure for the counter flow circuit.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 8: Double pipe concentric tube heat exchanger Page 3 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Results:-
320 100 50
320 150 50
320 200 50
320 250 50
320 100 50
320 150 50
320 200 50
320 250 50
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 8: Double pipe concentric tube heat exchanger Page 4 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Analysis:-
NOTE: The following analysis should be performed for both parallel and counter flow heat
exchangers.
1. Characteristic curve:
• Plot ΔThot versus cold water flow rate.
2. Temperature distribution in heat exchanger.
• Plot the average inlet, intermediate and outlet temperatures of the two fluids as a
function of the length of the heat exchanger.
3. Overall heat transfer coefficient U
• Q = U × A × LMTD
Qhot
• U=
A × LMTD
• Qhot = mhot × C pw × ΔThot
• Qcold = mcold × C pw × ΔTcold
• Qloss = Qhot − Qcold
• Plot U versus cold water flow rate.
• Plot Qloss versus cold water flow rate
Where:
ΔThot = Thot water inlet – Thot water outlet
ΔTcold = Tcold water outlet – Tcold water inlet
Cpw = 4.18 kj/kgK.
A = Internal exchange surface area between the two fluids = 0.226 m2
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 8: Double pipe concentric tube heat exchanger Page 5 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Exp. # (9)
Cross flow heat exchanger
NOTE: The following theory and apparatus description are served for both experiments (4) &(5)
Theory:
• Introduction
In order to transfer heat between two fluids many forms of heat exchanger have been
devised. In one of the most common arrangements, heat is transferred between a fluid flowing
through a bundle of tubes and another fluid flowing transversely over the outside of the tubes.
This configuration is known as a Cross Flow Heat Exchanger and is shown schematically in
Fig.1
Various tube layouts have been devised in order to improve the efficiency of the cross
flow heat exchanger and thereby reduce the physical size for a given heat transfer rate. However,
the objective of all of the arrangements is to promote turbulence in the fluid flowing across the
tube bundle.
The reason for this lies in the fact that the overall heat transfer coefficient for a cross flow
heat exchanger is made up of three components. Firstly the surface heat transfer coefficient for
the fluid is flowing through the tubes, secondly the thermal conductivity and thickness of the
tube material, and thirdly the surface heat transfer coefficient for the fluid flowing over the
external surface of the tubes.
Enhancement of the first two components may be achieved by increasing flow velocity in
the tubes and reducing the tube wall thickness, or using a material of higher thermal
conductivity.
The third component may be increased by raising the stream velocity, thereby increasing
the external Reynolds Number of each individual tube. Alternatively, the tube layout may be
changed in order to maximize turbulence. This is achieved by ensuring that each row of tubes is
positioned such that turbulence induced by the preceding row is incident upon the next row.
Hence a cascade effect is produced such that the degree of turbulence increases with the depth of
the tube bundle.
The effect of turbulence is to enhance the surface heat transfer coefficient beyond the
level achieved by increased Reynolds Number alone.
If the fluid flowing over the outside of the tubes is a gas, then the effective heat transfer
coefficient may be further increased by the use of extended surfaces, e.g. fins.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 1 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
As cross flow heat exchangers occur in many varied forms throughout industry, it is essential
that engineers and technologists should be aware of the performance of such units.
• Theoretical background:
The simplest form of cross flow heat exchanger may be regarded as a series of identical
heat transfer surfaces in a transverse stream that each has an influence on, and is in turn
influenced by, its neighbor. Therefore, in order to obtain a prediction for the heat transfer rate to
or from a bundle of surfaces in cross flow it is usual to initially consider a single surface in
isolation as a basis for correlation.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 2 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Generally in the case of gases the Prandtl Number varies little. For the variations in
temperature and pressure normally encountered, and the Prandtl Number factor may be assumed
part of the constant C.
Therefore, by carrying out a series of tests on apparatus of a particular geometry at
varying Reynolds Numbers, it is possible to obtain values for the constants C and m.
For the case of an isolated cylinder in turbulent cross flow conditions, the following
relationship is generally accepted for Reynolds Numbers (based on cylinder diameter) between
4000 and 40,000.
