Environment NCERT Summary

8
INDIA : CLIMATE,
VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
You read in newspapers daily and watch on T.V. or

hear others talking about weather. You must know
that weather is about day to day changes in the
atmosphere. It includes changes in temperature,
rainfall and sunshine etc. For example, as such it may
be hot or cold; sunny or cloudy; windy or calm. You
must have noticed that when it is hot continued for
several days you don’t need any warm clothing. You
also like to eat or drink cold things. In contrast there
are days together, you feel cold without woollen clothes
when it is very windy and chilly, you would like to
have something hot to eat.
Broadly, the major seasons recognised in India are:
• Cold Weather Season (Winter) December to
February
• Hot Weather Season (Summer) March to May
• Southwest Monsoon Season (Rainy)
June to September
• Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn) October
and November
COLD WEATHER SEASON OR WINTER

During the winter season, cool, dry winds blow from
north to the south. The sun rays do not fall directly in
the region as a result, the temperatures are quite low
in northern India.
HOT WEATHER SEASON OR SUMMER

In the hot weather season sun rays more or less directly
fall in this region. Temperature becomes very high.
Hot and dry winds called loo, blow during the day.
Let’s have fun :
1. People in all parts of our country drink delicious
cool drinks called Sharbat made from fruits
available in their regions. They are excellent
thirst-quenchers and protect our bodies from the
ill-effect of the harsh ‘loo’. Have you tried
‘Sharbat’, made from raw mango, bel, lemon,
tamarind, kokum, phalsa, watermelon and
buttermilk made from curds; for example
chhaachh, mattha, mori, chash, etc? Many make
banana and mango milkshakes too.
2. After a hot summer, the first rains bring much
joy. All our languages have melodious songs on
‘rains’. They sound happy and bring cheer. Learn
two songs on rains and sing them together.
Write or collect five poems on rains.
Ask your friends, neighbours and family
members for names for rains and other seasons
in different languages. For instance,
Varsha – Hindi Pous – Marathi
Barish – Urdu Borsha – Bengali
SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON OR RAINY SEASON

This season is marked by the onset and advance of
monsoon. The winds blow from Arabian Sea and Bay
of Bengal towards the land. They carry moisture with
them. When these winds strike the mountain barriers,
rainfall occurs.
SEASON OF RETREATING MONSOONS OR AUTUMN

Winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of
Bengal. This is the season of the retreating monsoons.
The southern parts of India, particularly Tamil Nadu What would happen if
and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in this season. monsoons were weak, or even
worse, failed to occur one year?
However, the climate is about the average weather Tick (9) the correct answer.
condition, which have been measured over many years.
The climate of India has broadly been described as • Crop will be-
affected/not affected
Monsoon type. Monsoon is taken from the Arabic word
‘mausim’, which means seasons. Due to India’s location • The level of the water in a
in the tropical region, most of the rain is brought by well will-
come-up/go-down
monsoon winds. Agriculture in India is dependent on
rains. Good monsoons mean adequate rain and a • Summer will be-
bountiful crop. longer/shorter
INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 57

The climate of a place is affected by its location,
Let’s Do
altitude, distance from the sea, and relief. Therefore,
On a map of we experience regional differences in the climate of
India, locate India. Jaisalmer and Bikaner in the desert of Rajasthan
the places are very hot, while Drass and Kargil in Jammu and
mentioned in the Kashmir are freezing cold. Coastal places like Mumbai
paragraph. and Kolkata experience moderate climate. They are
neither too hot nor too cold. Being on the
coast, these places are very humid.
Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the
world’s highest rainfall, while in a
particular year it might not rain at all in
Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.
NATURAL VEGETATION
We see a variety of plant life in our
surroundings. How nice it is to play in a
field with green grasses. There are also
small plants called bushes and shrubs like
cactus and flowering plants etc. Besides
there are many tall trees some with many
branches and leaves like neem, mango or
some which stand with few leaves such as
palm. The grasses, shrubs and trees, which
grow on their own without interference or
help from human beings are called natural
vegetation. Do you wonder how these differ
from each other. Different types of natural
vegetation are dependent on different
climatic conditions, among which the
amount of rainfall is very important.
Due to varied climatic conditions, India
has a wide range of natural vegetation.
Vegetation of India can be divided into five
types – Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical
deciduous forest, Thorny bushes,
Mountain vegetation and Mangrove
forests.
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

Figure 8.1 : Tropical Rain Forests Tropical Rain Forests occur in the areas
which receive heavy rainfall. They are so
dense that sunlight doesn’t reach the ground.
Many species of trees are found in these forests,
which shed their leaves at different times of the
58 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

year. As a result, they always appear green and are
called evergreen forest look at the Figure 8.1.
I m p o r t a n t t r e e s f o u n d in these forests are
mahogany, ebony and rosewood. Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, parts of North-Eastern states and
a narrow strip of the Western slope of the Western
Ghats are home of these forests.
TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS

In a large part of our country we have this type of
forest. These forests are also called monsoon forests.
They are less dense. They shed their leaves at a
particular time of the year. Important trees of these
forests are sal, teak, peepal, neem and shisham. They
are found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and in parts of
Maharashtra.
Figure 8.2 : Tropical Deciduous Forests
THORNY BUSHES
This type of vegetation is found in dry areas of the
country. The leaves are in the form of spines to reduce
the loss of water. Cactus, khair, babool, keekar are
important and are found in the states of Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats and
Gujarat.

Figure 8.3 : Thorny Bushes
MOUNTAIN VEGETATION
A wide range of species is found in the mountains
according to the variation in height. With increase in
height, the temperature falls. At a height between 1500
Figure 8.4 : Mountain Vegetation
metres and 2500 metres most of the trees

are conical in shape. These trees are called
coniferous trees. Chir, Pine and Deodar are
important trees of these forests.
MANGROVE FORESTS
These forests can survive in saline water.
They are found mainly in Sunderbans in
Figure 8.5 : Mangrove Vegetation

West Bengal and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Sundari is a well-known species of trees in mangrove
forests after which Sunderbans have been named. Leela’s parents planted a
sapling of “neem” to
WHY ARE FORESTS NECESSARY? celebrate her birth. On
each birthday, a different
Forests are very useful for us. They perform various sapling was planted. It was
functions. Plants release oxygen that we breathe and watered regularly and
absorb carbon dioxide. The roots of the plants bind protected from severe heat,
the soil; thus, they control soil erosion. cold and animals. Children
Forests provide us with timber for furniture, fuel took care not to harm it.
wood, fodder, medicinal plants and herbs, lac, honey, When Leela was 20, twenty-
one beautiful trees, stood in
gum, etc.
and around her house.
Forests are the natural habitat of wild life. Birds built their nests on
Natural vegetation has been destroyed to a large them, flowers bloomed,
extent because of the reckless cutting of trees. We butterflies fluttered around
should plant more trees and protect the existing ones them, children enjoyed
and make people aware of the importance of trees. We their fruits, swung on their
can have special programmes like Van Mahotsav to branches and played in
involve more people in making our earth green. their shade.
Figure 8.6 : Uses of Forests

WILD LIFE
Forests are home to a variety of wild life. There are
thousands of species of animals and a large variety of
reptiles, amphibians, mammals, birds, insects and
worms which dwell in the forest.
Figure 8.7 : Wildlife
The tiger is our national animal. It is found in

various parts of the country. Gir forest in Gujarat is
the home of Asiatic lions. Elephants and one-horned
rhinoceroses roam in the forests of Assam. Elephants
are also found in Kerala and Karnataka. Camels and
wild asses are found in the the Great Indian desert
and the Rann of Kuchchh. Wild goats, snow leopards,
bears, etc. are found in the Himalayan region. Besides
these, many other animals are found in our country
such as monkey, wolf, jackal, nilgai, cheetal, etc.
India is equally rich in bird life. The peacock is our
national bird. Other common birds are parrots,
pigeons, mynah, geese, bulbul and ducks. There are
several bird sanctuaries which have been created to
give birds their natural habitat. These provide the birds
protection from hunters. Can you name five birds that
are commonly found in your area?

There are several hundreds of species of snakes found in India. Cobras and
kraits are important among them.
Due to cutting of forests and hunting, several species of wildlife of India are
declining rapidly. Many species have already become extinct.
In order to protect them many national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves
have been set up. The Government has also started Project Tiger and Project
Elephant to protect these animals. Can you name some wildlife sanctuaries of
India and locate them on a map?
You can also contribute in conserving wildlife. You can refuse to buy things
made from parts of the bodies of animals such as their bones, horns, fur, skins,
and feathers. Every year we observe wildlife week in the first week of October, to
create awareness of conserving the habitats of the animal kingdom.
?• Why do poachers kill tigers?

• What will happen if tigers vanish from our forests?
• Have you ever visited any tiger reserves or a zoo where
tigers are kept?

Migratory Birds
Some birds migrate to our
country in the winter
season every year such as
Pelican, Siberian Crane,
Stork, Flamingo, Pintail
Duck, Curlew. Siberian
Cranes migrate from
Siberia; they arrive in
December and stay till
early march.
Stork – a migratory bird
1. Answer the following questions briefly.

(a) Which winds bring rainfall in India? Why is it so important?
(b) Name the different seasons in India.
(c) What is natural vegetation?
(d) Name the different types of vegetation found in India.
(e) What is the difference between evergreen forest and deciduous forest?
(f) Why is tropical rainforest also called evergreen forest?
2. Tick the correct answers.
(a) The world’s highest rainfall occurs in
(i) Mumbai (ii) Asansol (iii) Mawsynram
(b) Mangrove forests can thrive in
(i) saline water (ii) fresh water (iii) polluted water
(c) Mahogany and rosewood trees are found in
(i) mangrove forests
(ii) tropical deciduous forests
(iii) tropical evergreen forests
(d) Wild goat and snow leopards are found in
(i) Himalayan region
(ii) Peninsular region
(iii) Gir forests

(e) During the south west monsoon period, the moisture laden winds
blow from
(i) land to sea (ii) sea to land (iii) plateau to plains
3. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Hot and dry winds known as ________________ blow during the day in the
summers.
(b) The states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu receive a great amount of
rainfall during the season of________________.
(c) _____________ forest in Gujarat is the home of ________________.
(d) _____________ is a well-known species of mangrove forests.
(e) ____________ are also called mansoon forests.
1. Make a list of trees in your surroundings and collect the pictures of plants,
animals and birds and paste them in your copy.
2. Plant a sapling near your home and nurture it and write down the changes
you observe for a few months.
3. Does any migratory bird come in your locality? Try to idenfity that. Be watchful
in winter season.
4. Visit a zoo in your city or visit a nearby forest or sanctuary with your elders.
Watch various types of wildlife there.

1 Environment
After the long vacation, when Ravi started going to school

again, he noticed that the only playground next to his school
was dug up. People said that a huge building with many
flats will be constructed there. Ravi was almost in tears,
when he realised that the big playground with its soft
grass, marigolds and butterflies is gone for ever. He shared
his feelings with his classmates. In the assembly, the
Principal too sadly observed, “See how our environment
Environment is our
is changing.” basic life support
In the class Ravi asked his teacher, “What is system. It provides
environment?” “Whatever you see in your surroundings,” the air we breath, the
said the teacher. water we drink, the
Ravi thought aloud, “That means, the school building, food we eat and the
tables, chairs in the classroom, even that open field, the land where we live.
road, the garbage, my friends – all are parts of our How do human
environment”! beings modify this
“Yes” said the teacher, “but wait….. Some objects are natural environment?
The car fumes pollute
created by nature – for example, mountains, rivers, trees,
the air, water is
animals. Others are made by people – for example roads,
collected in a pot,
cars, clothes, books”. food is served in
Now work in pairs. Make a list with your classmate vessels and land is
sitting next to you, of the creations of nature and by used to build
human beings. factories.
Human beings
make cars, mills,
factories and
manufacture
containers. This is
how human beings
modify natural
environment.
Ravi, Paramjeet, Jessy, Mustafa, Asha were all excited
about making the list. “Why is our environment changing?”
asked Iqbal. “It’s all because of our needs. They are
Parks
r e)
Ai her Water
sp (Hydrosphere)
t mo Bridges
(A Buildings
Hu
Natural Human
ma man
de
made
Land Components
(Lithosphere) Roads
of
Environment
Living Things Industries Monuments

(Biosphere)
Human
Individual Political
Situation
Family
Economic
Community
Religion Educational
Fig. 1.1: Components of Environment
increasing day by day; we are therefore modifying and

at times even destroying our natural surroundings”, the
teacher replied.
From the above conversation you
Biotic Abiotic understand that the place, people, things and
The world of The world of nature that surround any living organism is
living non-living called environment. It is a combination of
organisms. elements. natural and human made phenomena. While
e.g. plants e.g. land.
the natural environment refers to both biotic
and animals.
and abiotic conditions existing on the earth,
2 OUR ENVIRONMENT
human environment reveals the activities, creations and Word Origin
interactions among human beings.
Environment: French
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT word “Environer/
Environner” meaning
Land, water, air, plants and animals comprise the natural “neighbourhood”.
environment. You are familiar with the meaning of
lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere
from your previous class. Let us learn some more facts
about these domains.
Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer of
the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered
Let’s do
by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular surface with
various landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, Look at your
valleys, etc. Landforms are found over the continents surroundings. Make a
and also on the ocean floors. list of uses that the
Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, land in your
grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human neighbourhood is
settlements. It is also a source of mineral wealth. being put to.
Atmosphere
Let’s do
Biosphere
Where does the water

Hydrosphere you use in your home
and school come
from? Make a list of
Lithosphere different uses of
water in our daily life.
Have you seen anyone
wasting water? How?
Fig. 1.2: Domains of the Environment
The domain of water is referred to as hydrosphere. It

Let’s do
comprises various sources of water and different types of
water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. It is Observe the sky while
essential for all living organisms. coming to school.
The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that Make a note whether
surrounds the earth. The gravitational force of the the day is cloudy,
earth holds the atmosphere around it. It protects us rainy, sunny, foggy etc.
ENVIRONMENT 3
Glossary from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.
It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour.
Ecosystem: It is a The changes in the atmosphere produce changes in
system formed by the the weather and climate.
interaction of all
Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere
living organisms with
each other and with
or the living world. It is a narrow zone of the earth
the physical and where land, water and air interact with each other to
chemical factors of support life.
the environment in What is ecosystem?
which they live, all
linked by transfer of At an NCC camp that Ravi’s class was attending, Jessy
energy and material. exclaimed, “What a heavy downpour. It reminds me of
my home in Kerala. You should come and see how it
pours and pours and pours over the lush green fields
and coconut plantations.”
Let’s do Heera from Jaisalmer exclaimed, “We get no rains.
Sketch or bring We see only ‘kikar’ and sand, as far as the eyes can
photographs of your see.” “But you also find camels”, said Ravi.
place like the
students in the story.
Fig. 1.3: A Pond Ecosystem
4 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Heera says, “Not just camels. If you visit our desert, Do you know?
you will see snakes, lizards and many insects too.”
Ravi wondered, “Why do the animals, the vegetation On 5 June every year
World Environment
and the way people live vary from place to place? Are
Day is celebrated.
they all related to each other?”
“Oh yes, very much so”, the teacher replied.
All plants, animals and human beings depend on
their immediate surroundings. Often they are also Glossary
interdependent on each other. This relation between the
living organisms, as well as the relation between the Barter System:
organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem. It is a trade in which
There could be an ecosystem of large rain forest, goods are exchanged
without the use of
grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean and even
money.
a small pond.
Do you think the park in which Ravi and his friends
played formed an ecosystem?
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
Human beings interact with the environment and modify
it according to their need. Early humans adapted
themselves to the natural surroundings. They led a
simple life and fulfilled their requirements from the
nature around them. With time needs grew and became Let’s do
more varied. Humans learn new ways to use and change
environment. They learn to grow crops, domesticate Talk to some elderly
animals and lead a settled life. The wheel was invented, person in your
neighbourhood and
surplus food was produced, barter system emerged, trade
collect information
started and commerce developed. Industrial revolution
about–
enabled large scale production. Transportation became • The trees in his/
faster. Information revolution made communication her neighbourhood
easier and speedy across the world. when he/ she was
Have you ever thought why you love eating a juicy your age.
watermelon in summer and hot roasted peanuts in • The indoor games
winter? A perfect balance is necessary between the he/she played.
natural and human environment. Humans must learn • His/her favourite
to live and use their environment in a harmonious way. fruit at your age.
• How did they make
Nurie, a girl from Mizoram from Ravi’s class often talks themselves
about the lush green surroundings of her place. Seeing comfortable during
Ravi upset at having lost his playground, Nurie invited hot summers and
him to visit her home state during the coming vacation. cold winters?
Ravi’s teacher asked the students to draw the landscape, Display your answers
houses and activities of the people and places they visit on a wall/bulletin
during the holidays. board.
ENVIRONMENT 5
Exercises
1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What is an ecosystem?
(ii) What do you mean by natural environment?
(iii) Which are the major components of the environment?
(iv) Give four examples of human made environment.
(v) What is lithosphere?
(vi) Which are the two major components of biotic environment?
(vii) What is biosphere?
2. Tick the correct answer.
(i) Which is not a natural ecosystem?
(a) Desert (b) Aquarium (c) Forest
(ii) Which is not a component of human environment?
(a) Land (b) Religion (c) Community
(iii) Which is a human made environment?
(a) Mountain (b) Sea (c) Road
(iv) Which is a threat to environment?
(a) Growing plant
(b) Growing population
(c) Growing crops
3. Match the following.
(i) Biosphere (a) blanket of air which surrounds the earth
(ii) Atmosphere (b) domain of water
(iii) Hydrosphere (c) our surroundings
(iv) Environment (d) narrow zone where land water and air interact
4. Give reasons.
(i) Man modifies his environment
(ii) Plants and animals depend on each other
5. Activity.
Imagine an ideal environment where you would love to live. Draw the picture of
your ideal environment.
6 OUR ENVIRONMENT
2 Inside Our Earth
The earth, our homeland is a dynamic planet. It is

constantly undergoing changes inside and outside. Have
Do you know?
you ever wondered what lies in the interior of the earth?
What is the earth made up of? • The deepest mine in
the world, is in
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH South Africa. It is
Crust
Just like an onion, the Lithosphere about 4 km. deep. In
earth is made up of search for oil
Mantle
engineers have dug a
several concentric
Core-mantle hole about 6 km.
layers with one inside boundary deep.
another (Fig. 2.1). The • To reach to the
Inner core Outer
uppermost layer over core centre of the earth
the earth’s surface is (which is not
called the crust. It is the possible!) you will
thinnest of all the have to dig a hole
layers. It is about 35 km. 6000 km. deep on
on the continental the ocean floor.
masses and only 5 km. Fig. 2.1: Interior of the Earth
on the ocean floors.
The main mineral
constituents of the
Continental Oceanic
continental mass are Crust Continent Ocean Crust
silica and alumina. It is
thus called sial (si-silica
and al-alumina). The
oceanic crust mainly
consists of silica and
magnesium; it is therefore
called sima (si-silica and
ma-magnesium) (Fig. 2.2).
Just beneath the crust
is the mantle which
extends up to a depth of
2900 km. below the crust. Fig. 2.2: Continental Crust and Oceanic Crust
Do you know? The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about
3500 km. It is mainly made up of nickel and iron and is
• The crust forms only called nife (ni – nickel and fe – ferrous i.e. iron). The
0.5 per cent of the central core has very high temperature and pressure.
volume of the earth,
16 per cent consists ROCKS AND MINERALS
of the mantle and
83 per cent makes The earth’s crust is made up of various types of rocks.
the core. Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the
• The radius of the earth’s crust is called a rock. Rocks can be of different
earth is 6371 km. colour, size and texture.
There are three major types of rocks: igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid.
Word Origin Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. They are
also called primary rocks. There are two types of igneous
Igneous: Latin word rocks: intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks.
Ignis meaning fire. Can you imagine lava coming out from the volcanoes?
Sedimentary: Latin
Lava is actually fiery red molten magma coming out from
word sedimentum the interior of the earth on its surface. When this molten
meaning settle down. lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down
Metamorphic: Greek
and becomes solid. Rocks formed in such a way on the
word metamorphose crust are called extrusive igneous rocks. They have a
meaning change of form. very fine grained structure. For example, basalt. The
Deccan plateau is made up of basalt rocks. Sometimes
the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s
crust. Solid rocks so formed are called intrusive igneous
Glossary rocks. Since they cool down slowly they form large
grains. Granite is an example of such a rock. Grinding
Fossils: The remains stones used to prepare paste/powder of spices and grains
of the dead plants and are made of granite.
animals trapped in Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are
the layers of rocks are broken down into small fragments. These smaller particles
called fossils. are called sediments. These sediments are transported
and deposited by wind, water, etc. These loose
sediments are compressed and hardened to form
layers of rocks. These types of rocks are called
sedimentary rocks. For example, sandstone is
made from grains of sand. These rocks may also
contain fossils of plants, animals and other micro-
organisms that once lived on them.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change
into metamorphic rocks under great heat and
Fig. 2.3: Sedimentary rock turned pressure (Fig. 2.3). For example, clay changes into
into a Metamorphic rock slate and limestone into marble.
8 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Rocks are very useful to us. The hard rocks are used
for making roads, houses and buildings. You use stones
in many games. For example, seven stones (pitthoo), hop-
scotch (stapu/kit kit), five stones (gitti). Find out some
more such games by asking your grand parents, parents,
neighbours, etc.
Let’s do
Collect pictures of some monuments and find out which are the rocks
used to build them. Two pictures have been collected for you.
The Red Fort is made of red sandstone The Taj Mahal is made of white marble
You will be surprised to know that one type of rock

changes to another type under certain conditions in a
cyclic manner. This process of transformation of the rock
from one to another is known as the rock cycle. You
have already learnt when the
molten magma cools; it solidifies
to become igneous rock. These
igneous rocks are broken down
into small particles that are
transported and deposited to
form sedimentary rocks. When
the igneous and sedimentary
rocks are subjected to heat
and pressure they change
into metamorphic rocks. The
metamorphic rocks which are still
under great heat and pressure
melt down to form molten magma.
This molten magma again can
cool down and solidify into
igneous rocks (Fig. 2.4). Fig. 2.4: Rock Cycle
INSIDE OUR EARTH 9

Rocks are made up of different minerals. Minerals
Let’s do are naturally occurring substances which have certain
physical properties and definite chemical composition.
What are the Minerals are very important to humankind. Some are
minerals found in
used as fuels. For example, coal, natural gas and
your state?
petroleum. They are also used in industries – iron,
Collect some samples
aluminium, gold, uranium, etc, in medicine, in
to show in your class.
fertilisers, etc.
Exercises

(i) What are the three layers of the earth?
(ii) What is a rock?
(iii) Name three types of rocks.
(iv) How are extrusive and intrusive rocks formed?
(v) What do you mean by a rock cycle?
(vi) What are the uses of rocks?
(vii) What are metamorphic rocks?
(i) The rock which is made up of molten magma is
(a) Igneous (b) Sedimentary (c) Metamorphic
(ii) The innermost layer of the earth is
(a) Crust (b) Core (c) Mantle
(iii) Gold, petroleum and coal are examples of
(a) Rocks (b) Minerals (c) Fossils
(iv) Rocks which contain fossils are
(a) Sedimentary rocks
(b) Metamorphic rocks
(c) Igneous rocks
(v) The thinnest layer of the earth is
(a) Crust (b) Mantle (c) Core
(i) Core (a) Changes into slate
(ii) Minerals (b) Used for roads and buildings
(iii) Rocks (c) Made of silicon and alumina
(iv) Clay (d) Has definite chemical composition
(v) Sial (e) Innermost layer
10 OUR ENVIRONMENT
4. Give reasons.
(i) We cannot go to the centre of the earth.
(ii) Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments.
(iii) Limestone is changed into marble.
5. For fun.
(i) What are the minerals most commonly used in the following objects?
(ii) Identify some more objects made up of different minerals.
Karhai Ornaments
Pan/Tava
Hammer
Bell
Lamp
INSIDE OUR EARTH 11

3 Our Changing Earth
Activity The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates known
as the Lithospheric plates. You will be surprised to know
Take a small coloured that these plates move around very slowly – just a few
paper pellet and put it
millimetres each year. This is because of the movement
in a beaker
half filled of the molten magma inside the earth. The molten magma
with water. inside the earth moves in a circular manner as shown in
Place the the activity.
beaker on a The movement of these plates causes changes on the
tripod stand surface of the earth. The earth movements are divided
and heat it. As the on the basis of the forces which cause them. The forces
water warms up, you which act in the interior of the earth are called as
will observe that the Endogenic forces and the forces that work on the surface
paper pellet is moving
of the earth are called as Exogenic forces (Fig. 3.1).
upward along with the
warm layers of water
and then Earth movements
sinks back
along with Endogenic forces Exogenic forces
the cooler
layers of water. The Sudden forces Diastrophic forces Erosional and Depositional
molten magma inside
the earth moves in a
similar manner. Earthquake Building mountains River
Volcano Wind
Glossary
Landslides Sea-waves
Lithospheric plates:
The earth’s crust Glaciers
consists of several
large and some small, Fig. 3.1: Evolution of Landforms
rigid, irregularly-
shaped plates (slabs) Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements
which carry and at the other times produce slow movements. Sudden
continents and the movements like earthquakes and volcanoes cause mass
ocean floor. destruction over the surface of the earth.
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the Word Origin
earth’s crust through which molten
material erupts suddenly (Fig. 3.2).
Endo Endogenic
(inside) + genic
Gases and ash Exo (origin)
Crater (outside) Exogenic
Vent
Lava Activity
Lava
tube
Take a container, fill
it with water and
Crust close it with a lid. Put
Magma the water to boil. Now
Mantle Chamber
put some peas, spoon
Fig. 3.2: A Volcano and beads on top on
the lid. What do you
notice? As the water
Similarly, when the Lithospheric plates move, the boils the lid begins to
surface of the earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel shake. The things
all round the earth. These vibrations are called which you have put
earthquakes (Fig. 3.3). The place in the crust where the on the lid also
movement starts is called the focus. The place on the vibrate. The beads roll
surface above the focus is called the epicentre. down and the spoon
Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves. vibrates to make a
Greatest damage is usually closest to the epicentre and sound. In the same
manner, the earth
the strength of the earthquake decreases away from
vibrates when an
the centre.
earthquake occurs.
Plate boundary Epicentre Seismic waves radiate
out in all directions
Do you know?
There are three types

of earthquake waves.
1. P waves or
longitudinal waves
2. S waves or
transverse waves
3. L waves or surface
waves
Focus – this is where the
earthquake occurs. It is the Try to find out the
origin of the seismic energy. properties of these
waves from an
Fig. 3.3: Origin of an Earthquake encyclopedia.
OUR CHANGING EARTH 13

Although earthquakes cannot be predicted, the
impact can certainly be minimised if we are prepared
before-hand.
Some common earthquake prediction methods
adopted locally by people include studying animal
behaviour; fish in the ponds get agitated, snakes come
to the surface.
Earthquake – A Case Study
Fig. 3.3a: Destruction

caused by an Earthquake 1 5 Fire in the city
at Bhuj
EARTHQUAKE HITS BHUJ
Hundreds of fires
A massive earthquake measuring 6.9 on Richter started as charcoal,
scale hit Bhuj Town on 26th January 2001. cookers overturned.
2 3 BHUJ RELIEF EFFORT
School worst 6 Emergency declared
BLIGHTED..
affected in quake zone
Three days after the and medical supplies
Atleast 971 students quake, concern rose not reaching everyone. The President declares
and 31 teachers are about food, blankets a state of emergency.
feared to have lost 4 Destruction of Bhuj 7 CM’S APPEAL TO THE CENTRE
their lives following Phone lines, water Gujarat appeals for an appeal for the
Do you know? the collapse of pipelines and power financial help. The Centre to deal with
stations transmission Chief Minister of the disaster.
school buildings. Gujarat has launched
lines were knocked out.
An earthquake is
measured with a
machine called a
seismograph. The
magnitude of the
earthquake is Activity
measured on the
1. Read the ‘Earthquake – A case study’ given in the
Richter scale. An
form of headlines that appeared in the newspapers
earthquake of 2.0 or
after the quake. Arrange the events in the right
less can be felt only a
sequence of their happening.
little. An earthquake
over 5.0 can cause 2. Imagine if a quake suddenly shook in the middle of
damage from things the school day, where would you go for safety?
falling. A 6.0 or
higher magnitude is
considered very EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS
strong and 7.0 is Where to take shelter during an earthquake —
classified as a major Safe Spot – Under a kitchen counter, table or desk,
earthquake.
against an inside corner or wall.
Stay Away from – Fire places, areas around chimneys,
windows that shatter including mirrors and picture
frames.
Be Prepared – Spread awareness amongst your friends
and family members and face any disaster confidently.
A Seismograph
14 OUR ENVIRONMENT
MAJOR LAND FORMS Do you know?
The landscape is being continuously worn away by two • There are
processes – weathering and erosion. Weathering is the thousands of small
breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface. Erosion waterfalls in the
is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents world. The highest
like water, wind and ice. The eroded material is carried waterfall is Angel
away or transported by water, wind, etc. and eventually Falls of Venezuela
deposited. This process of erosion and deposition create in South America.
different landforms on the surface of the earth. The other waterfalls
are Niagara falls
Work of a River located on the
The running water in the river erodes the landscape. When border between
the river tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or Canada and USA in
North America and
down a steep valley side it forms a waterfall (Fig. 3.4).
Victoria Falls on
the borders of
Zambia and
Zimbabwe in Africa.
Hard rock
Softer rock undercut
by the power of
the water
The Niagra falls
Fig. 3.4: Waterfall
As the river enters the plain it twists and turns forming

large bends known as meanders. Due to continuous
erosion and deposition along the sides of the meander,
the ends of the meander loop come closer
and closer. In due course of time the
meander loop cuts off from the river and
forms a cut-off lake, also called an ox-bow
lake. At times the river overflows its banks.
This leads to the flooding of the
neighbouring areas. As it floods, it
deposits layers of fine soil and other
material called sediments along its
banks. This leads to the formation
of a flat fertile floodplain. The raised
banks are called levees. As the river
approaches the sea, the speed of the
flowing water decreases and the Fig. 3.5: Features made by a river in a flood plain

Let’s do river begins to break up
Main river Distributary
into a number of streams
Can you find out called distributaries. The
names of some rivers river becomes so slow that
of the world that form it begins to deposit its load.
a delta? Each distributary forms its
own mouth. The collection
of sediments from all the Fig. 3.6: Delta
mouths forms a delta.
Work of Sea Waves
The erosion and deposition of
the sea waves gives rise to
Stack
coastal landforms. Seawaves
continuously strike at the
rocks. Cracks develop. Over
time they become larger and
wider. Thus, hollow like caves
Sea Arch are formed on the rocks. They
are called sea caves. As these
Sea Cave cavities become bigger and
bigger only the roof of the
caves remain, thus forming sea
Fig. 3.7: Features made by sea waves a r c h e s . F u r t h e r, e r o s i o n
breaks the roof and only walls
are left. These wall like features are called stacks.
The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above
sea water is called sea cliff. The sea waves deposit
sediments along the shores forming beaches.
Work of Ice
Glaciers are “rivers” of ice which
too erode the landscape by
bulldozing soil and stones to
expose the solid rock below.
Glaciers carve out deep hollows.
As the ice melts they get filled
up with water and become
beautiful lakes in the
mountains. The material carried
by the glacier such as rocks big
and small, sand and silt gets
deposited. These deposits form
Fig. 3.8: Glacier glacial moraines.
16 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Work of wind
Have you ever visited a desert? Try to collect some
pictures of sand dunes.
An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts
is wind. In deserts you can see rocks in the shape of a
mushroom, commonly called mushroom rocks. Winds
erode the lower section of the rock more than the upper
part. Therefore, such rocks have narrower base and wider
top. When the wind blows, it lifts and transports sand
from one place to another. When it stops blowing the
sand falls and gets deposited in low hill – like structures.
These are called sand dunes (Fig. 3.9). When the grains
of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over
very long distances. When such sand is deposited in
large areas, it is called loess. Large deposits of loess is
Fig. 3.9: Sand Dunes found in China.
Exercises

(i) Why do the plates move?
(ii) What are exogenic and endogenic forces?
(iii) What is erosion?
(iv) How are flood plains formed?
(v) What are sand dunes?
(vi) How are beaches formed?
(vii) What are ox bow lakes?
(i) Which is not an erosional feature of sea waves?
(a) Cliff (b) Beach (c) Sea cave
(ii) The depositional feature of a glacier is:
(a) Flood plain (b) Beach (c) Moraine
(iii) Which is caused by the sudden movements of the earth?
(a) Volcano (b) Folding (c) Flood plain
(iv) Mushroom rocks are found in:
(a) Deserts (b) River valleys (c) Glaciers
(v) Ox bow lakes are found in:
(a) Glaciers (b) River valleys (c) Deserts

(i) Glacier (a) Sea shore
(ii) Meanders (b) River of ice
(iii) Beach (c) Rivers
(iv) Sand dunes (d) Vibrations of earth
(v) Waterfall (e) Hard bed rock
(vi) Earthquake (f) Deserts
4. Give reasons.
(i) Some rocks have a shape of a mushroom.
(ii) Flood plains are very fertile.
(iii) Sea caves are turned into stacks.
(iv) Buildings collapse due to earthquakes.
5. Activity.
Observe the photographs given below. These are various features made by a
river. Identify them and also tell whether they are erosional or depositional or
landforms formed by both.
Photograph Name of the Type

Feature (Erosional or Depositional or Both)
18 OUR ENVIRONMENT
6. For fun.
Solve the crossword puzzle with the help of given clues.
Across Down
2. Loop like bend of river 1. Rise and fall of water caused by friction
4. Solid form of water of wind on water surface
7. Moving mass of ice 3. Flow of water in channel
9. Sudden descent of water in bed of river 5. Steep perpendicular face of rock along
sea coast
11. Natural cavity on weak rocks formed by
action of waves 6. Debris of boulder and coarse material
carried by glacier
12. Embankment on river that keeps river
in its channel 8. Crescent shaped lake formed by river
meander
13. Large body of sea water
10. Fine sand deposited by action of wind
14. Dry area where sand dunes are found
13. Isolated mass of rising steep rock near
15. Small hill of sand piled by action of wind
coastline
16. Flat plain formed by river deposits during
14. Alluvial tracts of land at mouth of river
time of flood
formed by river deposits

