• Konsep Sistem Isolasi dan Teknik Tegangan

Tinggi
• Perlunya sistem tegangan tinggi
• Stres tegangan
• Permasalahan-permasalahan tegangan tinggi
dan pemecahannya
• Perlunya pengujian tegangan tinggi

1
 ELECTRICAL INSULATION
INTRODUCTION
Economic development and social welfare of
modern society depends on :
• Cheap supply of electrical
• Reliable energy
The major function of such power systems is to
• Generate electrical energy over large
• Transport geographical area in econo
• distribute nomical manner in high
reliability and quality
2
The transmission of large amounts of electrical
power over long distance is best accomplished
using :

• HV - High Voltage
• EHV – Extra High Voltage
• UHV – Ultra High Voltage

Thus high voltage equipment is the backbone of

modern power system.
3
Beside that, high voltage are also used in many
industrial, scientific, and engineering
applications as follows :
1. Electrostatic praecipitators for removal of
dust from flue gases
2. Atomization of liquids, paint spraying and
pesticle spraying
3. Ozone generation for water and sewage
treatment
4. X ray generators and particle accelerators
4
5. High power lasers and ion beams
6. Plasma sources for semiconductor
manufacture
7. Superconducting magnet coils

Voltage class Voltage range Vrms line to line

Low voltage V <1 kV

Medium high voltage 1 kV < V < 70 kV

High Voltage 110 kV < V < 230 kV

Extra High Voltage 275 kV < V < 800 kV

Ultra High Voltage 1000 kV < V

5
In all applications, the insulation of high voltage
conductor is of primary importance.

For proper design and safe and reliable

operation of insulation system, knowledge of
the physical and chemical phenomena which
determine the dielectric properties to the
insulating materials and appropriate diagnostic
techniques are of prime important since any
such failure can cause temporary or permanent
damage to the system, thereby influencing its
reliability and cost.
6
 PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRICS
The most important properties of dielectric :
DC conductivity
 = J/E
Where J is current density (A/m2) resulting from
the application of a dielectric stress E (V/m)
The bulk of resistivity :
 = 1/ is calculated from measured value of
the insulation resistance

7
 The insulation resistance is used as an
indication conduction behavior of insulating
materials in many practical application.
• For most insulating material conductivity
depends upon :
– Material purity
– Its temperature T
– Voltage stress E
If the ionic impurity of material increases, the
conductivity increases. It increases too if T and E
increase.
8
• In addition, due to polarization effects,
conductivity is also depended upon time of
application of stress

• Conductivity influences the power losses in a

dielectric and controls the electric stress
distribution under direct voltage application.

9
Dielectric permittivity/ Relative permittivity/
dielectric constant
• Dielectric permittivity :
r = C/Co
where :
C : the capacitance of a parallel plates with the
insulating material between the plates
Co : the capacitance of a parallel plates with
vacuum between the plates
Generally, r depends upon the temperature,
frequency, and molecular structure of insulating
material

10
Complex permittivity, loss angle and dissipation
factor
• In order to determine the response of
dielectric to alternating voltages, it is
traditional to model the dielectric by a parallel
RC network as Fig1.1

11
12
• R represents the losses part of the dielectric
taking into account : losses from electronic and
ionic conductivity, dipole orientation and space
charge polarization, etc.
• C is the capacitance with the dielectric
• An AC voltage of v = V2 V is applied then :
Ic = jωCV
IR = - jItan
Since  is very small
Ic ~ I
IR = -jIctan

13
• Total current I = IR + Ic can be expressed as :
I = jCoV (r - j r tan) = jCoV*

where *= complex relative permittivity

having :
real part = dielectric constant, r
imaginary part = loss factor, r tan
tan  : loss tangent or dissipation factor or
sometime as power factor (cosѲ)

14
• Tan is usually depended upon :
fequency, applied stress, temperature

• Power loss in dielectric given by :

Power loss = CV2tan = ωCoV2rtan
• Furthermore  and  are related as :
tan  = /(or)
where o = 8,85 x 10 -12 F/m
the permittivity of vacuum

15
Polarization
• In conductors, free electrons are easily
available
• In insulating materials most of electron are
bound and not free to move. Under the
influence of an applied electric field, the
resulting electrostatic forces create some level
of polarization forming dipoles. For most
dielectric materials, its permittivity > 1.

