Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang Campus
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

INTERNATIONAL / ASIAN CUISINE

SOUTH EAST ASIAN CUISINE
I. TITLE
II. INTRODUCTION
III. FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD WAYS AND CULINARY PRACTICES
IV. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION, CLIMATE, TOPOGRAPHY, HISTORY, RELIGION OF
DIFFERENT REGION OR COUNTRIES
V. SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING CULTURAL FOODS
VI. ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT AFFECT CULTURAL FOOD
VII. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF CULTURAL FOODS
VIII. HEALTH CONCERNS
IX. CULTURAL WAY
X. RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND CULTURE
XI. TERMINOLOGIES USED IN _______________________ CUISINES
XII. RECIPES
XIII. REFERENCES
SOUTH EAST ASIAN
CUISINE
 INTRODUCTION
Southeast Asian cuisine includes a strong emphasis on lightly prepared dishes with a strong
aromatic component that features such flavors as citrus and herbs such
as lime, coriander/cilantro and basil. Ingredients in the region contrast with the ones in the Eastern
Asian cuisines, substituting fish sauces for soy sauce and the inclusion of ingredients such
as galangal, tamarind and lemongrass. Cooking methods include a balance of stir-frying, boiling
and steaming.

Southeast Asia consists of eleven countries that reach from eastern India to China, and is generally
divided into “mainland” and “island” zones. The mainland (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
and Vietnam) is actually an extension of the Asian continent. Muslims can be found in all mainland
countries, but the most significant populations are in southern Thailand and western Burma
(Arakan). The Cham people of central Vietnam and Cambodia are also Muslim.

Island or maritime Southeast Asia includes Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines,
Brunei, and the new nation of East Timor (formerly part of Indonesia). Islam is the state religion
in Malaysia and Brunei. Although 85 percent of Indonesia’s population of over 234,000,000 are
Muslims, a larger number than any other country in the world, Islam is not the official state
religion. Muslims are a minority in Singapore and the southern Philippines.

Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are
geographically south of China and Japan, east of India, west of Papua New Guinea, and north
of Australia.[4] Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and
the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and
the Indian Ocean. The region is the only part of Asia that lies partly within the Southern
Hemisphere, although the majority of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. In contemporary definition,
Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:

1. Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising parts

of Northeast India (Part of India east of Siliguri
Corridor), Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar and West Malaysia.
2. Maritime Southeast Asia, also known historically as Nusantara, the East
Indies and Malay Archipelago, comprises the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands of India, Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, East
Timor, Brunei, Christmas Island, and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Taiwan is also
included in this grouping by many anthropologists.
The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with both heavy seismic and volcanic
activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian
countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Laos, northern Vietnam, and
northern Luzon of the Philippines. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, and peninsular
Malaysia are part of the Alpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring
of Fire. Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high
occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Southeast Asia covers about 4.5 million km2 (1.7 million mi2), which is 10.5% of Asia or 3% of
earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 641 million, about 8.5% of the world's
population. It is the third most populous geographical region in the world after South Asia and
East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by
different ethnic groups. Ten countries in the region are members of ASEAN, a regional
organization established for economic, political, military, educational and cultural integration
amongst its members.

FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD WAYS AND CULINARY PRACTICES

A. Food
1. Statistics: More than 3/4 of the Southeast Asia population is agriculture-based. Twice as much
fish sasses consumed in this region compared to other forms of animal protein, reflecting the long
coastlines and river environments of Southeast Asia. The staple food throughout the region is rice,
which has been cultivated for thousands of years. Rice serves as the basic staple food for more
than half of the world's population today.
2. General Information: Simple daily meals and elaborate feasts characterize all Southeast Asian
Culinary cultures. Cooking is economically efficient as people use wok cooking, which requires a
low amount of fuel and makes deep-frying easy. Also, meat and vegetables are typically chopped
into small pieces prior to cooking, which mean that food cooks very quickly. Most food is cooked
by quick blanching or stir-frying and steaming. Southeast Asians are concerned with nutrition,
economy, and ease of preparation as it relates to their food. Due to the close proximity of the
borders between countries in Southeast Asia, and to combined influences from India and China
that have affected indigenous taste and cooking styles, the ingredients are similar throughout most
of the region while they are nonetheless manipulated by each culture to suit their palate and taste.
Most often, food is consumed in Southeast Asia on a mat raised off the ground traditionally.
Modern homes may use a table and chairs. Generally, food is eaten at room temperature, as the
climate is quite warm throughout the year. In Asia, there are different styles of eating food. In
India and the Middle East, as well as Southeast Asia, people eat food with their hands. It is a very
direct way to experience the texture of the food, and people normally wash their hands before and
after each meal. Normally, only the right hand is used, so that one knows to keep it especially
clean. Generally, the foods to be eaten are placed on plates in the center of the mat or table, and
people take food in small portions as they eat. The exception to this pattern is Vietnam, where the
influence of China was much stronger than anywhere else in Southeast Asia. Here, each person
has chopsticks, and food is served and apportioned onto individual plates or into individual bowls.
A similar pattern is found in other Asian countries where Chinese influence was especially strong,
e.g., Japan, Tibet, and Korea. The influence of Western cultures is found not only in the use of
tables and chairs in many modern Southeast Asian households, but also in the use of spoons and
forks. Knives are not necessary, since meat and vegetables are chopped into smaller portions before
cooking or serving. A large spoon is held in the right hand, while the left hand is used to shovel
food into the spoon.
3. Milk-related products: Southeast Asians, unlike cultures in northern and central Asia, do not
use milk in the way that Europeans and Americans do. While bread has become popular as a snack
or breakfast food item in countries that were colonized by European nations, most Southeast
Asians do not consider milk, yogurt, cheese, and other dairy foods to be a popular source of
nutrition. Instead, soybean milk, soy-bean paste, and soy sauce are alternative food preferences for
most people, with evaporated milk and modern-day substitutes commonly used to sweeten coffee
or prepare desserts. Coconut milk, as a very different and indigenous product, is widely used as
well.
4. Specific food information: The food consumed in Southeast Asia varies not only by country,
but by religious and ethnic tradition. This diversity makes Southeast Asian food a fascinating, if
life-long adventure to people who try to master such cooking. Here are a few themes. Both Indian
and Chinese
a. Indian cooking has influenced much of Southeast Asia. However, Indian cooking varies
throughout the country and according to ethnic and religious preference. Most know that
Muslims do not eat pork, and that the month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Muslim lunar
calendar) is a time of fasting for Muslims all over the world. Muslims may neither eat nor drink
during the daylight hours of this month. Hindus, in contrast, find that cows are sacred and the
eating of beef is forbidden. Others, especially of the high caste or from the south of India, are
vegetarians. China is much more eclectic, and the Chinese who follow Taoist traditions believe
that food should be combined in ways that have medicinal or healing properties. Some foods are
“hot", and should be avoided by pregnant women or those with high blood pressure. Examples of
hot foods include chili peppers and ginger. Other foods are "cool", such as eggplant, and should
be eaten by people who wish to lower their blood pressure. The popularity of wheat in northern
China also led to their development of noodles as a staple of many dishes. By all of these means,
people believe they can effectively regulate their body processes and reactions. Buddhists, too, are
expected to not eat meat, as the killing of any animal is antithetical to Buddhist beliefs. However,
many Buddhists do eat meat as well as fish, and this belief tends to be most closely observed by
monks or ascetics rather than by ordinary people today. Curries originated in India, with the milk
and butter from cow raising being included in the recipes. In Southeast Asia, coconut milk was
substituted for real milk, with a very different subsequent taste to the curries. Noodles are popular
throughout Southeast Asia, and reflect Chinese as well as Indian influence in the spices and
methods of preparation. European food ways also have had their influence in Southeast Asia. In
the Philippines, for example, Spanish influence is clearly present not only in the languages of the
country but in their love of such dishes as pan de sal (a type of bread), kilawin (marinated raw
seafood with chili), paella (a seafood, meat and rice stir fry dish), empanada (a sweet bread), and
a variety of other seasoned meat dishes. Conventional dishes in the Philippines reflect more
influence from a blend of Chinese, Spanish, and indigenous Southeast Asian traditions than is
found anywhere else in Southeast Asia.
b. Popular meals in Southeast Asia consist of rice, fish, vegetables, fruits, and spices.
Curry, "satay" (spiced or marinated meat on a stick that is barbecued), "sour fish soup", noodles,
and soy products are popular. Flavorings that are common include ginger, pepper, chili peppers,
onions, garlic, soy sauce, fish sauce, fermented fish paste, turmeric, candlenut, lemon grass, cloves,
nutmeg, cinnamon, as well as tamarind and lime (for a sour taste). Coconut milk is often used to
bind sharp flavors, while palm sugar is used to balance the spices. Unique combinations of sweet
and sour, or hot and sour, hot and sweet, are common in various regions. Fish paste and prawn
paste is spicy-sour, and is popularly consumed with green mangoes, fresh fish, or in stews. Fish
sauce is used in almost all Southeast Asian curries as well as in various forms of cooking fish and
pork. Popular vegetables are sweet potatoes, maize, taro, tapioca, legumes, blossoms, and the
leaves of many green plants. Popular fruits are pineapple, coconut, star fruit, jackfruit, papaya,
bananas, rambutan, mangosteen, and the somewhat odorous durian ("king of the fruits", according
to aficionados). Tea and coffee are abundant throughout the region, although the popular drink
with a meal is water.
c. Highland cuisine. Some might say that cuisine in the highlands of Southeast Asia is a
nonsequitur. Foods here tend to be blander and less fancy compared to foods that have long
characterized lowland civilizations. Typically, meat is boiled in a large vat or roasted.
However, the highlands of Southeast Asia are quite varied in terms of food preparation, and the
biggest and aspiring politicians and individuals who wish to raise their status and prestige in the
community. This feasting tradition is not new, but centuries old. Politics formerly revolved around
the reputation of individuals who had sponsored larger feasts than their competitors, e.g., they had
butchered more animals for a large feast and were thus able invite more guests. In this way, the
guests bestowed them with respect and legitimacy, thus leading to a very unique style of political
system wherein authority was tied into food and feeding of one's followers periodically. Most
often, the occasion for feasting was determined by the ritual cycle and religious belief system.
What is most important to know about highland feasting systems is that food is essential to
any ceremonial or political event. Without the presence of food, and an audience, there is no litical
or ritual legitimacy. Leaders are expected to use their wealth to feast their followers, and religious
rites require sacrificial animals in order to feast the ancestors and spirits. In lowland Southeast
Asia, too, marriage ceremonies tend to be very large events where much food is prepared for
guests.
d. Invitations are not generally part of Southeast Asian food and culture. Traditionally, one
drops in on a house of friends or neighbors or kin, and one receives food without question. In fact,
it is an insult to refuse to eat food that is offered (Perhaps one is an enemy and afraid of being
poisoned? Or perhaps one is not grateful or approving of the type of food being offered? At feasts,
similarly, invitations are rare. They imply invidious distinctions between people that otherwise
work and live together in a community; all should be welcome to eat, regardless of status.
e. In the cities and suburban areas of Southeast Asia today, Western influences in the
form of fast-food restaurants are becoming more common. McDonalds, Wendy's, Shakey's Pizza,
and Kentucky Fried Chicken are among the more common fast food chains that have penetrated
Southeast Asia. Side by side, one finds traditional restaurants, bistros, Indian curry shops, Chinese
noodle and dim sum shops, and sidewalk vendors supplying local cuisine. Southeast Asians are
income-limited but all gourmets, and the range of food choices are generally embraced rather than
resented.

