UNIT III

MODULATION
 UNIT III
 Continuous Wave Modulation:
 Amplitude and Frequency modulation
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Noise in continuous wave modulation
 Pulse Modulation:
 Pulse amplitude modulation
 Pulse Code Modulation
 Time Division Multiplexing
 Pseudo-Noise Sequences
 A notion of Spread Spectrum –
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
 Frequency-Hop Spread Spectrum

REF: Simon Haykin, ―Communication Systems‖, John Wiley and Sons

Inc. 4th Edition, 2001. (Chapter 1 and 2)
 Continuous Wave Modulation
 Amplitude and Frequency modulation
NEED FOR MODULATION

 Modulation is extremely necessary in communication

system because of the following reasons:
1) Avoids mixing of signals
2) Increase the range of communication
3) Wireless communication
4) Reduces the effect of noise
5) Reduces height of antenna
INTRODUCTION

 Modulation is the process by which some

characteristics of a carrier is varied in accordance
with a modulation wave

 Modulation is the process of putting information onto

a high frequency carrier for transmission (frequency
translation)
 In the modulation process, the baseband signal is
called “modulating signal” and anther higher frequency
signal is called as the “carrier”. The carrier signal will
carry the modulating signal to the destination.
TYPES OF MODULATION
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 Analog communication system

◼ The most common carrier is the sinusoidal
wave(Continuous wave modulation).

(Analog)

Carrier
wave
 D I F F E R E N T O F MODULATION
METHOD

 Analog modulation - The modulating signal

and carrier both are analog signal.

 TYPES :
 Amplitude modulation (AM),

 Frequency modulation (FM),

 Phase modulation (PM)
 .
 Digital MODULATION - T HE MODULATING SIGNAL IS
 a digital signal , but the carrier is an analog
signal
 TYPES :
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
Frequency Shift keying (FSK),
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

• Amplitude Modulation is a process of

changing the amplitude of a high frequency
carrier signal in proportion with the
instantaneous value of modulating signal
(information).

• Amplitude Modulation is the simplest and

earliest form of transmitters.
AMP LITUDE MODULATION
 AM – BAsIc DefINITIONs
5
The AM signal:

s (t )= Ac 1 + k • m(t )cos c t
0

-5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

The modulating signal: 1

m(t )= Am cosct 0

-1
The Carrier Signal: 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
1

c(t )=Ac cosct 0

-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
MODULATION INDEX

•The ratio between the amplitudes between the

amplitudes of the modulating signal and carrier,
expressed by the equation:

Em
m=
Ec
 ……………..(1)

…………………(2)

Substituting the value of Em from equation (1) into equation (2), we get

……..(3)

But ,
Now, substituting the values of Em and Ec from equation (1) and (3), we get
 MODULATION INDEX F O R MULTIPLE
MODULATING F R E Q U E N C I E S

• Two or more sine waves of different, uncorrelated

frequencies modulating a single carrier is calculated
by the equation:

m = m 1+m 2 2
2 + •
 TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY
 Transmission efficiency of an AM wave is the ratio of
the transmitted power which contains the information
(i.e. the total sideband power) to the total transmitted
power.
 BANDW IDTH

• Signal bandwidth is an important characteristic of any

modulation scheme

• In general, a narrow bandwidth is desirable

• Bandwidth is calculated by:

B = 2Fm
fc-fm fC fc+fm
2fm
TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH

◼ The condition of fc > W ensures that the sidebands do not

overlap.
LINEAR MODULATION

1. Double SideBand-Suppressed Carrier

modulation (DSB-SC)
2. Single SideBand (SSB) modulation
3. Vestigial SideBand (VSB) modulation
GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS
DEMODULATION OF AM
AM- POWER CALCULATIONS
 An AM transmitter has carrier power of 25 W. The
percentage of modulation is 80 percent. Calculate
following:
(a) the total power
(b) the power in one sideband.

 m=0.8
 Total AM power = 33 Watt;

 One Sideband power = 4 Watt

 An AM signal has a total power of 48 Watts with 45% modulation. Calculate the power
in the carrier and the sidebands.

a.) 39.59 W, 4.505W
b.) 40.59 W, 4.205W
c.) 43.59 W, 2.205W
d.) 31.59 W, 8.205W
Correct Answer: c) 43.59 W, 2.205W
Explanation:
Given that Pt = 48 W
Modulation index m= 0.45
The total power in an AM is given by
Pt= Pc ( 1 + m2/2)
= Pc ( 1 +0.452/2)
48 = Pc * 1.10125
Therefore, Pc = 48/ 1.10125
= 43.59 W
The total power in two sidebands is 48 – 43.59 = 4.41 W
So the power in each sideband is 4.41/2 = 2.205 W
APPLICATIONS AMPLITUDE MODULATION

• AM applications include broadcasting in

medium- and high-frequency applications,

• CB radio , and

• aircraft communications
FREQUENCY MODULATION

 Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding

of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous
frequency of the wave
Consider the sinusoidal modulating signal,
m(t) = Am cos(2fmt)

The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal equals

fi (t) = fc + k f m(t)
= fc + k f Am cos(2fmt)
= fc + f cos(2fmt)
where f = k f Am is thefrequency deviation.
 s(t) = A cos 2 f t + f
sin(2fmt)
c
 c

fm

where  = f / fm is often called the modulation index of FM signal.