4 Air
Do you know? Our earth is surrounded by a huge blanket of air
called atmosphere. All living beings on this earth
Carbon dioxide depend on the atmosphere for their survival. It
released in the provides us the air we breathe and protects us from
atmosphere creates a the harmful effects of the sun’s rays. Without this
green house effect by blanket of protection, we would be baked alive by the
trapping the heat heat of the sun during day and get frozen during
radiated from the night. So it is this mass of air that has made the
earth. It is therefore temperature on the earth liveable.
called a greenhouse
gas and without it the COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
earth would have been
too cold to live in. Do you know that the air we take in while breathing is
However, when its actually a mixture of many gases? Nitrogen and oxygen
level in the are two gases which make up the bulk of the
atmosphere increases atmosphere. Carbon
due to factory smoke dioxide, helium,
or car fumes, the heat ozone, argon and
retained increases the hydrogen are found
temperature of the in lesser quantities.
earth. This is called
Apart from these
global warming. This
gases, tiny dust
rise in temperature
causes the snow in
particles are also
coldest parts of the present in the air. The
world to melt. As a pie chart gives you the
result the sea level percentage of different
rises, causing floods in constituents of air (Fig. 4.1).
the coastal areas. Nitrogen is the most
There may be drastic plentiful gas in the air. When
changes in the climate we inhale, we take some
of a place leading to amount of nitrogen into our
extinction of some lungs and exhale it. But
plants and animals in plants need nitrogen for their
the long run. Fig. 4.1: Constituents of Air survival. They can not take
nitrogen directly from the air. Bacteria, that live in the
soil and roots of some plants, take nitrogen from the
Do you know?
air and change its form so that plants can use it.
Oxygen is the second most plentiful gas in the air.
When air is heated, it
Humans and animals take oxygen from the air as they
expands, becomes
breathe. Green plants produce oxygen during lighter and goes up.
photosynthesis. In this way oxygen content in the air Cold air is denser and
remains constant. If we cut trees then this balance heavy. That is why it
gets disturbed. tends to sink down.
Carbon dioxide is another important gas. Green When hot air rises,
plants use carbon dioxide to make their food and cold air from
release oxygen. Humans or animals release carbon surrounding area
dioxide. The amount of carbon dioxide released by rushes there to fill in
humans or animals seems to be equal to the amount the gap. That is how
air circulation takes
used by the plants which make a perfect balance.
place.
However, the balance is upset by burning of fuels, such
as coal and oil. They add billions of tons of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere each year. As a result, the
increased volume of carbon dioxide is affecting the
earth’s weather and climate.
Read and Ponder: Is global warming a serious issue in today’s world?
AIR 21
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from
the earth’s sur face. These are T roposphere,
Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and
Exosphere (Fig. 4.2).
Troposphere: This layer is the most important layer of
the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km. The air
we breathe exists here.
Almost all the weather
EXOSPHERE
phenomena like rainfall,
fog and hailstorm occur in
THERMOSPHERE this layer.
100
Stratosphere: Above the
troposphere lies the
90 stratosphere. It extends up
to a height of 50 km. This
Mesopause
layer is almost free from
80 clouds and associated
weather phenomenon,
making conditions most
70 ideal for flying aeroplanes.
One important feature of
stratosphere is that it
Height (km)
MESOSPHERE
60 contains a layer of ozone
gas. We have just learnt
how it protects us from
50 the harmful effect of the
Stratopause sun rays.
40 Mesosphere: This is the

third layer of the
atmosphere. It lies above
STRATOSPHERE
30 the stratosphere. It extends
up to the height of 80 km.
Meteorites burn up in
Aeroplane
20 this layer on entering from
OZONE the space.
Ther mosphere: In
10 Tropoapuse thermosphere temperature
Mt. Everest
rises very rapidly with
TROPOSPHERE
increasing height.
Ionosphere is a part of this
Fig. 4.2: Layers of Atmosphere layer. It extends between
22 OUR ENVIRONMENT
80-400 km. This layer helps in radio transmission. In
fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected
back to the earth by this layer. Let’s do
Exosphere: The upper most layer of the atmosphere For ten days note
is known as exosphere. This layer has very thin air. down weather report
Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the from a local
space from here. newspaper and
observe the changes
WEATHER AND CLIMATE occurring in the
weather.
“Is it going to rain today?” “Will it be bright and sunny
today?” How many times have we heard this from
anxious cricket fans speculating the fate of a One Day
match? If we imagine our body to be a radio and the
mind its speaker, weather is something that fiddles Do you know?
with its control knobs. Weather is this hour-to-hour,
day to day condition of the atmosphere. A hot or humid You will be surprised
weather may make one irritable. A pleasant, breezy to know that the
weather may make one cheerful and even plan for an earth receives only 1
outing. Weather can change dramatically from day to in 2,000,000,0000
day. However, the average weather condition of a place parts of the sun’s
for a longer period of time represents the climate of a energy.
place. Now do you understand why we have daily
weather forecasts.
Temperature
The temperature you feel everyday
is the temperataure of the
atmosphere. The degree of hotness
and coldness of the air is known
as temperature.
Thermometer:
The temperature of the
Measures Barometre: Measures
atmosphere changes not only the temperature atmospheric pressure
between day and night but also
from season to season. Summers
are hotter than winters.
An important factor that
influences the distribution of
temperature is insolation.
Insolation is the incoming solar
energy intercepted by the earth.
The amount of insolation Rain Gauge: Measures Wind Vane: Shows the
the amount of rainfall direction of the wind
decreases from the equator
towards the poles. Therefore, the Fig. 4.3: Weather Instruments
AIR 23
Do you know? temperature decreases in the same manner. Now do
you understand why poles are covered with snow? If
The standard unit of the earth’s temperature rises too high, it would become
measuring too warm for some crops to grow. Temperature in cities
temperature is degree is much higher than that of villages. The concrete and
Celsius. It was metals in buildings and the asaphalt of roads get
invented by Anders
heated up during the day. This heat is released during
Celsius. On the
Celsius scale the
the night.
water freezes at 0°C Also, the crowded high rise buildings of the cities
and boils at 100°C. trap the warm air and thus raise the temperature of
the cities.
Air Pressure
You will be surprised to know that air above us presses
Do you know? us with a great force on our bodies. However, we don’t
even feel it. This is because the air presses us from all
On the moon there is directions and our body exerts a counter pressure.
no air and hence no Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the
air pressure. weight of air on the earth’s surface. As we go up the
Astronauts have to layers of atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly. The air
wear special pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with height.
protective space suits Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced
filled with air when by temperature of air at a given place. In areas where
they go to the moon. If temperature is high the air gets heated and rises. This
they did not wear creates a low-pressure area. Low pressure is associated
these space suits, the
with cloudy skies and wet weather.
counter pressure
exerted by the body of
In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold. It
the astronauts would is therefore heavy. Heavy air sinks and creates a high
make the blood vessels pressure area. High pressure is associated with clear and
burst. The astronauts sunny skies.
would bleed. The air always moves from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas.
Wind
The movement of air from high pressure area to low
Do you know? pressure areas is called wind. You can see wind at work
as it blows dry leaves down the pavement or uproots
A wind is named after trees during a storm. Sometimes when the wind blows
the direction from gently you can even see it blowing away smoke or fine
which it blows, e.g. dust. At times wind can be so strong that it is difficult
the wind blowing from to walk against it. You must have experienced it is not
the west is called easy to hold an umbrella on a windy day. Think of
westerly.
some other examples when strong winds have created
24 OUR ENVIRONMENT
problems for you. Winds can be 90°N
High Pressure
broadly divided into three types.
Polar Easterlies
1. Permanent winds – The trade
winds, westerlies and easterlies 60°N Sub-Polar Low Pressure
are the permanent winds. P r e v a i l i n g We s t e r l i e s

These blow constantly 35°N
Sub - Tropical High Pressure (Horse Latitudes)
throughout the year in a 30°N
23.5°N T r o p i c o f C a n c e r
particular direction. Northeast Trade Winds
2. Seasonal winds – These 0° Equatorial Low Pressure (Doldrums)
winds change their direction Southeast Trade Winds
T ropic of Capricor n
23.5°S
in different seasons. For 30°S Sub - Tropical High Pressure (Horse Latitudes)
example monsoons in India. 35°S
Prevailing We s t e r l i e s
3. Local winds – These blow
only during a particular 60°S Sub-Polar Low Pressure
period of the day or year in a

Polar Easterlies
small area. For example, land
High Pressure
and sea breeze. Do you recall the
90°S
hot and dry local wind of northern
planes of India? It is called loo. Fig. 4.4: Major Pressure Belts and Wind System
CYCLONE – NATURE’S FURY

Orissa, located on the eastern
seacoast of India is prone to
cyclones that originate in the
Bay of Bengal. On 17-18
October 1999, cyclone hit five
districts of the state. Another
supercyclone occurred on the
29 October 1999, that
devastated large portions of the
state. The damages caused
were mainly due to three
factors: wind velocity, rain and
Destruction caused by cyclone
tidal surge. The winds of upto
260 km. per hour lasted for over 36 hours. These high velocity winds
uprooted trees and damaged the kutcha houses. Roof tops of several
industrial sheds and other houses were also blown away. Power supply
and telecom lines snapped completely. Heavy rain occurred under the
influence of the cyclone for three days continuously. These rains led to
flooding in the major rivers of Orissa. The cyclonic winds caused tidal
waves that swept 20 km. inland and brought massive destruction to the
coastal areas. The 7 to 10 m high tidal wave intruded suddenly and
caused massive damage to the standing paddy crops.
AIR 25
The cyclone originated as a “depression” in the Gulf of Thailand,
near east of Port Blair, on 25 October 1999 and gradually moved in a
northwestward direction. It intensified into a supercyclone and hit the area
between Erasama and Balikuda in Orissa on 29 October at 10.30 a.m.
The supercyclone swept entire the coast of Orissa including the
cities of Bhubaneshwar and Cuttack and 28 coastal towns. About 13
million people were affected. A large number of livestock were killed.
Standing crops of paddy, vegetables and fruits were heavily damaged.
Due to salinisation caused by tidal surge, large tracts of agricultural
land have turned infertile. Large tracts of sal, teak and bamboo
plantations have disappeared. The mangrove forests between Paradeep
and Konark vanished.
Moisture
Cold When water evaporates from land and different
air water bodies, it becomes water vapour. Moisture
Warm
air in the air at any time, is known as humidity.
When the air is full of water vapour we call it a
humid day. As the air gets warmer, its capacity
to hold the water vapour increases and so it
becomes more and more humid. On a humid
Cyclonic Rainfall day, clothes take longer to dry and sweat from
our body does not evaporate easily, making us
feel very uncomfortable.
When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling.
The water vapour condenses causing formation
Moist of droplets of water. Clouds are just masses of
air
such water droplets. When these droplets of water
become too heavy to float in air, then they come
down as precipitation.
Jet planes flying in the sky leave a white trail
behind them. The moisture from their engines
Relief (Orographic) Rainfall
condenses. We see trails of this condensed
moisture for some time when there is no air
movement to disturb it.
Precipitation that comes down to the earth
in liquid form is called rain. Most of the ground
water comes from rainwater. Plants help preserve
water. When trees on hill sides are cut, rainwater
Warm
air flows down the bare mountains and can cause
flooding of low lying areas. On the basis of
mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the
Convectional Rainfall convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and
Fig. 4.5: Types of Rainfall the cyclonic rainfall (Fig. 4.5).
26 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Rainfall is very important for the survival of plants and Do you know?
animals. It brings fresh water to the earth’s surface. If
rainfall is less – water scacity and drought occur. On the Other forms of
other hand if it is more, floods take place. precipitation are
snow, sleet, hail.
Exercises

(i) What is atmosphere?
(ii) Which two gases make the bulk of the atmosphere?
(iii) Which gas creates green house effect in the atmosphere?
(iv) What is weather?
(v) Name three types of rainfall?
(vi) What is air pressure?
(i) Which of the following gases protects us from harmful sun vays?
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Nitrogen (c) Ozone
(ii) The most important layer of the atmosphere is
(a) Troposphere (b) Thermosphere (c) Mesosphere
(iii) Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is free from clouds?
(a) Temperature (b) Air pressure (c) Wind direction
(iv) As we go up the layers of the atmosphere, the pressure
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains the same
(v) When precipitation comes down to the earth in the liquid form,
it is called
(a) Cloud (b) Rain (c) Snow
(i) Trade Winds (a) Seasonal wind
(ii) Loo (b) Horizontal movement of Air
(iii) Monsoon (c) Permanent wind
(iv) Wind (d) Local wind
4. Give reasons.
(i) Wet clothes take longer time to dry on a humid day?
(ii) Amount of insolation decreases from equator towards poles?
AIR 27
5. For fun.
(i) Solve this Crossword puzzle with the help of given clues:
Across Down
6. An Indian tree having extraordinary 1. Amount of water vapour in air
quality of providing oxygen round the 2. Condensation of water vapours around
clock dust particles in atmosphere
8. Gas present in atmosphere occupying 3. Example of local wind blowing in summer
only 0.03% by volume in northern india
11. Outermost layer of atmosphere 4. Short term changes in atmosphere
12. Mixture of many gases 5. Precipitation in liquid form
14. Life giving gas 7. Blanket of air around the earth
15. Air in motion 9. Instrument to measure pressure
16. An indian tree valued highly for 10. Incoming solar radiation
medicinal properties
13. Reduces visibility in winters
18. Gas protecting us from harmful sunrays
17. It is ....... time when sun is overhead
19. Low pressure area
28 OUR ENVIRONMENT
(ii) Make a weather calendar for one week. Use pictures or symbols to show
different types of weather. You can use more than one symbol in a day, if
the weather changes. For example, the sun comes out when rain stops. An
example is given below:
Day Weather
1. Sunny day
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
AIR 29
5 Water
Glossary When you think of water, what images come to your
mind? You think of rivers, the waterfalls, the pitter patter
Terrarium: It is an of raindrops, water in your taps... Children love to float
artificial enclosure for paper boats in rain puddles. By noon the puddles vanish.
keeping small house Where does the water go?
plants. The sun’s heat causes evaporation of water vapour.
When the water vapour cools down, it condenses and
forms clouds. From there it may fall on the land or sea
Activity
in the form of rain, snow or sleet.
Make your own The process by which water continually changes its
Terrarium form and circulates between oceans,
atmosphere and land is known
as the water cycle (Fig 5.1).
Our earth is like a
terrarium. The same water Condensation
that existed centuries ago
still exists today. The Precipitation
A Terrarium
water used to irrigate a
field in Haryana may
Fill one-fourth of a big
jar with soil and have flowed down the
press it well. Put a Amazon River a
thin layer of humus hundred years ago.
on top of it. Plant the The major sources
largest plants first of fresh water are the
and then arrange the rivers, ponds, Run off
smaller area around springs and
them. Spray the Evaporation
glaciers. The
arrangement with
water and close the
ocean bodies and
jar. The water that the seas contain
evaporates from the salty water. The
leaves and soil water of the
condenses and falls oceans is salty or
back as forms of saline as it
water drops. contains large Fig. 5.1: Water Cycle
Fig. 5.2: World – Major Seas, Lakes and Rivers
amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is sodium

chloride or the common table salt that you eat.
WATER 31
Do you know? DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BODIES
We all know that three-fourth of the earth surface is
Salinity is the
amount of salt in covered by water. If there is more water than land on
grams present in this earth, why do so many countries face water scarcity?
1000 grams of water. Is all the water on earth available to us? The following
The average salinity table gives the distribution of water in percentage.
of the oceans is 35
parts per thousand. Oceans : 97.3 Saline Water
Ice-caps : 02.0
Ground water : 0.68
Fresh Water
Fresh water lakes : 0.009
Fresh Water
Inland seas &
Do you know? Salt lakes : 0.009
Dead sea in Israel has Atmosphere : 0.0019
salinity of 45 parts Rivers : 0.0001
per thousand.
Swimmers can float 100.00
in it because the
increased salt content Water distribution can be demonstrated by a simple
make it dense.
activity (see activity box).
Activity
Take 2 litres of water. Let it represent the total

water on the surface of the earth. Measure out 9 Spoons =
12 spoons of water from this vessel into another icecaps
bowl. The water that is left behind in the vessel
represents the salty water found in oceans and 2 Spoons =
seas. This water is obviously not fit for ground water
consuming. It is saline (contains salts).
The 12 spoons of water that was taken in a
bowl is the total amount of fresh water on earth. ½ Spoons =
The figure shows us the distribution of this fresh fresh water lakes
water. See for yourself how much water can 1 Drop = rivers
actually be used by you.
Distribution of fresh water
Water is absolutely essential for survival. Water alone

can quench our thirst when we are thirsty. Now don’t
you think we are wasting a precious resource when we
use water carelessly?
32 OUR ENVIRONMENT
• Why water is important for us?
• Suggest some ways in which water can be conserved in your home
and in your school
OCEAN CIRCULATION
There is something magical about walking bare feet Do you know?
on the seashore. The wet sand on the beach, the cool
March 22 is
breeze, the seabirds, the smell of the salt in the air
celebrated as World
and music of the waves; everything is so fascinating.
Water Day when the
Unlike the calm waters of ponds and lakes, ocean water need to conserve
keeps moving continuously. It is never still. The water is reinforced in
movements that occur in oceans can be broadly different ways.
categorised as: waves, tides and currents.
Fig. 5.3: Pacific Ocean
WATER 33
Do you know? Waves
When you are playing throw ball on the beach and the
Waves are formed ball falls into the water, what happens? It is fun to watch
when gentle winds
how the ball gets washed
scrape across the
ocean surface. The
back to the shore by the
stronger the wind waves. When the water on the
blows, the bigger the surface of the ocean rises and
wave becomes. falls alternately, they are
called waves.
Fig. 5.4: Waves
During a storm, the winds blowing at very high speed

form huge waves. These may cause tremendous
Do you know?
destruction. An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or
underwater landslides can shift large amounts of ocean
Tsunami is a water. As a result a huge tidal wave called tsunami, that
Japanese word that may be as high as 15m., is formed. The largest tsunami
means “Harbour ever measured was 150m. high. These waves travel at a
waves” as the speed of more than 700 km. per hour. The tsunami of
harbours get 2004 caused wide spread damage in the coastal areas of
destroyed whenever India. The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar
there is tsunami. islands got submerged after the tsunami.
TSUNAMI – THE EARTH’S PANDEMONIUM

Tsunami or the harbour wave struck havoc in the Indian Ocean on the
26 December 2004. The wave was the result of the earthquake that had
its epicenter close to the western boundary of Sumatra. The magnitude
of the earthquake was 9.0 on the Richter scale. As the Indian plate
went under the Burma plate, there was a sudden movement of the sea
floor, causing the earthquake. The ocean floor was displaced by about
10 – 20m and tilted in a downwardly direction. A huge mass of ocean
water flowed to fill in the gap that was being created by the displacement.
This marked the withdrawal of the water mass from the coastlines of
the landmasses in the south and southeast Asia. After thrusting of the
Indian plate below the Burma plate, the water mass rushed back towards
the coastline. Tsunami travelled at a speed of about 800km. per hour,
comparable to speed of commercial aircraft and completely washed away
34 OUR ENVIRONMENT
some of the islands in the Indian ocean. The Indira point in the Andaman
and Nicobar islands that marked the southernmost point of India got
completely submerged. As the wave moved from earthquake epicenter
from Sumatra towards the Andaman islands and Sri Lanka the wave
length decreased with decreasing depth of water. The travel speed also
declined from 700-900km. per hour to less than 70km. per hour. Tsunami
waves travelled upto a depth of 3 km. from the coast killing more than
10,000 people and affected more than lakh of houses. In India, the
worst affected were the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
While the earthquake cannot be predicted in advance, it is possible
to give a three-hour notice of a potential tsunami. Such early warning
systems are in place across the Pacific ocean, but not in the Indian
Ocean. Tsunamis are rare in the Indian Ocean as the seismic activity
is less as compared to the Pacific.
Destruction caused by tsunami on Tamil Nadu Coast
The tsunami that ravaged the South and South east Asian coasts in
December 2004, is the most devastating tsunami in the last several
hundred years. The large damage caused to life and property was
primarily a result of lack of monitoring, the early warning systems and
knowledge among the coast dwellers of Indian ocean.
The first indication that tsunami is approaching is the rapid
withdrawal of water from the coastal region, followed by destructive
wave. When this happened on the coast, instead of people going to high
ground, they started assembling at the coast to view the miracle. As a
consequence there was a large casualty of curious onlookers when the
gigantic wave (tsunami) struck.
Tides
The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a
day is called a tide. It is high tide when water covers
much of the shore by rising to its highest level. It is
low tide when water falls to its lowest level and recedes
from the shore.
WATER 35
Neap Tide Moon The strong gravitational pull
exerted by the sun and the moon
on the earth’s surface causes the
tides. The water of the earth closer
Sun Earth
to the moon gets pulled under
the influence of the moon’s
gravitational force and causes high
tide. During the full moon and new
Spring Tide
moon days, the sun, the moon and
the earth are in the same line and
the tides are highest. These tides
Sun Earth are called spring tides. But when
Moon the moon is in its first and last
quarter, the ocean waters get drawn
in diagonally opposite directions by
the gravitational pull of sun and
earth resulting in low tides. These
Sun Earth
tides are called neap tides (Fig. 5.5).
Moon High tides help in navigation.
They raise the water level close to
the shores. This helps the ships to
Fig. 5.5: Spring Tides and Neap Tide arrive at the harbour more easily.
The high tides also help in fishing.
Many more fish come closer to the
shore during the high tide. This enables fishermen
to get a plentiful catch. The rise and fall of water due
to tides is being used to generate electricity in
some places.
Activity
Fill three-fourths of a OCEAN CURRENTS

bucket with tap Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly
water. Heat the water on the ocean surface in definite directions. The ocean
by putting an currents may be warm or cold (Fig. 5.6). Generally,
immersion road on
the warm ocean currents originate near the equator
one side of the
bucket. On the other
and move towards the poles. The cold currents carry
side introduce an ice water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower
tray just removed latitudes. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current
from the freezer. Add while the Gulf Stream is a warm current. The ocean
a drop of red ink to current influence the temperature conditions of the
observe the path of area. Warm currents bring about warm temperature
current by the over land surface. The areas where the warm and cold
process of convection.
currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the
36 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Fig. 5.6: Ocean Currents
world. Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of

North America are such examples. The areas where a
warm and cold current meet also experience foggy
weather making it difficult for navigation.
Exercises

(i) What is precipitation?
(ii) What is water cycle?
(iii) What are the factors affecting the height of the waves?
(iv) Which factors affect the movement of ocean water?
(v) What are tides and how are they caused?
(vi) What are ocean currents?
2. Give reasons.
(i) Ocean water is salty.
(ii) The quality of water is deterioting.
WATER 37
(i) The process by which water continually changes its form and circulates
between oceans, atmosphere and land
(a) Water cycle (b) Tides (c) Ocean currents
(ii) Generally the warm ocean currents originate near
(a) Poles (b) Equator (c) None of these
(iii) The rythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is called
(a) Tide (b) Ocean current (c) Wave
(i) Caspian Sea Largest lake
(ii) Tide Periodic rise and fall of water
(iii) Tsunami Strong seismic waves.
(iv) Ocean currents Streams of water moving in definite paths.
5. For fun.
Be a Detective
(i) The name of one river is hidden in each of the sentences below. Spot it.
Example: Mandra, Vijayalakshmi and Surinder are my best friends
Answer: Ravi
(a) The snake charmer’s bustee, stables where horses are housed, and
the piles of wood, all caught fire accidentally. (Hint: Another name for
River Brahmputra)
(b) The conference manager put pad, material for reading and a pencil for
each participant. (Hint: A distributary on the Ganga-Brahmputra delta)
(c) Either jealousy or anger cause a person’s fall (Hint: Name of a juicy fruit!)
(d) Bhavani germinated the seeds in a pot (Hint: Look for her in West Africa)
(e) “I am a zonal champion now” declared the excited atheletic. (Hint: The
river that has he biggest basin in the world)
(f) The tiffin box rolled down and all the food fell in dusty potholes. (Hint:
Rises in India and journeys through Pakistan)
(g) Malini leaned against the pole when she felt that she was going to faint.
(Hint: Her delta in Egypt is famous)
(h) Samantha mesmerised everybody with her magic tricks. (Hint: London
is situated on her estuary)
(i) “In this neighbourhood, please don’t yell! Owners of these houses like
to have peace”. Warned my father when we moved into our new flat”.
(Hint: colour!)
(j) ‘Write the following words, Marc!’ “On”, “go”, “in”…….. said the teacher
to the little boy in KG Class. (Hint: Rhymes with ‘bongo’)
Now make some more on your own and ask your classmates to spot the
hidden name. You can do this with any name: that of a lake, mountains,
trees, fruits, school items etc.
Carry on Detective
(ii) With the help of an atlas, draw each river which you discoverd in
For fun (i), on an outline map of the world.
38 OUR ENVIRONMENT
6 Natural Vegetation
and Wild Life
Salima was excited about the summer camp she was
attending. She had gone to visit Manali in Himachal Let’s do
Pradesh along with her class mates. She recalled how
surprised she was to see the changes in the landform Now can you tell why
Salima saw changes
and natural vegetation as the bus climbed higher and in the natural
higher. The deep jungles of the foothills comprising sal vegetation as she
and teak slowly disappeared. She could see tall trees climbed higher and
with thin pointed leaves and cone shaped canopies on higher? What type of
the mountain slopes. She learnt that those were coniferous vegetations did she
trees. She noticed blooms of bright flowers on tall trees. see in the Himalayas
These were the rhododendrons. From Manali as she was starting with the
travelling up to Rohtang pass she saw that the land was foothills and going to
the higher altitudes?
covered with short grass and snow in some places.
From Salima’s
observations, we surmise
Let’s do
that there is a close
relationship between • Like Salima, when
height of land and the you go to visit any
character of vegetations. new place, notice
With the change in height, the type of natural
the climate changes and vegetation occurring
there and try to
that changes natural
think of factors
Fig. 6.1: Rhododendron
vegetation. The growth of responsible for the
vegetation depends on growth of such
temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors vegetation in that
like slope and thickness of soil. habitat.
The type and thickness of natural vegetation varies • Note down if any
from place to place because of the variation in these factors. human interference
Natural vegetation is generally classified in to three has taken place in
broad categories as follows: that area in terms
of deforestation,
(a) Forests: Which grow where temperature and rainfall grazing, cultivation
are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon of cash crops,
these factors, dense and open forests grown. constructional
activities etc.
(b) Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain.
(c) Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grow in the dry
region (Fig. 6.2).
Salima was sharing her experience of Himalayan trip
with her father. Her father visited various places in the
world. He told Salima about his observations of the variety
of vegetation in different parts of different continents.He
Fig. 6.2: Thorny shrubs mentioned about coniferous forests in the sub polar
regions, thorny bushes in the deserts, thick tropical
hardwood forest in the humid regions and many more.
Salima realised the Himalayas have almost all variety of
vegetation which one can see while moving from the
equator to the polar region.
The changes in the type of natural vegetation occur
mainly because of the changes of climatic condition. Let
us get to know the different types of natural vegetation
of the world with their characteristic features and wildlife
inhabiting there.
Do you know? FORESTS

Tropical Evergreen Forests
The tropical evergreen These forests are also called tropical rainforests
forest in Brazil is so
(Fig. 6.3). These thick forests occur in the regions near
enormous that it is
the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are
like the lungs of the
earth: Can you tell hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year. As
why? there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed
their leaves altogether. This is the reason they are
called evergreen. The thick canopies of the closely
spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate
inside the forest even in the day time. Hardwood trees
like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.
Do you know?
Anaconda, one of the

world’s largest snakes
is found in the
tropical rainforest. It
can kill and eat a
large animal such as
a crocodile. Fig. 6.3: Tropical Evergreen Forests
40 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Tropical Deciduous Forests Let’s do
Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in
• Where in India do
the large part of India,northern Australia and in central tropical evergreen
America (Fig. 6.4).These regions experience seasonal and tropical
changes. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to deciduous forests
conserve water. The hardwood trees found in these occur? Name the
forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham. Hardwood trees states.
are extremely useful for making furniture, transport • Which type of forest
and constructional materials. Tigers, lions, elephants, dominates most
langoors and monkeys are the common animals of these part of India?
regions (Fig. 6.5, 6.6 and 6.8).
Fig. 6.5: Tiger
Fig. 6.4: Tropical Deciduous Forests
Temperate Evergreen Forests

The temperate evergreen forests are located in the mid-
latitudinal coastal region (Fig. 6.7). They are commonly
found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In
south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak, Fig. 6.6: Golden Langoor
pine, eucalyptus, etc.
Fig. 6.7: Temperate Evergreen Forest Fig. 6.8: Elephants
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFE 41

Temperate Deciduous Forests
As we go towards higher latitudes, there are more
temperate deciduous forests (Fig. 6.11). These are found
in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand,
Chile and also found in the coastal regions of Western
Europe. They shed their leaves in the dry season. The
common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc. Deer, foxes, wolves
Fig. 6.9: Pheasant
are the animals commonly found. Birds like pheasants,
monals are also found here (Fig. 6.9 and 6.10).
Fig. 6.10: Monal
Fig. 6.11: Temperate Deciduous Forest
Mediterranean Vegetation
Do you know? You have learnt that most of the east and north east
margins of the continents are covered by temperate
• Mediterranean trees evergreen and deciduous trees. The west and south west
adapt themselves to margins of the continents are different. They have
dry summers with Mediterranean vegetation (Fig. 6.12). It is mostly found
the help of their in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe,
thick barks and wax Africa and Asia, hence the name. This kind of vegetation
coated leaves which is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in
help them reduce California in the USA, south west Africa, south western
transpiration.
• Mediterranean
regions are known
as ‘Orchards of the
world’ for their fruit
cultivation.
Fig. 6.12: A vineyard in the Mediterranean Region
42 OUR ENVIRONMENT
South America and South west Australia. These regions Let’s do
are marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are • Look around in your
commonly cultivated here because people have removed surroundings and
the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they find out the articles
want to. There isn’t much wildlife here. made of hard wood
and soft wood.
Coniferous Forests • Find out and learn
few names of trees
In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern
of your locality.
hemisphere the spectacular Coniferous forests are found
(Fig. 6.13 a and b). These are also called as Taiga. These
forests are also seen in the higher altitudes. These are
the trees which Salima found in the Himalayas in
abundance. They are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
Do you know?
These woods are very useful for making pulp, which is
used for manufacturing paper and newsprint. Match Taiga means pure or
boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood. untouched in the
Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in Russian language
these forests. Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the
common animals found here.
Fig. 6.13 (a): Coniferous Forest Fig. 6.13 (b): Snow covered Coniferous Forest
GRASSLANDS
Tropical grasslands: These grow on either
side of the equator and extend till the tropics
(Fig. 6.14). This vegetation grows in the
areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
They can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres
in height. Savannah grasslands of Africa
are of this type. Elephants, zebras, giraffes,
deer, leopards are common in tropical
grasslands (Fig. 6.15). Fig. 6.14: Tropical Grassland

Temperate grasslands: These are found in the mid-
latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the
continents. Usually, grass here is short and
nutritious.Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are common
in the temperate region.
Thorny bushes: These are found in the dry desert like
Fig. 6.15: Giraffes regions.Tropical deserts are located in the western
margins of the continents. The vegetation cover is scarce
here because of scanty rain and scorching heat. Identify
Do you know? the desert regions in the world map given. Can you name
the great desert of India? Name some of the common
Grasslands are animals of the desert which you have learnt earlier.
known by different If you reach the polar region you will find the place
names in different extremely cold. The growth of natural vegetation is very
regions.
limited here. Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs
Tropical Grasslands are found here. It grows during the very short summer.
East Africa- Savanna This is called Tundra type of vegetation. This vegetation
Brazil- Campos is found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North
Venezuela- Llanos America. The animals have thick fur and thick skin to
Temperate Grasslands protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions, seal,
Argentina- Pampas walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow
N. America- Prairie foxes are some of the animals found here (Fig. 6.16).
S. Africa- Veld
Salima’s father showed her some photographs of thick
C. Asia- Steppe
Australia- Down forests. In some of the photographs, Salima observed
that people were cutting trees and clearing the forests.
Her father explained that the local
people wanted their land for
agriculture and settlements, so
they cleared up the forests.
Salima started wondering forests
are cleared, then where will the
wild lives go? Will the forest take
its original shape again? If people
go on cutting the trees like these,
Walrus Polar Bear
will there be enough oxygen,
water vapour, timbers, fruits, nuts
available in future?
Do you agree with Salima?
Hold a discussion with your
friends about the depletion of our
diversified flora and fauna.
Seal Suggest some measures to
Fig. 6.16 conserve them.
44 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Exercises

(i) Which are the two factors on which the growth of vegetation mostly depends?
(ii) Which are the three broad categories of natural vegetation?
(iii) Name the two hardwood trees commonly found in tropical evergreen forest.
(iv) In which part of the world and tropical deciduous forest is found?
(v) In which climatic conditions, citrus fruits cultivated?
(vi) Mention the uses of coniferous forest.
(vii) In which part of the world is seasonal grassland is found?
(i) Mosses and Lichens are found in:
(a) Desertic Vegetation
(b) Tropical evergreen forest
(c) Tundra vegetation
(ii) Thorny bushes are found in:
(a) Hot and humid tropical climate
(b) Hot and dry desertic climate
(c) Cold polar climate
(iii) In tropical evergreen forest, one of the common animals is:
(a) Monkey (b) Girraffe (c) Camel
(iv) One important variety of coniferous forest is:
(a) Rosewood (b) Pine (c) Teak
(v) Steppe grassland is found in
(a) S. Africa (b) Australia (c) Russia
(i) Walrus (a) Soft wood tree
(ii) Cedar (b) An animal of tropical deciduous forest
(iii) Olives (c) A polar animal
(iv) Elephants (d) Temperate grassland in Antarctica
(v) Campos (e) A citrus fruit
(vi) Downs (f) Tropical grassland of Brazil
4. Give reasons.
(i) The animals in polar region have thick fur and thick skin.
(ii) Tropical deciduous trees shed their leaves in the dry season.
(iii) The type and thickness of vegetation changes from place to place.
5. Activity.
(i) Collect pictures and photographs of forests and grasslands of different parts
of world. Write one sentence below each picture.
(ii) Make a collage of rainforest, grassland and coniferous forests.