B. Culture

1. General Influences: Social and economic activities associated with feasting include rice
harvesting, an important community event that is celebrated in dance and ritual. Symbols of rice
are found in textiles, such as batik in Indonesia. Women generally prepare rice for each meal. The
development of wet-rice, or irrigated rice cultivation systems in Southeast Asia, led to the
continual development of large-scale civilizations, societies, and hierarchies of nobles,
commoners, and dependents. Similarly, the Spice Trade, focused in eastern Indonesia, eventually
led to the European colonization and intervention into Southeast Asia. Spices were in great demand
in India and China, as well as Europe. Rice is the basis of Southeast Asian food, and in many
languages a common greeting is "Have you eaten yet?" The verb for "to eat" is often the same as
the verb "to eat rice". Rice is used for fuel oil, rice-paper, alcoholic drinks, tea, all manner of foods,
cosmetics, medicines, and magical potions. Typically, a small portion of food is offered to the
gods, ancestral spirits, and other beings during ritual sacrifices at major ceremonies or even before
common, everyday meals. Food can even have an importance in peace relations between
neighboring countries, such as is the case in Thailand and Malaysia. The Muslim Malays raise pigs
for the Thai Buddhists, who in turn raise cattle for Malays. Although differentiation in culture and
religion exist throughout this region, the cooperative food trading system has helped attain peace
and forge alliances between neighboring peoples to the present day.
2. Cases:
a. Indonesia: Eastern Indonesia women have to follow specific rules in regards to the rice
in the village. For example, they may not enter the rice granary unless they are fully clothed, and
they must enter with their right foot forward. They may not enter the granary at times when the
rice spirit might be sleeping, and they may not step over a pot of cooked rice. In Java, central
Indonesia, villagers hold a wedding ceremony for the rice goddess, Bak Sri, and her male
counterpart, Djarka Sudana, in order to symbolize the reaffirmation of marriage. Each member of
a married couple identifies or associates themselves with the appropriate rice spirit. Also, it is
common for people to spill a few drops of a beverage onto the ground to appease any thirsty spirits
that may be lingering about before people sit down to eat and drink. In Bali, villagers offer
extravagant food offerings to demons that are made from pig fat and other symbolically nasty
materials at the hundred-year ceremony restoration and balance, known as Eka Desa Rudra. The
rice cultivation system is also interesting here, as it is controlled through the timings of community
and water group temples, led by a ritual specialist. In the Toraja highlands of Kalimantan,
Indonesia, huge feasting rituals that involve the slaughter of many cattle are held for the purpose
of redrawing social status lines. The specific distribution of meat from slaughtered sacrificial
animals depends on one's social standing, inherited lineage, and history of feasting. One can be
shamed or honored, and one's status raised or lowered, depending on the serving order, portion
size, and section of meat one receives.
b. Philippines - In the highlands of Luzon, Ibaloi peoples are famous for their ritual feasts.
One large ritual known as peshit was developed as a 25 stage ritual that each person aspiring to
high social status and leadership had to perform in order to achieve maximum authority and
legitimacy. This unique system developed originally around the slaughter of pigs, and later became
elaborated with the introduction of cattle raising. As more and more wealthy individuals acquired
large herds of cattle, the peshit ritual became more attainable. Eventually, it was expected that the
highest status leaders in the region would not only complete the 25 stage ritual, each stage of which
required a larger and larger number of animals to be slaughtered to feed the people, but to repeat
it.
c. Malaysia - Malaysia is a country where there is profound ethnic diversity. The
bumiputra, or "sons of the soil", is a term that refers to the indigenous Malay people. In Malaysia,
to be Malay means to be Muslim today. There are also significant numbers of Chinese, who were
imported by the British colonial regime to mine tin, as well as Indians, who were imported to work
on rubber plantations. "Nonya" cooking is popular within Malaysia as a symbolic fusion cuisine
that integrates elements of indigenous Malay and imported Chinese cooking styles.
In the Langkawi islands, west of Malaysia, a complex and unique kinship system exists
whereby outsiders are "incorporated" into existing kin networks through the consumption of food.
It is believed that feeding, or the sharing of food between people, creates kinship by transforming
the blood of an individual to that of another individual. Since this food is cooked in the kitchen of
the house, the hearth is a central symbol of Langkawi, and Malay, community and social life.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION, CLIMATE, TOPOGRAPHY, HISTORY,
RELIGION OF DIFFERENT REGION OR COUNTRIES

Southeast Asia

Area 4,545,792 km2(1,755,140 sq mi)

Population 641,775,797 (3rd)[1]
Population 135.6/km2 (351/sq mi)
density
GDP (nominal) $2.557 trillion (exchange rate)
GDP (PPP) $7.6 trillion[3]
GDP per capita $4,018 (exchange rate)
HDI 0.684
Ethnic groups Austroasiatic, Austronesian, Melanesian, Negrito, Papuan, Sino-
Tibetan and Tai peoples
Religions Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Vietnamese folk, Tai
folk, Confucianism, Taoism and Animism
Demonym Southeast Asian
Countries 11 states[show]
Dependencies  Christmas Island
 Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Languages Official languages[show]
Other languages[show]
Time zones 5 time zones[show]
 Internet TLD .bn, .id, .kh, .la, .mm, .my, .ph, .sg, .th, .tl, .vn
Calling code Zone 6 & 8
Largest cities Capital cities[show]
Largest cities[show]
UN M.49 code 035 – South-eastern Asia
142 – Asia
001 – World

Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a sub region of Asia, consisting of the countries that are
geographically south of Japan, Korea and China, east of India, west of Papua New Guinea, and
north of Australia. Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South
Asia and the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south
by Australia and the Indian Ocean. The region is the only part of Asia that lies partly within
the Southern Hemisphere, although the majority of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. In
contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:

1. Mainland Southeast Asia also known historically as Indochina, comprising parts of Eastern
India (India stretches from South Asia to Southeast
Asia), Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, and West Malaysia.
2. Maritime Southeast Asia also known historically as Nusantara, the East Indies and Malay
Archipelago, comprises the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, Indonesia, East
Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Christmas Island, and the Cocos
(Keeling) Islands. Taiwan is also included in this grouping by many anthropologists.
The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with both heavy seismic and volcanic
activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian
countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam, and northern Luzon of the
Philippines. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, and peninsular Malaysia are part of
the Alpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both
seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Southeast Asia covers about 4.5 million km2 (1.7 million mi2), which is 10.5% of Asia or 3% of
earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 641 million, about 8.5% of the world's
population. It is the third most populous geographical region in the world after South Asia and
East Asia.[7] The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by
different ethnic groups.[8]Ten countries in the region are members of ASEAN, a regional
organisation established for economic, political, military, educational and cultural integration
amongst its members.
Definitions
The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the East Indies or
simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred the region as 南洋(Nanyang),
which literally means the "Southern Ocean." The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred
to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian
subcontinent and it’s having cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century,
however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French
Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known
as the Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race. Another
term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region
between Indochina and Australasia.
The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his
book Travels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded
the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst
of World War II by the Allies, through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in
1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia," although what constituted Southeast
Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part
of Indonesia while including Ceylon. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the
term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from a cultural
or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most common
definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent
territories) listed below.
Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it
might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in
the South China Sea.
Some southern parts of Mainland China, as well as Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan (a disputed
region or nation), are also considered as part of Southeast Asia by some authors.

