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research-article2017
EDRXXX10.3102/0013189X17703946Educational ResearcherEducational Researcher
Feature Articles
Research syntheses in education, particularly meta-analyses and best-evidence syntheses, identify evidence-based
practices by combining findings across studies whose constructs are similar enough to warrant comparison. Yet constructs
come preloaded with social, historical, political, and cultural assumptions that anticipate how research problems
are framed and solutions formulated. The information research syntheses provide is therefore incomplete when the
assumptions underlying constructs are not critically understood. We describe and demonstrate a new systematic review
method, critical construct synthesis (CCS), to unpack assumptions in research synthesis and to show how other framings
of educational problems are made possible when the constructs excluded through methodological elimination decisions
are taken into consideration.
Keywords: critical theory; educational policy; disability studies; meta-analysis; qualitative research
R
esearch syntheses in education, like meta-analyses (Glass, formulated. Making explicit the social, political, historical, and/
1976) and best-evidence syntheses (Slavin, 1986), are or cultural accounts of “disability” can reveal the hermeneutic
conducted to identify evidence-based practices.1 They do circle in which a research synthesis is involved and suggest pos-
so by combining findings across empirical studies whose con- sibilities for including alternative accounts of constructs.
structs are sufficiently similar to warrant comparison, which Although many narrative (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006) and sys-
makes constructs essential to framing research. As the building tematic review methods—such as metanarrative (Greenhalgh,
blocks of theory, constructs are characterized by how they link Macfarlane, Bate, Kyriakidou, & Peacock, 2005), metastudy
abstractions to observed phenomena given social, historical, (Paterson, Thorne, Canam, & Jillings, 2001), and critical interpre-
political, and cultural assumptions at work in conceptualizing tive synthesis (CIS; Dixon-Woods et al., 2006)—can be drawn
them (Watt & Van Den Berg, 2002). In research, constructs upon to critique constructs, none fully answers our call, through a
carry disciplinary assumptions about what effects matter and for systematic process, to understand how constructs and methodologi-
whom (e.g., Eisenhart & DeHaan, 2005; Latour & Woolgar cal elimination decisions frame the results of research syntheses. In
1979/1986). For instance, familiar constructs studied in educa- Table 1, we clarify research synthesis as our object of critique. We
tion, such as “high achieving,” “disabled,” and “career ready,” characterize and differentiate research syntheses, such as meta-
come preloaded with assumptions about students and what analysis and best-evidence synthesis, from other systematic reviews
effects might matter for them. that do not include methodological elimination as an integral part
Research syntheses are conducted in hermeneutic circles of their study screening process. We also show how neither tradi-
(Skrtic, 1991); the constructs included and excluded from them tional nor qualitative systematic review methods include a system-
anticipate how problems will be framed and solutions formu- atic process to critically analyze constructs in existing research
lated. For example, research syntheses that include medical syntheses. Interrogating constructs in research synthesis is needed
accounts of the construct “disability” invoke medical solutions (we argue) in the field of education, where governments and educa-
while syntheses that include social accounts of disability invoke tionalists privilege these syntheses to answer questions about what
social solutions. As such, answers returned to the research syn-
thesis question, “What works to improve employment for peo- 1
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
ple with disabilities?” will depend on how “disability” is first 2
University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS
Note. Literature reviews relevant to the object of critique and methods in this article. For different and more exhaustive typologies of literature views, see, for example,
Petticrew and Roberts (2009); Gough, Thomas, and Oliver (2012); and Kastner, Antonya, Soohiaha, Strausa, and Triccoa (2016).
a
Some meta-analyses and narrative reviews do not exclude quantitative studies based on the quality of their designs (Cooper & Hedges, 2009). They do, however, exclude
qualitative and conceptual literature.
b
Metastudy does not exclude qualitative studies based on the quality of their designs (Paterson, Thorne, Canam, & Jillings, 2001). They do, however, exclude quantitative
and conceptual literature.
c
Critical interpretive synthesis includes quantitative and qualitative studies but excludes those deemed “fatally flawed” (Dixon-Woods et al., 2006).
works in policy and practice (Donmoyer, 2012; National Research or quality evidence. It shows how reexamining research syntheses in
Council, 2002). To support dialogue and decision making that is light of constructs identified in methodologically excluded literature
more fully informed, contextualized, and critical, inquiry must also may open up possibilities for reframing educational problems.
examine the social, historical, political, and/or cultural assumptions
underlying constructs.