Nu = 0.174 Re 0.618 ………………………………………………………...…(3)
Apparatus:
The cross flow heat exchanger shown in fig. 2 with the following specifications:
• Air Duct: Vertically mounted glass reinforced plastic duct of 65 x 150mm cross section
with bell mouth intake at its upper end.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 3 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Front cover of opaque plastic with a central opening of 200mm length to receive one of
two standard tube plates.
• Fan: Three phase centrifugal blower of 1.l KW power input, mounted on an epoxy
coated welded steel frame. Air duct is directly mounted on the frame and fan intake.
• Fan Starter: Three phase contactor with current operated overload and On - Off buttons.
Mounted on fan frame.
• Air Flow Control: A lever operated iris damper mounted on the fan exhaust.
• Single Tube Plate: A clear plastic plate with a centrally drilled hole to accept the single
active element. Plate dimensions such that it snugly fits the 200mm opening in the air
duct.
• Multi Tube Plate: A clear plastic plate with 27 fixed plastic tubes of 16mm nominal
diameter arranged on an equilateral triangular pitch of 32mm between centers. Tubes
form six rows. Near the centre of each row is a dummy tube that may be removed and
replaced with the active element.
• Active element: Electrically heated (maximum 70V) thick copper cylinder of nominally
15.8mm diameter and 50mm length. Heated surface area = 2.482 x 10-3 m2. Extreme ends
are insulated to reduce errors due to wall effects. Integral thermocouple senses surface
temperature.
• Console: All electronic instrumentation and control is housed in a plastic coated steel
console with brushed aluminum front and rear panels.
• Temperature: Digital electronic thermometer with 0.1°C resolution. Indicates element
surface temperature and, via a biased switch, the duct air temperature.
• Voltage: Analogue voltmeter indicating the voltage across the active element heater.
Range: 0 to 70V.
• Active Element Control: Rotary variable transformer regulates voltage across active
element heater between 0 and 70V.
• Pressure Measurement: 1 Duct mounted inclined manometer recording intake
depression. Range: 0 to 70 mm H2O.
I Duct mounted inclined manometer. Range: 0 to 30 mm H2O.
• Voltage Switch: Controls maximum voltage from rotary voltage transformer. 70V
maximum supply for 5 pin heater and thermocouple plug. 35V for 7 pin accessories
socket.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 4 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 5 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Procedure:
1. Ensure the instrument console main switch is in the off position. Ensure the fan is
switched off.
2. If the single tube plate is not in position, remove the four knurled brass nuts retaining the
clear plastic tube plate. Remove the existing tube plate and replace with the single tube
plate. Replace and retighten the brass nuts.
3. Insert the active element into the hole in the single tube plate and plug the lead into the
instrument console.
4. Connect the duct pressure tapping to the right hand tube of the lower manometer with the
grey hose provided.
5. Close the Iris damper on the fan discharge to position number 9 and press the fan start
button.
6. Adjust the iris damper in conjunction with the intake manometer to obtain a low velocity
air flow through the duct (a depression H of approximately 4mm H2O).
7. Switch the voltage switch to 70V. Depress the main switch on the instrument console and
adjust the heater control to give an indicated active element surface temperature Ts, of
approximately 95°C. At low air velocities the heat transfer rate is low and it is advisable
to adjust the heater control in increments, allowing time between each adjustment for the
system to stabilize.
8. When stable conditions occur indicated by a constant active element surface temperature
record the values of Ts, Ta, H and V.
9. Adjust the iris damper on the fan exhaust to increase the indicated air depression H and
hence the duct air velocity.
10. Adjust the heater control to give approximately the original active element surface
temperature Ts.
11. Again when stable, record Ts, Ta, H and V.
12. Repeat the above procedure for increasing air velocities up to the maximum (iris damper
fully open).
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 6 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Results:
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
4 11 20 32.5 44 54
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row Single tube
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 7 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Analysis:
Calculate the followings:
• Heat transfer rate from the active element.
V2
Q=
R
• Heat flux.