Political Divisions
Sovereign States

GDP
(PPP)
per
Area Populatio Densit GDP HDI
capita Capita
State (km2 n y (nominal), (201
, l
)[2] (2016)[1] (/km2) USD (2019) 7)
Int$
(2018
)

Bandar
Brunei 5,765 423,196 78 14,310,000,000 $77,699 0.853 Seri
Begawan

181,03 Phnom
Cambodia 15,762,370 85 24,733,000,000 $4,322 0.582
5 Penh
 GDP
(PPP)
per
Area Populatio Densit GDP HDI
capita Capita
State (km2 n y (nominal), (201
, l
)[2] (2016)[1] (/km2) USD (2019) 7)
Int$
(2018
)

East Timor
14,874 1,268,671 75 2,962,000,000 $5,987 0.625 Dili
(Timor-Leste)

1,904,5 1,177,568,000,0
Indonesia 261,115,456 132 $13,162 0.694 Jakarta
69 00

236,80 Vientian
Laos 6,758,353 30 17,216,000,000 $7,710 0.600
0 e

Kuala
329,84 422,591,000,00
Malaysia 31,187,265 91 $30,858 0.802 Lumpur
7 0
*

676,00 Nay Pyi

Myanmar 52,885,223 78 92,775,000,000 $6,579 0.578
0 Daw

343,44 435,905,000,00
Philippines 103,320,222 294 $9,862 0.699 Manila
8 0

334,713,000,00 Singapor
Singapore 724 5,622,455 7,671 $98,014 0.925
0 e

513,12 436,467,000,00
Thailand 68,863,514 127 $19,126 0.755 Bangkok
0 0

331,21 254,324,000,00
Vietnam 94,569,072 279 $7,463 0.694 Hanoi
0 0
 Political Map of Southeast Asia.

Dependent Territories

UNSD statistical divisions for Asia based on convenience rather than implying any assumption
regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories:
North Asia
Central Asia
Western Asia
South Asia
East Asia
Southeast Asia

Area Density
Territory Population Capital
(km2) (/km2)

Christmas Island 135 1,402 10.4 Flying Fish Cove

 Area Density
Territory Population Capital
(km2) (/km2)

Cocos (Keeling) West Island (Pulau

14 596 42.6
Islands Panjang)

Administrative Subdivisions

Area Density
Territory Population Capital
(km2) (/km2)

Andaman and Nicobar Port

8,251 379,944 46
Islands Blair

Geographical Divisions
Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two sub regions, namely Mainland Southeast
Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly defined Malay Archipelago)
(Javanese: Nusantara).
Mainland Southeast Asia includes:

 Cambodia
 Laos
 Myanmar (Burma)
 Peninsular Malaysia
 Thailand
 Vietnam
Maritime Southeast Asia includes:

 Indonesia
 Philippines
 East Malaysia
 Brunei
 Singapore
 East Timor
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Maritime
Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Southeast
Asia and sometimes considered both South Asian and Southeast Asian. Sri Lanka has on some
occasions been considered a part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural ties to mainland
Southeast Asia. The rest of the island of New Guinea which is not part of Indonesia, namely,
Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included, and so are Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana
Islands, which were all part of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to
the region, specifically, the Philippines.
The eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor (east of the Wallace Line) are considered to be
biogeographically part of Oceania (Wallacea) due to its distinctive faunal features. New
Guinea and its surrounding islands are geologically considered as a part of Australian continent,
connected via the Sahul Shelf.

Oceans and Seas in Southeast Asia

Banda Sea Andaman Sea Bali Sea

Ceram Sea Arafura Sea Savu Sea
Flores Sea Timor Sea South China Sea
Java Sea Makassar Strait Sibuyan Sea
Molucca Sea Gulf of Carpentaria Sulu Sea
Bohol Sea Luzon Strait Visayan Sea
Camotes Sea Taiwan Strait Bismarck Sea
Philippine Sea (Pacific Sunda Strait Gulf of Tomini
Ocean)
Samar Sea Moro Gulf Bay of Bengal
Coral Sea Celebes Sea Karimata Strait
East China Sea Indian Ocean Gulf of Tonkin
Gulf of Thailand Strait of Malacca Solomon Sea
 History of Southeast Asia
Prehistory

A megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, Sumatra. 1500 CE

The region was already inhabited by Homo erectus from 1,000,000 years ago during the Middle
Pleistocene age. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago,having moved
eastwards from the Indian subcontinent.Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which
is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of Borneo.Homo floresiensis also
lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct.It has been proposed that
the Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population in Indonesia, Malaysia,
Brunei, East Timor, and the Philippines, may have migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan. They
arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BC, and as they spread through the archipelago, they often settled
along coastal areas and confined indigenous peoples such as Orang Asli of peninsular
Malaysia, Negritos of the Philippines or Papuans of New Guinea to inland regions.Archaeologists
refer these people as Deutero-Malays, whom are more advanced in farming techniques and metal
knowledge than their indigenous counterpart, the Proto-Malays.
Studies presented by HUGO (Human Genome Organization) through genetic studies of the
various peoples of Asia, show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa,
whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula
50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito
characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early
people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia
show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China. Studies on the genetics of
modern Malays however show that there is a complex history of admixture of human populations
in Southeast Asia, with the Malay population showing four major ancestral components:
Austronesian, Proto-Malay, East Asian, and South Asian.
Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao (Nusantara) maritime trading network
ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.The Bronze
Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence
spread to other parts Southeast Asia.The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was
forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with
neighboring China.
The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for
thousands of years, some reaching the island of Madagascar, became the ancestors of modern-
day Malagasy people. Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as
well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast.Gold
from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural
History about Chryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the
Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were capable to sail across
ocean. Magellan's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared
to the European ships.A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in Magellan's
voyage as a translator.
Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist, engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits
worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region,
especially coastal areas, came under contacts with Indian subcontinent during the 1st
century.Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local
courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to
reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate
trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and
began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region.Shaivism was the dominant religious
tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the 1st century. It then spread into
Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, and then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands
of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving
with Buddhism in the region. Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the 3rd century, via
maritime trade routes between the region and Sri Lanka.Buddhism later established a strong
presence in Funan region in the 5th century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada
is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practiced by the Thai, Burmese and Cambodian
Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana
Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during
their transit in the region en route to Nalanda.It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practiced
by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists.
The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous
beliefs into remote inland areas. Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never been Indianised and
its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread
in those areas. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional
networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only
country where its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is
undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in
Southeast Asia that resist conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as
the Dayaks in Kalimantan, the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar.
Hindu and Buddhist Kingdoms Era

Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia

After the region came under contacts with Indian subcontinent circa 400 BCE, it began a gradual
process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures and political
administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn,
Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help
transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous
traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became the elite language of the region, which effectively made
Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere. Most of the region had been Indianised during the first
centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised circa 9th century when Kingdom of Tondo was
established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the
many periods of Chinese domination it experienced.
The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the Pyu city-states that already
existed circa 2nd century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub
between India and China.Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states,
while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also
widespread. In the 1st century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established,
encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became
the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage
for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast
Asia. In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara,
established in western Java circa 2nd century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks
as Argyre (Land of Silver).

Spread of Hinduism and Indian culture in Southeast Asia

By the 5th century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime
route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the
development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new
maritime powers such as Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, and Medang emerged. Srivijaya especially
became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of
Malacca and Sunda Strait. This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by
Chola Empire, a dominant maritime p/ower of Indian subcontinent, in 1025. The invasion reshaped
power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer
Empire and Kahuripan. Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the
Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural
influencefound today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia

As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age
during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such
as Angkor Wat and Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the
largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The Champa civilisation was located in what is
today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a
massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa,
ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly
assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.
During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions, affected areas such as
Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols tried to
invade Đại Việt and Champa. The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa
agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also
invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom
and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan
dynasty. However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real
ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol
invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303
withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask
for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged
the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari
collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java,
a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri.
After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and
forced them to immediately leave Java.
After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in
1293. Majapahit would soon grew into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk,
whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the
southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali came under its influence. Various sources
such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts
of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines, making it
one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however,
Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise
of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of
Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last
regional power in the region before the arrival of the Europeans.

Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia

Kampung Laut Mosque in Tumpatis one of the oldest mosques in Malaysia, dating to the early
18th century.
Islam began to made contacts with Southeast Asia in the 8th-century CE, when
the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region
happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime
Southeast Asia. The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of
Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom
was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-
day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king
of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and
converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to
Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son
became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime
trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic
scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia
and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."