Exclusion, Constructs, and Critique in
In this article we describe and demonstrate a new systematic
Research Syntheses
review method, critical construct synthesis (hereafter CCS). A CCS
explores and critiques constructs included and excluded from In broad terms, the aim of any research synthesis is to summarize
research synthesis, particularly through the process of screening out and evaluate research and knowledge on a topic. With the intro-
studies that fail to meet methodological standards for providing best duction of meta-analysis, research syntheses became tools for
Summary information Study code, citation, empirical or nonempirical, peer-reviewed or practitioner journal, author’s field/discipline/
occupation, population, major construct/theory investigated, genre/design of study, purpose of the work/
study, nature of sample/group under discussion (total number, age range, sex, ethnicity, education, other
characteristics), description of the research approach/intervention (setting and work, design and procedures),
major findings, conclusion, discussion, implications, suggestions for future research
Methodology Methodologists, theory of method (e.g., postpositivist, interpretivist, pragmatist), role/voice of researcher, role/voice
of participant
Construction of autism Positive statements/definitions of autism, negative statements/definitions of autism, comments about the way
autism is constructed
Construction of work Positive statements/definitions of work, negative statements/definitions of work, comments about the way work is
constructed
Construction of the worker with autism Positive statements/definitions of the role of work for people with autism at work, negative statements/definitions
of the role of work for people with at work, comments about the role of work for the person with autism.
Other thoughts or concerns Concerns about the method or writing, other thoughts
Note. CCS = critical construct synthesis. Full pro forma available at http://www.coedu.usf.edu/main/departments/me/documents/Wolgemuth_CCS_ProForma_Webpage.pdf
findings, identify commonalities, and potentially revise the pro Our analysis involved a close reading and textual analysis of
forma to better suit their research aims. Step 6 is also likely to the articles and extractions, seeking to understand how they
result in further elimination of articles based on the inclusion/ depicted autism, work, and the worker with autism. The philoso-
exclusion criteria in Step 4. phy undergirding our CCS was broadly critical, and therefore we
We used our pro forma to extract information from the 62 used several of Gee’s (2010) discourse analysis tools, including the
articles that passed the full-text screen. We extracted the first significance-building tool and the identity-building tool, to cri-
eight articles as a team and met twice to share our extractions, tique what the articles featured and lessened as significant and
reconcile differences, and discuss the pro forma. These initial the identities they made possible and prevented. Working with
extractions resulted in some revisions to the pro forma (e.g., we these tools, we categorized autism and work in a matrix with
clarified what we meant by positive and negative). Once we felt two spectra: from simple to complex and from asset to deficit.
confident in our process, we extracted the remaining 54 articles We developed this strategy based on Gee’s (2000) view that dis-
in pairs. The pairs conducted their extractions individually and cursive “identities can be placed on a continuum in terms of
then met to reconcile differences and create a final pro forma. how active or passive one is in ‘recruiting’ them” (p. 104). In
During this time, we met biweekly as a team to discuss our prog- our analysis, a simple construction ignored intersections of
ress and any questions or concerns. This process also resulted in identities (e.g., autism, class, race) in a unidimensional and
the elimination of an additional 45 articles that did not meet the easy-to-follow narrative of autism and work. A complex con-
aims of the original review (e.g., employment studies conducted struction included multiple dimensions and intersections of
in postsecondary, instead of secondary, settings). A final set of 17 autism and work—depicting them in a more tentative, detailed,
primary sources was included in our CCS. and/or multiperspectival narrative. Deficit constructions
depicted autism or work in negative terms (e.g., students [situ-
ated] on the autism spectrum are lacking in social skills),
Step 7: Analyze the Pro Forma and Full Texts
whereas asset constructions depicted autism or work more posi-
Up to this point, we have described CCS as more or less system- tively (e.g., students [situated] on the autism spectrum are good
atic, adopting the steps and processes common to many system- visual learners).
atic reviews. In Step 7, the research team conducts the analysis of Next, to understand what the constructions of autism and
the constructs and their underlying assumptions, using both the work said about the worker with autism, we grouped articles that
pro forma and full texts. This includes identifying and compar- seemed to put forward similar constructions of autism and work
ing articles that were and were not included in the original syn- (e.g., simple deficit accounts of autism, simple asset accounts of
thesis. As noted above, this step is as variable as there exist work) and asked if there was a common story being built and, if
approaches for analyzing text and its latent meanings, and the so, how. This process resulted in two major stories and variants.
analysis technique selected will reflect the overarching philoso- The first, intervention story, identified autism as a problem for
phy (e.g., critical realist, poststructural) and the aim of the CCS. which people on the autism spectrum needed treatment to ren-
Theoretical literature in the field (in our case, disability studies) der them useful as workers to society. Work in the intervention
is engaged to think through the analysis and interpret findings. story was usually presented as a set of discrete skills or tasks.
Reflexivity takes on a heightened importance during this step as Complex stories, in contrast, invited positive accounts of autism
the team reflects on its own assumptions about the constructs and broader notions of work that problematized the interven-
and the CCS process. tion story. Connecting research methodologies to constructs, we