6. For fun.
In the crossword table given below, some words are hidden. They are all about
vegetation and wildllife and are to be found horizontally and vertically. Two
have been worked out for you. Work in pairs with a friend.
M T N L P L M E H R T B A M B O O P N A
B E A R A I X S E E R C M W H A L E D C
T L P F L O R A N L E O P A R D C E E M
A E I A M N L I C H E N S L F O A P E S
N P G U D O G R T Z X E D R H X M A R J
A H T N H N D P I N E S C U I V E L D K
C A C A M P O S G V N N A S E A L M Q U
O N A C F O W L E E E A C D E O D A R M
N T C H I R N G R V E K T M O S S E S O
D O T E A K S R S E M E U S A P C G A N
A X U R M A A N G R A S S W K A R Q V K
P S S B H F T A I G A T U L S I U Y A E
G H F I R P R A I R I E S A B E B O N Y
B R B R G O A T D E C I D U O U S W N A
T U N D R A X Z E B R A H O R S E L A K
C B E E A X L L A N O S A T P A M P A S
46 OUR ENVIRONMENT
7
Weather, Climate and
Adaptations of Animals to
Climate
D
o you remember the things that
you were asked to pack when
you were heading for a hill
station? When the sky is cloudy, your
parents insist that you carry an
umbrella. Have you heard elders in your
family discuss the weather before Fig. 7.1 A sample of a weather report from a
planning a family function? You must newspaper
have also heard the experts discussing
the weather before the start of a game.
Have you ever wondered why? The I wonder who prepares
weather may have a profound effect on these reports!
the game. It has a profound effect on
our lives. Many of our daily activities are The weather reports are prepared by
planned based on the weather predicted the Meteorological Department of the
for that day. There are daily reports of Government. This department collects
the weather on the television and data on temperature, wind, etc., and
radio and in the newspapers. But do you makes the weather prediction.
know what this weather really is?
In this chapter, we will study about Activity 7.1
the weather and climate. We will also
Cut out the weather reports of the last
see how different forms of life are
week from any newspaper. If you do not
adapted to the climate of their habitat.
get a newspaper at home borrow from
7.1 WEATHER your neighbours or friends and copy
In Fig. 7.1 a sample of weather report these reports in your notebook. You can
from a newspaper is given. also collect weather reports from a
We find that the daily weather report library. Paste all the cut-outs on a white
carries information about the sheet or on a chart paper.
temperature, humidity and rainfall Now record the information from the
during the past 24 hours. It also weather reports collected by you in
predicts the weather for the day. Table 7.1. The first row is just a sample.
Humidity, as you might know, is a Fill all the columns according to the data
measure of the moisture in air. in the chart that you have prepared.
68 SCIENCE
Table 7.1
Weather data of a week
Date Max. Min. Min. Max. Rainfall*

temp. (°C) temp. (°C) humidity (%) humidity(%) (mm)
23-08-06 36.2 27.8 54 82
*(Rainfall may not be recorded for all the days since it may not rain everyday. Leave
the space for rainfall blank if the data is not available.)
Rainfall is measured by an weather is too humid”, or “the weather

instrument called the rain gauge. It was warm last week”.
is basically a measuring cylinder with The weather is such a complex
a funnel on top to collect rainwater. phenomenon that it can vary over very
short periods of time. It can happen
Do all the seven days have the same
sometimes that it is sunny in the
maximum and minimum temperatures,
morning, but suddenly clouds appear
humidity and rainfall? The maximum
from nowhere and it starts raining
and minimum temperatures recorded
heavily. Or, a heavy rain may vanish in
may be the same for some of the days.
a matter of minutes and give way to
However, all the parameters are not the
bright sunshine. You must have had
same on any two days. Over a week there
several such experiences. Try to recall
may be considerable variation. The day-
any such experience and share it with
to-day condition of the atmosphere
your friends. Since weather is such a
at a place with respect to the
temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind- complex phenomenon, it is not easy to
speed, etc., is called the weather at that predict.
place
place. The temperature, humidity, and Look at the graph given below which
other factors are called the elements of shows the maximum temperature
the weather. The weather of a place recorded during 03 August 2006 to 09
changes day after day and week after August 2006 at Shillong, Meghalaya
week. That is why we often say, “today’s (Fig. 7.2).
WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE 69

Date Maximum
temperature
03-08-06 26.0°C
04-08-06 23.5°C
05-08-06 25.0°C
06-08-06 22.0°C
07-08-06 25.5°C
08-08-06 23.3°C
09-08-06 24.4°C
Fig. 7.2 Graph showing the variation of maximum temperature during 03 to 09 August 2006
As it is clear from any weather report, that there are special thermometers for
the maximum and minimum this purpose, called maximum and
temperatures are recorded every day. Do minimum thermometers
thermometers. Can you
you know how these temperatures are guess when during the day we have the
recorded. In Chapter 4 you have learnt maximum temperature and when the
minimum?
The maximum temperature of the day
occurs generally in the afternoon while
I wonder why weather the minimum temperature occurs
changes so frequently! generally in the early morning. Can you
now understand why in summers we feel
What is the source of weather so miserable in the afternoon and
in the first place? comparatively comfortable early in the
morning?
All changes in the weather are caused by the sun sun. The sun is a huge sphere of
hot gases at a very high temperature. The distance of the sun from us is very
large. Even then the energy sent out by the sun is so huge that it is the source of
all heat and light on the earth. So, the sun is the primary source of energy that
causes changes in the weather. Energy absorbed and reflected by the earth’s
surface, oceans and the atmosphere play important roles in determining the
weather at any place. If you live near the sea, you would have realised that the
weather at your place is different from that of a place in a desert, or near a mountain.
70 SCIENCE
What about the times of sunrise and of the time, then we say that the climate
sunset? You know that in winters it of that place is hot. If there is also heavy
becomes dark early and you do not get rainfall on most of the days in the same
much time to play. Are the days shorter place, then we can say that the climate
in winter than in summer? Try to find of that place is hot and wet.
it out yourself by completing the project In Table 7.2 and 7.3, we have given
given at the end of the chapter. the climatic condition at two places in
India. The mean temperature for a given
7.2 CLIMATE
month is found in two steps. First we
Meteorologists record the weather every find the average of the temperatures
day. The records of the weather have
recorded during the month. Second, we
been preserved for the past several
calculate the average of such average
decades. These help us to determine the temperatures over many years. That
weather pattern at a place. The average
gives the mean temperature. The two
weather pattern taken over a long
places are: Srinagar in Jammu and
time, say 25 years, is called the
Kashmir, and Thiruvananthapuram in
climate of the place. If we find that
Kerala.
the temperature at a place is high most
Table 7.2 Srinagar (Jammu & Table 7.3 Thiruvananthapuram

Kashmir) (Kerala)
Information about climate Information about climate
Month Mean temperature Mean Month Mean temperature Mean
o
C total
o
C total
Daily Daily rainfall Daily Daily rainfall
minimum maximum (mm) minimum maximum (mm)
Jan -2.3 4.7 57 Jan 22.2 31.5 23
Feb -0.6 7.8 65 Feb 22.8 31.9 24
Mar 3.8 13.6 99 Mar 24.1 32.6 40
Apr 7.7 19.4 88 Apr 24.9 32.6 117
May 10.7 23.8 72 May 24.7 31.6 230
Jun 14.7 29.2 37 Jun 23.5 29.7 321
July 8.2 30.0 49 July 23.1 29.2 227
Aug 17.5 29.7 70 Aug 23.2 29.4 138
Sep 12.9 27.8 33 Sep 23.3 30.0 175
Oct 6.1 21.9 36 Oct 23.3 29.9 282
Nov 0.9 14.7 27 Nov 23.1 30.3 185
Dec -1.6 8.2 43 Dec 22.6 31.0 66
(Note: The numbers for the mean total rainfall have been rounded off)

By looking at Tables 7.2 and 7.3 we habitats. As examples of adaptation of
can easily see the difference in the animals to climatic conditions, we
climate of Jammu & Kashmir and discuss only animals living in polar
Kerala. We can see that Kerala is very regions and tropical rainforests.
hot and wet in comparison to Jammu As the name suggests, the polar
& Kashmir, which has a moderately hot regions are situated near the poles, i.e.,
and wet climate for a part of the year. north pole and south pole.
Similar data for the western region Some well-known countries that
of India, for example Rajasthan, will belong to the polar regions are Canada,
show that the temperature is high Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
during most part of the year. But during Finland, Alaska in U.S.A. and Siberian
winter, which lasts only for a few region of Russia.
months, the temperature is quite low. Examples of some countries where
This region receives very little the tropical rainforests are found are
rainfall. This is the typical desert India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil,
climate. It is hot and dry. The north- Republic of Congo, Kenya, Uganda, and
eastern India receives rain for a major Nigeria.
part of the year. Therefore, we can say
Activity 7.2
that the climate of the north-east is wet
wet.
Take an outline map of the world. Mark
7.3 CLIMATE AND ADAPTATION the polar regions in blue. Similarly,
Climate has a profound effect on all mark the tropical regions in red.
living organisms.
Animals are adapted to survive in the
(i) The polar regions
conditions in which they live. Animals The polar regions present an extreme
living in very cold and hot climate must climate. These regions are covered with
possess special features to protect snow and it is very cold for most part of
themselves against the extreme cold or the year. For six months the sun does
heat. Recall from Chapter 9 of your not set at the poles while for the other
Class VI science book the definition of six months the sun does not rise. In
adaptation. Features and habits that winters, the temperature can be as low
help animals to adapt to their as –37°C. Animals living there have
surroundings are a result of the process adapted to these severe conditions. Let
of evolution. us see how they are adapted by
In Chapter 9 you will learn about the considering the examples of polar bears
effect of weather and climate on soil. and penguins.
Here we study the effect of climate on Polar bears have white fur so that
animals only. In Class VI, you have read they are not easily visible in the snowy
about adaptations of animals to certain white background. It protects them from
72 SCIENCE
their predators. It also helps them in Another well-known animal living in
catching their prey. To protect them the polar regions is the penguin
from extreme cold, they have two thick (Fig. 7.4). It is also white and merges
layers of fur. They also have a layer of well with the white background. It also
fat under their skin. In fact, they are so has a thick skin and a lot of fat to protect
well-insulated that they have to move it from cold. You may have seen pictures
slowly and rest often to avoid getting of penguins huddled together. This they
overheated. do to keep warm. Recall how warm you
Physical activities on warm days feel when you are in a hall full of people.
necessitate cooling. So, the polar bear
goes for swimming. It is a good
swimmer. Its paws are wide and large,
which help it not only to swim well but
also walk with ease in the snow. While
swimming under water, it can close its
nostrils and can remain under water for
long durations. It has a strong sense of
smell so that it can catch its prey
for food. We can understand the Fig. 7.4 Penguins huddled together
adaptations of polar bears with the help
of the flow chart shown in Fig. 7.3.
Fig. 7.3 Adaptations of polar bear

long, birds must remain warm to
survive. They migrate to warmer regions
when winter sets in. They come back
after the winter is over. You know
probably that India is one of the
destinations of many of these birds. You
Fig. 7.5 Feet of penguin must have seen or heard about the
Like polar bears, penguins are also good Siberian crane that comes from Siberia
swimmers. Their bodies are streamlined to places like Bharatpur in Rajasthan
and their feet have webs, making them and Sultanpur in Haryana, and some
good swimmers (Fig. 7.5).
Other animals living in the polar
regions are many types of fishes, musk
oxen, reindeers, foxes, seals, whales, Do fishes and butterflies
and birds. It is to be noted that while also migrate like birds?
fish can remain under cold water for
Fig. 7.6 Migratory birds

in their habitat/ Migratory
birds in flight
Did you know?
Some migratory birds travel as much as 15000 km to escape the extreme climatic
conditions at home. Generally they fly high where the wind flow is helpful and
the cold conditions allow them to disperse the heat generated by their flight
muscles. But how these birds travel to the same place year after year is still a
mystery. It seems that these birds have a built–in sense of direction and know in
which direction to travel. Some birds probably use landmarks to guide them. Many
birds may be guided by the sun during the day and stars at night. There is some
evidence that birds may use the magnetic field of the earth to find direction. And
it is not only birds that migrate; mammals, many types of fish and insects are
also known to migrate seasonally in search of more hospitable climates.
74 SCIENCE
wetlands of north east and some other
parts of India (Fig. 7.6).
(ii) The tropical rainforests
The tropical region has generally a hot
climate because of its location around
Fig. 7.7 Red-eyed frog
the equator. Even in the coldest month
the temperature is generally higher than
about 15°C. During hot summers, the
temperature may cross 40°C. Days and
nights are almost equal in length
throughout the year. These regions get
plenty of rainfall. An important feature
of this region is the tropical rainforests.
Tropical rainforests are found in
Western Ghats and Assam in India,
Southeast Asia, Central America and
Central Africa. Because of continuous
warmth and rain, this region supports
wide variety of plants and animals. The
major types of animals living in the
rainforests are monkeys, apes, gorillas,
Fig. 7.8 A new world monkey
lions, tigers, elephants, leopards, lizards,
snakes, birds and insects. are such that they can easily hold on to
Let us read about the adaptations of the branches.
these animals to a hot, humid climate. As there is competition for food, some
The climatic conditions in rainforests animals are adapted to get food not
are highly suitable for supporting an easily reachable. A striking example is
enormous number and variety of that of the bird Toucan (Fig. 7.9), which
animals. possesses a long, large beak. This helps
Since the numbers are large, there a toucan to reach the fruits on branches
is intense competition for food and which are otherwise too weak to support
shelter. Many animals are adapted to its weight.
living on the trees. Red-eyed frog Many tropical animals have sensitive
(Fig. 7.7) has developed sticky pads on hearing, sharp eyesight, thick skin and
its feet to help it climb trees on which it a skin colour which helps them to
lives. To help them live on the trees, camouflage by blending with the
monkeys (Fig. 7.8) have long tails for surroundings. This is to protect them
grasping branches. Their hands and feet from predators. For example, big cats

(Fig. 7.11). It has adapted to the
conditions of rainforests in many
remarkable ways. Look at its trunk. It
uses it as a nose because of which it
has a strong sense of smell. The trunk
is also used by it for picking up food.
Moreover, its tusks are modified teeth.
These can tear the bark of trees that
elephant loves to eat. So, the elephant
is able to handle the competition for food
Fig. 7.9 Toucan Fig. 7.10 Lion-tailed
macaque rather well. Large ears of the elephant
help it to hear even very soft sounds.
(lions and tigers) have thick skins and
They also help the elephant to keep cool
sensitive hearing.
in the hot and humid climate of the
The lion-tailed macaque (also called
rainforest.
Beard ape) lives in the rainforests of
Western Ghats (Fig. 7.10). Its most
outstanding feature is the silver-white
mane, which surrounds the head from
the cheeks down to its chin. It is a good
climber and spends a major part of its
life on the tree. It feeds mainly on fruits.
It also eats seeds, young leaves, stems,
flowers and buds. This beard ape also
searches for insects under the bark of
the trees. Since it is able to get sufficient
food on the trees, it rarely comes down
on the ground.
Another well-known animal of Indian
tropical rainforest is the elephant Fig. 7.11 An Indian elephant
Keywords
Adaptation Maximum temperature Tropical rainforest

Climate Migration Tropical region
Elements of weather Minimum temperature Weather
Humidity Polar region
76 SCIENCE
What you have learnt
The day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to
the temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind-speed, etc., is called the
weather at that place.
The weather is generally not the same on any two days and week after
week.
The maximum temperature of the day occurs generally in the afternoon
while the minimum temperature occurs in the early morning.
The times of sunrise and sunset also change during the year.
All the changes in the weather are driven by the sun.
The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is
called the climate of the place.
The tropical and the polar regions are the two regions of the earth,
which have severe climatic conditions.
Animals are adapted to the conditions in which they live.
The polar regions are very cold throughout the year. The sun does not
set for six months in a year and in the other six months it does not rise.
Animals in the polar region are adapted to the extremely cold climate by
having some special characteristics such as white fur, strong sense of
smell, a layer of fat under the skin, wide and large paws for swimming
and walking, etc.
Migration is another means to escape the harsh, cold conditions.
Because of the hospitable climatic conditions huge populations of plants
and animals are found in the tropical rainforests.
Animals in the tropical rainforests are adapted such that they eat
different kinds of food to overcome the competition for food and shelter.
Some adaptations of animals living in the tropical rainforests include
living on the trees, development of strong tails, long and large beaks,
bright colours, sharp patterns, loud voice, diet of fruits, sensitive hearing,
sharp eyesight, thick skin, ability to camouflage in order to protect
themselves from predators, etc.
Exercises
1. Name the elements that determine the weather of a place.
2. When are the maximum and minimum temperature likely to occur
during the day?
3. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The average weather taken over a long time is called ___________.

(ii) A place receives very little rainfall and the temperature is
high throughout the year, the climate of that place will be
___________ and ___________ .
(iii) The two regions of the earth with extreme climatic conditions are
___________ and __________.
4. Indicate the type of climate of the following areas:
(a) Jammu and Kashmir: _________________________________
(b) Kerala: ____________________________________________

(c) Rajasthan: __________________________________________
(d) North-east India: _____________________________________
5. Which of the two changes frequently, weather or climate?
6. Following are some of the characteristics of animals:
(i) Diets heavy on fruits (ii) White fur
(iii) Need to migrate (iv) Loud voice
(v) Sticky pads on feet (vi) Layer of fat under skin
(vii) Wide and large paws (viii) Bright colours
(ix) Strong tails (x) Long and large beak
For each characteristic indicate whether it is adaptation for tropical
rainforests or polar regions. Do you think that some of these
characteristics can be adapted for both regions?
7. The tropical rainforest has a large population of animals. Explain why
it is so.
8. Explain, with examples, why we find animals of certain kind living in
particular climatic conditions.
9. How do elephant living in the tropical rainforest adapt itself.
Choose the correct option which answers the following question:
10. A carnivore with stripes on its body moves very fast while catching its
prey. It is likely to be found in
(i) polar regions (ii) deserts
(iii) oceans (iv) tropical rainforests
11. Which features adapt polar bears to live in extremely cold climate?
(i) A white fur, fat below skin, keen sense of smell.
(ii) Thin skin, large eyes, a white fur.
(iii) A long tail, strong claws, white large paws.
(iv) White body, paws for swimming, gills for respiration.
78 SCIENCE
12. Which option best describes a tropical region?
(i) hot and humid
(ii) moderate temperature, heavy rainfall
(iii) cold and humid
(iv) hot and dry
Extended Learning — Projects and Activities

1. Collect weather reports of seven successive days in the winter months
(preferably December). Collect similar reports for the summer months
(preferably June). Now prepare a table for sunrise and sunset times as
shown:
Table
June December
Date Sunrise Sunset Date Sunrise Sunset
Try to answer the following questions:

(i) Is there any difference in the time of sunrise during summer and
winter?
(ii) When do you find that the sun rises earlier?
(iii) Do you also find any difference in the time of sunset during the
month of June and December?
(iv) When are the days longer?
(v) When are the nights longer?
(vi) Why are the days sometimes longer and sometimes shorter?
(vii) Plot the length of the day against the days chosen in June and
December.
(Instructions for plotting graphs are given in Chapter 13.)
2. Collect information about the Indian Meteorological Department. If
possible visit its website: http//www.imd.gov.in.
Write a breif report about the things this department does.
Did you know?

Rainforests cover about 6% of the earth’s surface, but they have more
than half of the animal life and about two-thirds of the flowering plants
of the planet. However, much of this life is still unknown to us.

16 Water: A Precious Resource
“ Jal Hai, To Kal Hai”

“If you have water, you can think of the future”
You are perhaps aware that 22 March is teachers must very often be advising you
celebrated as the world water day day! A not to waste water. No wonder we
school celebrated ‘water day’ and invited celebrate water day every year to attract
posters from the children of your age the attention of everybody towards the
group. Some of the posters presented importance of conserving water.
on that day are shown in Fig. 16.1. The amount of water recommended
by the United Nations for drinking,
washing, cooking and maintaining proper
hygiene is a minimum of 50 litres per
person per day. This amount is about
two and a half buckets of water per
person per day. Is your family getting at
least this much of water? If yes, you
should consider yourself fortunate
because millions of people in our
country do not get enough water. What
about your friends and their families?
Share your experience with them.
In some places there is an acute
shortage of water. Taps running dry,
Fig. 16.1 Collage of posters
long queues for water (Fig. 16.2), fights,
marches and protests for demand of
What is the message you get from water have become a common sight,
these posters? Write your observations especially during summers. Some of the
in your notebook and discuss them in newspaper clippings shown in Fig. 16.3
the class. clearly indicate this message. Is it not
Have you ever felt a shortage of water true that we face acute shortage of
at home or at school? Your parents or water?
Fig. 16.2 Long queue for water
Fig. 16.3 Newspaper clippings
Activity 16.1 Year 2003 was observed as

Collect clippings from newspapers and the International Year of
magazines on the news items, articles Freshwater to make people
and pictures related to water shortage. aware of this dwindling natural resource.
Paste them in your scrapbook and share
it with your friends. List some problems more than one third of the people in
faced by the people and discuss them the world could face water scarcity.
in the class. Before we discuss why water is
Water shortage has become a matter getting scarce we must know how much
of concern throughout the world. It is water is available for use on our planet.
estimated that in a few years from now 16.1 HOW MUCH WATER IS AVAILABLE
Look at the picture of the earth taken
from space. Why does it appear blue?
Surely, you can guess!
You are aware that about 71% of
the earth’s surface is covered with
water. Almost all the water on the
earth is contained in the seas and
oceans, rivers, lakes, ice caps, as
groundwater and in the atmosphere.
However, most of this water is not fit for
human consumption. The water that is
Fig. 16.4 Earth appears blue from space fit for use is freshwater. Perform the
194 SCIENCE
following activity to estimate roughly Activity 16.2
the relative amount of water available
Most of us assume water to be a limitless
in some of these sources.
resource. From this activity can you
Steps Figure Remark
Take a medium-sized bucket Assume that this water

and fill it up with water. It represents all the water present
contains about twenty litres of on the earth.
water.
Take a tea spoon of about 5 mL

capacity and transfer 100 This represents total
spoons of water from the bucket freshwater on the earth.
to a small container, like a bath
mug.
From the bath mug transfer This gives a measure of usable

thirty spoons of water to a glass water present as ground-
tumbler. water.
Finally take out a quarter (1/4th) It represents all the water

spoonfull of water from the mug. present in all the lakes and
rivers of the world.
The water left in the bucket represents the saline water present in the seas,
oceans and partly as groundwater. This water is not fit for human use.
The water left in the bath mug represents the water, which is present in the
frozen form in glaciers, ice caps and permanent snow; again not available readily.
Paheli quickly calculated and

Boojho wondered about the found that this amount is
alarmingly small quantity of roughly 0.006% of all water
water available for our use. found on the earth.
WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE 195

appreciate the actual amount of water the earth, snow-covered mountains and
available for human use? Does the glaciers. Liquid water is present in
finding worry you? Discuss this in your oceans, lakes, rivers, and even
class. underground. The gaseous form is the
water vapour present in the air around
16.2 FORMS OF WATER
us. The continuous cycling of water
Are you afraid that continuous use will among its three forms keeps the total
some day exhaust all the water available
amount of water on the earth constant
for use? You know that water on the
even when the whole world is using it.
earth has been maintained for millions Does it give you any relief?
of years by various processes which
Can you recall the processes involved
make the water cycle.
cycle You have studied
in water cycle? The following activity will
the water cycle in Class VI. Write in your help you.
own words what you know about the
water cycle. Activity 16.3
You know that when water circulates Fig. 16.5 shows the processes involved
through the water cycle it can be found in the water cycle. They are labelled by
in all the three forms, i.e., solid, liquid numbers. Match these numbers with
and gas — at any given time somewhere the processes given in the jumbled form.
on the earth. The solid form, snow and Most towns and cities have water
ice, is present as ice caps at the poles of supply system maintained by the civic
1. rudgon rawet
4
3 2. atooniaervp
7
3. acestoonnnid
5 4. duclos
2
5. tspratniaoinr
6
6. aitfinlronit
7. ntciepirtaipo
1
Fig. 16.5 Water cycle
196 SCIENCE
bodies. The water is drawn from
nearby lakes, rivers, ponds or
wells. The water is supplied
through a network of pipes.
Many villages do not have such
a water supply system. There
people fetch water directly from
the sources. Often women and
children have to walk several
kilometres to fetch water
(Fig. 16.6). The children suffer
a lot. They cannot attend
school regularly since they
spend hours in fetching water.
Fig. 16.6 Women fetching water

Women have to
place to place, and it may even change
perform a number of
at a given place. The water table may be
household chores. If they have
at a depth of less than a metre or may
also to spend time to fetch water
be several metres below the ground. The
it adds to their burden.
water found below the water table is
called groundwater. What is the source
A large number of people draw water of this groundwater?
from wells, tube wells or hand pumps. The rainwater and water from other
From where do these sources get water? sources such as rivers and ponds seeps
through the soil and fills the empty
16.3 GROUNDWATER AS AN IMPORTANT spaces and cracks deep below the
SOURCE OF WATER ground. The process of seeping of water
If we dig a hole in the ground near a into the ground is called infiltration
infiltration.
water body we may find that the soil is The groundwater thus gets recharged
moist. The moisture in the soil indicates by this process. At places the
the presence of water underground. If groundwater is stored between layers of
we dig deeper and deeper, we would hard rock below the water table. This is
reach a level where all the space between known as an aquifer
aquifer. Water in the
particles of soil and gaps between rocks aquifers can be usually pumped out with
are filled with water (Fig. 16.7). The the help of tube wells or handpumps.
upper limit of this layer is called the Have you ever been to a site where
water table
table. The water table varies from construction work is going on? From

Hand pump
Stream or lake
Recharge
Water table
Aquifer
Groundwater
Fig. 16.7 Groundwater and water table
where do the workers get water for agricultural activities are some common
construction? May be you have seen factors affecting water table. Scanty
boring being done at such sites to reach rainfall is another factor that may
the water table. Enquire from the people deplete the water table. Yet another
working there how deep they have to dig. factor affecting water table could be
Can we keep on drawing water from deforestation and decrease in the
under the ground? How will it affect the effective area for seepage of water.
water table?
Increasing population
16.4 DEPLETION OF WATER TABLE Increasing population creates demand
Water drawn from under the ground gets for construction of houses, shops,
replenished by seepage of rainwater. The offices, roads and pavements. This
water table does not get affected as long decreases the open areas like parks, and
as we draw as much water as is playgrounds. This, in turn, decreases the
replenished by natural processes. seepage of rainwater into the ground.
However, water table may go down if the What could be the consequence? Recall
water is not sufficiently replenished. that a pukka floor does not allow water
This may happen due to many reasons. to seep in easily, while in a grass lawn
Increase in population, industrial and water seeps through in no time.
198 SCIENCE
Moreover a huge amount of water is day by day. This results in depletion of
required for construction work. Often water table.
groundwater is used for this purpose.
16.5 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
So, on the one hand we are
The distribution of water over the globe
consuming more groundwater, and on
is quite uneven due to a number of
the other we are allowing lesser water
factors.
to seep into the ground. This results in
Some places have good amount of
depletion of water table. In fact, the
rain and are water-rich. On the other
water table in some parts of many cities
hand, there are deserts which have
has gone down to alarmingly low levels.
scanty rainfall.
Increasing industries India is a vast country and the
Water is used by all the industries. rainfall is not the same everywhere.
Almost everything that we use needs Some regions have excessive rains while
water somewhere in its production some others have very little rainfall.
process. The number of industries is Excessive rains cause floods, whereas
increasing continuously. Water used by the absence of rains results in droughts.
most of the industries is drawn from the Therefore, some regions in our country
ground. may have floods while others may suffer
from droughts at the same time.
Activity 16.4
Activity 16.5
Name some industries familiar to you.
Given here is the rainfall map of India
Make a list of the products obtained
(Fig. 16.8). It gives the average annual
from these and used in our daily life.
rainfall in different regions of our country.
Discuss with your teacher and parents
Locate on the map the place you live
how the growing industrial activity is
in.
responsible for the depletion of water
Are you blessed with sufficient
table.
rainfall?
Agricultural activities Is there sufficient water available in
A majority of farmers in India depend your area throughout the year?
upon rains for irrigating their crops. It may be possible that we are living
Irrigation systems such as canals are in an area where there is sufficient
there only in a few places. Even these rainfall yet there is shortage of water. Can
systems may suffer from lack of water we attribute this to mismanagement of
due to erratic rainfall. Therefore, farmers water resources?
have to use groundwater for irrigation. 16.6 WATER MANAGEMENT
Population pressure on agriculture You have read in Class VI that in many
forces increasing use of groundwater places a regular supply of water is

Fig. 16.8 Rain map of India
1. Government of India, Copyright 2007.
2. Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India.
3. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline.
4. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India.
200 SCIENCE
provided by a well-planned pipe system. rainwater harvesting,
harvesting about which you
When the civic authorities supply water have learnt in Class VI.
through pipes not all of it may reach Find out if the buildings in your
the destination. You might have seen neighbourhood have water harvesting
water supply pipes leaking and a lot of systems installed.
water gushing out of the pipes. It is We have at many places in India an
the responsibility of the civic age old practice of water storage and
authorities to prevent such wastage of water recharge like the bawris. Bawri
precious water. was the traditional way of collecting
Mismanagement or wastage may water. With time the bawris fell into
take place at the level of individuals also. disuse and garbage started piling in these
All of us, knowingly or unknowingly, reservoirs. However, because of the acute
waste water while brushing teeth, water shortage, people in these areas
shaving, bathing, washing and during have had to rethink. The bawris are being
many other activities. Leaking taps is revived. Today the situation is that inspite
another source of huge water wastage. of scanty rains these places are
We waste water as though we do not need managing their water needs well.
water the next time! A farmer using water in the field can
We have seen that most of the water also use water economically. Maybe
that we get as rainfall just flows away. you have heard of drip irrigation
This is a waste of precious natural (Fig. 16.9). Drip irrigation is a technique
resource. The rainwater can be used to of watering plants by making use of
recharge the groundwater. This is narrow tubings which deliver water
referred to as water harvesting or directly at the base of the plant.
A case study
Bhujpur in the Kutch area of Gujarat has a very erratic rainfall. The only source
of freshwater lies underground because rivers in this area do not have water
throughout the year. Over the years, demand for water has grown. The withdrawal
of groundwater has far exceeded recharge. As a result the water table has gone
down alarmingly.
In 1989, the villagers along with a non-governmental organisation, decided to
harvest rainwater. Eighteen check-dams were built on the Rukmavati river and
its many tributaries. The water so collected increased percolation through the
soil and recharged the aquifers.
According to farmers, the wells have water now and the water that flowed into
the sea and was wasted has become available for irrigation.

Water-wise habits
1. Turn off taps while
brushing
2. Mop the floor instead of
washing
16.8 EFFECT OF WATER SCARCITY ON

P LANTS
You must have seen potted plants
Fig. 16.9 Drip irrigation in a field wilting and ultimately drying up if they
did not get water even for a few days.
You have already learnt in Chapter 1
16.7 WHAT ROLE YOU CAN PLAY that plants need water to get nutrients
Have you ever shown concern if you saw from the soil to prepare their food. Just
a tap leaking in your house, school or imagine the consequences if water is not
any other place? Leaking taps waste a available to plants!
lot of water. You must make efforts to The green character of the planet
stop this leakage. shall be lost. This may mean the end
There are a number of ways you can of all life, for a world without plants
adopt to minimise the wastage of water. shall mean no food, no oxygen, not
Let us begin. We have given a few enough rain, and innumerable other
examples. Add on! problems.
A successful initiative
Rajasthan is a hot and dry place. The challenge of natural scarcity of water was
met by a successful experiment. A band of social workers has transformed a dry
area in the Alwar district into a green place. They have revived five dried-up
rivers — Arveri, Ruparel, Sarsa, Bhagani and Jahazwali by constructing water-
harvesting structures.
Keywords
Aquifer Groundwater Water harvesting

Depletion Infiltration Water table
Drip irrigation Recharge
202 SCIENCE
Water is essential for all living beings. There can be no life without it.
Water exists in three forms: solid, liquid and vapour.
Though water is maintained by the water cycle, yet there is an acute
scarcity of water in many parts of the globe.
There is an uneven distribution of water. Much of it has resulted from
human activities.
Rapid growth of industries, increasing population, growing irrigation
requirements and mismanagement are some of the causes for water
shortage.
We need to be worried about the wastage during the supply of water
through pipes, the leaking taps in buildings and other places.
Unnecessary use of water and overdrawing from groundwater should be
avoided. Recharge of water to the ground should be increased.
The need of the hour is that every individual uses water economically.
Plants wilt and ultimately dry-up if they are not watered for a few days.
Exercises
1. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false:
(a) The freshwater stored in the ground is much more than that
present in the rivers and lakes of the world. (T/F)
(b) Water shortage is a problem faced only by people living in rural
areas. (T/F)
(c) Water from rivers is the only source for irrigation in the fields. (T/F)
(d) Rain is the ultimate source of water. (T/F)
2. Explain how groundwater is recharged?
3. There are ten tubewells in a lane of fifty houses. What could be the long
term impact on the water table?
4. You have been asked to maintain a garden. How will you minimise the
use of water?
5. Explain the factors responsible for the depletion of water table.
6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate answers:
(a) People obtain groundwater through________ and ________.

(b) Three forms of water are ________, ________ and ________.
(c) The water bearing layer of the earth is ________.
(d) The process of water seepage into the ground is called ________.
7. Which one of the following is not responsbile for water shortage?
(i) Rapid growth of industries
(ii) Increasing population
(iii) Heavy rainfall
(iv) Mismanagement of water resources
8. Choose the correct option. The total water
(i) in the lakes and rivers of the world remains constant.
(ii) under the ground remains constant.
(iii) in the seas and oceans of the world remains constant.
(iv) of the world remains constant.
9. Make a sketch showing groundwater and water table. Label it.
Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Role play
You are a water detective in your school. You have a team of six
members. Survey the campus and make a note of the following:
(a) Total number of taps
(b) Number of taps leaking
(c) Amount of water wasted due to leakage
(d) Reasons of leakage
(e) Corrective measures taken
2. Groundwater pumped out
Try to find out if there are any hand pumps in your neighbourhood. Go
to the owner or the users of a few of these and find out the depth at
which they struck water? If there are any differences, think of the
probable reason. Write a brief report and discuss it in your class. If
possible, visit a place where boring is going on to install a hand pump.
Watch the process carefully and find out the depth of the water table at
that place.
3. Catching rainwater — Traditional methods
Form groups of 4 to 5 students in the class and prepare a report on the
various traditional ways of water harvesting. If possible, use the
following web link: www.rainwaterharvesting.org.
204 SCIENCE
4. Conservation of water
Carrry out a campaign to conserve water at home and in the school.
Design posters to remind others of the importance of water resources.
5. Create a logo
Hold a competition to create a logo or a symbol depicting water scarcity.
Did you know?

The importance of water management has been highlighted by a watershed
management project near the village of Kothapally. The project has yielded
dramatic results. Groundwater levels have risen, green cover has
increased, and productivity and incomes in this semi-arid region have
dramatically improved.