Children studying Qur'an in Java, Indonesia, during colonial period

There are several theories to the Islamisation process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade.
The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the
religion as Muslim traders from Southern Yemen (Hadramout) brought Islam to the region with
their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in
the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very
prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further
aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important
port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated
conversion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and
trading classes. Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia.

Trade and Foreign Colonisation

Strait of Malacca
Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule,
struggle for independence and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies
of each country until today.
Chinese
From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully
governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han, Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei,
Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han.
Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships,
so the Chinese must have been trading with them.
Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to Malacca,
with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the
wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Po's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as
is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled.
The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the
15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in
1500 wrote "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice".
European
Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in
Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spanish years later.
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the
French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian
countries were colonised except for Thailand. Duit, a coin minted by the VOC, 1646–1667. 2 kas,
2 duit.
European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade
between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods
in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago.
Before the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding
trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little
interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a
life with subsistence level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilizations, hunting and
gathering was still hard.
Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand
also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as
start sending Royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia.
Japanese
During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies. The Shōwa
occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as the Manila massacre and
the implementation of a system of forced labour, such as the one involving 4 to 10
million romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia
as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who
defeated Japan in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists
to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence.
Indian
Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th
centuries. The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast
Asia in the 17th century.
Contemporary history
Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of government and the
recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of
commerce, and regional responses to international concerns.
China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea, based on its Nine-Dash Line, and
has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive
economic zone based on the Spratly Islands. The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent
Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China(2016), the Court ruled in
favor of the Philippines and rejected China's claims.
Geography

Relief map of Southeast Asia.

Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and it also the largest archipelago in the world
by size (according to the CIA World Factbook). Geologically. The Indonesian archipelago is one
of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also
produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030
metres (16,500 feet), on the island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be
found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 meters
and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest.
The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China
Sea.
Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of the world's most perfect
cone which is built from past and continuous eruption.
Boundaries
Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent, a boundary which runs
through Indonesia. But a cultural touch point lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian
region of the Papua and West Papua, which shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New
Guinea.
Climate

Southeast Asia map of Köppen climate classification.

The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical–hot and humid all year round with plentiful
rainfall. Northern Vietnam and the Myanmar Himalayas are the only regions in Southeast Asia
that feature a subtropical climate, which has a cold winter with snow. The majority of Southeast
Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shift in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain
belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rain forest is the second largest on
earth (with the Amazon being the largest). An exception to this type of climate and vegetation is
the mountain areas in the northern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and
drier landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are desert like. Climate change
will have a big effect on agriculture in Southeast Asia such as irrigation systems will be affected
by changes in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality and supply.
Environment

Komodo dragon in Komodo National Park, Indonesia

The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally
can be characterised as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands
of Borneo and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran
rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of
the binturong or bearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is
now classed as vulnerable.
Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in
peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are
endangered species.
The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands
of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia.

The Philippine Eagle

The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines. It is considered by scientists as the
largest eagle in the world, and is endemic to the Philippines' forests.
The wild Asian water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species of Bubalus such
as anoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the domestic Asian water buffalo is
common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered.
The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra,
Borneo (Indonesia) and in Palawan Islands (Philippines). The gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than
even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little scientific information
available regarding Southeast Asian amphibians.
Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The babirusa,
a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used
in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.
The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what is now known
to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern)
species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur,
known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand
in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region's
environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and
remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only few exceptions, have
become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent soil erosion but to preserve
the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national
parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javan rhinoceros face extinction,
with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.
Wallace's hypothetical line divide Indonesian Archipelago into 2 types of fauna, Australasian and
Southeast Asian fauna. The deep water of the Lombok Strait between the islands
of Bali and Lombok formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated
islands and landmasses on either side.
The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for
the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish and molluscs abound. According to Conservation
International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat(Indonesia)
is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in
the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral
Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is dubbed by
Conservation International as the world's "center of the center of marine shorefish biodiversity".
The whale shark, the world's largest species of fish and 6 species of sea turtles can also be found
in the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines.
The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are
tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being
logged-over, especially in Borneo.
While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe
deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as orangutan and
the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant
species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. At the same time, haze has been
a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple
countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities in Sumatra
and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution to combat haze pollution.
The 2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some countries. Muar
experienced the highest API level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7 am.
Economy
The Port of Singapore is the busiest transshipment and container port in the world, and is an
important transportation and shipping hub in Southeast Asia.
Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world
trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important
were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed
by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region.
First Spaniards (Manila galleon) and Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and
French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European
commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an
extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved
into Indonesia, the British into Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the
Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in
the production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java, Vietnam
and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and
Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to powerful market demands.
The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the economies in
the region. These business communities are connected through the bamboo network, a network of
overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family
and cultural ties. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese
migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries.
Chinese populations in the region saw a rapid increase following the Communist Revolution in
1949, which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China.
The region's economy greatly depends on agriculture; rice and rubber have long been prominent
exports. Manufacturing and services are becoming more important. An emerging market,
Indonesia is the largest economy in this region. Newly industrialised countries include Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines, while Singapore and Brunei are
affluent developed economies. The rest of Southeast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture,
but Vietnam is notably making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors. The region
notably manufactures textiles, electronic high-tech goods such as microprocessors and heavy
industrial products such as automobiles. Oil reserves in Southeast Asia are plentiful.
Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build the Asia-America
Gateway submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the US .This is to avoid disruption of the
kind recently caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to the US in the 2006
Hengchun earthquakes.
Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian countries,
especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, "tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a
tremendous development tool and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our
planet."[101] Since the early 1990s, "even the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam and Burma, where the income derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their
own tourism industries." In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts relative to
GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6% of GDP while Thailand and
Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7%. Since 2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN
countries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from tourism in 2006.
Indonesia is the only member of G-20 major economies and is the largest economy in the
region. Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product for 2016 was US$932.4 billion (nominal) or
$3,031.3 billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of US$3,604 (nominal) or $11,717 (PPP).
Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed better than other bourses in the Asia-Pacific
region in 2010, with the Philippines' PSEleading the way with 22 percent growth, followed by
Thailand's SET with 21 percent and Indonesia's JKSE with 19 percent.
Southeast Asia's GDP per capita is US$3,853 according to a 2015 United Nations report, which is
comparable to Guatemala and Tonga.

GDP GDP
Populati Nomina Inflation
per growth
Currenc on l GDP Main
Country capita (2017)[1
y (2017)[10 (2017)[1 industries
9] 10] (2017)[1 (2017)[1
13]
11]
12]

Petroleum,
B$ Brunei $12.743
Brunei 443,593 $29,712 0.5% -0.1% Petrochemica
dollar billion
ls, Fishing
Clothing,
Cambodi $22.252
៛ Riel 16,204,486 $1,390 6.9% 2.9% Gold,
a billion
Agriculture
Petroleum,
East US$ US $2.610
1,291,358 $2,104 -0.5% 0.6% Coffee,
Timor dollar billion
Electronics
Coal,
Indonesi 260,580,73 $1,015.411
Rp Rupiah $3,876 5.1% 3.8% Petroleum,
a 9 billion
Palm oil
Copper,
$16.984
Laos ₭ Kip 7,126,706 $2,542 6.8% 0.8% Electronics,
billion
Tin
Electronics,
RM Ringgi $314.497
Malaysia 31,381,992 $9,813 5.9% 3.8% Petroleum,
t billion
Palm oil
Natural gas,
Myanma $66.537
K Kyat 55,123,814 $1,264 6.7% 5.1% Agriculture,
r billion
Clothing
 GDP GDP
Populati Nomina Inflation
per growth
Currenc on l GDP Main
Country capita (2017)[1
y (2017)[10 (2017)[1 industries
9] 10] (2017)[1 (2017)[1
13]
11]
12]

Electronics,
Philippin 104,256,07 $329.716
₱ Peso $3,429 6.7% 3.2% Timber,
es 6 billion
Automotive
Electronics,
Singapor S$ Singapo $323.902
5,888,926 $57,713 3.6% 0.6% Petroleum,
e re dollar billion
Chemicals
Electronics,
$455.378
Thailand ฿ Baht 68,414,135 $6,591 3.9% 0.7% Automotive,
billion
Rubber
Electronics,
$220.408
Vietnam ₫ Đồng 96,160,163 $2,354 6.8% 3.5% Clothing,
billion
Agriculture

Demographics

A pie chart showing the population distribution of the countries of Southeast Asia (with Indonesia
split into its major islands).
Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 km2 (1.7 million square miles). As of 2016,
around 642 million people live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the Indonesian
island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous
country with 261 million people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The
distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some
30 million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island,
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as the Hoa in Vietnam.
People of Southeast Asian origins are known as Southeast Asians or Aseanites.

Largest cities in Southeast Asia

Source

Rank Name Country Pop. Rank Name Country Pop.