 Modulation index  is the largest deviation from 2fct in an FM
system.

fc − fm = f c − f  fi (t) = f c + f cos(2f mt)  f c + f = fc + fm

1. A small  corresponds to a narrowband FM.

2. A large  corresponds to a wideband FM.
GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS
 Direct FM
◼ Carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the
message signal as accomplished using a voltage-controlled
oscillator.
 Indirect FM
◼ The message is first integrated and sent to a phase modulator.
◼ So, the carrier frequency is not directly varied in accordance to
the message signal.
DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS

 Indirect Demodulation – Phase-locked loop

 Direct Demodulation
◼ Balanced frequency discriminator
s (t) | ~s(t) |
1 1

differentiation filters

s(t) ~s(t)
o

| ~s(t) |
s (t) 2
2
TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNALS

 Carson’s rule – An empirical bandwidth

◼ An empirical rule for transmission bandwidthof
FM signals
 For large , the bandwidth is essentially 2f.
 For small , the bandwidth is effectively 2fm.
 So, Carson proposed (in 1922) that:
 1
BT  2f + 2 f m = 2 +
f 1 

DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS

 Indirect Demodulation – Phase-locked loop

 Direct Demodulation
◼ Balanced frequency discriminator
s (t) | ~s(t) |
1 1

differentiation filters ~s(t)

o

s(t)
s (t) | ~s(t) |
2 2
 CONSIDER THIS …
• Consider a large room with many people. May be like this
class room. Everyone wants to talk with someone. If all
simultaneously speak then there will not be any
communication at all.
• How to solve this problem?
• Large room divided up into small rooms.
• Each pair of people takes different rooms.
• No division business
• each pair gets 20 seconds to speak.
• Everyone is speaking in different languages.
• No small rooms; no restriction on timings
MULTI USER RADIO COMMUNICATION

• Types:
• Satellite communication- line of sight but global coverage
• Wireless communication- mobility

• Both of them uses a special technique called as multiple

access

• Definition of multiple access:

• a technique whereby many subscribers or local stations can share the
use of a communication channel at the same time

• There is little difference between multiplexing and

multiple access
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE ACCESS & MULTIPLEXING

MULTIPLE ACCESS MULTIPLEXING

remote sharing of a communication sharing of a channel such as a

channel such as a satellite or radio telephone channel by users
channel by users in highly dispersed confined to a local site.
locations

a technique whereby many A technique where many inputs are

subscribers or local stations can share combined and a single output is
the use of a communication channel at transmitted over a single transmission
the same time medium

user requirements can change user requirements are ordinarily fixed.

dynamically with time

Example: FDMA, CDMA, TDMA, Eg: 2:1 MUX, 4:1 MUX

SDMA
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

 Multiplexing is a technique to combine a number

of independent signals into a composite signal
suitable for transmission.
 Two conventional multiplexing techniques
◼ Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
◼ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
(FDMA).
• In this technique, disjoint sub-bands of frequencies are
allocated to the different users on a continuous-time
basis.
FDMA CHANNEL
STRUCTURE
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of

transmitting and receiving independent signals over a
common signal path by means of synchronized
switches at each end of the transmission line so
that each signal appears on the line only a fraction of
time in an alternating pattern.

 It is used when the bit rate of the transmission medium

exceeds that of the signal to be transmitted.

 This form of signal multiplexing was developed

in telecommunications for telegraphy systems in the late
19th century, but found its most common application
in digital telephony in the second half of the 20th
century.
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA).
• In this second technique, each user is allocated the full
spectral occupancy of the channel, but only for a short
duration of time called
a time slot.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Time Slot 1

Multiplexer De-multiplexer
TDMA CHANNEL
STRUCTURE
FRAMES

• Each rotation corresponds to a frame on the multiplex

Multiplexer TS3 TS2 TS1 TS0

De-multiplexer
 TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• This technique combines time-domain samples from different message signals