17 Forests: Our Lifeline
O
ne evening Boojho entered the “This is because the forests serve as
park with an elderly person. He green lungs and water purifying systems
introduced him to his friends. in nature”, Prof Ahmad explained. The
Prof Ahmad was a scientist working in children were confused. Prof Ahmad
the university. The children started realised that the children had not visited
playing while Prof Ahmad sat on a a forest. The children also wanted to
bench in the corner. He was tired as he know more about the forest, so they
had participated in the golden jubilee decided to visit it with Prof Ahmad.
celebrations of the town. After a while,
17.1 VISIT TO A FOREST
the children also came and sat around
One Sunday morning, the children
him. They wanted to know about the
packed a few things like a knife, a hand
celebrations. Prof Ahmad told them that
lens, a stick, a notebook and walked
after the cultural programme, the
together through a forest trail near a
senior people discussed the town’s
village. On their way, they met Tibu, a
unemployment problem. A plan was
young boy of their age group, of nearby
proposed to put up a factory by clearing
village, who was taking cattle for grazing
an area of the forest just outside the
along with his aunt. He was very agile,
town. This would give the increasing
running here and there to keep the herd
population of the town a chance to get
together. When he saw the children,
jobs. The children were very surprised
Tibu also started walking along with
when Prof Ahmad told them that many
them, while his aunt went on a different
people had objected to this idea.
path. As soon as they entered the forest
Tibu raised his hand and signalled them
to keep quiet because noise could
disturb the animals living in the forest.
Tibu then took them to a place at a
height to show them the broad view of
the forest. Children were surprised
because they could not see any land
(Fig. 17.1). The different treetops had
formed green cover over the land. However,
the cover was not uniformly green. The
Fig. 17.1 A view of a forest
206 SCIENCE
environment was peaceful and a cool
breeze was blowing. This made children
quite fresh and happy.
While coming down, they got excited
on hearing a sudden sound of birds and
some noise from the top branches of the
trees. Tibu told them to relax since it
was a normal phenomenon here.
Because of the children’s presence, some
monkeys had climbed higher up on the
trees where they disturbed the birds.
Animals often give this type of warning
call to alert other animals. Tibu also told
that many other animals like boar,
bison, jackals, porcupine, elephants live
in the deeper areas of the forest Fig. 17.3 Forest as habitat
(Fig. 17.2). Prof Ahmad cautioned
children that they should not go deep an example of a habitat in Class VI
into the forest. (Fig. 17.3). They could see now how the
Boojho and Paheli remembered that forest provides a home for many animals
they have studied about forests as and plants.
Fig. 17.2 Some forest animals
FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE 207

Neem
Sheesham
Semal
Fig. 17.4 Some forest plants
types of creepers and climbers. The sun

was barely visible through the leaves of
the trees, making it quite dark inside
the forest.
Activity 17.1
Bambooo Observe the various things in your home
and make a list of those which are made
The land where the children were from material which may have been
walking was uneven and covered with obtained from the forest.
many trees. Tibu helped them to identify You might have many wooden items
sal , teak, semal , sheesham , neem , on your list like plywood, fuel wood,
palash , fig, khair , amla , bamboo, boxes, paper, matchsticks, and
kachnar (Fig. 17.4). Prof Ahmad pointed furniture. Do you know that gum, oils,
out that there are several other trees, spices, fodder for animals and medicinal
shrubs, herbs and grasses in the forest. plants are also some of the products
The trees were also covered with different which we get from the forest (Fig. 17.5).
208 SCIENCE
Sheila wondered who would have Prof Ahmad asked children to look
planted these trees. Prof Ahmad replied up and observe how the branches of the
that in nature trees produce enough tall trees look like a roof over the other
seeds. The forest floor provides plants in the forest. He told them that
favourable conditions for them to this is called a canopy (Fig. 17.7).
germinate and develop into seedlings
Activity 17.2
Visit a forest or a park in your
neighbourhood. Observe the trees and
Honey try to identify them. You can take the
help of some elders or books on trees.
List the characteristics of the trees that
you observe, such as the height, shape
of leaves, crown, flowers, and fruits. Also
Sealing wax draw the crowns of some trees.
Wooden
statue
Prof Ahmad pointed out that trees
had crowns of different types and sizes.
These had created different horizontal
layers in the forest. These are known as
understoreys (Fig. 17.7). Giant and tall
trees constituted the top layer followed
by shrubs and tall grasses, and herbs
Catechu
formed the lowest layer.
Gum “Would we see similar kind of trees
Fig. 17.5 Forest products in every forest?” — asked Boojho.
Prof Ahmad said, “No, due to different
and saplings. Some grow up into trees. climatic conditions there are variations
He added that branchy part of a tree in the types of trees and other plants.
above the stem is known as the crown The types of animals also differ from
of the tree (Fig. 17.6). forest to forest.”
Fig. 17.6 Some crown shapes

Canopy
Understorey
Fig. 17.7 Canopy and under storeys in a forest

A few children were busy watching other small animals on the bark of the
beautiful butterflies fluttering here and trees, plant leaves and on decaying
there on the flowers of shrubs and leaves on the forest floor (Fig. 17.8). They
herbs. They had a close look at the started making sketches of these
bushes. While doing that their hair and creatures. The forest floor seemed dark
clothes had seeds and shrubs clinging coloured and was covered with a layer
to them. of dead and decaying leaves, fruits,
They came across numerous insects, seeds, twigs and small herbs. The
spiders, squirrels, ants and various decaying matter was moist and warm.
Children picked up various seeds
and leaves for their collection. Walking
over the dead leaf layer on the forest floor
was like walking over a spongy carpet!
Is the decaying matter always warm?
Prof Ahmad suggested that the children
could perform an activity to get an
answer to this question.
Activity 17.3
Dig a small pit. Put vegetable waste and
leaves in it. Cover them with soil. Add
Fig. 17.8 Forest floor some water. After three days, remove the
210 SCIENCE
upper layer of the soil. Does the pit feel insects, which in turn, is taken by the
warm inside? frog. The frog is consumed by snakes.
Paheli asked, “There are so many This is said to form a food chain:
trees here. Also, there are many forest Grass → insects → frog → snake → eagle.
like this. What difference will it make if Many food chains can be found in the
we cut some trees for a factory?” forest. All food chains are linked. If any
Prof Ahmad said, “You have read one food chain is disturbed, it affects
about autotrophs, heterotrophs and other food chains. Every part of the
saprotrophs. You have learnt how green forest is dependent on the other parts.
plants produce food. All animals, If we remove one component, say trees,
whether herbivores or carnivores, all other components would be affected.”
depend ultimately on plants for food. Prof Ahmad asked children to pick
Organisms which feed on plants often up leaves from the forest floor and
get eaten by other organisms, and so observe them under a hand lens. They
on. For example, grass is eaten by found tiny mushrooms over the
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Photosynthesis
Decomposers
Soil Water
Nutrients
Fig. 17.9 Interrelationship of plant, soil and decomposers in a forest

decaying leaves. They also saw an army plants release oxygen through the
of tiny insects, millipedes, ants and process of photosynthesis. The plants
beetle on them. They were wondering help to provide oxygen for animal
how these organisms live there. Prof Ahmad respiration. They also maintain the
explained that apart from these animals balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide
which are easily seen, there are several in the atmosphere (Fig. 17.10). That is
organisms and micro-organisms that why forests are called lungs.
live in the soil. Paheli wondered what
mushroom and other micro-organisms
eat. Prof Ahmad replied that they feed Paheli reminded their
upon the dead plant and animal tissues friends that they have
and convert them into a dark coloured studied photosynthesis in
substance called humus
humus. Chapter 1.
You have learnt about humus in
Chapter 9. In which layer of the soil
would you find humus? What is its
importance to the soil?
The micro-organisms which convert
the dead plants and animals to humus
are known as decomposers
decomposers. These
micro-organisms play an important role
in the forest. Soon, Paheli removed some
dead leaves and discovered under them Fig. 17.10 Balance of oxygen and carbon
a layer of humus on forest floor. The dioxide
presence of humus ensures that the The children saw clouds forming in
nutrients of the dead plants and the sky. Boojho recalled what he had
animals are released into the soil. From learnt about the water cycle in Class VI.
there, these nutrients are again absorbed Trees take in water from their roots and
by the roots of the living plants. “What release water vapour into the air
happens if an animal dies in the forest?” through evaporation.
Sheila asked. Tibu replied the dead If there were fewer trees, how will the
animals become food for vultures, crows, water cycle be affected?
jackals and insects.” In this way, the Tibu told them that the forest is not
nutrients are cycled. So, nothing goes just home to plants and animals. Many
waste in a forest (Fig. 17.9). people also live in the forest. Some of
Paheli reminded Prof Ahmad that he them may belong to different tribes. Tibu
had not explained why forests are called explained that these people depend
green lungs. Prof Ahmad explained that mostly on the forests. The forest provides
212 SCIENCE
them with food, shelter, water and between various types of droppings.
medicines. They have traditional Prof Ahmad informed them that the
knowledge about many medicinal plants forest officers could recognise the
in the forest. presence of some animals in the forest
While Boojho was drinking water by their droppings and footprints.
from a small stream, he saw some deer Boojho called every one and showed
crossing the stream (Fig. 17.11). They them a large, decaying heap of animal
disappeared into the bushes. The dense dropping. Several beetles and grubs
bushes and the tall grass provide were feeding on the heap and a bunch
animals with the food and shelter. They of seedlings was sprouting. “These
also protect them from carnivores that seedlings are of the herbs and shrubs.
live in the forest. The animals also disperse the seeds of
certain plants and help the forest to grow
Fig. 17.11 Deer in a forest
Fig. 17.12 A sapling on a wall
and regenerate. The decaying animal

Paheli remembered that she dung also provides nutrients to the
saw a Pipal sapling on the seedlings to grow”, said Prof Ahmad.
sidewall in her school. Can you After listening to this, Boojho noted
help her to understand how this in his notebook, “By harbouring greater
would have happened? variety of plants, the forest provides
greater opportunities for food and
Tibu then started looking closely at habitat for the herbivores. Larger
the forest floor. Soon he called and number of herbivores means increased
showed the children droppings of some availability of food for a variety of
animals, and explained the difference carnivores. The wide variety of animals

Rain
Transpiration and evaporation
The closed canopy and

many layers of vegetation
slow down the speed of
raindrops
Covered ground with

decaying material acts
Root system like a sponge
The root system helps

water to seep down in
the ground
Water table
Fig. 17.13 Rainwater drips from the trees and seeps into the ground
helps the forest to regenerate and grow. suggested another route for going back.
Decomposers help in maintaining the While they were going back, it started
supply of nutrients to the growing plants raining. However, surprisingly, they saw
in the forest. Therefore, the forest is a that the raindrops were not hitting the
dynamic living entity’
‘dynamic entity — full of life and forest floor directly. The uppermost layer
vitality.” of the forest canopy intercepted the flow
It was about afternoon and the of raindrops, and most of the water was
children wanted to go back. Tibu coming down through the branches and
214 SCIENCE
the stems of the trees. From the leaves villages and the agricultural fields of
it was dripping slowly over branches of that area were created after clearing the
the shrubs and herbs (Fig. 17.13). They forest about sixty years ago. Tibu’s
found that the ground was still dry. After grandfather told them that when he was
about half an hour, the rain stopped. young, the village was not as large as it
They noticed that the layer of dead was now. It was also surrounded
leaves over the forest floor appeared wet by forests. Construction of roads,
now. But water did not stagnate in the buildings, industrial development and
forest. increasing demand of wood created
Boojho thought that if it had rained pressure on the forests and it started
so heavily in his town, it would have vanishing. He was not happy that the
flooded the drains and roads. forest adjoining their village is not
What would happen if it rains heavily regenerating and is on the verge of
in your town? disappearing due to overgrazing of
Prof Ahmad told them that the forest animals and indiscriminate felling of
also acts as a natural absorber of trees. Prof Ahmad said that if we did
rainwater and allows it to seep. It helps things wisely we could preserve forests
maintain the water table throughout the and environment as well as have
year. Forests not only help in controlling development.
floods but also help maintain the flow Children prepared a few pictures to
of water in the streams so that we get a show the consequences of such an
steady supply of water. On the other event.
hand, if trees are not present, rain hits At the end of the visit, Prof Ahmad
the ground directly and may flood the asked children to sum up the
area around it. Heavy rain may also importance of forests. The children
damages the soil. Roots of trees normally wrote: Forests provide us with oxygen.
bind the soil together, but in their They protect soil and provide habitat to
absence the soil is washed away or a large number of animals. Forests
eroded. help in bringing good rainfall in
The children spent an hour at Tibu’s neighbouring areas. They are a source
village on their way back. The weather of medicinal plants, timber and many
of the village was quite pleasant. Villagers other useful products. We must preserve
told them that due to the surrounding our forests.
forest, they receive good rainfall. The air
also remained cool. Noise pollution, too
is less because the forest absorbs the
noise of the nearby highway. What would happen if forests
The children learnt about the history disappear?
of the village. It surprised them that the

1
2 1 If forests disappear, the

amount of carbon dioxide in
air will increase, resulting in
the increase of earth’s
temperature.
2 In the absence of trees and
plants, the animals will not
get food and shelter.
3 In the absence of trees, the
soil will not hold water, which
will cause floods.
4 Deforestation will endanger
our life and environment.
Think, what we can do to
preserve our forests.
3 4
216 SCIENCE
Keywords
Canopy Deforestation Seed dispersal

Crown Humus Soil erosion
Decomposers Regeneration Understorey

We get various products from the forests surrounding us.
Forest is a system comprising various plants, animals and
micro-organisms.
In a forest, trees form the uppermost layer, followed by shrubs.
The herbs form the lowest layer of vegetation.
Different layers of vegetation provide food and shelter for animals,
birds and insects.
The various components of the forest are interdependent on one
another.
The forest keeps on growing and changing, and can regenerate.
In the forest, there is interaction between soil, water, air and
living organisms.
Forests protect the soil from erosion.
Soil helps forests to grow and regenerate.
Forests are the lifeline for the forest-dwelling communities.
Forests influence climate, water cycle and air quality.
Exercises
1. Explain how animals dwelling in the forest help it grow and regenerate.
2. Explain how forests prevent floods.
3. What are decomposers? Name any two of them. What do they do in the
forest?
4. Explain the role of forest in maintaining the balance between oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
5. Explain why there is no waste in a forest.
6. List five products we get from forests?

7. Fill in the blank:
(a) The insects, butterflies, honeybees and birds help flowering plants
in .
(b) A forest is a purifier of and .
(c) Herbs form the layer in the forest.
(d) The decaying leaves and animal droppings in a forest enrich the
.
8. Why should we worry about the conditions and issues related to forests
far from us?
9. Explain why there is a need of variety of animals and plants in a forest.
10. In Fig. 17.15, the artist has forgotten to put the labels and directions on
the arrows. Mark the directions on the arrows and label the diagram
using the following labels:
clouds, rain, atmosphere, carbon dioxide, oxygen, plants, animals, soil,
roots, water table.
11. Which of the following is not
a forest product?
(i) Gum
(ii) Plywood
(iii) Sealing wax Carbon dioxide
(iv) Kerosene
12. Which of the following
statements is not correct? Oxygen
(i) Forests protect the soil
from erosion.
(ii) Plants and animals in
a forest are not
depedent on one
another.
(iii) Forests influence the
climate and water
cycle.
(iv) Soil helps forests to
grow and regenerate.
Fig. 17.15
218 SCIENCE
13. Micro-organisms act upon the dead plants to produce
(i) sand (ii) mushrooms (iii) humus (iv) wood

1. The Department of Environment is to decide whether some portion of a
forest in your area could be cleared for a housing complex. Write a letter
to the department explaining your point of view as a concerned citizen.
2. Visit a forest. Here is a list of points that would make your visit more
fruitful.
(a) Make sure that you have permission to go into the forest.
(b) Make sure that you can find your way around. Get a map and go
along with some one who is familiar with the area.
(c) Keep a record of the things you see and do. Observations make
the visit interesting. Sketches and photographs are useful.
(d) You may record bird calls.
(e) Collect different kinds of seeds or hard fruits like nuts.
(f) Try to recognise various types of trees, shrubs, herbs, etc. Make
lists of plants from different places in the forest and of different
layers. You may not be able to name all the plants, but it is worth
recording and seeing where they grow. Make a record of
approximate heights of plants, crown shape, bark texture, leaf
size, and flower colour.
(g) Learn to recognise the animal’s droppings.
(h) Interview the forest officials and the people of surrounding vil
lages and other visitors.
You must never collect birds’ eggs, and their nests should never be
disturbed.
You can read more on the following website:
www.wild-india.com
Did you know?

In India the area under forest cover is about 21% of the total area. It had
steadily been falling since independence. But people now seem to have
realised the importance of the forest cover. Reports suggest that the area
under forest cover has slightly increased in recent years.

18 Wastewater Story
All of us use water in our homes and Clean water that is fit
make it dirty. for use is unfortunately
Dirty! Are you surprised? not available to all. It
Rich in lather, mixed with oil, black– has been reported that
brown water that goes down the drains more than one billion of
from sinks, showers, toilets, laundries our fellow human beings
is dirty. It is called wastewater
wastewater. This have no access to safe drinking water.
used water should not be wasted. We This accounts for a large number of
must clean it up by removing pollutants. water-related diseases and even deaths.
Have you ever thought where the Women and girls walk for several
wastewater goes and what happens to it? kilometres to collect clean water, as you
read in Chapter 16. Is it not a serious
18.1 WATER, OUR LIFELINE
matter for human dignity?
Clean water is a basic need of human
You have studied in Chapter 16
being. Let us make a mindmap of the
about the increasing scarcity of fresh-
many uses of clean water.
water due to population growth,
Activity 18.1 pollution, industrial development,
mismanagement and other factors.
(We have given one example of the
Realising the urgency of the situation
use of clean water. You can add many
on the World Water Day, on 22 March
more.)
2005, the General Assembly of the
United Nations proclaimed the period
2005 – 2015 as the International Decade
for action on “Water for life”. All efforts
made during this decade aim to reduce
Clean water by half the number of people who do
put to use not have access to safe drinking water.
Cleaning of water is a process of
removing pollutants before it enters a
water body or is reused. This process of
wastewater treatment is commonly
Drinking known as “Sewage Treatment”. It takes
place in several stages.
220 SCIENCE
18.2 WHAT IS SEWAGE? pesticides,
Sewage is wastewater released by homes, herbicides, fruit
industries, hospitals, offices and other and vegetable
users. It also includes rainwater that has waste, etc.
run down the street during a storm or Inorganic impurities – Nitrates,
heavy rain. The water that washes off Phosphates,
roads and rooftops carries harmful metals.
substances with it. Sewage is a liquid waste. Nutrients – Phosphorus
Most of it is water, which has dissolved and Nitrogen.
and suspended impurities. These Bacteria – Such as which
impurities are called contaminants
contaminants. cause cholera
and typhoid.
Activity 18.2 Other microbes – Such as which
Locate an open drain near your home, cause dysentery.
school or on the roadside and inspect 18.3 WATER FRESHENS UP — AN
water flowing through it.
EVENTFUL JOURNEY
Record colour, odour and any other
In a home or a public building generally
observation. Discuss with your friends
one set of pipes brings clean water and
and your teacher and fill up the
following Table 18.1. another set of pipes takes away
wastewater. Imagine that we could see
We know that sewage is a complex
through the ground. We would see a
mixture containing suspended solids,
network of big and small pipes, called
organic and inorganic impurities,
sewers
sewers, forming the sewerage
sewerage. It is like
nutrients, saprotrophic and disease
a transport system that carries sewage
causing bacteria and other microbes.
from the point of being produced to the
Organic impurities – Human faeces,
point of disposal, i.e. treatment plant.
animal waste,
Manholes are located at every 50 m
oil, urea (urine),
to 60 m in the sewerage, at the junction
Table 18.1 Contaminant survey
S. No. Type of sewage Point of origin Substances which Any other

contaminate remark
1. Sullage water Kitchen

2. Foul waste Toilets
3. Trade waste Industrial
and commercial
organisations
WASTEWATER STORY 221

of two or more sewers and at points treatment; Sample 1”. 1” How does it
where there is a change in direction. smell?
Use an aerator from an aquarium to
Activity 18.3
bubble air through the sample in the
Study the sewage route in your home/ glass jar. Allow several hours for
school/building. Do the following: aeration; leave the aerator attached
Make a line diagram of the sewage overnight. If you do not have an
route. aerator, use a mechanical stirrer or
Walk down the street or survey the a mixer. You may have to stir it
campus to find the number of several times.
manholes. The next day when aeration is
Follow an open drain and find out complete, pour another sample into
where it ends and which living a second test tube. Label it as “After
organisms are found in and aeration; Sample 2” 2”.
around it. Fold a piece of filter paper to form a
In case you do not have a sewerage cone. Wet the paper with tap water
system in your locality, find out how and then insert the cone in a funnel.
sewage is being disposed off. Mount the funnel on a support
Treatment of polluted water (as you have learnt in Class VI).
Place layers of sand, fine gravel and
Perform the following activity. It will help
finally medium gravel in the funnel
you understand the processes that take
(Fig. 18.2). (An actual filtration plant
place at the wastewater treatment plant.
does not use filter paper, but the sand
Activity 18.4 filter is several metres deep).
Pour the remaining aerated liquid
Divide yourself into groups to perform through the filter into the beakers.
the activity. Record observations at each Do not allow the liquid to spill over
stage: the filter. If the filtered liquid is not
Fill a large glass jar 3/4 full of water. clear, filter it a few times till you get
Add some dirty organic matter such clear water.
as grass pieces or orange peels, a Pour a sample of the filtered water
small amount of detergent, and a few into a third test tube labelled
drops of an ink or any colour. “Filtered; Sample 3”.
Cap the jar, shake it well and let the Pour another sample of the filtered
mixture stand in the sun for two water into a fourth test tube. Add a
days. small piece of a chlorine tablet. Mix
After two days, shake the mixture well until the water is clear. Label the
and pour a small sample into test test tube “Chlorinated; Sample 4” 4”.
tube. Label this test tube “Before
222 SCIENCE
Fig. 18.2 Filtration process Fig. 18.3 Bar screen
Observe carefully the samples in all 2. Water then goes to a grit and sand
the test tubes. Do not taste
taste! Just removal tank. The speed of the
smell them! incoming wastewater is decreased to
Now answer the following questions: allow sand, grit and pebbles to settle
(a) What changes did you observe in the down (Fig. 18.4).
appearance of the liquid after
aeration?
(b) Did aeration change the odour?
(c) What was removed by the sand filter?
(d) Did chlorine remove the colour?
(e) Did chlorine have an odour? Was it
worse than that of the wastewater?
18.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
(WWTP)
Fig. 18.4 Grit and sand removal tank
Treatment of wastewater involves
physical, chemical, and biological 3. The water is then allowed to settle in
processes, which remove physical, a large tank which is sloped towards
chemical and biological matter that the middle. Solids like faeces settle
contaminates the wastewater. at the bottom and are removed with
1. Wastewater is passed through bar a scraper. This is the sludge
sludge. A
screens. Large objects like rags, skimmer removes the floatable solids
sticks, cans, plastic packets, napkins like oil and grease. Water so cleared
are removed (Fig. 18.3). is called clarified water (Fig. 18.5).

The activated sludge is about 97%
water. The water is removed by sand
drying beds or machines. Dried sludge
is used as manure, returning organic
matter and nutrients to the soil.
The treated water has a very low level
of organic material and suspended
matter. It is discharged into a sea, a river
or into the ground. Nature cleans it up
further. Sometimes it may be necessary
to disinfect water with chemicals like
Fig. 18.5 Water clarifer chlorine and ozone before releasing it
into the distribution system.
The sludge is transferred to a
separate tank where it is decomposed Become an active citizen
by the anaerobic bacteria. The biogas Waste generation is a natural part of
produced in the process can be used as human activity. But we can limit the
fuel or can be used to produce electricity. type of waste and quantity of waste
4. Air is pumped into the clarified water produced. Often we have been repelled
to help aerobic bacteria to grow. by offensive smell. The sight of open
Bacteria consume human waste, drains is disgusting. The situation
food waste, soaps and other
unwanted matter still remaining in
clarified water (Fig. 18.6).
After several hours, the suspended
microbes settle at the bottom of the tank The water in a river is cleaned
as activated sludge. The water is then naturally by processes that are
removed from the top. similar to those adopted in a
wastewater treatment plant.
Did you know ?

It has been suggested that we should
plant eucalyptus trees all along
sewage ponds. These trees absorb all
surplus wastewater rapidly and
release pure water vapour into the
Fig. 18.6 Aerator atmosphere.
224 SCIENCE
worsens in the rainy season when the Used tealeaves, solid food remains,
drains start overflowing. We have to soft toys, cotton, sanitary towels, etc.
wade through the mud pools on the should also be thrown in the dustbin
roads. Most unhygienic and unsanitary (Fig. 18.7). These wastes choke the
conditions prevail. Flies, mosquitoes and
other insects breed in it.
You can be an enlightened citizen
and approach the municipality or the
gram panchayat. Insist that the open
drains be covered. If the sewage of
any particular house makes the
neighbourhood dirty, you should
Don’t add to the load of

WWTP. Paheli wonders how!
request them to be more considerate

about others’ health.
18.6 BETTER HOUSE KEEPING
P RACTICES
One of the ways to minimise or eliminate
waste and pollutants at their source is
to see what you are releasing down the
drain.
Cooking oil and fats should not be
thrown down the drain. They can Fig. 18.7 Do not throw every thing in the sink
harden and block the pipes. In an drains. They do not allow free flow
open drain the fats clog the soil pores of oxygen. This hampers the
reducing its effectiveness in filtering degradation process.
water. Throw oil and fats in the
dustbin. 18.7 SANITATION AND DISEASE
Chemicals like paints, solvents, Poor sanitation and contaminated
insecticides, motor oil, medicines drinking water is the cause of a large
may kill microbes that help purify number of diseases.
water. So do not throw them down Let us look at our own country. A
the drain. vast number of our people are still

Vermi-processing toilet
A design of a toilet in which humans excreta is treated by earthworms has been
tested in India. It has been found to be a novel, low water-use toilet for safe
processing of human waste. The operation of the toilet is very simple and hygienic.
The human excreta is completely converted to vermi cakes — a resource much
needed for soil.
without sewerage facilities. Where do isolated buildings or a cluster of 4 to 5

they relieve themselves? houses.
A very large fraction of our people Some organisations offer hygienic
defecates in the open, on dry riverbeds, on-site human waste disposal
on railway tracks, near fields and many technology. These toilets do not require
a time directly in water. Untreated scavenging. Excreta from the toilet seats
human excreta is a health hazard. It flow through covered drains into a
may cause water pollution and soil biogas plant. The biogas produced is
pollution. Both the surface water and used as a source of energy.
groundwater get polluted. Groundwater
18.9 SANITATION AT PUBLIC PLACES
is a source of water for wells, tubewells,
springs and many rivers as you learnt In our country fairs are organised
in Chapter 16. Thus, it becomes the periodically. A large number of people
most common route for water borne participate in them. In the same way
diseases. They include cholera, typhoid, railway stations, bus depots, airports,
polio, meningitis, hepatitis and hospitals are very busy places.
dysentery. Thousands of people visit them daily.
Large amount of waste is generated
18.8 ALTERNATIVE ARRANGEMENT FOR here. It must be disposed of properly
SEWAGE DISPOSAL otherwise epidemics could break out.
To improve sanitation, low cost onsite The government has laid down
sewage disposal systems are being certain standards of sanitation but,
encouraged. Examples are septic tanks, unfortunately, they are not strictly
chemical toilets, composting pits. Septic enforced.
tanks are suitable for places where there However, all of us can contribute in
is no sewerage system, for hospitals, maintaining sanitation at public places.
We should not scatter litter anywhere.
Bhoojo wants to know how If there is no dustbin in sight, we should
sewage is disposed of in an carry the litter home and throw it in the
aeroplane. dustbin.
226 SCIENCE
Conclusion Influence others with your energy, ideas
We all have a role to play in keeping our and optimism. A lot can be done if people
environment clean and healthy. You work together. There is great power in
must realise your responsibility in collective action.
maintaining the water sources in a Mahatma Gandhi said:
healthy state. Adopting good sanitation
“No one need to wait for anyone else
practices should be our way of life. As
to adopt a humane and enlightened
an agent of change your individual
course of action.”
initiative will make a great difference.
Keywords
Aeration Contaminant Sewerage
Aerobic bacteria Sanitation Sludge
Anaerobic bacteria Sewage Wastewater
Biogas Sewer

Used water is wastewater. Wastewater could be reused.
Wastewater is generated in homes, industries, agricultural fields and in
other human activities. This is called sewage.
Sewage is a liquid waste which causes water and soil pollution.
Wastewater is treated in a sewage treatment plant.
Treatment plants reduce pollutants in wastewater to a level where nature
can take care of it.
Where underground sewerage systems and refuse disposal systems are
not available, the low cost on-site sanitation system can be adopted.
By-products of wastewater treatment are sludge and biogas.
Open drain system is a breeding place for flies, mosquitoes and organisms
which cause diseases.
We should not defecate in the open. It is possible to have safe disposal of
excreta by low cost methods.

Exercises
(a) Cleaning of water is a process of removing ____________.
(b) Wastewater released by houses is called ____________.
(c) Dried ____________ is used as manure.
(d) Drains get blocked by ____________ and ____________.
2. What is sewage? Explain why it is harmful to discharge untreated
sewage into rivers or seas.
3. Why should oils and fats be not released in the drain? Explain.
4. Describe the steps involved in getting clarified water from wastewater.
5. What is sludge? Explain how it is treated.
6. Untreated human excreta is a health hazard. Explain.
7. Name two chemicals used to disinfect water.
8. Explain the function of bar screens in a wastewater treatment plant.
9. Explain the relationship between sanitation and disease.
10. Outline your role as an active citizen in relation to sanitation.
11. Here is a crossword puzzle: Good luck!
228 SCIENCE
Across
3. Liquid waste products
4. Solid waste extracted in sewage treatment
6. A word related to hygiene
8. Waste matter discharged from human body
Down
1. Used water
2. A pipe carrying sewage
5. Micro-organisms which causes cholera
7. A chemical to disinfect water
12. Study the following statements about ozone:
(a) It is essential for breathing of living organisms.
(b) It is used to disinfect water.
(c) It absorbs ultraviolet rays.
(d) Its proportion in air is about 3%.
Which of these statements are correct?
(i) (a), (b) and (c)
(ii) (b) and (c)
(iii) (a) and (d)
(iv) All four

1. Construct a crossword puzzle of your own using the keywords.
2. Then and now: Talk to your grand parents and other elderly people in
the neighbourhood. Find out the sewage disposal systems available to
them. You can also write letters to people living in far off places to get
more information. Prepare a brief report on the information you
collected.
3. Visit a sewage treatment plant.
It could be as exciting and enriching as a visit to a zoo, a museum, or a
park. To guide your observation here are a few suggestions.
Record in your notepad:
Place ___________ Date ___________ Time ___________
Name of the official at the plant __________ Guide/Teacher ___________

(a) The location of the sewage plant.
(b) Treatment capacity.
(c) The purpose of screening as the initial process.
(d) How is air bubbled through the aeration tank?
(e) How safe is the water at the end of the treatment? How is it tested?
(f ) Where is the water discharged after treatment?
(g) What happens to the plant during heavy rains?
(h) Is biogas consumed within the plant or sold to other consumers?
(i) What happens to the treated sludge?
(j) Is there any special effort to protect nearby houses from the plant?
(k) Other observations.
For more information, consult:

Millennium Development Goals:
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
“Water for Life” International Decade for Action:
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/
World Water Day - Themes and Importance:
http://www.worldwaterday.org/
Through the ages Development of Sanitation:
http://www.sewerhistory.org/
http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/Techreports/tr43en/Household%
20systems.htm
“By providing clean water and sanitation to the poorest people on the
planet, we can reduce poverty and suffering and ensure education for all
children.” — UNICEF
An early engineering feat: Indus valley civilisation
One of the ancient civilisations, Harappa and Mohenjodaro had perhaps

the world’s first urban sanitation system. Within the city individual
houses, or groups of houses, obtained water from wells. There was a
separate room for bathing, and wastewater was directed to the covered
drains which lined the major streets. The oldest toilet made of bricks is
about 4500 years old.
230 SCIENCE
Land,
Soil, Water,
Natural Vegetation
and Wildlife Resources
In a small village in Tanzania, Africa, Mamba gets up
very early in the morning to fetch water. She has to walk
a long way and returns after a few hours. She then helps Let’s do
her mother in the house and joins her brothers in taking Observe the land,
care of their goats. All her family owns is a piece of rocky type of soil and
land around their small hut. Mamba’s father can barely water availability
grow some maize and beans on it after toiling hard. This in the region you
live. Discuss in
is not enough to feed their family for the whole year. your class, how it
Peter lives in the heart of the sheep rearing region in has influenced the
New Zealand where his family runs a wool processing lifestyle of people
factory. Everyday when he returns from school, Peter there.
watches his uncle taking care of their sheep. Their sheep
yard is situated on a wide grassy plain with hills in the
far distance. It is managed in a scientific way using the
latest technology. Peter’s family also grows vegetables
through organic farming.
Mamba and Peter stay in two different parts of the
world and lead very different lives. This difference is
because of the differences in the quality of land, soil,
water, natural vegetation, animals and the usage of Do you know?
technology. The availability of such resources is the Ninety per cent
main reason places differ from each other. of the world
population
occupies only
LAND thirty per cent of
Land is among the most important natural resources. land area. The
It covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of remaining seventy
the earth’s surface and all parts of this small percentage per cent of the
land is either
are not habitable.
sparsely populated
The uneven distribution of population in different or uninhabited.
parts of the world is mainly due to varied characteristics
of land and climate. The rugged topography, steep slopes
of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to water
logging, desert areas, thick forested areas are normally
sparsely populated or uninhabited. Plains and river
valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these
are the densely populated areas of the world.
LAND USE
Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture,
forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of
industries. This is commonly
termed as Land use. Can you
list out the different ways in
which Mamba’s and Peter’s
family use their land?
The use of land is
determined by physical
factors such as topography,
soil, climate, minerals and
availability of water. Human
factors such as population
and technology are also
Fig. 2.1: Salzburg in Austria important determinants of
Notice in how many ways the land has been used in the land use pattern.
above picture.
Table 2.1 : Land use in selected countries
Percentage of area in
Countries Cropland Pasture Forest Other Use
Notes Australia 6 56 14 24
Brazil 9 20 66 5
Canada 5 4 39 52
China 10 34 14 42
France 35 21 27 17
India 57 4 22 17
Japan 12 2 67 19
Russia 8 5 44 44
UK 29 46 10 16
USA 21 26 32 21
World 11 26 31 32
Study the above table and answer the following:
(i) Name the countries having the highest percentage of land under
cropland, forest, pasture and other uses.
(ii) How would you relate the land use patterns of these countries
with the probable economic activities?
10 RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Land can also be divided on the basis of private
land and community land. Private land is owned by
individuals whereas, community land is owned by the
community for common uses like collection of fodder, Let’s do
fruits, nuts or medicinal herbs. These community lands Talk to some
are also called common property resources. elderly person
People and their demands are ever growing but in your family or
the availability of land is limited. The quality of land also neighbourhood and
differs from place to place. People started encroaching collect information
the common lands to build up commercial areas, about changes
in the land use
housing complexes in the urban areas and to expand
over years, where
the agricultural land in the rural areas. Today the vast you live. Display
changes in the land use pattern also reflect the cultural your findings on a
changes in our society. Land degradation, landslides, bulletin board in
soil erosion, desertification are the major threats to the your classroom.
environment because of the expansion of agriculture
and constructional activities.
1. 2.
3. 4.
Fig. 2.2: Change in land use over time
CONSERVATION OF LAND RESOURCE

Growing population and their ever growing demand has
led to a large scale destruction of forest cover and arable
land and has created a fear of losing this natural
LAND, SOIL, WATER, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 11
resource. Therefore, the present rate of degradation of
land resources must be checked. Afforestation, land
reclamation, regulated use of chemical pesticide and
fertilisers and checks on overgrazing are some of the
common methods used to conserve land.
Landslides
Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement
of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They often take
place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and
volcanoes. A prolonged spell of rainfall can cause
heavy landslide that can block the flow of river for
quite some time. The formation of river blocks can
cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its
bursting. In the hilly terrain landslides have been a
major and widely spread natural disaster that often
strike life and property and occupy a position of major A Landslide
concern.
A Case Study
A massive landslide hit Pangi village near Reckong Peo in Kinnaur district of
Himachal Pradesh and damaged a 200-meter stretch of old Hindustan-Tibet
road, National Highway - 22. This landslide was triggered by intense blasting
at Pangi village. Due to the blasting this weak zone of slope collapsed and
caused intense damage to the road and nearby villages. The Pangi village was
completely vacated to avoid any possible loss of life.
Mitigation Mechanism
Advancement in scientific techniques has empowered us to understand what
factors cause landslides and how to manage them. Some broad mitigation
techniques of landslide are as follows:
• Hazard mapping locate areas prone to
landslides. Hence, such areas can be avoided
for building settlements.
• Construction of retention wall to stop land from
slipping.
• Increase in the vegetation cover is an effective
way to arrest landslide.
• The surface drainage control works are Retention Wall
implemented to control the movement of
landslide along with rain water and spring flows.

SOIL
Glossary
The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface
Weathering
of the earth is called soil. It is closely linked to land. The breaking
Landforms determine the type of soil. Soil is made up and decay of
up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks exposed rocks,
found on the earth. This happens through the process by temperature
of weathering. The right mix of minerals and organic changes, frost
matter make the soil fertile. action, plants,
animals and man.
Top soil with humus and
vegetation
Sub soil with sand, silt and

clay
Do you know?
Weathered rock material It takes hundreds
of years to make
Parent rock just one centimetre
of soil.
Fig. 2.3: Soil Profile
FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION

The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the
parent rock and climatic factors. Other factors are the
topography, role of organic material and time taken for
the composition of soil formation. All these differ from
place to place.
Parent Rock
Determines colour, Climate
texture, chemical Temperature,
properties Rainfall influence
mineral, content, Soil rate of weathering
permeability and humus
Relief
Flora, Fauna and
Altitude and Time
Micro-organism
slope, determine Determines thickness
Affect the rate of humus
accumulation of soil profile
formation
of soil
Fig. 2.4: Factors affecting soil formation

DEGRADATION OF SOIL AND CONSERVATION
Activity
In India soils
MEASURES
could be alluvial, Soil erosion and depletion are the major threats to soil
black, red, laterite, as a resource. Both human and natural factors can
desertic and lead to degradation of soils. Factors which lead to soil
mountain soil. degradation are deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of
Collect a handful chemical feritilisers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides
of different types
of soil and observe
and floods.
how they are Some methods of soil conservation are
different? Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered
with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to
retain soil moisture.
Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build
barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of
the barriers to collect water.
Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of
water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
Fig 2.5: Terrace Farming Fig 2.6: Contour Ploughing
Terrace farming: These are made on the steep

slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow
crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil
erosion (Fig. 2.5).
Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate
rows and are sown at different times to protect the
soil from rain wash.
Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the
contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier
for water to flow down the slope (Fig. 2.6).
Fig 2.7: Shelter Belts Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows
of trees are planted to check the wind movement to
protect soil cover (Fig. 2.7).