16
Dielectric Strength
• Defined as maximum value of applied electrical
field at which a dielectric material, stressed in a
homogeneous field electrode system, breakdown
and loses its insulating properties. It is given in
V/m
• The breakdown strength of most dielectrics
depends upon :
– the purity of material
– time and method of voltage application
– type of applied stress
– Other experimental and Environmental parameters

17
 Lecture 3
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND
CURRENTS
• High voltage (dc, ac, and impulse) are required
for several applications :
– electron microscope
– x ray units need dc high voltage of 100 kV or more
– electrostatic praecipitator
– Particle accelerator in nuclear physic require dc
high volate of the order several kV or even MV

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 – High a.c. voltages of 1MV or more for apparatus
testing rated for extra high voltage 400 kV system
and above.
– high impulse voltages required for simulation of
overvoltage happening in power system due to
lightning or switching surges.
• The main concern of high voltage for
engineer is for insulation testing of various
components in power system for different
type of voltage power frequency a.c, high
frequency, switching or lightning impulses.

19
Different forms of a.c. voltages :
• high d.c. voltages
• high a.c. voltages at power frequency
• high a.c. voltages at high frequency
• high transient impulse voltages of very short duration
such as lightning overvoltage
Normally, in high voltage testing, the current under
failure condition is limited to a small value, less than 1
ampere.
But in short circuit test of a switchgear, the testing
current reaching hundred of amperes, while surge
diverter testing needs several kA.
Therefore, it is needed high voltage and high current
testing device.

20
 HIGH DIRECT CURRENT VOLTAGE
GENERATION
Generation of high d.c. voltage is required in research
work in the area of pure and applied physics.
High direct voltages are needed in :
• insulation test on cable and capacitors
• impulse generator charging units require high d.c.
voltages of about 100 to 200 kV
• Electronic valve rectifiers are used and the output
current is about 100 mA
• The rectifier valve require special construction since
the electrostatic field between anode and cathode
will be several kV/cm in non conductive period

21
• the a.c. supply to the rectifier tubes may be of
– power frequency or
– audio frequency of oscillator when
• ripple of small magnitude required with no use of
costly filter to smoothen the ripple

HALF AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Rectifier circuits for producing high d.c. voltages:
• Half wave rectifier
• Full wave rectifier
• Voltage double rectifier.

22
• Now-a-days single electron tubes are available
for peak inverse up to 250 kV
• Semiconductor or solid state diodes are
available for the voltage up to 20 kV
• For higher voltages, several units are to used
in series
– special care should be taken to make the
distribution uniform
Commonly used half wave and full wave rectifier
are shown in Fig.6.1 as follows.

23
24
• In the half wave rectifier, Fig 6.1 a) :
– the capacitor is charge to Vm, the maximum a.c.
voltage of the secondary of h.v. transformer in the
conducting cycle
– in the other half cycle, the capacitor is discharged
into the load
– the value of the capacitor C is chosen that the
time constant CRL > 10 times the period on the
a.c. supply
– the rectifier must have a peak inverse rating of at
least 2 Vmax
– to limit the charging current can be added
additional resistance in series with the rectifier.
25
• In the full wave rectifier, Fig 6.1 b) :
– in the positive half cycle, the rectifier A conducts and
charge the capacitor C
– in the negative half cycle, the rectifier B conducts and
charges the capacitor.
– The source transformer requires centre tap secondary
with a rating of 2V
• For high voltage of 50 kV and above :
– rectifier valves used are of special construction
– filament, cathode, and anode should have protective
shield or grid around the filament and the cathode
– anode has a circular plate

26
• the electrostatic gradient are quite large, the heater
and the cathode experience large electrostatic forces
during the non conduction period.

to protect the various elements from this force, then

• the anode is firmly fixed to the valve cover on one side

• in the other side, where the cathode and filament are
located, a steel mesh structure kept at the cathode
potential surround them, so the mechanical forces are
reflected on the grid structure only

27
• In modern high voltage laboratories
– Semiconductor rectifier stacks are used for
producing high d.c. voltage
– semiconductor diodes are not true valves due
they have very small current in backward direction
– more commonly preferred diodes for h.v. rectifier
is : silicon diode with peak inverse voltage (PIV) of
1 kV to 2 kV with small current (less than a few
mA)
– A selenium stack with PIV up to 500 kV without
the use of capacitor

28
Ripple Voltage with half wave and full
wave rectifier
• Both half wave and full wave rectifiers used
with the smoothing condenser
• The voltage at no load will be the maximum
a.c voltage value
• On load, the condenser gets charged from the
supply, and discharged through load
resistance, RL . See the waveform, Fig.6.2
• When loaded, a fluctuation in the voltage
output d.c. voltage v appears, is called ripple
29
30
• The ripple of the half wave rectifier is larger
then that of the full wave rectifier

because the discharge period is larger

• The ripple depends upon :
– The supply voltage frequency
– the time constant CRL
– the reactance of the supply transformer X L
• The frequency of the ripple voltage of the half
wave rectifier is equal to the supply frequency
31
• The frequency of the ripple voltage of the full
wave rectifier equal to twice the supply
frequency
• The ripple voltage can be kept as low as
possible by choosing proper filter condenser
• and the transformer reactance for a given R L

VOLTAGE DOOUBLER CIRCUIT

• Both full wave and half wave rectifier circuits
produce a d.c. voltage less than a.c. maximum
voltage

32
• Higher d.c. voltage can be produced by :
– Double circuit
– cascaded double circuit
See Fig 6.3
– the condenser C1 is charged to a voltage of +
Vmax through rectifier R 1 with + polarity shown
during negative cycle
– as the transformer rises to positive cycle, during
the next half cycle, the potential of the other C1
terminal rises to 2 Vmax.
– Thus the condenser C2 is charged to “2Vmax
through R2 .