(sampled at the same rate) and transmits them together across the same channel.
• The multiplexing is performed using a commutator (switch) as shown in Figure
3.19. At the receiver a decommutator (switch) is used in synchronism with the
commutator to demultiplex the data.
• TDM system is very sensitive to symbol dispersion, that is, to variation of

56
amplitude with frequency or lack of proportionality of phase with frequency.
This problem may be solved through equalization of both magnitude and phase.
• One of the methods used to synchronize the operations of multiplexing and
demultiplexing is to organize the mutiplexed stream of data as frames with a
special pattern. The pattern is known to the receiver and can be detected very
easily.
 .
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TDM SYSTEM
 DIGITAL MULTIPLEXERS

• This type of multiplexers is used to combine digital signals at different bit rates

58
such as voice, video, audio, and computer data.
• There are two groups of digital multiplexers: One group uses low bit-rate data
streams and the other is for high bit-rate data streams.
• The first group requires the use of modems.
• The second group of digital multiplexers forms a part of the data transmission
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CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF MULTIPLEXING-DEMULTIPLEXING.
Pulse modulation
PULSE MODULATION

 Pulse modulation is “the process in which signal

is transmitted by pulses (i.e., discontinuous signals)
with a special technique”.

 Pulse modulation methods are used to transfer a

narrowband analog signal, such as a phone call, over a
pulse stream.

 The pulse modulation is classified as analog pulse

modulation and digital pulse modulation.
 Pulse amplitude modulation:
The pulse amplitude modulation is the modulation of
signals by varying the amplitude of pulses. The width and
positions of the pulses are constants in this modulation.
There are two kinds of Pulse amplitude modulation. They
are natural sampling and flat top sampling. The
advantage of this modulation is the generation and
detection is easy in this modulation. The disadvantage is
band width of transmitted signal is large.
 Pulse width modulation:
The pulse width modulation is the modulation of signals
by varying the width of pulses. The amplitude and
positions of the pulses are constant in this modulation.
 Pulse position modulation:
The pulse position modulation is the modulation of signals
by varying the position of pulses. The amplitude and width
of the pulses are constant in this modulation.
SAMPLING PROCESS
GENERATION OF THE PAM SIGNAL
 There are two operations involved in the generation of
the PAM signal:
 Instantaneous sampling of the message signal x(t)
every Ts seconds, where the sampling rate fs = 1/Ts is
chosen in accordance with the sampling theorem
 Lengthening the duration of each sample so
obtained to some constant value τ (sample‐and‐hold)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PAM GENERATION

SYSTEM FOR RECOVERING MESSAGE SIGNAL M(T) FROM PAM

SIGNAL S(t).
PULSE CODE MODULATION

PCM is the most commonly used technique in digital

communications Used in many applications:

➢ Telephone systems
➢ Digital audio recording
➢ CD laser disks
●
➢voice mail
➢ digital video etc.

They are a primary building block for advanced

communication systems
PULSE CODE MODULATION

➢ Based on the sampling theorem

➢Each analog sample is assigned a binary code

➢ Analog samples are referred to as pulse amplitude

modulation (PAM) samples

➢ The digital signal consists of block of n bits, where each n-bit

number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse

ENCODING (PCM):

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72
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FIGURE :LINE CODES FOR THE
ELECTRICAL REPRESENTATIONS
OF BINARY DATA.

(A) UNIPOLAR NRZ SIGNALING.

(B) POLAR NRZ SIGNALING.
(C) UNIPOLAR RZ SIGNALING.
(D) BIPOLAR RZ SIGNALING.
(E) SPLIT-PHASE OR
MANCHESTER CODE.

73
PULSE CODE MODULATION

Figure :The basic elements of a PCM system.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REGENERATIVE REPEATER.

9/18/2018 75
VIRTUES AND LIMITATIONS OF PCM
• The most important advantages of PCM are:
1. Robustness to channel noise and interference.
2. Efficient regeneration of the coded signal along the channel path.
3. Efficient exchange between BT and SNR.
4. Uniform format for different kind of base-band signals.

76
5. Flexible TDM.
6. Secure communication through the use of special modulation schemes of
encryption.
• These advantages are obtained at the cost of more complexity and increased BT.
• With cost-effective implementations, the cost issue no longer a problem of
concern.
• With the availability of wide-band communication channels and the use of
sophisticated data compression techniques, the large bandwidth is not a serious
problem.
Spread Spectrum Modulation
 CONSIDER A SITUATION

• There is a big gathering

• You and your friend are attending
• You want to communicate something to your friend alone
• But all are noticing
• How to do?
• Speak in a language which no one knows in the gathering.
WHAT IS SPREAD SPECTRUM?

• A communication system is considered a spread

spectrum system if it satisfies the following two criteria:

• Bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal has to be

greater than the information bandwidth

• The spectrum spreading is accomplished before

transmission through the use of a code that is
independent of data sequence. The same code is used in
receiver to dispread the received signal.