Activity
Take two trays A and B of same A B
size. Make six holes in the end
of these trays and then fill
them with the same amount
of soil. Leave the soil in tray A
bare while grow grass in tray B.
When the grass in tray B has
grown few centimetres high,
place both the trays in such a
way that they are on a slope.
Pour one mug of water from the
same height into trays. Collect
the muddy water that trickles
down the holes of both trays
in two separate containers
and compare how much soil
is washed out of each tray?
WATER
Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Three-
fourth’s of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
It is therefore appropriately called the ‘water planet’.
It was in the primitive oceans that life began almost Do you know?
3.5 billion years back. Even today, the oceans cover In 1975, the
two-thirds of the earth’s surface and support a rich consumption of
variety of plant and animal life. The ocean water is water for human
use was 3850cu
however saline and not fit for human consumption.
km/year. It soared
Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly to more than 6000
70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in cu km/year in the
Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions. Due to year 2000.
their location they are inaccessible. Only 1 per cent of
freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found
as ground water, as surface water in rivers and lakes
and as water vapour in the atmosphere.
Fresh water is therefore, the most precious substance
on earth. Water can neither be added nor subtracted
from the earth. Its total volume remains constant.
Its abundance only seems to vary because it is in Do you know?
constant motion, cycling through the oceans, the A dripping tap
air, the land and back again, through the processes wastes1200
of evaporation, precipitation and run-off. This as litres in a year.
you already know is referred to as the ‘water cycle’.
Humans use huge amounts of water not only for
drinking and washing but also in the process of
production. Water for agriculture, industries,
generating electricity
through reservoirs of
Activity dams are the other
An average urban Indian uses about 135 litres usages. Increasing
of water every day. population, rising
Use Litres per person per day
demands for food and
Drinking 3
Cooking 4 cash crops, increasing
Bathing 20 urbanisation and rising
Flushing 40 standards of living
Washing clothes 40 are the major factors
Washing utensils 20 leading to shortages in
Gardening 23 supply of fresh water
Total 135
either due to drying
Can you suggest some ways to bring down this use?
up of water sources or
water pollution.
Do you know? PROBLEMS OF WATER AVAILABILITY

Have you ever
heard about a water There is scarcity of water in many regions of the world.
market? Amreli Most of Africa, West Asia, South Asia, parts of western
city in Saurastra USA, north-west Mexico, parts of South America and
region with a entire Australia are facing shortages in fresh water supply.
population of 1.25 Countries located in climatic zones most susceptible to
lakhs is completely droughts face great problems of water scarcity. Thus, water
dependent on
purchasing water
shortage may be a consequence of variation in seasonal
from the nearby or annual precipitation or the scarcity is caused by over-
talukas. exploitation and contamination of water sources.
CONSERVATION OF WATER
RESOURCES
Access to clean and adequate water
sources is a major problem facing the
world today. Steps have to be taken to
conserve this dwindling resource. Even
though water is a renewable resource, its
overuse and pollution make it unfit for
use. Discharge of untreated or partially
treated sewage, agricultural chemicals
and industrial effluents in water bodies
Fig 2.8: Yamuna is getting polluted due to
sewage, industrial effluents and garbage are major contaminants. They pollute
water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.
Most of these chemicals being non-biodegradable reach
human bodies through water. Water pollution can be
controlled by treating these effluents suitably before
releasing them in water bodies.
Forest and other vegetation cover slow the
surface runoff and replenish underground
water. Water harvesting is another method
to save surface runoff. Water is used for
irrigating fields. The canals should be
properly lined to minimise losses by water
seepage. Sprinklers effectively irrigate the
area by checking water losses through
seepage and evaporation. In dry regions
with high rates of evaporation, drip or
Fig 2.9: A Water Sprinkler
trickle irrigation is very useful. The valuable
water resource can therefore be conserved
by adopting these means of conservation. Do you know?
Rain water
harvesting is
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE the process of
Some school children were visiting an exhibition on collecting rain
handicrafts. The articles in the exhibition were collected water from roof
from different parts of the country. Mona picked up a bag tops and directing
it to an appropriate
and exclaimed, “This is a beautiful handbag!” “Yes, it location and
is made from Jute,” the teacher said. “Do you see those storing if for
baskets, lamp shades and chairs? Those are made of future use. On an
canes and bamboos. In the eastern and north eastern average, one spell
humid regions of India, bamboo grows in plenty.” Jassy of rain for two
was excited to see a silk scarf. “See this beautiful hours is enough to
scarf”. The teacher explained that silk is obtained from save 8,000 litres of
water.
silk worms that are bred on Mulberry trees. The children
understood that plants provide us with many different
products that we use in our day-to-day life.
Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only
in the narrow zone of contact between the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere that
we call biosphere. In the biosphere living beings
are inter-related and interdependent on each
other for survival. This life supporting system
is known as the ecosystem. Vegetation and
wildlife are valuable resources. Plants provide
us with timber, give shelter to animals, produce
oxygen we breathe, protects soils so essential
for growing crops, act as shelter belts, help in Fig 2.10: Silk Worms
storage of underground water,
give us fruits, nuts, latex,
turpentine oil, gum, medicinal
plants and also the paper that
is so essential for your studies.
Do you know? There are innumerable uses of
Vultures in plants and you can add some
the Indian
subcontinent were
more.
dying of kidney Wildlife includes animals,
failure shortly birds, insects as well as
after scavenging the aquatic life forms. They
livestock treated provide us milk, meat, hides
with diclofenac, a and wool. Insects like bees
painkiller that is provide us honey, help in
similar to aspirin Fig 2.11: Brahma Kamal
or ibuprofen.
pollination of flowers and a Medicinal Herb
Efforts are on to have an important role to
ban the drug for play as decomposers in
livestock use and the ecosystem. The birds
breed vultures in feed on insects and act as
captivity. decomposers as well. Vulture
due to its ability to feed on
dead livestock is a scavenger
and considered a vital
cleanser of the environment.
So animals big or small, all
are integral to maintaining Fig 2.12: A Blue Kingfisher
balance in the ecosystem.
DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION

The growth of vegetation depends primarily on
temperature and moisture. The major vegetation types
of the world are grouped as forests, grasslands, scrubs
and tundra.
In areas of heavy rainfall, huge trees
may thrive. The forests are thus associated
with areas having abundant water supply.
As the amount of moisture decreases the
size of trees and their density reduces.
In the regions of moderate rainfall short
stunted trees and grasses grow forming the
grasslands of the world. In dry areas of low
rainfall, thorny shrubs and scrubs grow.
In such areas plants have deep roots and
Fig. 2.13: Grassland and Forest

leaves have thorny and waxy surface to
reduce loss of moisture by transpiration.
Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions
comprise of mosses and lichens.
Forests are broadly classified as
evergreen and deciduous depending
on when they shed their leaves.
Evergreen forests do not shed their
leaves simultaneously in any season
of the year. Deciduous forests shed
their leaves in a particular season Fig. 2.14: A Python in a forest
to conserve loss of moisture through
transpiration. These forests are
further classified as tropical or
temperate based on their
location in different latitudes.
You have learnt in detail about
the various forest types, their
distribution and the associated
animal life in the previous class.
Today there are many more
people in the world than there
were two centuries back. To feed
the growing numbers, large areas
of forests have been cleared to
grow crops. Forest cover all over
the world is vanishing rapidly.
Fig. 2.15: A collage of a forest made by school students
There is an urgent need to
conserve this valuable resource.
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
Forests are our wealth. Plants give shelter to
the animals and together they maintain the
ecosystem. Changes of climate and human
interferences can cause the loss of natural
habitats for the plants and animals. Many
species have become vulnerable or
endangered and some are on the verge
of extinction. Deforestation, soil erosion,
constructional activities, forest fires,
tsunami and landslides are some of the Fig. 2.16: Loss of rainforest in
human made and natural factors which Great Nicobar after Tsunami
together accelerate the process of extinction
of these great natural resources. One of the
major concerns is the increasing incidents
of poaching that result in a sharp decline
in the number of particular species. The
animals are poached for collection and illegal
trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns
as well as feathers. Some of these animals
are tiger, lion, elephant, deer, black buck,
crocodile, rhinoceros, snow leopard, ostrich
and peacock. These can be conserved by
Fig. 2.17: Black buck also needs protection increasing awareness.
Forest Fire
Activity
Read the news item and find out how fire started in California ? Could it be avoided?
Know More
Forest fire is a threat to entire region of fauna and flora. It occurs mainly due to three
reasons.
1. Natural fire due to lightening etc.
2. Fire due to heat generated in the litter due to carelessness of people.
3. Purposely caused fire by local inhabitants.
Some Control Measures
1. Prevention of human-caused fires through education.
2. Prompt detection of fires through well co-ordinated network of obsevation points,
efficient ground patroling and communication network.

National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere
reserves are made to protect our natural vegetation and
wildlife. Conservation of creeks, lakes, and wetlands is Glossary
National Park
necessary to save the precious resource from depletion
A natural area
There is a balance in the environment if the relative designated to
number of species is not disturbed. Human activities protect the
in several parts of the world have disturbed the natural ecological integrity
habitats of many species. Due to indiscriminate killings, of one or more
several birds and animals have either become extinct or ecosystems for
are on the verge of extinction. present and future
generations
Awareness programmes like social forestry and
Vanamohatasava should be encouraged at the regional
and community level. School children should
be encouraged for bird watching and visiting
nature camps so that they appreciate the
habitat of varied species.
Many countries have passed laws
declaring that the trades as well as killing of
birds and animals are illegal. In India, killing
of lions, tigers, deers, great Indian bustards
and peacocks have been banned
Fig. 2:18: Herd of Cheetals
An international convention CITES has been
established that lists several species of animals
and birds in
which trade
Glossary
is prohibited.
Biosphere reserves
Conservation Series of protected
of plants and areas linked
animals is an through a global
ethical duty of network, intended
every citizen. to demonstrate
the relationship
between
conservation and
development.
Fig. 2:19: Elephant herd in Kaziranga
National Park
Do you know?
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between
governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of
wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Roughly 5,000
species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected. Bears,
dolphins, cacti, corals, orchids and aloes are some examples.

Exercises
(i) Which are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation?
(ii) Write any two reasons for land degradation today.
(iii) Why is land considered an important resource?
(iv) Name any two steps that government has taken to conserve plants
and animals.
(v) Suggest three ways to conserve water.
(i) Which one of the following is NOT a factor of soil formation?
(a) time (b) soil texture (c) organic matter
(ii) Which one of the following methods is most appropriate to check
soil erosion on steep slopes?
(a) shelter belts (b) mulching (c) terrace cultivation
(iii) Which one of the following is NOT in favour of the conservation
of nature?
(a) switch off the bulb when not in use
(b) close the tap immediately after using
(c) dispose polypacks after shopping
3. Match the followings.
(i) Land use (a) prevent soil erosion
(ii) Humus (b) land suitable for agriculture
(iii) Rock dams (c) productive use of land
(iv) Arable land (d) organic matter deposited on top soil
(e) contour ploughing
4. State whether the given statement is true or false.
If true, write the reasons.
(i) Ganga–Brahmaputra plain of India is an overpopulated region.
(ii) Water availability per person in India is declining.
(iii) Rows of trees planted in the coastal areas to check the wind
movement is called intercropping.
(iv) Human interference and changes of climate can maintain the
ecosystem.
5. Activity
Discuss some more reasons which are responsible for changes of land use
pattern. Has your place undergone any change in the land use pattern?

Find out from your parents and elderly people. You can conduct an interview by
asking the following questions.
Place When your When your Why do you Are common

grand parents were think this is areas and
parent’s were in their 30’s happening? open spaces
in their 30’s disappearing?
Rural
Number of
cattle and
poultry owned
Number of
trees and
ponds in the
village
Main
occupation of
the head of
the family
Urban
Number of
cars owned
Number of
rooms in the
house
Number of
metalled
roads
Number of
flyovers in the
city
Number of
parks and
playgrounds
Based on the table you have just completed, draw a picture of land use patterns
that you foresee in your neighbourhood after 20 years. Why do you think that land
use patterns change over the years?

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Prof.
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 7.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation to
classmates. Other children in the class
your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 7.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves?
deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Prof. Ahmad
7.1 Deforestation and Its that if cutting of trees continues, rainfall
Causes and the fertility of the soil will decrease.
A great variety of plants and animals
exists on earth. They are essential for
the wellbeing and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other Moreover, there will be increased
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for chances of natural calamities such as
some of the purposes mentioned below: floods and droughts.
Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased
amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Prof. Ahmad organises a visit to a
to global warming as carbon dioxide biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho and
traps the heat rays reflected by the earth. their classmates. He selects a place
The increase in temperature on the earth named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce knows that the plants and animals found
rainfall. This could cause droughts. here are similar to those of the upper
Deforestation is a major cause which Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
leads to the change in soil properties. to the lower western ghats. Prof. Ahmad
Physical properties of the soil get affected believes that the biodiversity found here
by plantation and vegetation. Recall is unique. He requests Madhavji, a forest
from Class VII how trees prevent soil employee, to guide the children inside
erosion. Fewer trees result in more soil the biosphere reserve. He explains that
erosion. Removal of the top layer of the preserving areas of such biological
soil exposes the lower, hard and rocky importance make them a part of our
layers. This soil has less humus and is national heritage.
less fertile. Gradually the fertile land Biosphere is that part of the earth in
gets converted into deserts. It is called which living organisms exist or which
desertification. supports life. Biological diversity or
Deforestation also leads to a decrease biodiversity, refers to the variety of
in the water holding capacity of the soil. organisms existing on the earth, their
The movement of water from the soil interrelationships and their
surface into the ground (infiltration rate) relationship with the environment.
is reduced. So, there are floods. The
Madhavji explains to the children
other properties of the soil like nutrient
that apart from our personal efforts and
content, texture, etc., also change
efforts of the society, government
because of deforestation.
agencies also take care of the forests and
We have studied in Class VII that we
animals. The government lays down
get many products from forests. List these rules, methods and policies to protect
products. Will we face the shortage of these and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries,
products if we continue cutting trees? national parks, biosphere reserves, etc.,
are protected areas for conservation of
Activity 7.2 plants and animals present in that area.
Animal life is also affected by
deforestation. How? List the points To protect our flora and fauna and
and discuss them in your class. their habitats, protected areas
called sanctuaries, national parks and
biosphere reserves have been
7.3 Conservation of Forest earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
and Wildlife grazing, felling trees, hunting and
poaching are prohibited there.
Having become aware of the effects of
Sanctuary : Areas where animals are
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are
protected from any disturbance to
worried. They go to Prof. Ahmad and ask them and their habitat.
him how forests and wildlife can be saved.
78 SCIENCE
National Park : Areas reserved for 7.4 Biosphere Reserve
wild life where they can freely use Children along with Prof. Ahmad and
the habitats and natural resources. Madhavji enter the biosphere reserve
Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
area. Madhavji explains that biosphere
protected land for conservation of wild
life, plant and animal resources and
reserves are the areas meant for
traditional life of the tribals living in conservation of biodiversity. As you are
the area. aware that biodiversity is the variety of
plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 7.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
7.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 7.1).
Table 7.1 : Protected areas for conservation.
Protected Areas — National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve
In my district
In my state
In my country
↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY
Fig. 7.1 : Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 79
Activity 7.4 a rabbit and wants to catch it. She
starts running after it. Prof. Ahmad
List the factors disturbing the stops her. He explains that animals are
biodiversity of your area. Some of comfortable and happy in their own
these factors and human activities
habitat. We should not disturb them.
may disturb the biodiversity
Madhavji explains that some animals
unknowingly. List these human
and plants typically belong to a
activities. How can these be checked?
particular area. The plants and animals
Discuss in your class and write a
found in a particular area are termed
brief report in your notebook.
flora and fauna of that area.
7.5 Flora and Fauna Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns,
As the children walk around the arjun, etc are the flora and chinkara,
biosphere reserve they appreciate the blue-bull, barking deer, cheetal,
green wealth of the forest. They are very leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are
happy to see tall teak trees and animals examples of the fauna of the
inside the forest. Suddenly, Paheli finds Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
(Fig. 7.2).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 7.2 : (a) Wild dog (b) Cheetal (c) Wolf (d) Leopard (e) Fern (f) Jamun
80 SCIENCE
Activity 7.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
7.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
forest. Children are surprised to see a
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 7.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Prof.
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 7.3 (a)] as two examples of the
Fig. 7.3 : (b) Giant squirrel
Species is a group of populations

which are capable of interbreeding.
This means that the members of a
species can reproduce fertile offspring
only with the members of their own
species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species
have common characteristics.
Activity 7.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 7.3 : (a) Wild Mango
7.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat? In
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi your opinion, will the animals be
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. comfortable in a zoo or in their
Prof. Ahmad explains that, like natural habitat?
reserve forests, wildlife sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living 7.8 National Park
conditions to wild animals. Madhavji On the roadside there was another
further explains that sanctuaries are board on which was written ‘Satpura
places where killing (poaching) or National Park’.
capturing of animals is strictly Children are now eager to go there.
prohibited. Madhavji tells them that these reserves
are large and diverse enough to protect
Some of the threatened wild animals
whole sets of ecosystems. They
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed preserve flora, fauna, landscape and
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, historic objects of an area. Satpura
python, rhinoceros, etc. are protected National Park is the first Reserve Forest
and preserved in our wild life of India. The finest Indian teak is
sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries have found in this forest.
unique landscapes—broad level
forests, mountain forests and bush Rock shelters are also found inside
lands in deltas of big rivers. the Satpura National Park. These are
the prehistoric evidences of human
It is a pity that even protected forests life in these jungles. They give us an
are not safe because people living in the idea of the life of the primitive people.
neighbourhood encroach upon them Rock paintings are found in these
shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
and destroy them.
have been identified in Pachmarhi
Children are reminded of their visit
Biosphere Reserve.
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also Figures of animals and men fighting,
places where animals receive protection. hunting, dancing, and playing
musical instruments are depicted in
these paintings. Many tribals still
live in the area.
What is the difference
between a zoo and a As children move ahead, they see a
wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 7.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the government to protect the tigers in the
conditions provided to the animals. country. The objective of this project
Were they suitable for the animals? was to ensure the survival and
Can animals live in artificial setting maintenance of the tiger population in
the country.
82 SCIENCE
Fig. 7.4 : Tiger Fig. 7.5 : Wild buffalo Fig. 7.6 : Barasingha
Madhavji tells Paheli that small

animals are much more in danger of
becoming extinct than the bigger
animals. At times, we kill snakes,
Are tigers still found in frogs, lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly
this forest? I hope that I without realising their importance in
can see a tiger! the ecosystem. By killing them we are
harming ourselves. They might be
Tiger (Fig. 7.4) is one of the many small in size but their role in the
species which are slowly disappearing ecosystem cannot be ignored. They
from our forests. But, the Satpura Tiger form part of food chains and food
Reserve is unique in the sense that a webs, about which you learnt in
significant increase in the population Class VII.
of tigers has been seen here. Once upon An ecosystem is made of all the
a time, animals like lions, elephants, plants, animals and microorganisms in
wild buffaloes (Fig. 7.5) and barasingha an area along with non-living
(Fig. 7.6) were also found in the Satpura components such as climate, soil,
National Park. Animals whose numbers river deltas, etc.
are diminishing to a level that they might
face extinction are known as the
endangered animals. Boojho is
reminded of the dinosaurs which
became extinct a long time ago. Survival I wonder if there is
of some animals has become difficult any record of the
because of disturbances in their natural endangered species!
habitat.
7.9 Red Data Book
Prof. Ahmad explains about Red Data
Book to the children. He tells them that
Red Data Book is the source book
Are only big animals
which keeps a record of all the
facing the extinction?
endangered animals and plants. There
are different Red Data Books for plants, 7.11 Recycling of Paper
animals and other species. (For further
Prof. Ahmad draws the attention of
details about Red Data Book, you can
the children to another cause of
log on to www.wil.gov.in/envis/
deforestation. He tells them that it
primates/page102htm/new/nwdc/
takes 17 full grown trees to make one
plants.htm)
tonne of paper. Therefore, we should
7.10 Migration save paper. Prof. Ahmad also tells that
paper can be recycled five to seven
The excursion party then enters deeper times for use. If each student saves at
into the forest under the guidance of least one sheet of paper in a day, we
Madhavji. They sit near the Tawa can save many trees in a year. We
Reservoir to relax for some time. Paheli should save, reuse used paper and
observes some of the birds near the recycle it. By this we not only save
river. Madhavji tells the children that trees but also save energy and water
these are the migratory birds. These needed for manufacturing paper.
birds have flown here from other parts Moreover, the amount of har mful
of the world. chemicals used in paper making will
Migratory birds fly to far away areas also be reduced.
every year during a particular time
because of climatic changes. They fly
for laying eggs as the weather in their
natural habitat becomes very cold and
inhospitable. Birds who cover long Is there any permanent
distances to reach another land are solution to the problem
known as the migratory birds as Paheli of deforestation?
learnt in Class VII.
7.12 Reforestation
Prof. Ahmad suggests that the answer
to deforestation is reforestation.
What would happen if we Reforestation is restocking of the
had no wood? Is there destroyed forests by planting new trees.
any alternative The planted trees should generally be
available for wood? of the same species which were found
I know that paper is one
in that forest. We should plant at least
of the important products
as many trees as we cut. Reforestation
we get from forests.
I wonder whether can take place naturally also. If the
there are any alternatives deforested area is left undisturbed, it re-
available for paper! establishes itself. In natural reforestation
there is no role of human beings. We
84 SCIENCE
have already made a tremendous meeting the basic needs of the people
damage to our forests. If we have to living in or near the forests.
retain our green wealth for generations, After some rest Madhavji asks
plantation of more trees is the only children to start moving back because
option. it is not advisable to stay back in the
Prof. Ahmad told them that in India jungle after sunset. On getting back,
we have the Forest (Conservation) Act. Prof. Ahmad and the children thank
This act is aimed at preservation and Madhavji for guiding them through this
conservation of natural forests and exciting experience.

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
BIODIVERSITY Wildlife sanctuary, national park and
BIOSPHERE RESERVE biosphere reserve are names given to the
areas meant for conservation and preservation
DEFORESTATION of forest and wild animals.
DESERTIFICATION Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms in a specific area.
ECOSYSTEM
Plants and animals of a particular area are
ENDANGERED known as the flora and fauna of that area.
SPECIES Endemic species are found only in a particular
area.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Endangered species are those which are facing
EXTINCT the danger of extinction.
Red Data Book contains a record of the
FAUNA
endangered species.
FLORA Migration is the phenomenon of movement of
MIGRATORY BIRDS a species from its own habitat to some other

habitat for a particular time period every year
NATIONAL PARK for a specific purpose like breeding.
RED DATA BOOK We should save, reuse and recycle paper to

save trees, energy and water.
REFORESTATION Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed
forests by planting new trees.
SANCTUARY
Exercises

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is
called .
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as .
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of changes.
2. Differentiate between the following:

(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
(c) Endangered and extinct species
(d) Flora and fauna
86 SCIENCE
3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following:
EXERCISES
(a) Wild animals
(b) Environment
(c) Villages (Rural areas)
(d) Cities (Urban areas)
(e) Earth
(f) The next generation
4. What will happen if:
(a) we go on cutting trees.
(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.
(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.
5. Answer in brief:
(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?
(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?
(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?
(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?
(e) What is Red Data Book?
(f) What do you understand by the term migration?
6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter,

trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects?
Discuss and prepare a brief report.
7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.
8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.
9. Find out the information about the national parks in your state. Identify
and show their location on the outline map of India.
10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.

11. Complete the word puzzle:
EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.
Extended Learning - Activities and Projects

1. Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this
academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
2. Promise yourself that this year you will gift at least 5 plants to your
friends and relatives on their achievements, or on occasions like
birthdays. Ask your friends to take proper care of these gifted plants
and encourage them to gift five plants to their friends on such
occasions. At the end of the year count the plants that have been
gifted through this chain.
88 SCIENCE
3. Is it justifiable to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.
4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with
photographs and sketches of flora and fauna.
5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you like the most and why?
6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.
Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.
7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian
elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.
Did You Know?

1. India has more than half of the world’s wild tigers, 65% of the Asian
elephants, 85% of the great one-horned rhinoceros and 100% of the
Asian lions.
2. India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. It

contains two of the 13 biodiversity hot spots of the world – North-East
India and the Western Ghats. These areas are very rich in biodiversity.
3. One of the most important factors that threatens wildlife today is habitat
destruction due to encroachment.
4. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened
or 2.9% of the worlds total number of threatened species. This includes
53 species of mammals, 69 of birds, 23 of reptiles and 3 species of
amphibians. India contains globally important population of some of
Asia’s rarest animals such as the Bengal fox, Marbled cat, Asiatic lion,
Indian elephant, Asiatic wild ass, Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Wild asiatic
water buffalo, etc.
For knowing more, you may contact:
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India

Environment, Forest and Wildlife Department
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex, Block – B,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110003,
Website : http:/envfor.nic.in
Project Tiger : www.kidsfortigers.org/raisingtigers/projecttiger.php
Biodiversity Hotspots : www.biodiversityhotspots.org

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER
P
aheli and Boojho were very excited You already know that air consists
to hear the news that Taj of a mixture of gases. By volume, about
Mahal in Agra is now one of the 78% of this mixture is nitrogen and
seven wonders of the world. But they about 21% is oxygen. Carbon dioxide,
were disappointed to hear that the argon, methane, ozone and water
beauty of this monument in white vapour are also present in very small
marble is being threatened by air quantities.
pollution in the area surrounding the
Taj. They were eager to know if Activity 18.1
something can be done to fight the air You may have covered your nose
and water pollution. while passing a brick kiln emitting
We are all aware that our smoke or started coughing while
environment is not what it used to be. walking on a busy road (Fig. 18.1).
Our elders talk about the blue sky, clean On the basis of your experience,
water and fresh air that was available compare the quality of air at the
in their times. Now the media regularly places given below:
reports on the falling quality of the
A park and a busy road.
environment. We ourselves feel the
A residential area and an
impact of the falling quality of air and
water in our lives. The number of people industrial area.
suffering from diseases of the respiratory A busy traffic intersection at
system, for example, is steadily rising. different times of the day e.g.
early morning, afternoon and
We dread to imagine a time when
clean air and water may no longer be evening.
available! You have learnt about the A village and a town.
importance of air and water in your
previous classes. In this chapter, we will
study about the harmful changes taking
place in our surroundings and their
effects on our lives.
18.1 Air Pollution

We can survive for some time without food,
but we cannot survive even for a few
minutes without air. This simple fact tells
Fig. 18.1 : A congested road in a city
us how important clean air is to us.
One of your observations in the Activity 18.2
above activity could be the differences
You might have read in the
in the amount of smoke in the
newspapers that respiratory
atmosphere. Do you know where the
problems amongst children
smoke could have come from? Addition
are rising day by day. Conduct a
of such substances to the atmosphere
survey of households in your
modifies it. When air is contaminated neighbourhood and among friends
by unwanted substances which have to find out how many children are
a harmful effect on both the living and suffering from respiratory problems.
the non-living, it is referred to as air
pollution. Many respiratory problems are
caused by air pollution. Let us now try
18.2 How does Air Get Polluted? to find out the substances or pollutants
which are present in the polluted air.
The substances which contaminate the
Have you noticed how rapidly the
air are called air pollutants. Sometimes,
number of vehicles is increasing in our
such substances may come from natural
cities?
sources like smoke and dust arising from
Vehicles produce high levels of
forest fires or volcanic eruptions. pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon
Pollutants are also added to the dioxide, nitrogen oxides and smoke (Fig.
atmosphere by human activities. The 18.3). Carbon monoxide is produced
sources of air pollutants are factories from incomplete burning of fuels such
(Fig. 18.2), power plants, automobile as petrol and diesel. It is a poisonous
exhausts and burning of firewood and gas. It reduces the oxygen-carrying
dung cakes. capacity of the blood.
Fig. 18.3 : Air pollution due to automobiles

Do you know?
If the vehicles registered in Delhi are
lined up one after the other, the total
length would be nearly equal to the
combined lengths of the two longest
Fig. 18.2 : Smoke from a factory rivers in the world, Nile and Amazon!
242 SCIENCE
Boojho remembers seeing a thick Activity 18.3
fog-like layer in the atmosphere,
especially during winters. This is smog Prepare a table using the pollutants
which is made up of smoke and fog. mentioned above. You may even add
Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen more data to the following Table.
which combine with other air pollutants Table 18.1
and fog to form smog. The smog causes Air Pollutants Sources Effects
breathing difficulties such as asthma,
cough and wheezing in children.
Many industries are also responsible
for causing air pollution. Petroleum
refineries are a major source of gaseous 18.3 Case Study : The Taj
pollutants like sulphur dioxide and Mahal
nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is Over the past 2 decades, India’s most
produced by combustion of fuels like famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal
coal in power plants. It can cause located in Agra (Fig. 18.4), has become
respiratory problems, including a matter of concern. Experts have
permanent lung damage. You have warned that pollutants in air are
already studied about the burning of discolouring its white marble. So, it is
fossil fuels in Chapter 5. not only living organisms that get
Other kinds of pollutants are affected by polluted air but non-living
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are things like buildings, monuments and
used in refrigerators, air conditioners statues also get affected.
and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the The industries located in and around
ozone layer of the atmosphere. Recall Agra like rubber processing, automobile,
that the ozone layer protects us from chemicals and especially the Mathura oil
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Have refinery, have been responsible for
you heard of the ozone hole? Try to find producing pollutants like sulphur
out about it. Thankfully, less harmful dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
chemicals are now being used in place gases react with the water vapour present
of CFCs. in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
In addition to the above mentioned and nitric acid. The acids drop down with
gases, automobiles which burn diesel rain, making the rain acidic. This is
and petrol, also produce tiny particles called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the
which remain suspended in air for long marble of the monument. The
periods (Fig. 18.3). They reduce phenomenon is also called “Marble
visibility. When inhaled, they cause cancer”. Suspended particulate matter,
diseases. Such particles are also such as the soot particles emitted by
produced during industrial processes Mathura oil refinery, has contributed
like steel making and mining. Power towards yellowing of the marble.
plants give out tiny ash particles which The Supreme Court has taken
also pollute the atmosphere. several steps to save the Taj. It has
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 243

Fig. 18.4 : Taj Mahal
ordered the industries to switch to and a part is reflected back into space.
cleaner fuels like CNG (Compressed A part of the reflected radiation is
Natural Gas) and LPG (Liquefied trapped by the atmosphere. The trapped
Petroleum Gas). Moreover, the radiations further warm the earth. If you
automobiles should switch over to have seen a greenhouse in a nursery or
unleaded petrol in the Taj zone. elsewhere, recall that the sun’s heat is
Discuss with your elders and see allowed to get in but is not allowed to
what they have to say about the go out. The trapped heat warms the
condition of the Taj, 20 or 30 years ago! green house. The trapping of radiations
Try to procure a picture of the Taj Mahal by the earth’s atmosphere is similar.
for your scrap book. That is why it is called the greenhouse
effect. Without this process, life would
not have been possible on the earth. But
now it threatens life. CO2 is one of the
I am reminded of the gases responsible for this effect.
chapter on crops. I You know that CO 2 is one of the
wonder whether acid rain components of air. You have also studied
affects the soil and
plants also.
18.4 Greenhouse Effect

But how does CO2 content
You know that the sun’s rays warm the
rise in the atmosphere and
earth’s surface. A part of the radiation become excessive?
that falls on the earth is absorbed by it
244 SCIENCE
the role of carbon dioxide in plants. But towards this effect. Like CO2, they are
if there is excess of CO2 in the air, it also called greenhouse gases.
acts as a pollutant. Global warming has become a major
Can you help Paheli find out the concern for governments worldwide.
answer to her question? Many countries have reached an
On the one hand, CO2 is continuously agreement to reduce the emission of
being released because of human greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol
activities. On the other hand, area under is one such agreement.
forests is decreasing. Plants utilise CO2 Boojho is surprised to hear that an
from the atmosphere for photosynthesis, increase in the earth’s temperature by
thereby decreasing the amount of CO2 even as little as 0.5 ºC can have such a
in the air. Deforestation leads to an serious effect! Paheli tells him that she
increase in the amount of CO2 in the air had read in the newspapers recently that
because the number of trees which the Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas
consume CO 2 is reduced. Human has started melting because of global
activities, thus, contribute to the warming.
accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere.
CO2 traps heat and does not allow it to 18.5 What can be Done?
escape into space. As a result, the average
What can we do to reduce air
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere
pollution?
is gradually increasing. This is called
There are many success stories in our
global warming.
fight against air pollution. For example,
Other gases like methane, nitrous
a few years ago, Delhi was one of the
oxide and water vapour also contribute
most polluted cities in the world. It was
being choked by fumes released from
Global Warming automobiles running on diesel and
A Serious Threat! petrol. A decision was taken to switch
Global warming can cause sea levels to fuels like CNG (Fig. 18.5) and
to rise dramatically. In many places,
coastal areas have already been
flooded. Global warming could result
in wide ranging effects on rainfall
patterns, agriculture, forests, plants
and animals. Majority of people living
in regions which are threatened by
global warming are in Asia. A recent
climate change report gives us only
a limited time to keep the greenhouse
gases at the present level. Otherwise,
the temperature may rise by more
than 2 degrees Celsius by the end of
the century, a level considered
dangerous.
Fig. 18.5 : A public transport bus powered by CNG
unleaded petrol. These measures have fuels for our energy requirements. These
resulted in cleaner air for the city. You could be solar energy, hydropower and
might know of some other examples wind energy.
from your area regarding reduction of
air pollution. Share these with your Activity 18.4
friends. You have various options of
commuting to your school such as
Do you know about the “Say no to
walking, going by bicycle, travelling
crackers” campaign which was
by bus or other public transport,
organised by children from many
schools? This made a big difference using a car individually, travelling
to the air pollution levels around by car pool. Discuss in your class
Diwali. the impact of each of these options
on the quality of air.
The quality of air at various locations
is monitored regularly by government Small contributions on our part can
and other agencies. We can use this data make a huge difference in the state of
to generate awareness about air the environment. We can plant trees and
pollution among friends and nurture the ones already present in the
neighbours. neighbourhood. Do you know about Van
There is a need to switch over to Mahotsav, when lakhs of trees are
alternative fuels instead of the fossil planted in July every year (Fig. 18.6)?
Fig. 18.6 : Children planting saplings

246 SCIENCE
Boojho and Paheli once happened to Activity 18.5
go to an area where some people were
burning dry leaves. They started Try to collect samples of water from
coughing because the entire area was full a tap, pond, river, well and lake.
Pour each into separate glass
of smoke. Paheli thought it would be a
containers. Compare these for
better option to put them in a compost
smell, acidity and colour. Complete
pit rather than burning. What do you
the following Table.
think?
Table 18.2
18.6 Water Pollution Smell Acidity Colour
In Class VII you learnt that water is a Tap Water
precious resource. Think and list the
Pond Water
various activities in which we need
water. We saw that water is becoming River Water
scarce due to increase in population, Well Water
industries and agricultural activities.
You have also studied how water Lake Water
becomes “dirty” after we use it for
washing clothes, bathing, etc. This 18.7 How does Water Get
means that we are adding some
materials to the water, which spoil its
Polluted?
quality and change its smell and colour. Case Study
Whenever harmful substances such Ganga is one of the most famous rivers
as sewage, toxic chemicals, silt, etc., get of India (Fig. 18.7). It sustains most of
mixed with water, the water becomes the northern, central and eastern
polluted. The substances that pollute Indian population. Millions of people
water are called water pollutants. depend on it for their daily needs and
Fig. 18.7 : Course of the river Ganga

livelihood. However, recently a study by and defecating in the river. They also
the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) throw garbage, flowers, idols of gods
found that Ganga is one of the ten most and goddesses and non-biodegradable
endangered rivers in the world. The polythene bags into the river.
pollution levels have been rising for At Kanpur the amount of water is
many years. We have reached this stage comparatively small and the flow of the
because the towns and cities, through river is very slow. In addition, Kanpur
which the river flows, throw large has more than 5000 industries. These
quantities of garbage, untreated sewage, include fertiliser, detergent, leather and
dead bodies, and many other harmful paint industries. These industrial units
things, directly into the river. In fact the discharge toxic chemical wastes into the
river is “dead” at many places where river.
the pollution levels are so high that Based on the above information
aquatic life cannot survive. think of the answers to the following
An ambitious plan to save the river, questions :
called the Ganga Action Plan was What are the factors responsible for
launched in 1985. It aimed to reduce pollution of the river ?
the pollution levels in the river. However,
What steps can be taken to restore
the increasing population and
the river Ganga to its past glory ?
industrialisation have already damaged
How would the disposal of garbage,
this mighty river beyond repair.
etc., affect the living organisms in the
Let us take a specific example to
river ?
understand the situation. The Ganga
at Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), has Many industries discharge harmful
one of the most polluted stretches of chemicals into rivers and streams,
the river (Fig. 18.8). Kanpur is one of causing the pollution of water
the most populated towns in U.P. People (Fig. 18.9). Examples are oil refineries,
can be seen bathing, washing clothes paper factories, textile and sugar mills
Fig. 18.8 : A polluted stretch of the river Fig. 18.9 : Industrial waste discharged into a
Ganga river
248 SCIENCE
and chemical factories. These industries food wastes, detergents, microor -
cause chemical contamination of water. ganisms, etc. Can ground water get
The chemicals released include arsenic, polluted by sewage? How? Water
lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity contaminated with sewage may contain
in plants and animals. There are bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
regulations to prevent this. Industries which cause diseases like cholera,
are supposed to treat the waste typhoid and jaundice.
produced before discharging it into The bacteria present in the faeces
waters, but quite often the rules are not of mammals are indicators of the
followed. The soil is also affected by quality of water. If water has these
impure water, causing changes in bacteria, it means that it has been
acidity, growth of worms, etc. contaminated by fecal matter. If such
We have learnt in Chapter 1 the water is used by us, it can cause various
importance of pesticides and weedicides infections.
for the protection of crops. However, all
these chemicals dissolve in water and Do you know?
are washed into water bodies from the Hot water can also be a pollutant !
fields. They also seep into the ground This is usually water from power
to pollute ground water. plants and industries. It is released
Have you seen ponds which look into the rivers. It raises the
green from a distance because they have temperature of the waterbody,
a lot of algae growing in them? This is adversely affecting the animals and
caused by excessive quantities of plants living in it.
chemicals which get washed from the
fields. These act as nutrients for algae 18.8 What is Potable Water
to flourish. Once these algae die, they and How is Water
serve as food for decomposers like Purified ?
bacteria. A lot of oxygen in the water
body gets used up. This results in a
decrease in the oxygen level which may Activity 18.7
kill aquatic organisms.
Let us construct a water filter with
simple, everyday materials.
Recall Activity 18.6
Take a plastic bottle and cut it
You had investigated the sewage into 2 halves at the centre. Use the
disposal system of your locality in upper half as a funnel by putting it
Class VII. upside down in the lower half. Make
Do you remember how the layers in it with paper napkin or a
sewage was collected from your fine cloth followed by, cotton, sand
home and where it went thereafter. and then gravel. Now pour dirty
water through the filter and observe
Sometimes untreated sewage is
thrown directly into rivers. It contains the filtered water.

water. Boiling kills the germs present
Discuss the following questions
in the water.
amongst yourselves and with your
Chlorination is a commonly used
teacher:
chemical method for purifying water.
Why do we need to filter water
It is done by adding chlorine tablets
before drinking ?
or bleaching powder to the water. We
Where do you get your drinking
must be cautious. We should not
water from?
use more chlorine tablets than
What will happen if we drink
specified.
polluted water?
18.9 What can be Done?
Boojho is very upset. He tells Paheli
that he drank water which looked clear Activity 18.8
and was without any smell, but still he Investigate the level of awareness
fell sick ! about water pollution in your area.
Paheli explains that water which Collect data on the sources of
looks clean may still have disease- drinking water and the methods of
carrying microorganisms and dissolved sewage disposal.
impurities. So, it is essential to purify What are the common water-borne
water before drinking, for example, by diseases in the community? You can
boiling. consult your local doctor/health
Water which is suitable for drinking worker for this.
is called potable water. You have seen Which are the governmental and
how various physical and chemical non-governmental organisations
processes in the sewage treatment working in this field? What are the
plants help to clean water before measures being taken by them for
discharging it into water bodies. generating awareness?
Similarly, municipal bodies treat the
water before supplying it to households.
Laws for industrial units should be
Do you know? strictly implemented so that polluted
water is not disposed off directly into
25% of the world’s population is
without safe drinking water ! rivers and lakes. Water treatment plants
should be installed in all industrial
Let us see how water can be made areas (Fig. 18.10). At our individual
safe for drinking: levels we should consciously save water
You have already seen how water is and not waste it. Reduce, reuse and
filtered. This is a physical method of recycle should be our mantra !
removing impurities. A popular Think of your daily routine – How
household filter is a candle type can you save water?
filter. We can think of creative ideas like
Many households use boiling as a reusing water used for washing and for
method for obtaining safe drinking other household tasks. For example,
250 SCIENCE
Fig. 18.10 : Water treatment plant
water used for washing vegetables may of our daily lives. Unless we all realise
be used to water plants in the garden. our responsibility and start using
Pollution is no longer a distant environment-friendly processes, the very
phenomenon. It is affecting the quality survival of our planet is in danger.
Do you know?
While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several litres of
water. A tap that drips once every second wastes a few thousand litres of water
every year. Think about it !

KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ACID RAIN Air pollution is the contamination of air by
impurities which may have a harmful impact
AIR POLLUTION
on the living organisms and the non-living
CHEMICAL components.
CONTAMINATION Pollutants are the substances which
contaminate air and water.
GLOBAL WARMING
Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
GREENHOUSE dioxide, methane and sulphur dioxide are the
EFFECT major pollutants of air.
Increasing levels of greenhouse gases like CO2
POLLUTANTS
are leading to global warming.
POTABLE WATER Water pollution is the contamination of water
by substances harmful to life.
WATER POLLUTION
Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial
waste are some of the major contaminants of
water.
Water which is purified and fit for drinking is
known as potable water.
Water is a precious natural resource. We must
learn to conserve it.
Exercises
1. What are the different ways in which water gets contaminated ?
2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air pollution?

3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.
4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town.
Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure the supply
of clean water to all its residents.
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.
6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid rain affect us?
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
(a) Carbon dioxide
(b) Sulphur dioxide

252 SCIENCE
(c) Methane
EXERCISES (d Nitrogen
8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words.

9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming that you have to make in your
class.
10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.

11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect the survival
of aquatic organisms?
1. In some cities, a pollution check has been made compulsory for

vehicles. Visit a petrol pump in order to learn about the process of
conducting a pollution check. You may systematically record your
findings in the following areas:
Average number of vehicles checked per month.
Time taken to check each vehicle.

Pollutants checked for.
The process of testing.
Permissible levels of emission of various gases.

Measures taken if the emitted gases are above the permissible
limits.
How frequently is a pollution check required ?

2. Conduct a survey in your school to investigate various environment
related activities that have been undertaken. The class can divide
itself into two groups, with each group looking at a different area.
For example, one group can find out whether there is an
environment club in the school. What are its objectives ? What is
its calendar of events ? How can you become a member ?
If your school does not have such a club, you can even think of
starting one along with a few of your friends.
3. Organise a field visit to a river in or around your town with the help
of your teachers.

Observations followed by discussion could focus on :
The history of the river.
Cultural traditions.
Role of the river in meeting the town’s water needs.
Pollution concerns.
Sources of pollution.
Effects of pollution on the people living by the riverside as well
as those living far away.
4. Find out with the help of your teachers and the internet (if possible),
whether there are any international agreements to control global
warming. Which are the gases covered under these agreements?
www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/air.htm
www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/water/pollu.htm
www.cpcb.nic.in/citizen’s%Charter/default_citizen’s.html
coe.mse.ac.in/kidswater.asp
coe.mse.ac.in/kidsair.asp
254 SCIENCE
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFE
5
H
ave you observed the type of trees, RELIEF
bushes, grasses and birds in the fields
and parks in and around your school? Land
Are they similar or there are variations? India Land affects the natural vegetation directly
being a vast country you can imagine the and indirectly. Do you expect the same type
types of bio-forms available through out the of vegetation in mountainous, plateau and
country. plain areas or in dry and wet regions? The
Our country India is one of the twelve nature of land influences the type of
mega bio-diversity countries of the world. vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted
With about 47,000 plant species India to agriculture. The undulating and rough
occupies tenth place in the world and fourth terrains are areas where grassland and
in Asia in plant diversity. There are about woodlands develop and give shelter to a
15,000 flowering plants in India which variety of wild life.
account for 6 per cent in the world’s total
number of flowering plants. The country has Soil
many non-flowering plants such as ferns,
algae and fungi. India also has 89,000 species The soils also vary over space. Different types
of animals as well as a rich variety of fish in of soils provide basis for different types of
its fresh and marine waters. vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert
Natural vegetation refers to a plant support cactus and thorny bushes while wet,
community which has grown naturally without marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and
human aid and has been left undisturbed by deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some
humans for a long time. This is termed as a depth of soil have conical trees.
virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and
fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not CLIMATE
natural vegetation.
Temperature
The virgin vegetation, which
are purely Indian are known as endemic or The character and extent of vegetation are
indigenous species but those which have come mainly determined by temperature along with
from outside India are termed as exotic plants. humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On
the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the
The term flora is used to denote plants of Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the
a particular region or period. Similarly, the fall in the temperature affects the types of
species of animals are referred to as fauna. This vegetation and its growth, and changes it from
huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine
due to the following factors. vegetation.
Table 5.1 : Temperature Characteristics of the Vegetation Zones
Vegetation Zones Mean annual Mean Temp. Remarks

Average Temp. inJan. in
(in degree C) degrees C
Tropical Above 24°C Above 18° No Frost

Sub-tropical 17°C to 24°C 10°C to 18°C Frost is rare
Temperate 7°C to 17° C -1°C to (-10 ) °C Frost some snow
Alpine Below 7°C Below–1°C Snow
Source : Environment Atlas of India, June 2001, Central Pollution Control Board Delhi
Photoperiod (Sunlight ) development of industries and mining,

urbanisation and over-grazing of pastures.
The variation in duration of sunlight at different
places is due to differences in latitude, altitude, Activity
season and duration of the day. Due to longer Celebrate Van Mahotsav in your school/locality
duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in and plant few spalings and notice their growth
summer.
Why are the southern slopes in Himalayan The vegetation cover of India in large parts
region covered with thick vegetation cover as compared
to northern slopes of the same hills?
is no more natural in the real sense. Except in
some inaccessible regions like the Himalayas,
the hilly region of central India and the
Precipitation marusthali, the vegetation of most of the areas
has been modified at some places, or replaced
In India almost the entire rainfall is brought in
or degraded by human occupancy.
by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to
September) and retreating northeast monsoons. Activity
Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation
Study the bar graph (Figure 5.1) and
as compared to other areas of less rainfall. answer the following questions.
(i) Name the state having maximum area under
Why have the western stopes of the
forest cover.
western ghats covered with thick forests and not
(ii) Name the union territory having minimum
the eastern slopes?
area under forest cover and why?
Have you ever thought as to why forests
are important for human beings? Forests are
renewable resources and play a major role in In 2001, the actual forest
cover in India was only 20.55 per cent.
enhancing the quality of environment. They
modify local climate, control soil erosion,
regulate stream flow, support a variety of ECOSYSTEM
industries, provide livelihood for many
Plants occur in distinct groups of communities
communities and offer panoramic or scenic
in areas having similar climatic conditions. The
view for recreation. It controls wind force and
nature of the plants in an area, to a large extent,
temperature and causes rainfall. It provides
determines the animal life in that area. When
humus to the soil and shelter to the wild life. the vegetation is altered, the animal life also
India’s natural vegetation has undergone changes. All the plants and animals in an area
many changes due to several factors such as are interdependent and interrelated to each
the growing demand for cultivated land, other in their physical environment, thus,

100
AREA IN PERCENT 80
60
40
20
L
AL
A
KA
LA
AYA
RA
ND
ND
AB
DS
IR
UR
EP
I
I
H
SH
SH
RH
AN
DIU
M
AM
KIM
AT
RY
A
EL
LH
HA
AN
TR
ISS
GO
ES
AD
AR
SA
HM
NG
RA
ATA
IPU
AR
NJ
WE
AN
HA
LA
DE
DE
NIP
TH
ER
GA
AV
OR
DE
AL
NC
SIK
RY
SH
N&
AD
OR
ILN
DIG
AS
KE
BE
PU
AS
GA
J
JAS
SL
RK
RH
RA
RA
ICH
TR
TIS
GH
AD
RN
MIZ
MA
RA
GU
HA
RA
PR
AM
MA
DK
AN
NI
NA
ST
HA
LP
LP
GA
SH
HA
KA
ME
TTA
ND
RA
HA
RA
DA
CH
WE
A&
AN
&J
HA
HA
NA
KH
CH
PO
MA
&U
DH
AC
AC
LA
MU
AR
A&
H&
AN
SH
UN
HIM
BIH
JAM
DR
ES
DE
AR
DA
AD
RA
PR
RP
YA
TA
DH
UT
MA
ACTUAL FOREST AREA

Source : Environment Atlas of India, June 2001, Central Pollution Control Board Delhi Figure 5.1 Area Under Forest Cover
forming an ecosystem. Human beings are areas of the Western Ghats and the island
also an integral part of the ecosystem. How groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar,
do the human beings influence the ecology upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast.
of a region? They utilise the vegetation and
wild life. The greed of human beings leads to
over utilisation of these resources. They cut
the trees and kill the animals creating
ecological imbalance. As a result some of the
plants and animals have reached the verge
of extinction.
Do you know that a very large ecosystem
on land having distinct types of vegetation and
animal life is called a biome. The biomes are
identified on the basis of plants.
TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may
be identified in our country (Figure 5.3).
(i) Tropical Rain Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests
Tropical Rain Forests

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall Figure 5.2 : Tropical Rain Forest
44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 5.3 : Natural Vegetation
Study the given map for the forest cover and try to find the reasons as to why certain states have more area under
forest as compared to others?

They are at their best in areas having more than
200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The
trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even
above. Since the region is warm and wet
throughout the year, it has a luxuriant
vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and
creepers giving it a multilayered structure. There
is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves.
As such, these forests appear green all the year
round.
Some of the commercially important trees
of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood,
rubber and cinchona. Figure 5.4 : Tropical Deciduous Forest
The common animals found in these forests
are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The In these forests, the common animals found
one horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge
of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises
animals plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions are also found here.
and snails are also found in these jungles.
The Thorn Forests and Scrubs
Tropical Deciduous Forests
In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall,
These are the most widespread forests of India. the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees
They are also called the monsoon forests and and bushes. This type of vegetation is found
spread over the region receiving rainfall in the north-western part of the country
between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this including semi-arid areas of Gujarat,
forest-type shed their leaves for about six to Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
eight weeks in dry summer. Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Acacias, palms,
On the basis of the availability of water, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant
these forests are further divided into moist and species. Trees are scattered and have long roots
dry deciduous. The former is found in areas penetrating deep into the soil in order to get
receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm. moisture. The stems are succulent to conserve
These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to
eastern part of the country – northeastern minimize evaporation. These forests give way
states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas.
Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and
on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
Teak is the most dominant species of this forest.
Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair,
kusum, arjun, mulberry are other commercially
important species.
The dry deciduous forests are found in areas
having rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm.
These forests are found in the rainier parts of
the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh. There are open stretches
in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem grow. A large
part of this region has been cleared for
cultivation and some parts are used for grazing. Figure 5.5 : Thorn Forests and Scrubs
In these forests, the common animals are grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars
rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild and the Bakarwals. At higher altitudes,
ass, horses and camels. mosses and lichens form part of tundra
vegetation.
Montane Forests The common animals found in these forests
are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
the corresponding change in natural
red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
vegetation. As such, there is a succession of
natural vegetation belts in the same order as
Mangrove Forests
we see from the tropical to the tundra region.
The wet temperate type of forests are found The mangrove tidal forests are found in the
between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and
Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oaks and silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense
chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and mangroves are the common varieties with roots
3000 metres, temperate forests containing
coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir,
spruce and cedar, are found. These forests
cover mostly the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, places having high altitude in
southern and north-east India. At higher
elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
At high altitudes, generally more than 3,600
metres above sea-level, temperate forests and
grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the
common trees of these forests. However, they
get progressively stunted as they approach
the snow-line. Ultimately through shrubs and
scrubs, they merge into the Alpine
grasslands. These are used extensively for
Figure 5.7 : Mangrove Forests
of the plants submerged under water. The

deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are
covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga-
Brahamaputra delta, sundari trees are
found, which provide durable hard timber.
Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in
some parts of the delta.
Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal
in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials
and snakes are also found in these forests.
Let us discuss : What will happen if plants and

animals disappear from the earth’s surface? can
the human beings survive under such a situation?
Why is bio-diversity necessary and why should it
be conserved?
Figure 5.6 : Montane Forests

MEDICINAL PLANTS
India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants have been described in Ayurveda
and atleast 500 are in regular use. The World Conservation Union’s Red list has named 352 medicinal plants of
which 52 are critically threatened and 49 endangered. The commonly used plants in India are:
Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.
Jamun : The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar which is carminative and diuretic, and
has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for controlling diabetes.
Arjun : The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate blood pressure.
Babool : Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
Neem : Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
Tulsi Plant : Is used to cure cough and cold.
Kachnar : Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for digestive problems.
Identify more medicinal plants in your area. Which plants are used as medicines by local
people to cure some diseases?
Source : Medicinal Plants by Dr. S.K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of Inida
different species of deer are some

other animals found in India. It also
has several species of monkeys.
Wildlife Protection
Act, was implemented in 1972 in India.
India is the only country in the

world that has both tigers and lions.
Activity The natural habitat of the Indian lion
Can you identify the type of forest shown in this is the Gir forest in Gujarat. Tigers are
picture? Identify some trees in it. What type of
found in the forests of Madhya Pradesh,
similarity/dissimilarity you notice in this type
of vegetation from the one found in your region?
the Sundarbans of West Bengal and the
Himalayan region. Leopards too are
members of the cat family. They are
WILD LIFE
important among animals of prey.
Like its flora, India is also rich in its fauna. It
has more than 89,000 of animal species. The
country has more than 1200 species of birds. Do you know
They constitute 13% of the world’s total. There The Gir Forest is the
are 2500 species of fish, which account for last remaining habitat
nearly 12% of the world’s stock. It also shares of the Asiatic lion.
between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s
amphibians, reptiles and mammals. The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of
The elephants are the most majestic animals, which survive in extreme cold.
animals among the mammals. They are found Ladhak’s freezing high altitudes are a home to
in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing
Kerala. One-horned rhinoceroses are the other around one tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the
animals, which live in swampy and marshy bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang
lands of Assam and West Bengal. Arid areas (Tibetan wild ass). Furhtermore, the ibex, bear,
of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert snow-leopard and very rare red panda are
are the habitat for wild ass and camels found in certain pockets.
respectively. Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas,
chousingha (four horned antelope), gazel and turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found. The
Figure 5.8 : Wildlife Reserves

latter is the only representative of a variety of has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant
crocodile, found in the world today. species are endangered and 20 species are
Bird life in India is colourful. Peacocks, extinct. Quite a few animal species are also
peasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes and endangered and some have become extinct.
pigeons are some of the birds inhabiting the The main causes for this major threat to
forests and wetlands of the country. nature are hunting by greedy hunters for
We have selected our crops from a bio- commercial purposes. Pollution due to
diverse environment i.e. from the reserve of chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits,
edible plants. We also experimented and introduction of alien species and reckless
selected many medicinal plants. The animals cutting of the forests to bring land under
were selected from large stock provided by cultivation and inhabitation, are also
nature as milch animal. They also provided responsible for the imbalance.
us draught power, transportation, meat, To protect the flora and fauna of the
eggs. The fish provide nutritive food. Many county, the government has taken many steps.
insects help in pollination of crops and fruit (i) Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set
trees and exert biological control on such up in the country to protect flora and fauna.
insects, which are harmful. Every species has Four out of these, the Sunderbans in the
a role to play in the ecosystem. Hence, West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttaranchal,
conservation is essential. As has been the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the
mentioned earlier due to excessive Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
exploitation of the plants and animal Nadu) have been included in the world
resources by human beings, the ecosystem network of Biosphese reserves.
Activity
(i) Find out from the above newspaper cuttings, the main concern highlighted in the given news items.
(ii) Collect more information about various endangered species from newspapers and magazines.
(iii) Find out various steps taken by the Indian government to protect them.
(iv) Discribe how you can contribute to the protection of endangered animals and birds?
Migratory Birds
Some of the wetlands of India are popular
with migratory birds. During winter,
birds, such as Siberian Crane come in
large numbers. One such place
favourable with birds is the Rann of
Kachchh. At a place where the desert
merges with the sea, flamingo with their
brilliant, pink plumage, come in
thousands to build nest mounds from the
salty mud and raise their young ones. It
is one among many extraordinary sights
in the country. Is it not a rich natural
heritage of ours?
(iii) Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great

Fourteen Bio-reserves
Indian Bustard and many other eco-
• Sunderbans • Simlipal developmental projects have been
• Gulf of Mannar • Dihang-Dibang introduced.
• The Nilgiris • Dibru Saikhowa (iv) 89 National Parks, 49 Wildlife sanctuaries
• Nanda Devi • Agasthyamalai and Zoological gardens are set up to take
• Nokrek • Kanchenjunga care of Natural heritage.
• Great Nicobar • Pachmari
• Manas • Achanakmar-Amarkantak All of us must realise the importance of the
natural ecosystem for our own survival. It
(ii) Financial and technical assistance is is possible if indiscriminate destruction of
provided to many Botanical Gardens by the natural environment is put to an
government since 1992. immediate end.
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
(i) To which one of the following types of vegetation does rubber belong to?
(a) Tundra (c) Himalayan
(b) Tidal (d) Tropical Evergreen
(ii) Cinchona trees are found in the areas of rainfall more than
(a) 100 cm (c) 70 cm
(b) 50 cm (d) less than 50 cm
(iii) In which of the following state is the Simlipal bio-reserve located?
(a) Punjab (b) Delhi
(c) Orissa (d) West Bengal
(iv) Which one of the following bio-reserves of India is not included in the world
network of bioreserve?
(a) Manas (c) Gulf of Mannar
(b) Dihang-Dibang (d) Nanda devi

2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Define an ecosystem.
(ii) What factors are responsible for the distribution of plants and animals in
India?
(iii) What is a bio-reserve? Give two examples.
(iv) Name two animals having habitat in tropical and montane type of vegetation.
3. Distinguish between
(i) Flora and Fauna
(ii) Tropical Evergreen and Deciduous forests
4. Name different types of Vegetation found in India and describe the vegetation of
high altitudes.
5. Quite a few species of plants and animals are endangered in India. Why?
6. Why has India a rich heritage of flora and fauna?
Map Skills
On an outline map of India, label the following.

(i) Areas of Evergreen Forests
(ii) Areas of Dry Deciduous Forests
(iii) Two national parks each in Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western parts
of the Country
Project/Activity
(i) Find some trees in your neighbourhood having medicinal values.

(ii) Find ten occupations getting raw material from forests and wild life.
(iii) Write a poem or paragraph showing the importance of wild life.
(iv) Write the script of a street play giving the importance of tree plantation and
try to enact it in your locality.
(v) Plant a tree either on your birthday or one of your family member’s birthday.
Note the growth of the tree and notice in which season it grows faster.
C hapter 14
NATURAL RESOURCES
Our planet, Earth is the only one on which dioxide constitutes up to 95-97% of the
life, as we know it, exists. Life on Earth is atmosphere on Venus and Mars.
dependent on many factors. Most life-forms Eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic
we know need an ambient temperature, cells, discussed in Chapter 5, need oxygen to
water, and food. The resources available on break down glucose molecules and get energy
the Earth and the energy from the Sun are for their activities. This results in the
necessary to meet the basic requirements of production of carbon dioxide. Another process
all life-forms on the Earth. which results in the consumption of oxygen
What are these resources on the Earth? and the concomitant production of carbon
dioxide is combustion. This includes not just
These are the land, the water and the air.
human activities, which burn fuels to get
The outer crust of the Earth is called the
energy, but also forest fires.
lithosphere. Water covers 75% of the Earth’s
Despite this, the percentage of carbon
surface. It is also found underground. These
dioxide in our atmosphere is a mere fraction
comprise the hydrosphere. The air that covers
the whole of the Earth like a blanket, is called of a percent because carbon dioxide is ‘fixed’
the atmosphere. Living things are found in two ways: (i) Green plants convert carbon
where these three exist. This life-supporting dioxide into glucose in the presence of
zone of the Earth where the atmosphere, the Sunlight and (ii) many marine animals use
hydrosphere and the lithosphere interact and carbonates dissolved in sea-water to make
make life possible, is known as the biosphere. their shells.
Living things constitute the biotic
component of the biosphere. The air, the 14.1.1 THE ROLE OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN
water and the soil form the non-living or
CLIMATE CONTROL
abiotic component of the biosphere. Let us
study these abiotic components in detail in We have talked of the atmosphere covering
order to understand their role in sustaining the Earth, like a blanket. We know that air is
life on Earth. a bad conductor of heat. The atmosphere
keeps the average temperature of the Earth
14.1 The Breath of Life: Air fairly steady during the day and even during
the course of the whole year. The atmosphere
We have already talked about the composition
prevents the sudden increase in temperature
of air in the first chapter. It is a mixture of
during the daylight hours. And during the
many gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water vapour. It is interesting to night, it slows down the escape of heat into
note that even the composition of air is the outer space. Think of the moon, which is
result of life on Earth. In planets such as about the same distance from the Sun that
Venus and Mars, where no life is known to the Earth is. Despite that, on the surface of
exist, the major component of the atmosphere the moon, with no atmosphere, the
is found to be carbon dioxide. In fact, carbon temperature ranges from –190º C to 110º C.
Activity _____________ 14.1 the heating of water bodies and the activities
of living organisms. The atmosphere can be
• Measure the temperature of the heated from below by the radiation that is
following : reflected back or re-radiated by the land or
Take (i) a beaker full of water, (ii) a water bodies. On being heated, convection
beaker full of soil/sand and (iii) a closed currents are set up in the air. In order to gain
bottle containing a thermometer. Keep
some understanding of the nature of
them in bright Sunlight for three hours.
Now measure the temperature of all 3 convection currents, let us perform the
vessels. Also, take the temperature following activity:
reading in shade at the same time.
Activity _____________ 14.2
Now answer • Place a candle in a beaker or wide-
mouthed bottle and light it. Light an
1. Is the temperature reading more in incense stick and take it to the mouth
activity (i) or (ii)? of the above bottle (Figure 14.1).
2. Based on the above finding, which • Which way does the smoke flow when
would become hot faster – the land or the incense stick is kept near the edge
of the mouth?
the sea?
• Which way does the smoke flow when
3. Is the thermometer reading of the the incense stick is kept a little above
temperature of air (in shade) the same the candle?
as the temperature of sand or water? • Which way does the smoke flow when
What do you think is the reason for the incense stick is kept in other
this? And why does the temperature regions?
have to be measured in the shade?
4. Is the temperature of air in the closed
glass vessel/bottle the same as the
temperature taken in open air? (i) What
do you think is the reason for this?
(ii) Do we ever come across this
phenomenon in daily life?
As we have seen above, sand and water
do not heat up at the same rate. What do you
think will be their rates of cooling? Can we
think of an experiment to test the prediction?
14.1.2 THE MOVEMENT OF AIR: WINDS

We have all felt the relief brought by cool Fig. 14.1: Air currents being caused by the uneven
evening breezes after a hot day. And heating of air.
sometimes, we are lucky enough to get rains
after some days of really hot weather. What The patterns revealed by the smoke show
causes the movement of air, and what decides us the directions in which hot and cold air
whether this movement will be in the form of move. In a similar manner, when air is heated
a gentle breeze, a strong wind or a terrible by radiation from the heated land or water, it
storm? What brings us the welcome rains? rises. But since land gets heated faster than
All these phenomena are the result of water, the air over land would also be heated
changes that take place in our atmosphere faster than the air over water bodies.
due to the heating of air and the formation of So, if we look at the situation in coastal
water vapour. Water vapour is formed due to regions during the day, the air above the land
190 SCIENCE
gets heated faster and starts rising. As this enter the bottle. Quickly close the bottle
air rises, a region of low pressure is created once more. Make sure that the cap is
and air over the sea moves into this area of fitting tightly. Press the bottle hard
between your hands and crush it as
low pressure. The movement of air from one
much as possible. Wait for a few
region to the other creates winds. During the seconds and release the bottle. Again
day, the direction of the wind would be from press the bottle as hard as you can.
the sea to the land.
At night, both land and sea start to cool.
Since water cools down slower than the land,
Now answer
the air above water would be warmer than 1. When did you observe that the air
the air above land. inside seemed to become ‘foggy’?
On the basis of the above discussion, what 2. When does this fog disappear?
can you say about:
3. When is the pressure inside the bottle
1. the appearance of areas of low and
higher?
high pressure in coastal areas at night?
2. the direction in which air would flow 4. Is the ‘fog’ observed when the pressure
at night in coastal areas? in the bottle is high or when it is low?
Similarly, all the movements of air 5. What is the need for smoke particles
resulting in diverse atmospheric phenomena inside the bottle for this experiment?
are caused by the uneven heating of the 6. What might happen if you do the
atmosphere in different regions of the Earth. experiment without the smoke from the
But various other factors also influence these incense stick? Now try it and check if
winds – the rotation of the Earth and the the prediction was correct. What might
presence of mountain ranges in the paths of be happening in the above experiment
the wind are a couple of these factors. We in the absence of smoke particles?
will not go into these factors in detail in this
The above experiment replicates, on a very
chapter, but think about this: how do the
small scale, what happens when air with a
presence of the Himalayas change the flow of
very high content of water vapour goes from
a wind blowing from Allahabad towards the
a region of high pressure to a region of low
north?
pressure or vice versa.
When water bodies are heated during the
14.1.3 RAIN day, a large amount of water evaporates and
Let us go back now to the question of how goes into the air. Some amount of water
clouds are formed and bring us rain. We could vapour also get into the atmosphere because
start by doing a simple experiment which of various biological activities. This air also
demonstrates some of the factors influencing gets heated. The hot air rises up carrying the
these climatic changes. water vapour with it. As the air rises, it
expands and cools. This cooling causes the
Activity _____________ 14.3 water vapour in the air to condense in the
form of tiny droplets. This condensation of
• Take an empty bottle of the sort in water is facilitated if some particles could act
which bottled water is sold. Pour about as the ‘nucleus’ for these drops to form
5-10 mL of water into it and close the around. Normally dust and other suspended
bottle tightly. Shake it well or leave it
particles in the air perform this function.
out in the Sun for ten minutes. This
causes the air in the bottle to be
Once the water droplets are formed, they
saturated with water vapour. grow bigger by the ‘condensation’ of these
• Now, take a lighted incense stick. Open water droplets. When the drops have grown
the cap of the bottle and allow some of big and heavy, they fall down in the form of
the smoke from the incense stick to rain. Sometimes, when the temperature of air
NATURAL RESOURCES 191

is low enough, precipitation may occur in the 14.1.4 AIR POLLUTION
form of snow, sleet or hail.
Rainfall patterns are decided by the We keep hearing of the increasing levels of
prevailing wind patterns. In large parts of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the news.
India, rains are mostly brought by the south- People often bemoan the fact that the quality
west or north-east monsoons. We have also of air has gone down since their childhood.
heard weather reports that say ‘depressions’ How is the quality of air affected and how
in the Bay of Bengal have caused rains in does this change in quality affect us and other
some areas (Figure 14.2). life forms?
The fossil fuels like coal and petroleum
contain small amounts of nitrogen and
sulphur. When these fuels are burnt, nitrogen
and sulphur too are burnt and this produces
different oxides of nitrogen and sulphur. Not
only is the inhalation of these gases
dangerous, they also dissolve in rain to give
rise to acid rain. The combustion of fossil fuels
also increases the amount of suspended
particles in air. These suspended particles
could be unbur nt carbon particles or
substances called hydrocarbons. Presence of
high levels of all these pollutants cause
visibility to be lowered, especially in cold
weather when water also condenses out of
Fig. 14.2: Satellite picture showing clouds over India. air. This is known as smog and is a visible
indication of air pollution. Studies have
shown that regularly breathing air that
Activity _____________ 14.4 contains any of these substances increases
• Collect information from newspapers the incidence of allergies, cancer and heart
or weather reports on television about diseases. An increase in the content of these
rainfall patterns across the country. harmful substances in air is called air
Also find out how to construct a rain- pollution.
gauge and make one. What precautions
are necessary in order to get reliable
data from this rain-gauge? Now answer
the following questions :
• In which month did your city/town/
village get the maximum rainfall?
• In which month did your state/union
territory get the maximum rainfall?
• Is rain always accompanied by thunder
and lightning? If not, in which season
do you get more of thunder and
lightning with the rain?
Activity _____________ 14.5

• Find out more about monsoons and
cyclones from the library. Try and find
out the rainfall pattern of any other
country. Is the monsoon responsible for
rains the world over? Fig. 14.3: Lichen
192 SCIENCE
Activity _____________ 14.6 people are forced to spend considerable
amounts of time in fetching water from far-
• Organisms called lichens are found to away sources.
be very sensitive to the levels of
contaminants like sulphur dioxide in Activity _____________ 14.7
the air. As discussed earlier in section
7.3.3, lichens can be commonly found • Many municipal corporations are trying
growing on the barks of trees as a thin water -harvesting techniques to
greenish-white crust. See if you can improve the availability of water.
find lichen growing on the trees in your • Find out what these techniques are and
locality. how they would increase the water that
• Compare the lichen on trees near busy is available for use.
roads and trees some distance away.
• On the trees near roads, compare the But why is water so necessary? And do
incidence of lichen on the side facing all organisms require water? All cellular
the road and on the side away from the processes take place in a water medium. All
road. the reactions that take place within our body
and within the cells occur between
What can you say about the levels of
polluting substances near roads and away substances that are dissolved in water.
from roads on the basis of your findings Substances are also transported from one
above? part of the body to the other in a dissolved
Q
form. Hence, organisms need to maintain the
uestions level of water within their bodies in order to

stay alive. Terrestrial life-forms require fresh
1. How is our atmosphere different water for this because their bodies cannot
from the atmospheres on Venus tolerate or get rid of the high amounts of
and Mars? dissolved salts in saline water. Thus, water
2. How does the atmosphere act as sources need to be easily accessible for
a blanket? animals and plants to survive on land.
3. What causes winds?
4. How are clouds formed? Activity _____________ 14.8
5. List any three human activities • Select a small area (say, 1 m2) near a
that you think would lead to air water-body, it may be a river, stream,
pollution. lake or pond. Count the number of
different animals and plants in this
14.2 Water: A Wonder Liquid area. Also, check the number of
individuals of each type or species.
Water occupies a very large area of the Earth’s • Compare this with the number of
surface and is also found underground. Some individuals (both animals and plants)
found in an area of the same size in a
amount of water exists in the form of water
dry, rocky region.
vapour in the atmosphere. Most of the water • Is the variety of plant and animal life
on Earth’s surface is found in seas and oceans the same in both these areas?
and is saline. Fresh water is found frozen in
the ice-caps at the two poles and on snow- Activity _____________ 14.9
covered mountains. The underground water
and the water in rivers, lakes and ponds is • Select and mark out a small area (about
1 m2) in some unused land in or near
also fresh. However, the availability of fresh
your school.
water varies from place to place. Practically • As in the above activity, count the
every summer, most places have to face a number of different animals and plants
shortage of water. And in rural areas, where in this area and the number of
water supply systems have not been installed, individuals of each species.