Q
Φ= Where A is the area of heat transfer surface = 2.482 × 10-3 m2
A
• Mean surface heat transfer coefficient.
Φ
h=
(Ts − Ta )
• Duct air velocity.
T ×H
U = 74.294 a
Pa
• Reynolds number.
Ud
Re = Whereν is the kinematic viscosity of air at Ta
ν
On the same graph paper, plot h versus Re for the data obtained from the experiment, and the
data given by the following correlation:
hd
Nu = = 0.174 Re 0.618
k
k
h= × 0.174 Re 0.618
d
Where k is the thermal conductivity of the air at Ta.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 8 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Procedure:
1. Ensure the instrument console main switch is in the off position. Ensure the fan is
switched off.
2. If the multi-tube plate is not in position, remove the four knurled brass nuts retaining the
clear plastic tube plate. Remove the existing tube plate and replace with the multi-tube
plate. Replace and retighten the brass nuts.
3. Insert the active element into the top open hole in the tube plate and plug the lead into the
instrument console. Ensure that the five remaining dummy tubes are in position in the
lower holes.
4. Connect the duct pressure tapping to the right hand tube of the lower manometer with the
grey hose provided.
5. Close the Iris damper on the fan discharge to position number 9 and press the fan start
button.
6. Adjust the iris damper in conjunction with the intake manometer to obtain a low velocity
air flow through the duct (a depression H of approximately 1.5mm H2O).
7. Switch the voltage switch to 70V. Depress the main switch on the instrument console and
adjust the heater control to give an indicated active element surface temperature Ts, of
approximately 95°C. At low air velocities the heat transfer rate is also low and it is
advisable to adjust the heater control in increments, allowing time between each
adjustment for the system to stabilize.
8. When stable conditions occur indicated by a constant active element surface temperature
record the values of Ts, Ta, H and V.
9. Adjust the iris damper on the fan exhaust to increase the indicated air depression H and
hence the duct air velocity.
10. Adjust the heater control to give approximately the original active element surface
temperature Ts.
11. Again when stable, record Ts, Ta, H and V.
12. Repeat the above procedure for increasing air velocities up to the maximum (iris damper
fully open).
13. Turn the heater control to minimum and allow the active element to cool.
14. Place the active element in the second row hole and place the dummy tube from this hole
in the first row hole.
15. Repeat the experiment for a similar range of tunnel intake depressions.
16. Repeat the entire procedure with the active element in rows 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 9 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Results:
Atmospheric pressure: Pa
Heater element resistance R:66.7 Ohms(Ω)
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row 1 1 1 1
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 10 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row 2 2 2 2
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 11 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row 3 3 3 3
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 12 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row 4 4 4 4
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 13 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row 5 5 5 5
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 14 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Test No. 1 2 3 4
Active element surface
temperature Ts (oC)
Duct air temperature
Ta (oC)
Intake air depression
2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5
H (mm H2O)
Active element heater
voltage V (volts)
Tube row 6 6 6 6
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 15 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Analysis:
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 09: Cross flow heat exchanger Page 16 of 16
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Exp. # (10)
Combined convection &radiation
Objective:-
1. To determine the combined heat transfer (radiation convection) from a horizontal cylinder in
natural convection over a wide range of power inputs and corresponding surface temperatures.
2. To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in
Free convection.
Apparatus:-
Theory:-
If a surface, at a temperature above that of its surroundings, is located in stationary air at the
same temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of natural convection to the air (air
heated by contact with the surface) and radiation to the surroundings. A horizontal cylinder is
used in this experiment to provide a simple shape from which the heat transfer can be calculated.
In the case of natural (free) convection the mean heat transfer coefficient (Hcm) can be calculated
using the following steps.