1 Jakarta Indonesia 10,135,030 11 Medan Indonesia 2,185,789

2 Bangkok Thailand 8,305,218 12 Tangerang Indonesia 2,001,925

Ho Chi
3 Vietnam 7,981,411 13 Hai Phong Vietnam 1,946,000
Minh City
 4 Hanoi Vietnam 7,067,000 14 Depok Indonesia 1,869,681

5 Singapore Singapore 5,399,000 15 Manila Philippines 1,780,148

6 Yangon Myanmar 5,451,439 16 Davao City Philippines 1,632,991

7 Surabaya Indonesia 3,457,409 17 Caloocan Philippines 1,583,978

Quezon
8 Philippines 2,936,116 18 Semarang Indonesia 1,575,058
City
9 Bandung Indonesia 2,575,478 19 Palembang Indonesia 1,561,959
Kuala
10 Bekasi Indonesia 2,510,951 20 Malaysia 1,475,337
Lumpur

Ethnic groups

Ati woman in Aklan – the Negritoswere the earliest inhabitants of Southeast Asia
The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitant in the region. They are
genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern Indonesia and Australian Aborigines. The next waves
of human migration to Southeast Asia were Austroasiatic and Austronesians, which today forming
the majority of the regional population.
In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100
million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second largest ethnic group in
Southeast Asia is Vietnamese with around 86 million population, mainly inhabit Vietnam forming
significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic
group with around 59 million population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma,
the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country.
 A Native Indonesian Balinese girl wearing kebaya during a traditional ceremony.
Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with hundreds of
ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago
,including Madurese, Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia
is split between more than half Malays and one-quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in
the West Malaysia however Dayaks is the most majority in Sarawak and Kadazan-dusun is the
most majority in Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays are the majority in West
Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a significant minority in Indonesia, Southern
Thailand, East Malaysia and Singapore. In city-state Singapore, Chinese are the majority, yet the
city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays, Indians and Eurasian also called the island their
home.
The Chams forming a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam, also in Central
Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia, and forming a significant minority
in Southern Vietnam and Thailand. The Hmong people are the minority in Vietnam, China and
Laos.
Within the Philippines,
the Tagalog, Visayan (mainly Cebuanos and Hiligaynons), Ilocano, Bicolano, Moro (mainly Tau
sug, Maranao, and Maguindanao) and Central Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and Pangasinan)
groups are significant.
Religion
Thai Theravada Buddhists in Chiang Mai, Thailand.

Buddhist monks collecting alms in Luang Prabang, north Laos.

The Kek Lok Si Buddhist Temple on Penang Island combines Chinese, Thai and Burmese
architectural influences.

Roman Catholic Cathedral-Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, the metropolitan see of

the Archbishop of Manila, Philippines.

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosquein Brunei, an Islamic country with Sharia rule.
The Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Masjid of Cotabato City, Philippines.

A Protestant church in Indonesia. Indonesia has the largest Protestant population in Southeast
Asia.

The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Balinese Hindu temples.
Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. By population, Islam is the most
practised faith, numbering approximately 240 million adherents, or about 40% of the entire
population, concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Southern Thailand and in the Southern
Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim-majority country around the world.
Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Burma and Singapore.
Ancestor worship and Confucianism are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore.
Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia and East Timor.
The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia. East Timor is also
predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of Portuguese rule.
No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. Some groups are
protected de facto by their isolation from the rest of the world.[114] In the world's most populous
Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also
predominates in the rest of the part of the Philippines, New Guinea and Timor. Pockets of Hindu
population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia
etc. Garuda (Sanskrit: Garuḍa), the phoenix who is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national
symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been
found on Palawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found
on Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as
Animism and local culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found throughout
Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia's largest
Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas
of Sarawak in East Malaysia, Highland Philippines and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Burma,
Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is
influenced by native animism but with strong emphasis on ancestor worship.
The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values are taken from the CIA
World Factbook:[115]

Country Religions

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Hinduism (69%), Christianity, Islam, Sikhism and others

Islam (67%), Buddhism, Christianity, others (indigenous

Brunei
beliefs, etc.)

Cambodia Buddhism (97%), Islam, Christianity, Animism, others

Christmas Island Buddhism (75%), Islam, Christianity

Cocos (Keeling) Islands Islam (80%), others

Roman Catholicism (97%), Protestantism, Islam,

East Timor
Hinduism, Buddhism

Islam (87.18%), Protestantism, Roman Catholicism,

Indonesia
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, others[116]

Laos Buddhism (67%), Animism, Christianity, others

 Islam (60.4%), Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism,
Malaysia
Animism

Buddhism (89%), Islam, Christianity, Hinduism,

Myanmar (Burma)
Animism, others

Roman Catholicism (80%), Islam (11%),[117] Iglesia ni

Philippines Cristo (Church of Christ) (3%), Buddhism
(2%),[118]Animism (1.25%), others (0.35%)

Singapore Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Hinduism, others

Buddhism (94.50%), Islam (4.06%), Christianity (0.7%),

Thailand
Hinduism (0.011%), others (0.094%)

Vietnamese folk religion (45.3%), Buddhism (16.4%),

Vietnam Christianity (8.2%), Other (0.4%), Unaffiliated
(29.6%)[119]

Languages[edit]
See also: Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages, Sino-Tibetan
languages, Austroasiatic languages, Austronesian languages, Hmong–Mien languages, and Tai–
Kadai languages
Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade, immigration, and
historical colonization as well. There are nearly over 800 native languages in the region.
The language composition for each country is as follows (with official languages in bold):

Countr
Languages
y

A
ndama Bengali, Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Shompen, A-Pucikwar, Aka-
n and Jeru, Aka-Bea, Aka-Bo, Aka-Cari, Aka-Kede, Aka-Kol, Aka-Kora, Aka-Bale, Jangil,
Nicob Jarawa, Oko-Juwoi, Önge, Sentinelese, Camorta, Car, Chaura, Katchal, Nancowry,
ar Southern Nicobarese, Teressa
Islands
 Br Malay, English, Indonesian, Chinese, Tamil and indigenous Bornean dialects
unei (Iban, Murutic language, Lun Bawang,)[120]

C
ambod Khmer, Thai, English, French, Vietnamese, Cham, Chinese, others[121]
ia

C
hristm
English, Chinese, Malay[122]
as
Island

C
ocos
(Keeli English, Cocos Malay[123]
ng)
Islands

Ea
Tetum, Portuguese, Indonesian, English, Mambae, Makasae, Tukudede, Bunak,
st
Galoli, Kemak, Fataluku, Baikeno, others[124]
Timor

Indonesian,
English, Javanese, Dutch, Sundanese, Batak, Minangkabau, Buginese, Banjar, Papua
n, Dayak, Acehnese, Ambonese Balinese, Betawi, Madurese, Musi, Manado, Sasak,
Makassarese, Batak Dairi, Karo, Mandailing, Jambi
Malay, Mongondow, Gorontalo, Ngaju, Nias, North Moluccan, Uab
Meto, Bima, Manggarai, Toraja-
In Sa'dan, Komering, Tetum, Rejang, Muna, Sumbawa, Bangka
donesi Malay, Osing, Gayo, Bungku-Tolaki
a languages, Moronene, Bungku, Bahonsuai, Kulisusu, Wawonii, Mori Bawah, Mori
Atas, Padoe, Tomadino, Lewotobi, Tae', Mongondow, Lampung, Tolaki, Ma'anyan, S
imeulue, Gayo, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasan, Enggano, Ternate, Tidore, Mairasi, E
ast Cenderawasih Language, Lakes Plain Languages, Tor-
Kwerba, Nimboran, Skou/Sko, Border
languages, Senagi, Pauwasi, Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, Tamil,
Punjabi, Bengali, and Arabic.
 Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the archipelago,
making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country on the
planet,[125] slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The official language of Indonesia is
Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), widely used in educational, political, economic, and
other formal situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most Indonesians
speak in their local language(s). For more details, see: Languages of Indonesia.

La Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Hmong, Miao, Mien, Dao, Shan, French, English and
os others[126]
Malaysian, English, Mandarin, Tamil, Kedah Malay, Sabah Malay, Brunei
Malay, Kelantan Malay, Pahang
Malay, Acehnese, Javanese, Minangkabau, Banjar, Buginese, Hakka, Cantonese, Hok
kien, Teochew, Fuzhounese, Telugu, Bengali, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhalese, Malayalam,
M
Arabic, Brunei Bisaya, Okolod, Kota Marudu Talantang, Kelabit, Lotud, Terengganu
alaysia
Malay, Semelai, Thai, Iban, Kadazan, Dusun, Kristang, Bajau, Jakun, Mah
Meri, Batek, Melanau, Semai, Temuan, Lun
Bawang, Temiar, Penan, Tausug, Iranun, Lundayeh/Lun Bawang, Indonesian, and
others,[127] see: Languages of Malaysia
M
yanma
Burmese, English, Shan, Kayin(Karen), Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Mon, Kayah,
r
Chinese and other ethnic languages.[128]
(Burm
a)
Filipino, English, Spanish, Visayan (Aklanon, Cebuano, Kinaray-
a, Capiznon, Hiligaynon, Waray, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Cuyonon, Surigaonon,
Butuanon, Tausug) Ivatan, Ilocano, Ibanag, Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bicolano, Sa
ma-Bajaw, Maguindanao, Maranao, Chavacano
Ph
The Philippines has more than a hundred native languages, most without official
ilippin
recognition from the national government. Spanish and Arabic are on a voluntary and
es
optional basis. Malaysian, Indonesian, Mandarin, Lan-
nang (Hokkien), Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese and Korean are also spoken in the
Philippines due to immigration, geographic proximity and historical
ties. See: Languages of the Philippines