• Remember to do this in the same place the water in rivers can be affected is when water
twice in a year, once during summer is released from dams. The water inside the
or the dry season and once after it has deep reservoir would be colder than the water
rained. at the surface which gets heated by the Sun.
All this can affect the life-forms that are
Now answer found in these water bodies in various ways.
It can encourage the growth of some life-forms
1. Were the numbers similar both times?
and harm some other life-forms. This affects
2. In which season did you find more the balance between various organisms which
variety of plants and animals? had been established in that system. So we
3. In which season did you find more use the term water-pollution to cover the
number of individuals of each variety? following effects:
1. The addition of undesirable
After compiling the results of the above
substances to water -bodies. These
two activities, think if there is any relationship
substances could be the fertilisers and
between the amount of available water and
pesticides used in farming or they
the number and variety of plants and animals
could be poisonous substances, like
that can live in a given area. If there is a
mercury salts which are used by
relationship, where do you think you would
paper-industries. These could also be
find a greater variety and abundance of life –
disease-causing organisms, like the
in a region that receives 5 cm of rainfall in a
bacteria which cause cholera.
year or a region that receives 200 cm of
2. The removal of desirable substances
rainfall in a year? Find the map showing
from water-bodies. Dissolved oxygen
rainfall patterns in the atlas and predict
is used by the animals and plants that
which States in India would have the
live in water. Any change that reduces
maximum biodiversity and which would have
the amount of this dissolved oxygen
the least. Can we think of any way of checking
would adversely affect these aquatic
whether the prediction is correct?
organisms. Other nutrients could also
The availability of water decides not only
be depleted from the water bodies.
the number of individuals of each species that
3. A change in temperature. Aquatic
are able to survive in a particular area, but it
organisms are used to a certain range
also decides the diversity of life there. Of
of temperature in the water -body
course, the availability of water is not the only
where they live, and a sudden marked
factor that decides the sustainability of life
change in this temperature would be
in a region. Other factors like the temperature
dangerous for them or affect their
and nature of soil also matter. But water is
breeding. The eggs and larvae of
one of the major resources which determine
various animals are particularly
life on land.
susceptible to temperature changes.
Q
14.2.1 WATER POLLUTION
uestions
Water dissolves the fertilisers and pesticides
1. Why do organisms need water?
that we use on our farms. So some percentage
2. What is the major source of fresh
of these substances are washed into the water
water in the city/town/village
bodies. Sewage from our towns and cities and
where you live?
the waste from factories are also dumped into
3. Do you know of any activity
rivers or lakes. Specific industries also use
which may be polluting this water
water for cooling in various operations and
source?
later return this hot water to water-bodies.
Another manner in which the temperature of
194 SCIENCE
14.3 Mineral Riches in the Soil carries sand from one place to the
other like water does.
Soil is an important resource that decides the • Living organisms also influence the
diversity of life in an area. But what is the formation of soil. The lichen that we
soil and how is it formed? The outermost layer read about earlier, also grows on the
of our Earth is called the crust and the surface of rocks. While growing, they
minerals found in this layer supply a variety release certain substances that cause
of nutrients to life-forms. But these minerals the rock surface to powder down and
will not be available to the organisms if the form a thin layer of soil. Other small
minerals are bound up in huge rocks. Over plants like moss, are able to grow on
long periods of time, thousands and millions this surface now and they cause the
of years, the rocks at or near the surface of rock to break up further. The roots of
the Earth are broken down by various big trees sometimes go into cracks in
physical, chemical and some biological the rocks and as the roots grow bigger,
processes. The end product of this breaking the crack is forced bigger.
down is the fine particles of soil. But what
are the factors or processes that make soil? Activity ____________14.10
• The Sun: The Sun heats up rocks • Take some soil and put it into a beaker
during the day so that they expand. containing water. The water should be
At night, these rocks cool down and at least five times the amount of soil
contract. Since all parts of the rock taken. Stir the soil and water vigorously
do not expand and contract at the and allow the soil to settle down.
same rate, this results in the Observe after some time.
• Is the soil at the bottom of the beaker
formation of cracks and ultimately the
homogenous or have layers formed?
huge rocks break up into smaller • If layers have formed, how is one layer
pieces. different from another?
• Water: Water helps in the formation • Is there anything floating on the
of soil in two ways. One, water could surface of the water?
get into the cracks in the rocks formed • Do you think some substances would
due to uneven heating by the Sun. If have dissolved in the water? How would
this water later freezes, it would cause you check?
the cracks to widen. Can you think As you have seen, soil is a mixture. It
why this should be so? Two, flowing contains small particles of rock (of different
water wears away even hard rock over sizes). It also contains bits of decayed living
long periods of time. Fast flowing water organisms which is called humus. In addition,
often carries big and small particles soil also contains various for ms of
of rock downstream. These rocks rub microscopic life. The type of soil is decided
against other rocks and the resultant by the average size of particles found in it
abrasion causes the rocks to wear and the quality of the soil is decided by the
down into smaller and smaller amount of humus and the microscopic
particles. The water then takes these organisms found in it. Humus is a major
particles along with it and deposits it factor in deciding the soil structure because
further down its path. Soil is thus it causes the soil to become more porous and
found in places far away from its allows water and air to penetrate deep
parent-rock. underground. The mineral nutrients that are
• Wind: In a process similar to the way found in a particular soil depends on the
in which water rubs against rocks and rocks it was formed from. The nutrient
wears them down, strong winds also content of a soil, the amount of humus
erode rocks down. The wind also present in it and the depth of the soil are

some of the factors that decide which plants • Study the amount of soil that is
will thrive on that soil. Thus, the topmost carried out of the trays now. Is the
layer of the soil that contains humus and amount the same in both the trays?
living organisms in addition to the soil • Is the amount of soil that is carried out
more or less or equal to the amount
particles is called the topsoil. The quality of
washed out earlier?
the topsoil is an important factor that decides
biodiversity in that area.
Modern farming practices involve the use
of large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides.
Use of these substances over long periods of
time can destroy the soil structure by killing
the soil micro-organisms that recycle
nutrients in the soil. It also kills the
Earthworms which are instrumental in
making the rich humus. Fertile soil can
quickly be turned barren if sustainable
practices are not followed. Removal of useful
components from the soil and addition of Fig. 14.4: Effect of flowing water on the top-soil
other substances, which adversely affect the
fertility of the soil and kill the diversity of The roots of plants have an important role
organisms that live in it, is called soil pollution. in preventing soil erosion. The large-scale
The soil that we see today in one place deforestation that is happening all over the
has been created over a very long period of world not only destroys biodiversity, it also
time. However, some of the factors that leads to soil erosion. Topsoil that is bare of
created the soil in the first place and brought vegetation, is likely to be removed very
the soil to that place may be responsible for quickly. And this is accelerated in hilly or
the removal of the soil too. The fine particles mountainous regions. This process of soil
of soil may be carried away by flowing water erosion is very difficult to reverse. Vegetative
or wind. If all the soil gets washed away and cover on the ground has a role to play in the
the rocks underneath are exposed, we have percolation of water into the deeper
lost a valuable resource because very little layers too.
Q
will grow on the rock.
Activity ____________14.11 uestions

• Take two identical trays and fill them 1. How is soil formed?
with soil. Plant mustard or green gram 2. What is soil erosion?
or paddy in one of the trays and water 3. What are the methods of
both the trays regularly for a few days,
preventing or reducing soil
till the first tray is covered by plant
growth. Now, tilt both the trays and fix erosion?
them in that position. Make sure that
both the trays are tilted at the same 14.4 Biogeochemical Cycles
angle. Pour equal amount of water
gently on both trays such that the water A constant interaction between the biotic and
flows out of the trays (Fig. 14.4). abiotic components of the biosphere makes
• Study the amount of soil that is carried it a dynamic, but stable system. These
out of the trays. Is the amount the
interactions consist of a transfer of matter
same in both the trays?
• Now pour equal amounts of water on and energy between the different components
both the trays from a height. Pour three of the biosphere. Let us look at some
or four times the amount that you processes involved in the maintenance of the
poured earlier. above balance.
196 SCIENCE
14.4.1 THE WATER-CYCLE water. Thus rivers carry many nutrients from
the land to the sea, and these are used by
You have seen how the water evaporates from the marine organisms.
the water bodies and subsequent
condensation of this water vapour leads to 14.4.2 THE NITROGEN-CYCLE
rain. But we don’t see the seas and oceans
drying up. So, how is the water returning to Nitr ogen gas makes up 78% of our
these water bodies? The whole process in atmosphere and nitrogen is also a part of
which water evaporates and falls on the land many molecules essential to life like proteins,
as rain and later flows back into the sea via nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and some
rivers is known as the water-cycle. This cycle vitamins. Nitrogen is found in other
is not as straight-forward and simple as this biologically important compounds such as
statement seems to imply. All of the water alkaloids and urea too. Nitrogen is thus an
that falls on the land does not immediately essential nutrient for all life-forms and life
flow back into the sea. Some of it seeps into would be simple if all these life-forms could
the soil and becomes part of the underground use the atmospheric nitrogen directly.
reservoir of fresh-water. Some of this However, other than a few forms of bacteria,
underground water finds its way to the life-for ms are not able to convert the
surface through springs. Or we bring it to comparatively inert nitrogen molecule into
the surface for our use through wells or tube- forms like nitrates and nitrites which can be
wells. Water is also used by terrestrial animals taken up and used to make the required
and plants for various life-processes molecules. These ‘nitrogen-fixing’ bacteria
(Fig. 14.5). may be free-living or be associated with some
species of dicot plants. Most commonly, the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in the roots
of legumes (generally the plants which give
us pulses) in special structures called root-
nodules. Other than these bacteria, the only
other manner in which the nitrogen molecule
is converted to nitrates and nitrites is by a
physical process. During lightning, the high
temperatures and pressures created in the
air convert nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen.
These oxides dissolve in water to give nitric
and nitrous acids and fall on land along with
rain. These are then utilised by various life-
forms.
What happens to the nitrogen once it is
converted into forms that can be taken up
and used to make nitrogen-containing
molecules? Plants generally take up nitrates
and nitrites and convert them into amino
Fig. 14.5: Water-cycle in nature acids which are used to make proteins. Some
other biochemical pathways are used to make
Let us look at another aspect of what the other complex compounds containing
happens to water during the water-cycle. As nitrogen. These proteins and other complex
you know, water is capable of dissolving a compounds are subsequently consumed by
large number of substances. As water flows animals. Once the animal or the plant dies,
through or over rocks containing soluble other bacteria in the soil convert the various
minerals, some of them get dissolved in the compounds of nitrogen back into nitrates and

Fig.14.6: Nitrogen-cycle in nature
nitrites. A different type of bacteria converts nucleic acids and vitamins. The endoskeletons
the nitrates and nitrites into elemental and exoskeletons of various animals are also
nitrogen. Thus, there is a nitrogen-cycle in formed from carbonate salts. Carbon is
nature in which nitrogen passes from its incorporated into life-forms through the basic
elemental form in the atmosphere into simple process of photosynthesis which is performed
molecules in the soil and water, which get in the presence of Sunlight by all life-forms that
converted to more complex molecules in living contain chlorophyll. This process converts
beings and back again to the simple nitrogen carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or
molecule in the atmosphere. dissolved in water into glucose molecules.
These glucose molecules are either converted
14.4.3 THE CARBON-CYCLE
into other substances or used to provide
Carbon is found in various forms on the energy for the synthesis of other biologically
Earth. It occurs in the elemental form as important molecules (Fig. 14.7).
diamonds and graphite. In the combined The utilisation of glucose to provide energy
state, it is found as carbon dioxide in the to living things involves the process of
atmosphere, as carbonate and hydrogen- respiration in which oxygen may or may not
carbonate salts in various minerals, while all be used to convert glucose back into carbon
life-forms are based on carbon-containing dioxide. This carbon dioxide then goes back
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, into the atmosphere. Another process that
198 SCIENCE
Fig. 14.7: Carbon-cycle in nature
adds to the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could be kept warm during the winters in
is the process of combustion where fuels are colder climates. Such enclosures are called
burnt to provide energy for various needs like greenhouses. Greenhouses have also lent
heating, cooking, transportation and their name to an atmospheric phenomenon.
industrial processes. In fact, the percentage Some gases prevent the escape of heat from
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is said the Earth. An increase in the percentage of
to have doubled since the industrial such gases in the atmosphere would cause
revolution when human beings started the average temperatures to increase world-
burning fossil fuels on a very large scale. wide and this is called the greenhouse effect.
Carbon, like water, is thus cycled repeatedly Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse
through different forms by the various gases. An increase in the carbon dioxide
physical and biological activities. content in the atmosphere would cause more
heat to be retained by the atmosphere and
lead to global warming.
14.4.3 (i) THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Recall the reading taken by you under (iii) in Activity ____________14.12
Activity 14.1. Heat is trapped by glass, and • Find out what the consequences of
hence the temperature inside a glass global warming would be.
enclosure will be much higher than the • Also, find out the names of some other
surroundings. This phenomenon was used greenhouse gases.
to create an enclosure where tropical plants

14.4.4 THE OXYGEN-CYCLE bacteria, are poisoned by elemental oxygen.
In fact, even the process of nitrogen-fixing by
Oxygen is a very abundant element on our bacteria does not take place in the presence
Earth. It is found in the elemental form in of oxygen.
the atmosphere to the extent of 21%. It also
occurs extensively in the combined form in
the Earth’s crust as well as also in the air in
14.5 Ozone Layer
the form of carbon dioxide. In the crust, it is Elemental oxygen is normally found in the
found as the oxides of most metals and form of a diatomic molecule. However, in the
silicon, and also as carbonate, sulphate, upper reaches of the atmosphere, a molecule
nitrate and other minerals. It is also an containing three atoms of oxygen is found.
essential component of most biological This would mean a formula of O3 and this is
molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, called ozone. Unlike the normal diatomic
nucleic acids and fats (or lipids). molecule of oxygen, ozone is poisonous and
But when we talk of the oxygen-cycle, we we are lucky that it is not stable nearer to
are mainly referring to the cycle that the Earth’s surface. But it performs an
maintains the levels of oxygen in the essential function where it is found. It absorbs
atmosphere. Oxygen from the atmosphere is harmful radiations from the Sun. This
used up in three processes, namely prevents those harmful radiations from
combustion, respiration and in the formation reaching the surface of the Earth where they
of oxides of nitrogen. Oxygen is returned to may damage many forms of life.
the atmosphere in only one major process, Recently it was discovered that this ozone
that is, photosynthesis. And this forms the layer was getting depleted. Various man-made
broad outline of the oxygen-cycle in nature compounds like CFCs (carbon compounds
(Fig. 14.8). having both fluorine and chlorine which are
very stable and not degraded by any biological
process) were found to persist in the
atmosphere. Once they reached the ozone
layer, they would react with the ozone
molecules. This resulted in a reduction of the
ozone layer and recently they have discovered
a hole in the ozone layer above the Antartica.
It is difficult to imagine the consequences for
life on Earth if the ozone layer dwindles
further, but many people think that it would
be better not to take chances. These people
advocate working towards stopping all further
damage to the ozone layer.
Fig. 14.8: Oxygen-cycle in nature

October October October
Though we usually think of oxygen as 1980 1985 1990
being necessary to life in the process of
respiration, it might be of interest to you to Fig. 14.9: Satellite picture showing the hole (magenta
learn that some forms of life, especially colour) in the ozone layer over Antartica
200 SCIENCE
Q
Activity ____________14.13 uestions
• Find out which other molecules are 1. What are the different states in
thought to damage the ozone layer. which water is found during the
• Newspaper reports often talk about the water cycle?
hole in the ozone layer. 2. Name two biologically important
• Find out whether the size of this hole
compounds that contain both
is changing and in what manner
scientists think this would affect life oxygen and nitrogen.
on Earth (Fig. 14.9). 3. List any three human activities
which would lead to an increase
in the carbon dioxide content of air.
4. What is the greenhouse effect?
5. What are the two for ms of
oxygen found in the atmosphere?
What
you have
learnt
• Life on Earth depends on resources like soil, water and air,
and energy from the Sun.
• Uneven heating of air over land and water-bodies causes winds.
• Evaporation of water from water-bodies and subsequent
condensation give us rain.
• Rainfall patterns depend on the prevailing wind patterns in an
area.
• Various nutrients are used again and again in a cyclic fashion.
This leads to a certain balance between the various components
of the biosphere.
• Pollution of air, water and soil affect the quality of life and
harm the biodiversity.
• We need to conserve our natural resources and use them in a
sustainable manner.
Exercises
1. Why is the atmosphere essential for life?
2. Why is water essential for life?
3. How are living organisms dependent on the soil? Are organisms
that live in water totally independent of soil as a resource?
4. You have seen weather reports on television and in newspapers.
How do you think we are able to predict the weather?

5. We know that many human activities lead to increasing
levels of pollution of the air, water-bodies and soil. Do you
think that isolating these activities to specific and limited
areas would help in reducing pollution?
6. Write a note on how forests influence the quality of our air,
soil and water resources.
202 SCIENCE
Flora and Fauna in India
Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
If you look around, you will be able to find
in the world of Lepchas
that there are some animals and plants which
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate are unique in your area. In fact, India is one
myself to you of the world’s richest countries in terms of
Let me gather your music from the its vast array of biological diversity, and has
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests, nearly 8 per cent of the total number of
the insects and the animals species in the world (estimated to be 1.6
Let me gather your music from the sweet million). This is possibly twice or thrice the
breeze and offer it to you number yet to be discovered. You have
already studied in detail about the extent
Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of
and variety of forest and wildlife resources
West Bengal in India. You may have realised the
importance of these resources in our daily
life. These diverse flora and fauna are so
We share this planet with millions of other well integrated in our daily life that we take
living beings, starting from micro-organisms these for granted. But, lately, they are under
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, great stress mainy due to insensitivity to
elephants and blue whales. This entire our environment.
habitat that we live in has immense
biodiversity. We humans along with all living
organisms form a complex web of ecological Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000
system in which we are only a part and very species of flora are found in this country
much dependent on this system for our own so far? Of the estimated 47,000 plant
existence. For example, the plants, animals species, about 15,000 flowering species
and micro-organisms re-create the quality of are endemic (indigenous) to India.
the air we breathe, the water we drink and
the soil that produces our food without which
we cannot survive. Forests play a key role in Find out stories prevalent in your region
the ecological system as these are also the which are about the harmonious relationship
primary producers on which all other living between human beings and nature.
beings depend.
Some estimates suggest that at least 10
per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is 20 per cent of its mammals are on the
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated threatened list. Many of these would now be
species, diverse in form and function but categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge
closely integrated in a system through of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed
multiple network of interdependencies. duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet,
and plants like madhuca insignis (a wild
variety of mahua) and hubbardia accurate information about actual loss of
heptaneuron,(a species of grass). In fact, no natural forests.
one can say how many species may have
already been lost. Today, we only talk of the Let us now understand the different
larger and more visible animals and plants categories of existing plants and animal
that have become extinct but what about species. Based on the International Union for
smaller animals like insects and plants? Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows –
Normal Species: Species whose population
Do you know that among the larger levels are considered to be normal for
animals in India, 79 species of mammals, their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine,
44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of rodents, etc.
amphibians are threatened? Nearly 1,500 Endangered Species: These are species
plant species are considered endangered. which are in danger of extinction. The
Flowering plants and vertebrate animals survival of such species is difficult if the
have recently become extinct at a rate negative factors that have led to a decline in
estimated to be 50 to 100 times the their population continue to operate. The
average expected natural rate. examples of such species are black buck,
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in
Vanishing Forests Manipur), etc.
The dimensions of deforestation in India are Vulnerable Species: These are species
staggering. The forest cover in the country is whose population has declined to levels from
estimated at 637,293 sq km, which is 19.39 where it is likely to move into the endangered
per cent of the total geographical area. category in the near future if the negative
(dense forest 11.48 per cent; open forest 7.76 factors continue to operate. The examples of
per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent). such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant,
According to the State of Forest Report Gangetic dolphin, etc.
(1999), the dense forest cover has increased
Rare Species: Species with small population
may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them
continue to operate. The examples of such
species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild
Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
Endemic Species: These are species which
are only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by natural or geographical
barriers. Examples of such species are the
Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman
wild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh.
Fig. 2.1
Extinct Species: These are species which
by 10,098 sq km since 1997. However, this are not found after searches of known or
apparent increase in the forest cover is due likely areas where they may occur. A species
to plantation by different agencies. The State may be extinct from a local area, region,
of Forest Report does not differentiate country, continent or the entire earth.
between natural forests and plantations. Examples of such species are the Asiatic
Therefore, these reports fail to deliver cheetah, pink head duck.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15
Fig. 2.2: A few extinct, rare and endangered species
depleted our forests and wildlife. The greatest

Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go?
damage inflicted on Indian forests was during
The world’s fastest land mammal, the the colonial period due to the expansion of the
cheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique and railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific
specialised member of the cat family and forestry and mining activities. Even after
can move at the speed of 112 km./hr. The Independence, agricultural expansion
cheetah is often mistaken for a leopard. Its continues to be one of the major causes of
distinguishing marks are the long teardrop- depletion of forest resources. Between 1951 and
shaped lines on each side of the nose from 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India,
the corner of its eyes to its mouth. Prior to over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was converted
the 20th century, cheetahs were widely into agricultural land all over India. Substantial
distributed throughout Africa and Asia. parts of the tribal belts, especially in the north-
Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinct eastern and central India, have been deforested
due to a decline of available habitat and or degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type
prey. The species was declared extinct in of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
India long back in 1952.
Are colonial forest policies

What are the negative factors that cause such to be blamed?
fearful depletion of the flora and fauna?
Some of our environmental activists say that
If you look around, you will be able to find the promotion of a few favoured species, in
out how we have transformed nature into a many parts of India, has been carried
resource obtaining directly and indirectly from through the ironically-termed “enrichment
the forests and wildlife – wood, barks, leaves, plantation”, in which a single commercially
rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder, valuable species was extensively planted
manure, etc. So it is we ourselves who have and other species eliminated. For instance,
16 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
teak monoculture has damaged the natural the fact remains that a substantial part of the
forest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinus fuel-fodder demand is met by lopping rather
roxburghii) plantations in the Himalayas than by felling entire trees. The forest
have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius ecosystems are repositories of some of the
spp.) and Rhododendron forests. country’s most valuable forest products,
minerals and other resources that meet the
demands of the rapidly expanding industrial-
Large-scale development projects have also urban economy. These protected areas, thus
contributed significantly to the loss of forests. mean different things to different people, and
Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest was therein lies the fertile ground for conflicts.
cleared for river valley projects. Clearing of
forests is still continuing with projects like the The Himalayan Yew in trouble
Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh,
The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a
which would inundate 40,000 hectares of
medicinal plant found in various parts of
forest. Mining is another important factor
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger Reserve
A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is
in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the
extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and
ongoing dolomite mining. It has disturbed the
roots of this tree, and it has been successfully
natural habitat of many species and blocked
used to treat some cancers – the drug is now
the migration route of several others, including
the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the
the great Indian elephant.
world. The species is under great threat due
Many foresters and environmentalists hold
to over-exploitation. In the last one decade,
the view that the greatest degrading factors
thousands of yew trees have dried up in
behind the depletion of forest resources are
various parts of Himachal Pradesh and
grazing and fuel-wood collection. Though, there
Arunachal Pradesh.
may be some substance in their argument, yet,
Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a

nursery at Mukhali near Slient Valley
Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk
Fig. 2.3
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, men. In many societies, women bear the major
over-exploitation, environmental pollution, responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water
poisoning and forest fires are factors, which and other basic subsistence needs. As these
have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity. resources are depleted, the drudgery of women
Other important causes of environmental increases and sometimes they have to walk for
destruction are unequal access, inequitable more than 10 km to collect these resources.
consumption of resources and differential This causes serious health problems for women
sharing of responsibility for environmental and negligence of home and children because
well-being. Over-population in third world of the increased hours of work, which often has
countries is often cited as the cause of serious social implications. The indirect impact
environmental degradation. However, an of degradation such as severe drought or
average American consumes 40 times more deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the
resources than an average Somalian. Similarly, poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a
the richest five per cent of Indian society direct outcome of environmental destruction.
probably cause more ecological damage Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the
because of the amount they consume than the quality of life and environment in the
poorest 25 per cent. The former shares subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound
minimum responsibilities for environmental forest and wildlife conservation strategies.
well-being. The question is: who is consuming
what, from where and how much? Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India
Conservation in the background of rapid
decline in wildlife population and forestry has
Do you know that over half of India’s become essential. But why do we need to
natural forests are gone, one-third of its conserve our forests and wildlife? Conservation
wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its preserves the ecological diversity and our life
surface water bodies polluted, 40 per cent support systems – water, air and soil. It also
of its mangroves wiped out, and with preserves the genetic diversity of plants and
continued hunting and trade of wild animals for better growth of species and
animals and commercially valuable breeding. For example, in agriculture, we are
plants, thousands of plant and animal still dependent on traditional crop varieties.
species are heading towards extinction? Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the
maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.
In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
demanded a national wildlife protection
Have you noticed any activity which leads programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)
to the loss of biodiversity around you? Write Act was implemented in 1972, with various
a note on it and suggest some measures to provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India
prevent it. list of protected species was also published.
The thrust of the programme was towards
protecting the remaining population of certain
The destruction of forests and wildlife is not endangered species by banning hunting,
just a biological issue. The biological loss is giving legal protection to their habitats, and
strongly correlated with the loss of cultural restricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently,
diversity. Such losses have increasingly central and many state governments
marginalised and impoverished many established national parks and wildlife
indigenous and other forest-dependent sanctuaries about which you have already
communities, who directly depend on various studied. The central government also
components of the forest and wildlife for food, announced several projects for protecting
drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. specific animals, which were gravely
Within the poor, women are affected more than threatened, including the tiger, the one-
Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park
horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or dropped to 3,600. There are 27 tiger
hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water reserves in India covering an area of
crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, 37,761 sq km Tiger conservation has been
the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, the viewed not only as an effort to save an
Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the endangered species, but with equal
great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow importance as a means of preserving
leopard, etc. have been given full or partial biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett
legal protection against hunting and trade National Park in Uttaranchal, Sunderbans
throughout India. National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh
National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska
Project Tiger Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas
Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger
the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger
realised that the tiger population had reserves of India.
dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
55,000 at the turn of the century. The major
The conservation projects are now focusing
threats to tiger population are numerous,
on biodiversity rather than on a few of its
such as poaching for trade, shrinking
components. There is now a more intensive
habitat, depletion of prey base species,
search for different conservation measures.
growing human population, etc. The trade
Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find
of tiger skins and the use of their bones in
a place in conservation planning. In the
traditional medicines, especially in the
notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and
Asian countries left the tiger population on
1986, several hundred butterflies, moths,
the verge of extinction. Since India and
beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to
Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds
the list of protected species. In 1991, for the
of the surviving tiger population in the
first time plants were also added to the list,
world, these two nations became prime
starting with six species.
targets for poaching and illegal trading.
“Project Tiger ”, one of the well-
publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,
was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed Collect more information on the wildlife
success as the tiger population went up to sanctuaries and national parks of India and
4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in cite their locations on the map of India.
1993, the population of the tiger had

Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?
Types and Distribution of Forest and (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other
Wildlife Resources forests and wastelands belonging to
Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and both government and private individuals
wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to and communities.
manage, control and regulate them. In India, Reserved and protected forests are also
much of its forest and wildlife resources are referred to as permanent forest estates
either owned or managed by the government maintained for the purpose of producing
through the Forest Department or other timber and other forest produce, and for
government departments. These are classified protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
under the following categories. largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the
Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
total forest land has been declared
Uttaranchal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
reserved forests. Reserved forests are
and Maharashtra have large percentages of
regarded as the most valuable as far as the
reserved forests of its total forest area whereas
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
are concerned.
Orissa and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under
(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the protected forests. All North-eastern states and
total forest area is protected forest, as declared parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage
by the Forest Department. This forest land are of their forests as un-classed forests managed
protected from any further depletion. by local communities.
Community and Conservation and treated as a part of temple devotees. In
Conservation strategies are not new in our and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan,
country. We often ignore that in India, forests herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and
are also home to some of the traditional peacocks can be seen as an integral part of
the community and nobody harms them.
communities. In some areas of India, local
communities are struggling to conserve these
habitats along with government officials,
recognising that only this will secure their own Write a short essay on any practices which
long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, you may have observed and practised in
Rajasthan, villagers have fought against your everyday lives that conserve and protect
mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In the environment around you.
many areas, villagers themselves are protecting
habitats and explicitly rejecting government The famous Chipko movement in the
involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared deforestation in several areas but has also shown
1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev that community afforestation with indigenous
Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of species can be enormously successful.
rules and regulations which do not allow Attempts to revive the traditional conservation
hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against methods or developing new methods of
any outside encroachments. ecological farming are now widespread. Farmers
and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao
Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown
and rare species that adequate levels of diversified crop
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief production without the use of synthetic
based on the premise that all creations of chemicals are possible and economically viable.
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs In India joint forest management (JFM)
have preserved several virgin forests in programme furnishes a good example for
pristine form called Sacred Groves (the involving local communities in the
forests of God and Goddesses). These management and restoration of degraded
patches of forest or parts of large forests have forests. The programme has been in formal
been left untouched by the local people and existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa
any interference with them is banned. passed the first resolution for joint forest
Certain societies revere a particular tree management. JFM depends on the formation
which they have preserved from time of local (village) institutions that undertake
immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of protection activities mostly on degraded forest
Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia land managed by the forest department. In
latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus return, the members of these communities are
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Orissa and entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber
Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus forest produces and share in the timber
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees harvested by ‘successful protection’.
during weddings. To many of us, peepal and The clear lesson from the dynamics of both
banyan trees are considered sacred. environmental destruction and reconstruction
Indian society comprises several in India is that local communities everywhere
cultures, each with its own set of traditional have to be involved in some kind of natural
methods of conserving nature and its resource management. But there is still a long
creations. Sacred qualities are often way to go before local communities are at the
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only
and animals which are closely protected. You those economic or developmental activities,
will find troops of macaques and langurs that are people centric, environment-friendly
around many temples. They are fed daily and economically rewarding.

“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and
makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its
life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen
who destroy it”.
Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)
EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES
1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of flora
and fauna?
(a) Agricultural expansion.
(b) Large scale developmental projects.
(c) Grazing and fuel wood collection.
(d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.
(ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve
community participation?
(a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement
(b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries
2. Match the following animals with their category of existence.
Animals/Plants Category of existence
Black buck Extinct

Asiatic elephant Rare
Andaman wild pig Endangered
Himalayan brown bear Vulnerable
Pink head duck Endemic
Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to both

government and private individuals and
communities
Protected forests forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Unclassed forests forest lands are protected from any further depletion
4. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.

(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife
in India?
(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.
CHAPTER 14
Sources of
Energy
I n Class IX, we learnt that the total energy during a physical or chemical
process is conserved. Why, then, do we hear so much about the energy
crisis? If energy can neither be created nor destroyed, we should have
no worries! We should be able to perform endless activities without
thinking about energy resources!
This riddle can be solved if we recall what else we learnt about energy.
Energy comes in different forms and one form can be converted to another.
For example, if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the
plate is converted mostly to sound energy when it hits the ground. If we
light a candle, the process is highly exothermic so that the chemical
energy in the wax is converted to heat energy and light energy on burning.
What other products are obtained when we burn a candle?
The total energy during a physical or chemical process remains the
same but suppose we consider the burning candle again – can we
somehow put together the heat and light generated along with the products
of the reaction to get back the chemical energy in the form of wax?
Let us consider another example. Suppose we take 100 mL of water
which has a temperature of 348 K (75°C) and leave it in a room where
the temperature is 298 K (25°C). What will happen? Is there any way of
collecting all the heat lost to the environment and making the water hot
once it has cooled down?
In any example that we consider, we will see that energy, in the usable
form, is dissipated to the surroundings in less usable forms. Hence, any
source of energy we use, to do work, is consumed and cannot be used again.
14.1 WHA
WHATT IS A GOOD SOURCE OF ENERGY?
What can then be considered a good source of energy? We, in our daily
lives, use energy from various sources for doing work. We use diesel to
run our trains. We use electricity to light our street-lamps. Or we use
energy in our muscles to cycle to school.
Activity 14.1
List four forms of energy that you use from morning, when you
wake up, till you reach the school.
From where do we get these different forms of energy?
Can we call these ‘sources’ of energy? Why or why not?
242 Science
The muscular energy for carrying out physical work, electrical energy
for running various appliances, chemical energy for cooking food or
running a vehicle all come from some source. We need to know how do
we select the source needed for obtaining the energy in its usable form.
Activity 14.2
Consider the various options we have when we choose a fuel for
cooking our food.
What are the criteria you would consider when trying to categorise
something as a good fuel?
Would your choice be different if you lived
(a) in a forest?
(b) in a remote mountain village or small island?
(c) in New Delhi?
(d) lived five centuries ago?
How are the factors different in each case?
After going through the two activities above, we can see that the
particular source of energy, or fuel, we select for performing some work
depends on many different factors. For example, while selecting a fuel,
we would ask ourselves the following questions.
(i) How much heat does it release on burning?
(ii) Does it produce a lot of smoke?
(iii) Is it easily available?
Can you think of three more relevant questions to ask about a fuel?
Given the range of fuels we have today, what are the factors which
would limit our choices when it comes to a particular task like cooking
our food? Would the fuel selected also depend on the work to be done?
For example, would we choose one fuel for cooking and another for
heating the room in winter?
We could then say that a good source of energy would be one
which would do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass,
be easily accessible,
be easy to store and transport, and
perhaps most importantly, be economical.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What is a good source of energy?
2. What is a good fuel?
3. If you could use any source of energy for heating your food, which one
would you use and why?
Sources of Energy 243

14.2 CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
14.2.1 Fossil Fuels
In ancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy. The
energy of flowing water and wind was also used for limited activities. Can
you think of some of these uses? The exploitation of coal as a source of
energy made the industrial revolution possible. Increasing
industrialisation has led to a better quality of life all over the world. It has
also caused the global demand for energy to grow at a tremendous rate.
The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels – coal
and petroleum. Our technologies were also developed for using these
energy sources. But these fuels were formed over millions of years ago
and there are only limited reserves. The fossil fuels are non-renewable
sources of energy, so we need to conserve
them. If we were to continue consuming these
sources at such alarming rates, we would
soon run out of energy! In order to avoid this,
alternate sources of energy were explored.
But we continue to be largely dependent on
Figure 14.1 fossil fuels for most of our energy
Pie-chart showing the requirements (Fig. 14.1).
major sources of energy Burning fossil fuels has other disadvantages too. We learnt in Class IX
for our requirements in
about the air pollution caused by burning of coal or petroleum products.
India
The oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur that are released on burning
fossil fuels are acidic oxides. These lead to acid rain which affects our
water and soil resources. In addition to the problem of air pollution,
recall the green-house effect of gases like carbon dioxide.
Think it over
How would our lives change if we could no longer get electricity supply?
The availability of electrical energy to each individual in a country is one of the
parameters to measure the growth of the country.
The pollution caused by burning fossil fuels can be somewhat reduced

by increasing the efficiency of the combustion process and using various
techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases and ashes into the
surroundings. Besides being used directly for various purposes – in gas
stoves and vehicles, do you know fossil fuels are the major fuels used for
generating electricity? Let us produce some electricity at our own small
plant in the class and see what goes into producing our favourite form
of energy.
Activity 14.3
Take a table-tennis ball and make three slits into it.
Put semicircular ( ) fins cut out of a metal sheet into these slits.
Pivot the tennis ball on an axle through its centre with a straight
metal wire fixed to a rigid support. Ensure that the tennis ball
rotates freely about the axle.
244 Science
Now connect a cycle dynamo to this.
Connect a bulb in series.
Direct a jet of water or steam produced in a pressure cooker at the
fins (Fig. 14.2). What do you observe?
Figure 14.2 A model to demonstrate the process of thermoelectric production
This is our turbine for generating electricity. The simplest turbines

have one moving part, a rotor-blade assembly. The moving fluid acts on
the blades to spin them and impart energy to the rotor. Thus, we see
that basically we need to move the fan, the rotor blade, with speed which
would turn the shaft of the dynamo and convert the mechanical energy
into electrical energy — the form of energy which has become a necessity
in today’s scenario. The various ways in which this can be done depends
upon availability of the resources. We will see how various sources of
energy can be harnessed to run the turbine and generate electricity in
the following sections.
14.2.2 Thermal Power Plant

Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt every day in power stations to
heat up water to produce steam which further runs the turbine to
generate electricity. The transmission of electricity is more efficient than
transporting coal or petroleum over the same distance. Therefore, many
thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil fields. The term thermal
power plant is used since fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is
converted into electrical energy.
14.2.3 Hydro Power Plants

Another traditional source of energy was the kinetic energy of flowing
water or the potential energy of water at a height. Hydro power plants
convert the potential energy of falling water into electricity. Since there
are very few water-falls which could be used as a source of potential
energy, hydro power plants are associated with dams. In the last century,
a large number of dams were built all over the world. As we can see from
Fig. 14.1, a quarter of our energy requirement in India is met by hydro
power plants.