33
34
35
CASCADE VOLTAGE DOUBLER
• When a larger voltage is required, then cascaded
voltage doublers is used as shown in Fig.6.3b.
And the waveforms are shown in Fig 6.3c
• The transformer T1 and the condenser C1 and C2
produce an output of 2Vmax.
• the circuit is duplicated and connected in series
or cascade to obtain the voltage doubling to 4
Vmax..
• T is an isolating transformer to give an insulation
of 2Vmax since transformer T2 is 2 Vmax above
ground.

36
• The voltage distribution along the rectifier
string is made uniform by having condensers
C1, C2, C3,and C4 of equal values.
• The arrangement may be extended to give 6V,
8 V, and so on by repeating further stages with
suitable isolating transformers.

37
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS
• Cascade multiplier circuit for higher voltages
are cumbersome and require too many
isolating transformers
• To generate very high d.c. voltage from a
single supply transformer by extending the
simple voltage double circuits.

• When the load current is less than 1 mA, such

as for cathode ray tube etc. such shown by Fig
6.4a

38
39
• Pulse generated in the anode of the valve P
are rectified and the voltage is cascaded to
give of 2nVmax across the load RL
• A trigger voltage pulse of triangular waveform
(ramp) is given to make the valve switch on
and off.

• a voltage across the coil of inductance L is

produced : Vmax = I sqrt (L/CP)
CP is stray capacitance of the coil

40
• A d.c. voltage supply of about 500 volt is
applied to the pulse generator generating a
high voltage d.c. of about 50 to 100 kV with
suitable number of stages.
• The pulse frequency is high 500 to 1000 Hz
• The ripple is quite low (< 1 %)
• The voltage drop on load is about 5 % for load
current of 150 A
• The voltage drops rapidly at high load currents

41
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER USING TH COCKCROFT-
WALTON PRINCIPLE
• See Fig 6.4b.
• D1, D2, and C1, C2 and the transformer T are
the same those shown by Fig 6.3a.
• For higher output voltage of 4, 6,…..2n of the
input voltage, the circuit is repeated with
cascade or series connection
• Thus the condenser C4 is charged to 4 Vmax and
C2n to 2n Vmax above the earth potential

42
• The rectifiers D1, D3,…. D2n-1, Fig 6.4b,
conduct during the positive half cycles
• The rectifiers D4, D6,…. D2n conduct during the
negative cycles.
• Typical current and voltage waveforms are
shown in Fig 6.4c and Fig.6.4d respectfully
• The ripple voltage V and the voltage drop ∆V
in cascade voltage multiplier unit are shown in
Fig. 6.4e.

43
44
45
46
 Cascaded Modular Voltage Multiplier
or “Deltatron” Circuit for very high
voltages
• Combination of Cockcroft Walton circuit type
voltage multiplier with cascaded transformer
d.c. voltage multiplier is developed for very
high voltages but limited output current.

High stability, small ripple factor, fast

regulations
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48
• Circuit consists of Cockcroft Walton multiplier
units fed from a supply transformer unit (stage
1)
– all Cockcroft Walton multipliers are connected in
series
– the entire unit is enclosed in a cylindrical vessel
insulated by SF6 gas
– each stage of unit is typically rated for 10 to 50 kV
– about 20 to 25 stages are used in a unit.
– The supply frequency to the transformer is from a
high frequency oscillator (50 to 100 kHz).

49
– the capacitor used are of smaller size
– regulation due to load variations or power source
voltage variations is very fast (response time < 1
ms)
– the disadvantage of this circuit is that the polarity
of the unit cannot be reversed easily
– typical unit of this type may have a rating of 1 MV,
2 mA with each module or stage rated of 50 kV wit
ripple content less than 1 %

50
 Generation of High Alternating
Voltages
• When test requirements are less than about 300
kV, a single transformer can be used for test
purposes
• The impedance of the transformer should
generally less than 5 % must be able to capable
of giving the short circuit current of one minute
or more depending on the design
• In addition to the normal winding, the low and
high voltage winding, a third winding is provided
to measure the output voltage.
51
• For higher voltage requirements :
– a single unit construction becomes difficult and
costly due to insulation problems
– transportation and erection of large transformer
become difficult

Series connection or cascading of several identical

unit of transformers is the solution as in Fig 6.10
and Fig. 6.11

52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Test for 275 Kv hot stick
maintenance device

59
Inalum
275 kV
Hot stick
Maintenance
device

60
Inalum
275 Kv
Hot stick
Maintenance
Device

61
Inalum
275 kV Hot
stick Leakage
current
measurement

62
63
64
* Resistance shown
for 130 cm2 65
Impulse Voltage Generator

66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
Impulse current generator

74
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76
 Electrical Field
• Proper design of any high voltage device
needs :
– A complete knowledge of the electric field
distribution
– methods to control this field
• For understanding of insulation failure modes,
electric field concepts is a prerequisite.