Si English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka,

ngapor Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhalese, Indonesian, Javanese,
e Balinese, Singlish creole and others
T Thai, English, Teochew, Minnan, Hakka, Yuehai, Malay, Tamil, Bengali, Urdu,
hailan Arabic, Lao, Northern Khmer, Isan, Shan, Lue, Phutai, Mon, Mein, Hmong, Karen,
d Burmese and others[129]
Vi
Vietnamese, English, Khmer, French, Cantonese, Hmong, Tai, Cham and others[130]
etnam
Cities[edit]
See also: List of cities in ASEAN by population

 Jabodetabek (Jakarta/West Java/Banten), Indonesia. Jabodetabek is an abbreviation

of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi, which are the satellite cities of the Special
Capital Region of Jakarta.
 Metro Manila (Manila/Quezon City/Makati/Taguig/Pasay/Caloocan and 11
others), Philippines
 Bangkok Metropolitan Region (Bangkok/Nonthaburi/Samut Prakan/Pathum Thani/Samut
Sakhon/Nakhon Pathom), Thailand
 Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley (Kuala Lumpur/Selangor), Malaysia
 Greater Penang (Penang/Kedah/Perak), Malaysia
 Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area (Ho Chi Minh City/Vũng Tàu/Bình Dương/Đồng
Nai), Vietnam
 Hanoi Capital Region (Hà Nội/Hải Phòng/Hạ Long), Vietnam
 Da Nang City (Đà Nẵng/Hội An/Huế), Vietnam
 Yangon Region (Yangon/Thanlyin), Myanmar
 Gerbangkertosusila (Surabaya/Sidoarjo/Gresik/Mojokerto/Lamongan/Bangkalan), Indon
esia
 Greater Bandung Metropolitan Area (Bandung/Cimahi), Indonesia
 Metro Cebu (Cebu City/Mandaue/Lapu-Lapu City/Talisay City and 11
others), Philippines
 Metro Davao (Davao City/Digos/Tagum/Island Garden City of Samal), Philippines
 Metro Iloilo-Guimaras (Iloilo City/Pavia/Oton/Leganes/Zarraga/San
Miguel/Guimaras) , Philippines
 Metro Cagayan de Oro (Cagayan de Oro/El Salvador and 13 others) Philippines
 Phnom Penh City (Phnom Penh/Kandal), Cambodia

Skylines of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

The Makati CBD of Makati, Philippines.


 The night view of Sudirman CBD, Jakarta, Indonesia.

Night skylines of Bangkok, Thailand.

Night skylines of Raffles Place, Singapore.

District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

Culture[edit]
See also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast Asian Games, and Southeast Asian music

Burmese puppet performance

The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of
Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian and Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in
Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia the culture is a mix of
indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a
strong influence from Arabia. Singapore and Vietnam show more Chinese influence[131] in that
Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese
majority and Vietnam was in China's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence
in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants,[132] which influenced, to some extent,
the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history, it has had no direct influence from India
– only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples.

A paddy field in Vietnam.

Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for thousands of years, ranging across the
subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in
the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour-
intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon climate of the region.
Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam, to Borneo, to
Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse metalworking, especially
in Indonesia. This include weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such
as the gamelan.
Influences[edit]
The region's chief cultural influences have been from some combination of Islam, India,
and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from
the period of the Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian-influenced cultures, and the
Chinese and Japanese trading era.
As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of
India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate with chopsticks; tea, as a
beverage, can be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.
Arts[edit]

The Royal Ballet of Cambodia(Paris, France 2010)

The arts of Southeast Asia have affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast
Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance's emotion and
meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia
introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the
early 7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian
Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of
Hindu symbolic dance.
Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries, a
famous one being Wayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in some of Southeast Asia is
quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite
conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained many forms of Hindu-
influenced practices, culture, art and literature. An example is the Wayang Kulit (Shadow
Puppet) and literature like the Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized
by UNESCOon November 7, 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity.
It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting
the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind the life of the gods was the life of the
peoples themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine. The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia,
brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the
Khmer and Mon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts
were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware.
Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Southeast Asia

Angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main
styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic
groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region.
Of the court and folk genres, gong-chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the
exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung orchestras
from Indonesia, Piphat /Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia and
the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are the three
main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the
region. String instruments also are popular in the region.
On November 18, 2010, UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and
Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage Indonesian people and government to
safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung
making.
Writing[edit]
Main articles: Writing systems of Southeast Asia, Baybayin, Jawi script, S.E.A. Write Award,
and Thai alphabet

Thai manuscript from before the 19th-century writing system.

The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and
without writing about the region.
Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown
through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split
palm leaf called lontar (see image to the left — magnify the image to see the writing on the flat
side, and the decoration on the reverse side).

Sign in Balinese and Latin script at a Hindu temple in Bali

The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in
China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf,
and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of
Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that
also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use
paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than
paper in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.
In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in the Latin
script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are
utilised (e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and 'Taksi' in Indonesian for the word 'Taxi').
The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam and more
recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption of Chinese characters in Vietnam dates back to
around 111BC, when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chu nomused
modified Chinese characters to express the Vietnamese language. Both classical Chinese and
Chu Nom were used up until the early 20th century.
However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially in Singapore and Malaysia
as the younger generations are in favour of the Latin Script.

SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING CULTURAL FOODS

ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT AFFECT CULTURAL FOOD

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF CULTURAL FOODS

HEALTH CONCERNS

CULTURAL WAY
Southeast Asian cuisine[edit]

Location of Southeast Asia.

Cambodian Samlar kakou

Personal serving of Nasi Bali, in Indonesia, rice surrounded by numbers of side dishes
including sate lilit.
Thai Kaeng phet pet yang: roast duck in red curry.

Filipino cuisine.
Southeast Asian cuisine emphasizes lightly prepared dishes with strong aromas,
featuring such flavors as citrus, mint, coriander (also known as cilantro and Chinese
parsley), and basil. Ingredients in the region contrast with the ones in the Eastern Asian
cuisines, substituting fish sauces for soy sauce and including such ingredients
as galangal, tamarind and lemongrass. Cooking methods include stir frying, boiling and
steaming.[21]

 Bruneian cuisine is similar to, and heavily influenced by, the cuisine of
neighboring Malaysia, Singapore,[22] and Indonesia, with additional influences from
India, China, Thailand, and Japan.
 Burmese cuisine has been influenced greatly by China, India and Thailand.
However, Burmese cuisine has retained unique preparation techniques and distinct
flavors, and there are many regional variations of "standard" dishes. The Burmese
eat with their right hand, forming rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and
mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths. The Burmese
eat a great variety of vegetables and fruits, and all kinds of meat. A very popular
vegetable is the danyin thi, which is usually boiled or roasted and dipped in salt, oil
and sometimes, cooked coconut fat.
 Cambodian cuisine is another name for the foods and cuisine widely consumed
in Cambodia. The food of Cambodia includes tropical fruits, rice, noodles, drinks,
dessert and various soups.
 Cuisine of East Timor is the cuisine of one of the newest Southeast Asian countries.
 Eurasian cuisine of Singapore and Malaysia is characterized by Portuguese, Dutch,
British, Chinese, Malay, and also Indian and Peranakan influences. Within this
cuisine ingredients in European dishes are replaced or complemented by Asian
ingredients. The other way around, European ingredients are used in Asian dishes.
 Filipino cuisine has evolved over several centuries from its Austronesian origins to a
mixed cuisine with many Hispanic, Chinese, American, and other Asian influences
 adapted to indigenous ingredients and the local palate.[23][24][25][26] For more
information refer to: Filipino cuisine; regional specialties.
 Kapampangan cuisine is the cuisine native to the Kapampangan
people originating from the province of Pampanga, in Central Luzon. One of the
best examples of Kapampangan dish is sisig, which is a popular dish across the
Philippines.
 Indonesian cuisine is diverse, in part because Indonesia is composed of
approximately 6,000 populated islands.[27] Many regional cuisines exist, often based
upon cultural and foreign influences.[27][28][29] For example, Sumatran cuisine often
has Middle Eastern and Indian influences, featuring curried meat and vegetables,
while Javanese cuisine and Sundanese cuisine are more indigenous.[27]
 Balinese cuisine is the cuisine and culinary traditions of Balinese people from the
volcanic island of Bali.
 Batak cuisine is the cuisine and cooking traditions of Batak ethnic groups,
predominantly found in North Sumatra region.
 Indonesian Chinese cuisine is characterized by the mixture of Chinese with
local Indonesian style. Chinese Indonesians bring their Chinese cuisine legacy.
 Javanese cuisine is the cuisine of Javanese people. In wider sense, Javanese
cuisine might also refer to the cuisine of the whole people of Java Island,
Indonesia; which also includes Sundanese in West
Java, Betawi in Jakarta and Madurese on Madura Island off East Java.
 Sundanese cuisine is the cuisine of Sundanese people of West Java,
Indonesia. In Sundanese restaurants, it is common to eat with one's hands.
They usually serve kobokan, a bowl of tap water with a slice of lime for
handwashing.
 Padang food, also known as Minangkabau cuisine, is the cuisine of
the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is among the most
popular food in Maritime Southeast Asia. It is known across Indonesia
as Masakan Padang.
 Laotian cuisine is the cuisine of Laos, which is distinct from other Southeast Asian
cuisines. Laos shares borders with neighboring countries and as a result, Lao
cuisine has strongly influenced the neighboring cuisine of Northeastern Thailand
(Isan) and some Lao culinary influences have also reached Cambodia[30] and
Northern Thailand (Lanna).[31]
 Macanese cuisine consists of a blend of southern Chinese and Portuguese cuisines,
with significant influences from Southeast Asia and the Lusophone world. Notable
dishes include Pastéis de nata, Pato de cabidela, and Minchi.
 Malay cuisine is the cuisine of Malay people of Malaysia,
Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei and Southern Thailand.
 Malaysian cuisine reflects the multicultural aspects of Malaysia. Various ethnic
groups in Malaysia have their own dishes, but many dishes in Malaysia are derived
from multiple ethnic influences.[32] Spices, aromatic herbs and roots are all used in
Malaysian cuisine.[33]
 Penang cuisine
 Ipoh cuisine
  Peranakan cuisine combines Chinese, Malay and other influences into a unique
blend.
 Singaporean cuisine is indicative of the ethnic diversity of the culture of Singapore,
as a product of centuries of cultural interaction owing to Singapore's strategic
location.[34] The food is influenced by the native Malay,[34] the
predominant Chinese,[34] Indonesian, Indian[34]and Western traditions (particularly
English) since the founding of Singapore by the British in the 19th century.
 Thai cuisine can be described as four regional cuisines corresponding to the four
main regions of the country: Northern, Northeastern (or Isan), Central,
and Southern.[35] A fifth cuisine is Thai Royal cuisine, based on the palace cuisine of
the Ayutthaya kingdom (1351–1767 CE), which was influential upon the cuisine of
the Central Thai plains.[35] Each cuisine has similarities to foods and cuisines in
neighboring countries and regions, including the Cuisine of Burma, Yunnan
cuisine, Lao cuisine, Cambodian cuisine and Malaysian cuisine.[35]
 Vietnamese cuisine is a style of cooking derived from Vietnam. Fish sauce, soy
sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables are commonly used. Vietnamese
recipes utilize a diverse range of herbs, including lemongrass, mint, Vietnamese
mint, long coriander and Thai basil leaves.
 Vietnamese wine