1. Grashof number calculation
gβ (Ts − Ta ) D 3
GrD =
υ2
Where:-
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)
β = Volume expansion coefficient (K-1)
ν = Dynamic viscosity of air (m2/s)
The volumetric expansion coefficient (β) = 1/ Tf
Where Tf is the film temperature which equal (Ts+Ta)/2
2.Raleigh number Ra
gβ (Ts − Ta ) D 3
Ra D = GrD Pr = Pr
υ2
Where Pr is the prandtl number
3. Nusselt number
Nu m = c( Ra D ) n
Where c and n are obtained from the table below
RaD C n
10-9to10-2 0.675 0.058
10-2to102 1.02 0.148
102to104 0.850 0.188
104to107 0.480 0.250
107to1012 0.125 0.333
Table (1): listing constant c and exponent n for natural convection on a horizontal cylinder
(Ts 4 − Ta 4 )
Hrm = σξF
Ts − Ta
Where:-
σ is Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 ( W/m2K4).
ξ is the emissivity of surface = 0.95.
F is the view factor = 1.
Then the heat loss due to radiation (Qr) can be calculated using the following relationship.
Qr = Hrm As (Ts − Ta ) (W)
• Compare the theoretical values for Qtot with the measured values for Qin and explain
any differences in values.
• Compare the calculated heat transferred due to Convection Qc and radiation Qr.
• Compare the value for Hcm obtained using the simplified and full empirical equations and
comment on any difference.
• Plot a graph of surface temperature T1O against power input Qin and observe the
relationship.
Exp. # (11)
Force convection & radiation
Objective:-
1. To determine the effect of force convection on heat transfer from the surface of a cylinder at
Apparatus:-
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 11: Force convection & radiation Page 1 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Theory:-
In free (natural) convection the heat transfer rate from a surface is limited by the movement of
air which are generated by change in the density of the air as the air is heated by the surface. In
force convection the air movement can be greatly increased resulting in improved heat transfer
rate from a surface. Therefore a surface subjected to force convection will have a lower surface
temperature than the same surface subjected to free convection, for the same power input
. If a surface, at a temperature above that of its surroundings, is located in moving air at the same
temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of force convection to the air (heat is
transferred to the air passing the surface) and radiation to the surroundings. A horizontal cylinder
is used in this experiment to provide a simple shape from which the heat transfer can be
calculated.
The heat transfer coefficient Hfm due to force convection and Hrm due to radiation can be
calculated using the following relationships:
• Calculation of heat transfer coefficient for radiation
(Ts 4 − Ta 4 )
Hrm = σξF
Ts − Ta
Where:-
σ is Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 ( W/m2K4).
ξ is the emissivity of surface = 0.95.
F is the view factor = 1.
Ts is surface temperature of the cylinder (K).
Ta is the ambient temperature.
Then the heat loss due to radiation (Qr) can be calculated using the following relationship.
Qr = Hrm As (Ts − Ta ) (W)
k
Hf m = Nu m
D
Where:
k is the thermal conductivity of the air (W/m2K).
D is the diameter of the cylinder. (m).
Num is the average Nusselt number.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 11: Force convection & radiation Page 2 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
An empirical formula can be used to calculate the value for Num as follows:
Num = 0.3 +
(0.62 Re0.5 Pr 0.33 ) ⎡⎢1 + ⎛⎜ Re ⎞
⎟
0 .5 ⎤
⎥
⎡ ⎛ 0.4 ⎞ 0.66 ⎤
0.25
⎢⎣ ⎝ 282000 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ Pr ⎠ ⎥⎦
Where;
Re is the Reynolds number = UcD/υ
Pr is the Prandtl number for air.
Uc is the corrected air velocity (m/s).
Corrected air velocity = 1.22Ua(m/s)
Note The physical properties of air K, υ,and Pr are take at film temperature (Tf).
Then the heat loss due to force convection (Qf) can be calculated using the following relation.
Qf = Hf m As (Ts − Ta ) (W)
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 11: Force convection & radiation Page 3 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Corrected
Test Power Hfm Hrm
Air velocity Qc(W) Qr(W) Qtot(W)
No Qin(W) (W/m2K) (W/m2K)
Uc (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
• Compare the theoretical values for Qtot with the measured values for Qin and explain
any difference in the two value values.
• Compare the calculated heat transferred due to force Convection Qf and radiation Qr.
• Plot a graph of surface temperature T1O against corrected air velocity.
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 11: Force convection & radiation Page 4 of 5
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thermal science 1 Lab. - Exp # 11: Force convection & radiation Page 5 of 5