77
• Force at any location in an electrostatic field :
F=qE
where : E : electric field intensity
q : electrical charge
F : electrical force
• Electrical field density :
D : E
where  = o r
= the absolute permittivity of the
medium in which the electric
fields exist.
78
0 = 8,85 x 10-12 F/m is the permittivity of free
space or vacuum
r = dielectric constant
If the medium is free of any space charge, the
electric field is obtained from the solution of the
Laplace equation :

2 = 0
where :
 : is called the laplacian
 : the potential, which is related to E
and path  through which the charge
is moved by : 79
  =  E. d
If the field medium has a space charge of
density s , then the field is governed by the
solution of the Poisson’s equation :
s
2 = - ------

When the medium under discussion is gas or
vacuum,  = 0
80
FIELD DISTRIBUTION TYPES
• The field distribution in a region may be classified
• Homogeneous (uniform)
• Non homogeneous (non uniform)
• In homogeneous field,
– E is the same throughout the region
• In non homogeneous field,
– E is different at different points in the region
• In the absence of space charges, electrical stress,
E, in a non uniform field gap usually obtains the
maximum value at the surface of the conductor,
which has the smallest radius curvature, or the
earth and :

81
• Electrical stress, E, has the minimum value at
the conductor having the largest radius of
curvature or the earth.

The field is non homogeneous and asymetrical

Most of the practical HV components used in

electrical power system have
nonhomogeneous and asymetrical field
distribution

82
Uniform or approximately uniform field
distribution exist between :
– two infinite parallel plates
– two spheres of equal diameters with a gap
spacing which is smaller than the sphere radius
• Sphere electrodes are frequently used for
high voltage measurements and in impulse
voltage generation circuits.
• Parallel plates of finite sizes are also used to
simulate homogeneous fields.

83
• In some gaps, which produces nonhomogeneous
fields, the fields along the gap axis may be
symmetrical towards both electrodes with
respect to the gap centre.
– examples of such nonuniform symmetrical fields are
fields produced by similar diameter rod-rod or sphere-
sphere gaps (with large distance between
the spheres)
– When one of the electrodes of such symmetrical
fields gaps is earthed, the field symmetry may be
disturbed due to the earthing effects
– Consequently, the high voltage electrode has
somewhat higher electric stress than the grounded
electrode.
84
METHODS OF FIELD ESTIMAION
In simple physical system such as :
– a single conductor above ground
– 2 equal diameter spheres
– 2 infinitely long parallel plates
– Coaxial cylinders
– Concentric spheres
It is possible to find an analytical field solution
However for most high voltage components, the
physical systems are so complex that is extremely
difficult to find an analytical field solution

85
• In such cases, numerical methods are employed for
electric field calculations, the methods of which as
follows :
– the finite difference method
– the finite element method
– the the Monte Carlo method
– the moment method
– the method of images
– the charge simulation method
– the surface charge simulation method
– combination of these method

– Computer software packages are now available to

carry out most fo the field calculations

86
FIELD ENHANCEMENT FACTOR
• Any designer of the high voltage apparatus
must have :
– a complete knowledge of the electric field
distribution
• For a user of a system it is sufficient :
– to know the maximum value of the electric field
Emax to which the insulation is likely to be
subjected
– to know the location fo such a maximum gradient
point
87
• The concept of field enhancement factor or
simply field factor f is considerable, which is
defined as :
f = Emax/Eav

where Eav : the average field in the gap

= the applied potential difference
divided by the gap separation
between electrodes

88
89
90
• The equations in the table can be derived
analytically or are empirical equations from
numerically computed stress value for a single
homogenous dielectric medium.
• From these equations one can estimate the
maximum stress Emax to which a given dielectric
material may be subjected when a voltage V is
applied across the two conductors with a gap
spacing of d since Emax = f V/d
• Instead of f is used, sometime, utilization factor :
r= 1/f is used, which gives more insight about
the effective use of the dielectric space.

91
• In multidielectric media, the field
computations become complicated since in
addition to the Laplace or Poisson equations,
the boundary condition must also be satisfied
at the interface of the two dielectrics

• numerical computation are essential

• general values of f cannot be given;.

92