 Southeast Asian foods and dishes



Malaysian nasi lemak.

Food stall in Chiang Mai, Thailandselling ready cooked food.



Vietnamese cuisine.

RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND CULTURE

The South East Asian Religion and Dietary Cultures

Traditional emphasis on aromatic and lightly-prepared foods, using a delicate balance of

quick stir-frying, steaming, and/or boiling, supplemented with discrete spices and
seasonings, including citrus juices and herbs such as basil, cilantro, and mint.

Common Religious Food Practices

Foodways and typical foods eaten in Southeast Asian countries

Food Culture of SEA Countries

Brunei.The life of the average Bruneian revolves around his religion, Islam, with certain
things being forbidden (haram); certain things tolerated but not encouraged (makruh)
and certain things which fall under the embrace of Islam (halal). Pork, the consumption
of alcohol and eating meat not slaughtered under Islamic guidance are haram. Smoking
and eating shellfish are considered makruh.

Cambodia.Because of its heritage, Cambodian cuisine is uniquely different from neighboring

Thailand and Vietnam, to which it has been most often compared. It derives its flavor from
spice and aromatic herbs with little use of fat and meats. Fresh vegetables, ripe and unripe
fruits and fish are used in abundance. Rice is staple.
Laos. The indigenous cuisine of Laos places much emphasis on fish sauce, chili and
sticky rice. However, Lao cuisine has also absorbed some French and substantial
Vietnamese elements, while the greater poverty of the rural areas of Laos has led to a
more restricted diet of mostly raw foods.
Most Laotians (or Lao) eat rice three times a day. The most common type is ‘sticky rice,’ which
can be rolled into a ball with the fingers and dipped into a sauce. Occasionally, people eat
noodles rather than rice. Padekor fermented fish paste is an ingredient in many Laotian dishes.
Hot chilies are also added to foods. The amount of chili used varies with the different Laotian
ethnic groups. Other common seasonings are lime juice, lemon grass and coriander leavesA
typical Laotian meal consists of rice, fish, vegetables and hot peppers. A common Lao dish is
called laap. It is a mixture of finely chopped meat or fish and lime juice, garlic, green onions,
mint and chilies.
Indonesia.Its culinary ties are closest to SEA countries strongly influenced by India. Curries –
highly spiced sauces often diluted with coconut milk and served with bite-size bits of meat, fish
and vegetables enliven the blandness of rice that is a staple in meals. Indonesian recipes are
mixtures of different food cultures. However, Indonesian signature dishes also have their own
distinctive flavors like sambals, satays, curries, coconut-milk based dishes, rice cakes, and
peanut sauces. Soy-based dishes such as variations of tofu (tahu) and tempeh are also very
popular. Tempeh is an adaptation of tofu to the tropical climates of Indonesia.
Malaysia.The Malaysian Muslims, Chinese Buddhists, Indian Hindus and tribal peoples work,
play and dine together. In the country's cultural melting pot, each of these ethnic groups has
left their way of life and culinary traditions. Borrowing and adapting from each other's cooking
techniques and ingredients, they developed a rich and spicy Malaysian kitchen. One of the most
celebrated Malaysian dishes worldwide is Beef Rendang; a must-have for celebrations and
special occasions. Another famous Malay classic is the ‘meat-on-a-stick’ Satay. Chicken, beef or
mutton sataysare cooked over hot charcoals and served with fresh cucumber, onion and a spicy
peanut dipping sauce. The spicy peanut dipping sauce is what makes satayspecial, and great for
dipping ketupat,a compressed Malay rice cake.
Myanmar. Burmese cuisine has unique preparation techniques and distinct flavors. Dishes vary
by regions that have different versions of “standard” dishes. The one constant is htamin(rice),
which is always eaten at lunch and dinner. Rice is usually served with a curry dish (hin) or fish,
chicken, or shrimp, along with fried/boiled vegetables and soup. Glutinous rice called
kaukhnyinis also very popular including the black variety known as ngacheikespecially as a
breakfast dish. Various types of noodles are commonly used in salads and soups or fried. Use of
seafood is more prevalent along coastal cities while meat and poultry are more commonly used
in landlocked cities. steamed rice as the main dish and accompanying dishes called hin,
including a curried freshwater fish or dried/salted fish dish, a curried meat or poultry dish
instead, a light soup called hingyo& fresh or boiled vegetables to go with a salty dish
Philippines. Traditional Filipino cuisine is the result of various cultural influences − from
the Indonesians and the Malays who were the first foreign settlers on Philippine shores;
from the Spaniards who colonized the Philippines for >3 centuries; from the Americans
and the Japanese who took over from the Spaniards; from the Chinese, the Arabs and
the Indians with whom the Filipinos had been trading long before Magellan landed on
these islands.

Singapore. The variety of religions found in Singapore is a direct reflection of the

diversity of races living there. Foodwaysare influenced by religion and ethnic group. The
famous hawkers’ food centers are the best place to sample the various Singaporean
cuisines and why Singapore is considered by many to be “the food capital of Asia.”
There are very strictly enforced official Public Health controls in Singapore, so it is safe
to eat food from any of the restaurants or stalls.
Rice is eaten on a daily basis. With it, people enjoy fish, seafood, and chicken cooked in
a wide variety of ways. Roti prata, and Indian dough-bread, is enjoyed for breakfast by
all groups. Chinese noodles are popular for lunch. Dim sum(Chinese dumplings) is
favorite snacks, Pohpiahare spring rolls filled with shredded turnip, bamboo shoots,
bean curd, prawns, and pork. Fish head curry(in a sauce with tomatoes, pineapple, and
green onions) is a favorite dish. Tauhugorengis fried tofu with sweet sauce. Spicy Malay
foods are dipped in peanut sauce.
Thailand. Thai cuisine is one of the most complex among Asian countries influenced by
its neighbors: India and Myanmar to the south, Laos to the east, Malaysia to the south,
and Cambodia to the southeast. With their Buddhist background, big cuts of meat were
shredded and blended with herbs and spices. Essential flavoring ingredients are
fermented fish sauce (nampla), fresh herbs and spices such as Thai holy basil,
lemongrass, and galangal. Shrimp paste, a combination of ground shrimp and salt, is
also extensively used. Thai dishes in the Central and Southern regions use a wide
variety of leaves rarely found in the west, such as kaffir lime leaves. Its characteristic
flavor appears in nearly every Thai soup (e.g., the hot and sour Tom yam) or curry from
those areas. Thai cooking is one of the fastest-growing and most popular of world
cuisines today.