• FM and PCM satisfy property 1 but not property 2

 Effect of spread spreading
 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEM
a. The signals occupies a bandwidth much in excess
of the minimum bandwidth necessary to send the
information.

b. Spreading is accomplished by means of a spreading

signal, often called a code signal, which is
independent of the data.

c. At Rx, dispreading is accomplished by the

correlation of the received spread signal with a
synchronized replica of the spreading signal used to
spread the information.
TYPES OF SPREADING TECHNIQUES
PRINCIPLES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM
 Direct sequence technique
▪ Two stages of modulation
▪ Incoming data sequence is used to modulate
a wideband code. The code transform the
narrowband data sequence into a noise-like
wideband signal.
▪ Resulting wideband signal undergoes the
second modulation using a PSK technique
 Frequency hopping technique
▪ The spectrum of a data-modulated carrier is
widened by changing the carrier frequency in
a pseudorandom manner.
PSEUDO-NOISE SEQUENCE

• The pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary

sequence with a noise like waveform that is generated
by means of a feedback shift register.

• How to generate?
Using feedback shift register

• The feedback shift register consists of m-stage shift

registers and a logic circuit
• Flip flops are regulated by clock
• At each clock pulse state of the flip-flop change
PN SEQUENCE GENERATOR
PN SEQUENCE: EXAMPLE

•Three flip-flops form 3 bit shift register

•Logic circuit is modulo-2 adder

•Modulo-2 adder is nothing but 2 input X-OR gate (inputs to

this gate are s1 and s3,output of this gate is s0)

•Initial state is s1=1, s2=0 and s3=0

S1 S2 S3

1 0 0

1 1 0

1 1 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

0 1 0

0 0 1

1 0 0
• The PN sequence is the output sequence S3. Hence
PN=0011101

• When we have m flip flops then the total number of

possible states is 2m.

• If it is a linear feed back register then maximum length is 2m-

1

• When the period is exactly 2m-1, the PN sequence is

called maximal length sequence or simply m- sequence
PROPERTIES OF MAXIMAL LENGTH SEQUENCE

• Balance property:
• In each period of a maximal-length sequence, the number of 1’s is
always one more than the number of 0’s.
• Run property:
• Among the runs of 1’s and of 0’s in each period of a maximal-length
sequence, one half the runs of each kind are of length one, one-
fourth are of length two, one-eighth are of length three, and so on
as long as these fractions represent meaningful numbers of runs.
• Auto correlation property:
• The autocorrelation function of a maximal-length sequence is
periodic and binary valued.
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS)

 Each bit is represented by multiple bits using spreading code

 Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency band
 —In proportion to number of bits used
 —e.g., 10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10 times
bandwidth of 1 bit code

 One method:
 —Combine input with spreading code using XOR
 Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
 Input zero bit doesn’t alter spreading code bit
 —Data rate equal to original spreading code
 Performance similar to FHSS
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM EXAMPLE
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM TRANSMITTER
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM RECEIVER
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM USING
BPSK EXAMPLE
APPROXIMATE SPECTRUM OF DSSS SIGNAL
FREQUENCY HOPPING SS

• The spectrum of the transmitted signal is spread

sequentially rather than instantaneously
• The type of spread spectrum in which the carrier
hops randomly from one frequency to another is
called frequency-hopping (FH) spread spectrum.

• M-ary frequency-shift keying (MFSK) is used

along FHSS
• We are led to consider the rate at which the
hops occur.
FREQUENCY HOPPING SS

• We are led to consider the rate at which the

hops occur.
• Based on characterizations of frequency
hopping it is classified as
• Slow-frequency hopping, in which the symbol rate
Rs, of the MFSK signal is an integer multiple of the
hoprate Rh
• That is, several symbols are transmitted on
each frequency hop.
 FREQUENCY HOPPING SS

• We are led to consider the rate at which the hops

occur.
• Based on characterizations of frequency
hopping it is classified as
• Fast-frequency hopping, in which the hop rate Rh is
an integer multiple of the MFSK symbol rate Rs.
• That is, the carrier frequency will change or hop
several times during the transmission of one
symbol
SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING SS | TRANSMITTER
SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING SS | RECEIVER
CHIP RATE

SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING SS

SLOW FHSS | ILLUSTRATION
FAST FHSS |
ILLUSTRATION
 USES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM

• Gained popularity by the needs of military communication

• Proved to resistant against hostile jammers

Advantages:
• able to deal with multi-path ,multiple access due to different
spreading sequences
• spreading sequence design is very important for
performance
• low probability of interception
• privacy
• anti-jam capabilities