Vietnam.Soup is customarily served for breakfast in big bowls consisting of steaming noodles in
clear broth (pho), with meat and any number of ingredients added at the last minute, like bean
sprouts, cilantro, basil, chili peppers, lime slices, and green onions. It is an unusual mélange of
cooked rice noodles, raw vegetables and herbs, and shaved raw meat or seafood that cooks in
the broth just as it is brought to the table. Fish sauce (nuocmam), chili-garlic sauce, and/or
hoisinsauce are placed in nearby dipping dishes to spice food. For lunch and dinner rice is
consumed with sautéed vegetables, tofu, and a variety of pork, fish, or meat dishes with their
dipping sauces.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN SOUTH EAST ASIAN CUISINE

Adzuki [a-ZU-ki]: Also called azuki, aduki, or red mung bean. This red, pea-sized bean is often
boiled with sugar to make red bean paste, a common ingredient in many sweets (like
Chinese zongzi or mooncakes, or Japanese dorayaki), as well as sweet red bean soup.

Amchoor [am-CHOR]: Also called mango powder, although it doesn’t taste sweet like mangoes.
Unripe mangoes are dried and ground to make this sour and tart spice powder, used in many
Indian and Middle Eastern dishes.

Chaas [CHOO-s]: A popular Indian yogurt drink, sometimes called “buttermilk” in India. It
comes in many variations, and can be served plain or spiced.

Chapati [chuh-PAH-tee]: Also known as roti, safati, shabaati, and roshi. This unleavened whole
wheat flatbread is commonly in South Asian countries like India and Nepal.

Congee [KON-jee]: Like a soupy version of Italian risotto, congee is a comforting rice porridge
served throughout Asia. It can be served at any meal of the day, either plain or with toppings like
meat or fish. This is the go-to dish to eat when you’re ill, like chicken noodle soup is in the West.

Dim sum [DIM-suhm]: Similar to Spanish tapas, dim sum describes a selection of various sweet
or savory dishes in small portions, often served with tea. The dishes are usually hidden away in
small steaming baskets and include things like steamed buns, taro cakes, and steamed rice flour
rolls.

Donburi [DOHN-boo-ree]: A typical Japanese meal where rice is served in a large bowl with a
variety of cooked toppings, such as beef, pork, fish, tempura, and/or vegetables.

Furikake [fu-RI-ka-keh]: A dry Japanese seasoning, usually made from a mixture of dried fish,
sesame seeds, chopped dried seaweed, sugar, and salt. It is commonly sprinkled over cooked
plain rice.

Galangal [GAL-uhn-gal]: Like ginger, galangal is a rhizome, or a stem that grows underground,
with a thin, rough skin that must be peeled before using. Widely used in Thai cooking, galangal
has a fresh flavor and gentle heat, with a pine-y, citrus taste.

Ghee [gee]: A type of clarified butter (butterfat without the water and milk solids) that originated
from the Indian subcontinent and is widely used in dishes from South Asia and Middle East.

Gomashio [go-MA-shi-o]: Also spelled as gomasio. It is a type of furikake made from sesame
seeds and salt. It is typically sprinkled over plain rice, steamed sticky rice with adzuki beans
(sekihan), or onigari. Some varieties are sweetened.

Kimchi [KIM-chee]: A typical Korean side dish made from salted, fermented vegetables (usually
napa cabbage and Korean radishes) and flavored with mixed seasonings (usually chili powder,
scallions, garlic, ginger, and salted seafood). Kimchi has many variations and can be served
either as a garnish to meals or as a main dish on its own.

Kombu [KOHM-boo]: A type of seaweed widely eaten across East Asia, can be used to make
soup (dashi), kombu tea, or can be added to beans while cooking to help digestion.
Kumquat [KUHM-kwot]: A small, olive-sized fruit that closely resembles an orange. Unlike
oranges, kumquats are eaten skin and all, as the skin is slightly sweet, while the flesh is slightly
sour.

Laksa [LAK-sa]: A spicy rice noodle soup commonly found in Southeast Asia. The dish is
prepared from a base of curried coconut milk or sour tamarind, and is usually made with chicken,
shrimp or fish.

Lassi [LAH-see]: A popular Indian beverage made with yogurt and water. Traditionally it is
mixed with spices like cumin, but can also be sweetened with fruit like mango instead of using
spices.

Longan [LONG-guhn]: This aromatic, golf-ball sized fruit is also called dragon eye fruit,
because when peeled and cut in half, the dark pit inside of the round, milky colored fruit
somewhat resembles an eye.

Lotus root [LOH-tuhs ROOT]: Commonly used as a vegetable in soups and in deep-fried, stir-
fried, and braised dishes in China, Korea, and Japan. When cut into rounds, lotus root reveals
holes inside that make it look like a snowflake. Lotus root tastes slightly bitter, and has a crispy
texture like jicama.

Lychee [LEE-chee]: A sweet, fleshy stone fruit native to China that is used in desserts or enjoyed
fresh. About the size of a big grape, lychee has an inedible outer skin that can be easily peeled
off.

Makizushi [MAH-kee-zoo-shi]: Also called maki, this dish is what comes to mind when most
people think of sushi: rice and seaweed rolls with fish and/or vegetables.

Makrut (Kaffir) Lime Leaves [muh-KROOT lie-m leevs]: Makrut lime leaves bring an intense
citrus and floral flavor to Southeast Asian cuisine. Previously referred to as Kaffir, now
considered a racial slur, Makrut lime leaves, like bay leaves, are often bruised and added whole
to dishes while they cook and later removed, as their texture can be tough.

Mangosteen [MANG-guh-steen]: Not related to a mango at all, this Southeast Asian tropic fruit
has a sweet, tangy fibrous flesh, and a hard, inedible outer skin.

Mantou [MAN-toh]: Also known as Chinese steamed bun. It is typically cloud-shaped without
fillings, and is popular in Northern China. A sub type of mantou called baozi is filled with either
sweet (red bean paste) or savory (meat and vegetables) fillings.

Mapo tofu [MA-puh TOH-foo]: Originated in Sichuan province in China, this dish consists of
tofu and minced meat cooked in a very spicy, chili and broad bean sauce (douban).

Natto [NA-toh]: Fermented soybeans with a strong smell and distinct flavor, most popular in the
eastern regions of Japan.

Nigiri [ni-GEE-ri]: A type of sushi that simply includes sliced raw fish on top of sushi rice,
without vegetables, sauces, or other ingredients.
Paneer [puh-NEER]: A fresh cheese (similar to cottage cheese) common in South Asia. It is
prepared by adding lemon juice or vinegar to heated milk.

Rambutan [RAM-boo-tan]: A fruit with a spiny red skin and a sweet, mildly acidic juicy flesh. It
is native to various regions of tropical Southeast Asia.

Sake [SAH-keh]: A popular rice wine in Japan that can be served either hot or cold.

Sashimi [sah-SHEE-mee]: Fresh raw fish served in thin slices, often seasoned with soy sauce,
wasabi, and grated ginger at the table.

Satay [sah-TAY]: Grilled meat served on skewers, typically sprinkled with various spicy
seasonings and eaten with soy and peanut sauce. It is commonly found in Indonesia and
Malaysia.

Somen [SO-muh]: White Japanese noodles similar to the size of angel hair pasta. They are made
of wheat flour, and are usually served cold and eaten with a dipping sauce called tsuyu.

Takoyaki [TA-koh-yah-ki]: A popular Japanese snack where wheat flour dough balls are filled
with minced octopus, tempura scraps, and flavorings of green onions and pickled ginger.
Commonly serve in a ‘boat’ made of paper and topped with mayonnaise and takoyaki sauce.

Tamago [TA-ma-goh]: Japanese-style layered omelet that can be served as a breakfast, a side
dish, or on sushi rice. Unlike Western omelets, there are usually no vegetables or flavorings
added in between layers.

Tempeh [TEM-pay]: An Indonesian staple source of protein made from fermented soybeans.
Unlike tofu, it has a firm texture and is usually sold as a cake or block.

Tom Yum [TOM YAM]: A spicy, sour soup popular in Laos, made with herbs like lemongrass,
and often served with meat or seafood.

Wagashi [wa-GA-shi]: A collective name of traditional Japanese sweets that are typically made
of rice flour and served with green tea. The shapes, ingredients, and tastes of wagashi vary
greatly across regions and differ in different seasons. Some famous types
include: mochi, daifuku, manju, yokan, and dorayaki.

Xiao Long Bao [SY-ow LONG BOW]: Also called “soup dumplings,” these are a type
of baozi (steamed buns with fillings) that originated from the Jiangnan region of China. Xiao
Long Bao are traditionally steamed in bamboo baskets, and can be filled with pork or minced
crab meat and fish roe. There are different variations of Xiao Long Bao across different regions,
but most are filled with broth.

Zongzi [ZONG-zee]: A traditional Chinese festival food intended for the celebration of the
Dragon Boat Festival. It is made of sticky rice with various fillings (either sweet or savory) and
wrapped in bamboo leaves, then steamed or boiled.
 RECIPES

REFERENCES
 See also[edit]

 Southeast Asia portal

 List of Southeast Asian leaders

 Northeast Asia
 South Asia
 Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
 Tiger Cub Economies