In order to produce hydel electricity,
high-rise dams are constructed on the river
to obstruct the flow of water and thereby
collect water in larger reservoirs. The water
level rises and in this process the kinetic
energy of flowing water gets transformed into
potential energy. The water from the high
level in the dam is carried through pipes, to
the turbine, at the bottom of the dam
(Fig. 14.3). Since the water in the reservoir
would be refilled each time it rains (hydro
power is a renewable source of energy) we
would not have to worry about hydro
Figure 14.3 electricity sources getting used up the way
A schematic view of a fossil fuels would get finished one day.
hydro power plant But, constructions of big dams have certain problems associated
with it. The dams can be constructed only in a limited number of places,
preferably in hilly terrains. Large areas of agricultural land and human
habitation are to be sacrificed as they get submerged. Large eco-systems
are destroyed when submerged under the water in dams. The vegetation
which is submerged rots under anaerobic conditions and gives rise to
large amounts of methane which is also a green-house gas. It creates
the problem of satisfactory rehabilitation of displaced people. Opposition
to the construction of Tehri Dam on the river Ganga and Sardar Sarovar
project on the river Narmada are due to such problems.
14.2.4 Improvements in the Technology for using

Conventional Sources of Energy
Bio-Mass
We mentioned earlier that wood has been used as a fuel for a long time.
If we can ensure that enough trees are planted, a continuous supply of
fire-wood can be assured. You must also be familiar with the use of
cow-dung cakes as a fuel. Given the large live-stock population in India,
this can also assure us a steady source of fuel. Since these fuels are
plant and animal products, the source of these fuels is said to be
bio-mass. These fuels, however, do not produce much heat on burning
and a lot of smoke is given out when they are burnt. Therefore,
technological inputs to improve the efficiency of these fuels are necessary.
When wood is burnt in a limited supply of oxygen, water and volatile
materials present in it get removed and charcoal is left behind as the
residue. Charcoal burns without flames, is comparatively smokeless and
has a higher heat generation efficiency.
Similarly, cow-dung, various plant materials like the residue after
harvesting the crops, vegetable waste and sewage are decomposed in
the absence of oxygen to give bio-gas. Since the starting material is mainly
cow-dung, it is popularly known as ‘gobar-gas’. Bio-gas is produced in
a plant as shown in Fig. 14.4.
246 Science
The plant has a dome-like structure built with
bricks. A slurry of cow-dung and water is made in
the mixing tank from where it is fed into the digester.
The digester is a sealed chamber in which there is no
oxygen. Anaerobic micro-organisms that do not
require oxygen decompose or break down complex
compounds of the cow-dung slurry. It takes a few
days for the decomposition process to be complete
and generate gases like methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. The bio-gas is
Figure 14.4
stored in the gas tank above the digester from which Schematic diagram of a bio-gas plant
they are drawn through pipes for use.
Bio-gas is an excellent fuel as it contains up to 75% methane. It
burns without smoke, leaves no residue like ash in wood, charcoal and
coal burning. Its heating capacity is high. Bio-gas is also used for lighting.
The slurry left behind is removed periodically and used as excellent
manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphorous. The large-scale utilisation
of bio-waste and sewage material provides a safe and efficient method of
waste-disposal besides supplying energy and manure. Do you think
that bio-mass is a renewable source of energy?
Wind Energy
We saw in Class IX how unequal heating of the landmass
and water bodies by solar radiation generates air movement
and causes winds to blow. This kinetic energy of the wind
can be used to do work. This energy was harnessed by
windmills in the past to do mechanical work. For example,
in a water-lifting pump, the rotatory motion of windmill is
utilised to lift water from a well. Today, wind energy is also
used to generate electricity. A windmill essentially consists
of a structure similar to a large electric fan that is erected at
some height on a rigid support (Fig. 14.5).
To generate electricity, the rotatory motion of the windmill
is used to turn the turbine of the electric generator. The
output of a single windmill is quite small and cannot be used
for commercial purposes. Therefore, a number of windmills
are erected over a large area, which is known as wind energy
farm. The energy output of each windmill in a farm is coupled
together to get electricity on a commercial scale.
Figure 14.5 A windmill
Do You Know?
Denmark is called the country of ‘winds’. More than 25% of their electricity needs are
generated through a vast network of windmills. In terms of total output, Germany is
the leader, while India is ranked fifth in harnessing wind energy for the production of
electricity. It is estimated that nearly 45,000 MW of electrical power can be generated if
India’s wind potential is fully exploited. The largest wind energy farm has been
established near Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and it generates 380 MW of electricity.

Wind energy is an environment-friendly and efficient source of
renewable energy. It requires no recurring expenses for the production
of electricity. But there are many limitations in harnessing wind energy.
Firstly, wind energy farms can be established only at those places where
wind blows for the greater part of a year. The wind speed should also be
higher than 15 km/h to maintain the required speed of the turbine.
Furthermore, there should be some back-up facilities (like storage cells)
to take care of the energy needs during a period when there is no wind.
Establishment of wind energy farms requires large area of land. For a
1 MW generator, the farm needs about 2 hectares of land. The initial
cost of establishment of the farm is quite high. Moreover, since the tower
and blades are exposed to the vagaries of nature like rain, Sun, storm
and cyclone, they need a high level of maintenance.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What are the disadvantages of fossil fuels?
2. Why are we looking at alternate sources of energy?
3. How has the traditional use of wind and water energy been modified for
our convenience?
1 4 . 3 AL TERNA
ALTERNA TIVE OR NON-
TERNATIVE CONVENTIONAL
NON-CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES OF ENERGY
With technological progress, our demand for energy increases day by
day. Our life-styles are also changing, we use machines to do more and
more of our tasks. Our basic requirements are also increasing as
industrialisation improves our living standards.
Activity 14.4
Find out from your grand-parents or other elders –
(a) how did they go to school?
(b) how did they get water for their daily needs when they were young?
(c) what means of entertainment did they use?
Compare the above answers with how you do these tasks now.
Is there a difference? If yes, in which case more energy from
external sources is consumed?
As our demand for energy increases, we need to look for more and
more sources of energy. We could develop the technology to use the
available or known sources of energy more efficiently and also look to
new sources of energy. Any new source of energy we seek to exploit
would need specific devices developed with that source in mind. We shall
now look at some of the latest sources of energy that we seek to tap, and
the technology designed to capture and store energy from that source.
Think it over!
Some people say that if we start living as our ancestors, this would conserve energy and
our ecosystem. Do you think this idea is feasible?
248 Science
14.3.1 Solar Energy
The Sun has been radiating an enormous amount of energy at the present
rate for nearly 5 billion years and will continue radiating at that rate for
about 5 billion years more. Only a small part of solar energy reaches the
outer layer of the earth’s atmosphere. Nearly half of it is absorbed while
passing through the atmosphere and the rest reaches the earth’s surface.
Do You Know?
India is lucky to receive solar energy for greater part of the year. It is estimated that
during a year India receives the energy equivalent to more than 5,000 trillion kWh.
Under clear (cloudless) sky conditions, the daily average varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2.
The solar energy reaching unit area at outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere exposed
perpendicularly to the rays of the Sun at the average distance between the Sun and
earth is known as the solar constant. It is estimated to be approximately 1.4 kJ per
second per square metre or 1.4 kW/m2.
Activity 14.5
Take two conical flasks and paint one white and the other black.
Fill both with water.
Place the conical flasks in direct sunlight for half an hour to one
hour.
Touch the conical flasks. Which one is hotter? You could also
measure the temperature of the water in the two conical flasks
with a thermometer.
Can you think of ways in which this finding could be used in your
daily life?
A black surface absorbs more heat as

compared to a white or a reflecting surface
under identical conditions. Solar cookers
(Fig. 14.6) and solar water heaters use this
property in their working. Some solar cookers
achieve a higher temperature by using mirrors
to focus the rays of the Sun. Solar cookers are
covered with a glass plate. Recall what we have
learnt about the green-house effect. Does this
explain why a glass plate is used?
Activity 14.6
Study the structure and working of a
solar cooker and/or a solar water-heater,
particularly with regard to how it is Figure 14.6 A solar cooker
insulated and maximum heat absorption
is ensured.

Design and build a solar cooker or water-heater using low-cost
material available and check what temperatures are achieved in
your system.
Discuss what would be the advantages and limitations of using
the solar cooker or water-heater.
It is easy to see that these devices are useful only at certain times
during the day. This limitation of using solar energy is overcome by
using solar cells that convert solar energy into electricity. A typical cell
develops a voltage of 0.5–1 V and can produce about 0.7 W of electricity
when exposed to the Sun. A large number of solar cells are, combined
in an arrangement called solar cell panel (Fig. 14.7) that can deliver
enough electricity for practical use.
The principal advantages associated with solar cells are that they
have no moving parts, require little maintenance and work quite
satisfactorily without the use of any focussing device. Another advantage
is that they can be set up in remote and inaccessible hamlets or very
sparsely inhabited areas in which laying of a power transmission line
may be expensive and not commercially viable.
Silicon, which is used for making solar cells, is abundant in nature
Figure 14.7 but availability of the special grade silicon for making solar cells is limited.
A solar cell panel The entire process of manufacture is still very expensive, silver used for
interconnection of the cells in the panel further adds to the cost. In spite
of the high cost and low efficiency, solar cells are used for many scientific
and technological applications. Artificial satellites and space probes like
Mars orbiters use solar cells as the main source of energy. Radio or
wireless transmission systems or TV relay stations in remote locations
use solar cell panels. Traffic signals, calculators and many toys are fitted
with solar cells. The solar cell panels are mounted on specially designed
inclined roof tops so that more solar energy is incident over it. The
domestic use of solar cells is, however, limited due to its high cost.
14.3.2 Energy from the Sea

Tidal Energy
Due to the gravitational pull of mainly the moon on the spinning earth,
the level of water in the sea rises and falls. If you live near the sea or ever
travel to some place near the sea, try and observe how the sea-level
changes during the day. This phenomenon is called high and low tides
and the difference in sea-levels gives us tidal energy. Tidal energy is
harnessed by constructing a dam across a narrow opening to the sea. A
turbine fixed at the opening of the dam converts tidal energy to electricity.
As you can guess, the locations where such dams can be built are limited.
Wave Energy
Similarly, the kinetic energy possessed by huge waves near the sea-
shore can be trapped in a similar manner to generate electricity.
The waves are generated by strong winds blowing across the sea. Wave
energy would be a viable proposition only where waves are very strong.
A wide variety of devices have been developed to trap wave energy for
rotation of turbine and production of electricity.
250 Science
Ocean Thermal Energy
The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the Sun while
the water in deeper sections is relatively cold. This difference in
temperature is exploited to obtain energy in ocean-thermal-energy
conversion plants. These plants can operate if the temperature difference
between the water at the surface and water at depths up to 2 km is
293 K (20°C) or more. The warm surface-water is used to boil a volatile
liquid like ammonia. The vapours of the liquid are then used to run the
turbine of generator. The cold water from the depth of the ocean is
pumped up and condense vapour again to liquid.
The energy potential from the sea (tidal energy, wave energy and
ocean thermal energy) is quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation
is difficult.
14.3.3 Geothermal Energy

Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions
of earth’s crust are pushed upward and trapped in certain regions called
‘hot spots’. When underground water comes in contact with the hot spot,
steam is generated. Sometimes hot water from that region finds outlets
at the surface. Such outlets are known as hot springs. The steam trapped
in rocks is routed through a pipe to a turbine and used to generate
electricity. The cost of production would not be much, but there are
very few commercially viable sites where such energy can be exploited.
There are number of power plants based on geothermal energy
operational in New Zealand and United States of America.
14.3.4 Nuclear Energy

How is nuclear energy generated? In a process called nuclear fission,
the nucleus of a heavy atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium),
when bombarded with low-energy neutrons, can be split apart into lighter
nuclei. When this is done, a tremendous amount of energy is released if
the mass of the original nucleus is just a little more than the sum of the
masses of the individual products. The fission of an atom of uranium,
for example, produces 10 million times the energy produced by the
combustion of an atom of carbon from coal. In a nuclear reactor designed
for electric power generation, such nuclear ‘fuel’ can be part of a self-
sustaining fission chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled
rate. The released energy can be used to produce steam and further
generate electricity.
Do You Know?
In a nuclear fission, the difference in mass, Δm, between the original nucleus and the
product nuclei gets converted to energy E at a rate governed by the famous equation,
E = Δm c2,
first derived by Albert Einstein in 1905, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. In
nuclear science, energy is often expressed in units of electron volts (eV): 1 eV = 1.602
× 10–19 joules. It is easy to check from the above equation that 1 atomic mass unit (u)
is equivalent to about 931 mega electron volts (MeV) of energy.

Nuclear power reactors located at Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar
(Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP), Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga
(Karnataka) have the installed capacity of less than 3% of the total electricity generation
capacity of our country. However, many industrialised countries are meeting more
than 30% of their electrical power needs from nuclear reactors.
The major hazard of nuclear power generation is the storage and

disposal of spent or used fuels – the uranium still decaying into harmful
subatomic particles (radiations). Improper nuclear-waste storage and
disposal result in environmental contamination. Further, there is a risk
of accidental leakage of nuclear radiation. The high cost of installation
of a nuclear power plant, high risk of environmental contamination and
limited availability of uranium makes large-scale use of nuclear energy
prohibitive.
Nuclear energy was first used for destructive purposes before nuclear
power stations were designed. The fundamental physics of the fission
chain reaction in a nuclear weapon is similar to the physics of a controlled
nuclear reactor, but the two types of device are engineered quite
differently.
Nuclear fusion
Currently all commercial nuclear reactors are based on nuclear fission. But there is
another possibility of nuclear energy generation by a safer process called nuclear
fusion. Fusion means joining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus, most commonly
hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create helium, such as
Do You Know?
2
H + 2H → 3He (+ n)
It releases a tremendous amount of energy, according to the Einstein equation, as
the mass of the product is little less than the sum of the masses of the original individual
nuclei.
Such nuclear fusion reactions are the source of energy in the Sun and other stars. It
takes considerable energy to force the nuclei to fuse. The conditions needed for this
process are extreme – millions of degrees of temperature and millions of pascals of
pressure.
The hydrogen bomb is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear bomb based
on the fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb.
This nuclear bomb is embedded in a substance which contains deuterium and lithium.
When the nuclear bomb (based on fission) is detonated, the temperature of this substance
is raised to 107 K in a few microseconds. The high temperature generates sufficient
energy for the light nuclei to fuse and a devastating amount of energy is released.
Activity 14.7
Discuss in class the question of what is the ultimate source of
energy for bio-mass, wind and ocean thermal energy.
Is geothermal energy and nuclear energy different in this respect?
Why?
Where would you place hydro electricity and wave energy?
252 Science
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What kind of mirror – concave, convex or plain – would be best suited
for use in a solar cooker? Why?
2. What are the limitations of the energy that can be obtained from the
oceans?
3. What is geothermal energy?
4. What are the advantages of nuclear energy?
14.4 ENVIRONMENT AL CONSEQUENCES

ENVIRONMENTAL
We have studied various sources of energy in the previous sections.
Exploiting any source of energy disturbs the environment in some way
or the other. In any given situation, the source we would choose depends
on factors such as the ease of extracting energy from that source, the
economics of extracting energy from the source, the efficiency of the
technology available and the environmental damage that will be caused
by using that source. Though we talk of ‘clean’ fuels like CNG, it would
be more exact to say that a particular source is cleaner than the other.
We have already seen that burning fossil fuels causes air pollution. In
some cases, the actual operation of a device like the solar cell may be
pollution-free, but the assembly of the device would have caused some
environmental damage. Research continues in these areas to produce
longer lasting devices that will cause less damage throughout their life.
Activity 14.8
Gather information about various energy sources and how each
one affects the environment.
Debate the merits and demerits of each source and select the
best source of energy on this basis.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Can any source of energy be pollution-free? Why or why not?
2. Hydrogen has been used as a rocket fuel. Would you consider it a cleaner
fuel than CNG? Why or why not?
14.5 HOW LLONG

ONG WILL AN ENERGY SOURCE LLAST
AST US?
We saw earlier that we cannot depend on the fossil fuels for much longer.
Such sources that will get depleted some day are said to be exhaustible
sources or non-renewable sources of energy. On the other hand, if we
manage bio-mass by replacing the trees we cut down for fire-wood, we
can be assured of a constant supply of energy at a particular rate. Such
energy sources that can be regenerated are called renewable sources of
energy.

Renewable energy is available in our natural environment, in the
form of some continuing or repetitive currents of energy, or is stored in
such large underground reservoirs that the rate of depletion of the
reservoir because of extraction of usable energy is practically negligible.
Activity 14.9
Debate the following two issues in class.
(a) The estimated coal reserves are said to be enough to last us
for another two hundred years. Do you think we need to worry
about coal getting depleted in this case? Why or why not?
(b) It is estimated that the Sun will last for another five billion
years. Do we have to worry about solar energy getting
exhausted? Why or why not?
On the basis of the debate, decide which energy sources can be
considered (i) exhaustible, (ii) inexhaustible, (iii) renewable and
(iv) non-renewable. Give your reasons for each choice.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Name two energy sources that you would consider to be renewable. Give
reasons for your choices.
2. Give the names of two energy sources that you would consider to be
exhaustible. Give reasons for your choices.

Our energy requirements increase with our standard of living.
In order to fulfil our energy requirements, we try to improve the efficiency of energy
usage and also try and exploit new sources of energy.
We also need to look for new sources of energy because the conventional sources of
energy like fossil fuels are in danger of getting exhausted soon.
The energy source we select would depend on factors like the ease and cost of
extracting energy from the source, the efficiency of the technology available for
using that source of energy and the environmental impact of using that source.
Many of the sources ultimately derive their energy from the Sun.
E X E R C I S E S
1. A solar water heater cannot be used to get hot water on
(a) a sunny day. (b) a cloudy day.
(c) a hot day. (d) a windy day.
254 Science
2. Which of the following is not an example of a bio-mass energy source?
(a) wood (b) gobar-gas
(c) nuclear energy (d) coal
3. Most of the sources of energy we use represent stored solar energy. Which of the
following is not ultimately derived from the Sun’s energy?
(a) geothermal energy (b) wind energy
(c) nuclear energy (d) bio-mass.
4. Compare and contrast fossil fuels and the Sun as direct sources of energy.
5. Compare and contrast bio-mass and hydro electricity as sources of energy.
6. What are the limitations of extracting energy from—
(a) the wind? (b) waves? (c) tides?
7. On what basis would you classify energy sources as
(a) renewable and non-renewable?
(b) exhaustible and inexhaustible?
Are the options given in (a) and (b) the same?
8. What are the qualities of an ideal source of energy?
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker? Are there
places where solar cookers would have limited utility?
10. What are the environmental consequences of the increasing demand for energy?
What steps would you suggest to reduce energy consumption?

CHAPTER 15
Our Environment
W e have heard the word ‘environment’ often being used on the

television, in newspapers and by people around us. Our elders tell
us that the ‘environment’ is not what it used to be earlier; others say that
we should work in a healthy ‘environment’; and global summits involving
the developed and developing countries are regularly held to discuss
‘environmental’ issues. In this chapter, we shall be studying how various
factors in the environment interact with each other and how we impact
the environment. In Class IX, we saw how different materials are cycled
in the environment in separate biogeochemical cycles. In these cycles,
essential nutrients like nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and water are changed
from one form to another. We shall now see how human activities affect
these cycles.
1 5 . 1 WHA
WHATT HAPPENS WHEN WE ADD OUR WASTE TO
WASTE
THE ENVIRONMENT?
In our daily activities, we generate a lot of material that are thrown
away. What are some of these waste materials? What happens after we
throw them away? Let us perform an activity to find answers to these
questions.
Activity 15.1
Collect waste material from your homes. This could include all
the waste generated during a day, like kitchen waste (spoilt food,
vegetable peels, used tea leaves, milk packets and empty cartons),
waste paper, empty medicine bottles/strips/bubble packs, old and
torn clothes and broken footwear.
Bury this material in a pit in the school garden or if there is no
space available, you can collect the material in an old bucket/
flower pot and cover with at least 15 cm of soil.
Keep this material moist and observe at 15-day intervals.
What are the materials that remain unchanged over long periods
of time?
What are the materials which change their form and structure
over time?
Of these materials that are changed, which ones change the
fastest?
256 Science
We have seen in the chapter on ‘Life Processes’ that the food we eat is
digested by various enzymes in our body. Have you ever wondered why
the same enzyme does not break-down everything we eat? Enzymes are
specific in their action, specific enzymes are needed for the break-down
of a particular substance. That is why we will not get any energy if we
try to eat coal! Because of this, many human-made materials like plastics
will not be broken down by the action of bacteria or other saprophytes.
These materials will be acted upon by physical processes like heat and
pressure, but under the ambient conditions found in our environment,
these persist for a long time.
Substances that are broken down by biological processes are said
to be biodegradable. How many of the substances you buried were
biodegradable? Substances that are not broken down in this manner
are said to be non-biodegradable. These substances may be inert and
simply persist in the environment for a long time or may harm the various
members of the eco-system.
Activity 15.2
Use the library or internet to find out more about biodegradable
and non-biodegradable substances.
How long are various non-biodegradable substances expected to
last in our environment?
These days, new types of plastics which are said to be biodegradable
are available. Find out more about such materials and whether
they do or do not harm the environment.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Why are some substances biodegradable and some non-biodegradable?
2. Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the
environment.
3. Give any two ways in which non-biodegradable substances would affect
the environment.
15.2 ECO -SYSTEM — WHA

ECO-SYSTEM WHATT ARE ITS COMPONENTS?
All organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms and human
beings as well as the physical surroundings interact with each other
and maintain a balance in nature. All the interacting organisms in an
area together with the non-living constituents of the environment form
an ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem consists of biotic components
comprising living organisms and abiotic components comprising
physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals.
For example, if you visit a garden you will find different plants, such
as grasses, trees; flower bearing plants like rose, jasmine, sunflower;
Our Environment 257

and animals like frogs, insects and birds. All these living organisms
interact with each other and their growth, reproduction and other
activities are affected by the abiotic components of ecosystem. So a garden
is an ecosystem. Other types of ecosystems are forests, ponds and lakes.
These are natural ecosystems while gardens and crop-fields are human-
made (artificial) ecosystems.
Activity 15.3
You might have seen an aquarium. Let us try to design one.
What are the things that we need to keep in mind when we create
an aquarium? The fish would need a free space for swimming (it
could be a large jar), water, oxygen and food.
We can provide oxygen through an oxygen pump (aerator) and
fish food which is available in the market.
If we add a few aquatic plants and animals it can become a self-
sustaining system. Can you think how this happens? An aquarium
is an example of a human-made ecosystem.
Can we leave the aquarium as such after we set it up? Why does
it have to be cleaned once in a while? Do we have to clean ponds
or lakes in the same manner? Why or why not?
We have seen in earlier classes that organisms can be grouped as

producers, consumers and decomposers according to the manner in
which they obtain their sustenance from the environment. Let us recall
what we have learnt through the self sustaining ecosystem created by
us above. Which organisms can make organic compounds like sugar
and starch from inorganic substances using the radiant energy of the
Sun in the presence of chlorophyll? All green plants and certain blue-
green algae which can produce food by photosynthesis come under this
category and are called the producers.
Organisms depend on the producers either directly or indirectly for
their sustenance? These organisms which consume the food produced,
either directly from producers or indirectly by feeding on other consumers
are the consumers. Consumers can be classed variously as herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores and parasites. Can you give examples for each of
these categories of consumers?
Imagine the situation where you do not clean the aquarium and
some fish and plants have died. Have you ever thought what
happens when an organism dies? The microorganisms, comprising
bacteria and fungi, break-down the dead remains and waste
products of organisms. These microorganisms are the decomposers
as they break-down the complex organic substances into simple
inorganic substances that go into the soil and are used up once
more by the plants. What will happen to the garbage, and dead
animals and plants in their absence? Will the natural replenishment
of the soil take place, even if decomposers are not there?
258 Science
Activity 15.4
While creating an aquarium did you take care not to put an aquatic
animal which would eat others? What would have happened
otherwise?
Make groups and discuss how each of the above groups of
organisms are dependent on each other.
Write the aquatic organisms in order of who eats whom and form
a chain of at least three steps. → →
Would you consider any one group of organisms to be of primary
importance? Why or why not?
15.2.1 Food Chains and Webs

In Activity 15.4 we have formed a series of organisms feeding
on one another. This series or organisms taking part at various
biotic levels form a food chain (Fig. 15.1).
Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level.
The autotrophs or the producers are at the first trophic level.
They fix up the solar energy and make it available for
heterotrophs or the consumers. The herbivores or the primary
consumers come at the second, small carnivores or the
secondary consumers at the third and larger carnivores or
the tertiary consumers form the fourth trophic level (Fig. 15.2).
We know that the food we eat acts as a fuel to provide us
energy to do work. Thus the interactions among various
components of the environment involves flow of energy from
one component of the system to another. As we have studied,
the autotrophs capture the energy present in sunlight and
convert it into chemical energy. This energy supports all the
activities of the living world. From autotrophs, the energy goes Figure 15.1
to the heterotrophs and decomposers. However, as we saw in Food chain in nature
the previous Chapter on ‘Sources of Energy’, when one form (a) in forest, (b) in
of energy is changed to another, some energy is lost to the grassland and (c) in a
pond
environment in forms which cannot be used again. The flow
of energy between various components of the environment
has been extensively studied and it has been found that –
The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem capture about
1% of the energy of sunlight that falls on their leaves and
convert it into food energy.
When green plants are eaten by primary consumers, a great
deal of energy is lost as heat to the environment, some amount
goes into digestion and in doing work and the rest goes
towards growth and reproduction. An average of 10% of the
food eaten is turned into its own body and made available for
the next level of consumers.
Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average value for the
amount of organic matter that is present at each step and Figure 15.2
reaches the next level of consumers. Trophic levels
Our Environment 259

Since so little energy is available for the
next level of consumers, food chains
generally consist of only three or four
steps. The loss of energy at each step is
so great that very little usable energy
remains after four trophic levels.
There are generally a greater number
of individuals at the lower trophic levels
of an ecosystem, the greatest number
is of the producers.
The length and complexity of food
chains vary greatly. Each organism is
generally eaten by two or more other
kinds of organisms which in turn are
eaten by several other organisms. So
instead of a straight line food chain, the
relationship can be shown as a series
of branching lines called a food web
(Fig. 15.3).
From the energy flow diagram (Fig. 15.4),
two things become clear. Firstly, the flow of
energy is unidirectional. The energy that is
captured by the autotrophs does not revert
back to the solar input and the energy which
passes to the herbivores does not come back
Figure 15.3 to autotrophs. As it moves progressively
Food web, consisting of many food chains through the various trophic levels it is no
longer available to the previous level.
Figure 15.4 Diagram showing flow of energy in an ecosystem
260 Science
Another interesting aspect of food chain is how unknowingly some
harmful chemicals enter our bodies through the food chain. You have
read in Class IX how water gets polluted. One of the reasons is the use of
several pesticides and other chemicals to protect our crops from diseases
and pests. These chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into
the water bodies. From the soil, these are absorbed by the plants along
with water and minerals, and from the water bodies these are taken up
by aquatic plants and animals. This is one of the ways in which they
enter the food chain. As these chemicals are not degradable, these get
accumulated progressively at each trophic level. As human beings occupy
the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration of these
chemicals get accumulated in our bodies. This phenomenon is known
as biological magnification. This is the reason why our food grains such
as wheat and rice, vegetables and fruits, and even meat, contain varying
amounts of pesticide residues. They cannot always be removed by
washing or other means.
Activity 15.5
Newspaper reports about pesticide levels in ready-made food items
are often seen these days and some states have banned these
products. Debate in groups the need for such bans.
What do you think would be the source of pesticides in these food
items? Could pesticides get into our bodies from this source through
other food products too?
Discuss what methods could be applied to reduce our intake of
pesticides.
Q U E S T I O N S
1.
2.
What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the
different trophic levels in it.
What is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem? ?
1 5 . 3 HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE
ENVIRONMENT?
We are an integral part of the environment. Changes in the environment
affect us and our activities change the environment around us. We have
already seen in Class IX how our activities pollute the environment. In
this chapter, we shall be looking at two of the environmental problems
in detail, that is, depletion of the ozone layer and waste disposal.
Our Environment 261

15.3.1 Ozone Layer and How it is Getting Depleted
Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen. While O2,
which we normally refer to as oxygen, is essential for all aerobic forms of
life. Ozone, is a deadly poison. However, at the higher levels of the
atmosphere, ozone performs an essential function. It shields the surface
of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. This radiation
is highly damaging to organisms, for example, it is known to cause skin
cancer in human beings.
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV
radiation acting on oxygen (O 2) molecule. The higher energy UV
radiations split apart some moleculer oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O)
atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form
ozone as shown—
O2 ⎯⎯⎯
UV
→O+O
O + O2 → O3
(Ozone)
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in
the 1980s. This decrease has been linked to synthetic chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and in fire
extinguishers. In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at
1986 levels.
Activity 15.6
Find out from the library, internet or newspaper reports, which
chemicals are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
Find out if the regulations put in place to control the emission of
these chemicals have succeeded in reducing the damage to the
ozone layer. Has the size of the hole in the ozone layer changed in
recent years?
15.3.2 Managing the Garbage we Produce

Visit any town or city, and we are sure to find heaps of garbage all over
the place. Visit any place of tourist interest and we are sure to find the
place littered with empty food wrappers. In the earlier classes we have
talked about this problem of dealing with the garbage that we generate.
Let us now look at the problem a bit more deeply.
Activity 15.7
Find out what happens to the waste generated at home. Is there a
system in place to collect this waste?
Find out how the local body (panchayat, municipal corporation,
resident welfare association) deals with the waste. Are there
mechanisms in place to treat the biodegradable and non-
biodegradable wastes separately?
262 Science
Activity 15.8
Calculate how much waste is generated at home in a day.
How much of this waste is biodegradable?
Calculate how much waste is generated in the classroom
in a day.
How much of this waste is biodegradable?
Suggest ways of dealing with this waste.
Activity 15.9
Find out how the sewage in your locality is treated. Are there
mechanisms in place to ensure that local water bodies are not
polluted by untreated sewage.
Find out how the local industries in your locality treat their wastes.
Are there mechanisms in place to ensure that the soil and water
are not polluted by this waste?
Improvements in our life-style have resulted in greater amounts of

waste material generation. Changes in attitude also have a role to play,
with more and more things we use becoming disposable. Changes in
packaging have resulted in much of our waste becoming non-
biodegradable. What do you think will be the impact of these on our
environment?
Think it over
Disposable cups in trains
If you ask your parents, they will probably remember a time when tea in trains was
served in plastic glasses which had to be returned to the vendor. The introduction of
disposable cups was hailed as a step forward for reasons of hygiene. No one at that time
perhaps thought about the impact caused by the disposal of millions of these cups on a
daily basis. Some time back, kulhads, that is, disposable cups made of clay, were
suggested as an alternative. But a little thought showed that making these kulhads on
a large scale would result in the loss of the fertile top-soil. Now disposable paper-cups
are being used. What do you think are the advantages of disposable paper-cups over
disposable plastic cups?
Activity 15.10
Search the internet or library to find out what hazardous materials
have to be dealt with while disposing of electronic items. How would
these materials affect the environment?
Find out how plastics are recycled. Does the recycling process
have any impact on the environment?
Our Environment 263

Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What is ozone and how does it affect any ecosystem?
2. How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any
two methods.

The various components of an ecosystem are interdependent.
The producers make the energy from sunlight available to the rest of the ecosystem.
There is a loss of energy as we go from one trophic level to the next, this limits the
number of trophic levels in a food-chain.
Human activities have an impact on the environment.
The use of chemicals like CFCs has endangered the ozone layer. Since the ozone
layer protects against the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, this could damage
the environment.
The waste we generate may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
The disposal of the waste we generate is causing serious environmental problems.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Which of the following groups contain only biodegradable items?
(a) Grass, flowers and leather
(b) Grass, wood and plastic
(c) Fruit-peels, cake and lime-juice
(d) Cake, wood and grass
2. Which of the following constitute a food-chain?
(a) Grass, wheat and mango
(b) Grass, goat and human
(c) Goat, cow and elephant
(d) Grass, fish and goat
3. Which of the following are environment-friendly practices?
(a) Carrying cloth-bags to put purchases in while shopping
(b) Switching off unnecessary lights and fans
(c) Walking to school instead of getting your mother to drop you on her scooter
(d) All of the above
264 Science
4. What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
5. Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for
different trophic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without
causing any damage to the ecosystem?
6. What is biological magnification? Will the levels of this magnification be different at
different levels of the ecosystem?
7. What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
8. If all the waste we generate is biodegradable, will this have no impact on the
environment?
9. Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern? What steps are being taken
to limit this damage?
Our Environment 265

CHAPTER 16
Management of
Natural Resources
W e learnt in Class IX, about some natural resources like soil, air
and water and how various components are cycled over and over
again in nature. In the previous chapter we also learnt about the pollution
of these resources because of some of our activities. In this chapter, we
shall look at some of our resources and how we are using them. May be
we should also think about how we ought to be using our resources so
as to sustain the resources and conserve our environment. We shall be
looking at our natural resources like forests, wild-life, water, coal and
petroleum and see what are the issues at stake in deciding how these
resources are to be managed for sustainable development.
We often hear or read about environmental problems. These are often
global-level problems and we feel helpless to make any changes. There
are international laws and regulations, and then there are our own
national laws and acts for environmental protection. There are also
national and international organisations working towards protecting our
environment.
Activity 16.1
Find out about the international norms to regulate the emission
of carbon dioxide.
Have a discussion in class about how we can contribute towards
meeting those norms.
Activity 16.2
There are a number of organisations that seek to spread awareness
about our environment and promote activities and attitudes that
lead to the conservation of our environment and natural resources.
Find out about the organisation(s) active in your neighbourhood/
village/town/city.
Find out how you can contribute towards the same cause.
Awareness about the problems caused by unthinkingly exploiting

our resources has been a fairly recent phenomenon in our society. And
once this awareness rises, some action is usually taken. You must have
heard about the Ganga Action Plan. This multi-crore project came about
in 1985 because the quality of the water in the Ganga was very poor
266 Science
(see Fig. 16.1). Coliform is a group of bacteria, found in human intestines,
whose presence in water indicates contamination by disease-causing
microorganisms.
MPN: most probable number mL: millilitre

u/s: upstream d/s: downstream
Figure 16.1 Total coliform count levels in the Ganga (1993-1994)
Source: Anon 1996, Water Quality – Status and Statistics (1993 & 1994),
Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi, p.11.
Do You Know?
Pollution of the Ganga

The Ganga runs its course of over 2500 km from Gangotri in the Himalayas to Ganga
Sagar in the Bay of Bengal. It is being turned into a drain by more than a hundred
towns and cities in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal that pour their garbage
and excreta into it. Largely untreated sewage is dumped into the Ganges every
day. In addition, think of the pollution caused by other human activities like
bathing, washing of clothes and immersion of ashes or unburnt corpses. And then,
industries contribute chemical effluents to the Ganga’s pollution load and the
toxicity kills fish in large sections of the river.
As you can see, there are some measurable factors which are used
to quantify pollution or the quality of the water that we use for various
activities. Some of the pollutants are harmful even when present in very
small quantities and we require sophisticated equipment to measure
them. But as we learnt in Chapter 2, the pH of water is something that
can easily be checked using universal indicator.
Management of Natural Resources 267

Activity 16.3
Check the pH of the water supplied to your house using universal
indicator or litmus paper.
Also check the pH of the water in the local water body (pond, river,
lake, stream).
Can you say whether the water is polluted or not on the basis of
your observations?
But we need not feel powerless or overwhelmed by the scale of the

problems because there are many things we can do to make a difference.
You must have come across the three R’s to save the environment: Reduce,
Recycle and Reuse. What do they refer to?
Reduce: This means that you use less. You save electricity by switching
off unnecessary lights and fans. You save water by repairing
leaky taps. You do not waste food. Can you think of other
things that you can reduce the usage of ?
Recycle: This means that you collect plastic, paper, glass and metal
items and recycle these materials to make required things
instead of synthesising or extracting fresh plastic, paper, glass
or metal. In order to recycle, we first need to segregate our
wastes so that the material that can be recycled is not dumped
along with other wastes. Does your village/town/city have a
mechanism in place for recycling these materials?
Reuse: This is actually even better than recycling because the process
of recycling uses some energy. In the ‘reuse’ strategy, you
simply use things again and again. Instead of throwing away
used envelopes, you can reverse it and use it again. The plastic
bottles in which you buy various food-items like jam or pickle
can be used for storing things in the kitchen. What other items
can we reuse?
But even while making everyday choices, we can make environment-
friendly decisions. For doing this, we need to know more about how our
choices affect the environment, these effects may be immediate or long-
term or long-ranging. The concept of sustainable development
encourages forms of growth that meet current basic human needs, while
preserving the resources for the needs of future generations. Economic
development is linked to environmental conservation. Thus sustainable
development implies a change in all aspects of life. It depends upon the
willingness of the people to change their perceptions of the socio-economic
and environmental conditions around them, and the readiness of each
individual to alter their present use of natural resources.
Activity 16.4
Have you ever visited a town or village after a few years of absence?
If so, have you noticed new roads and houses that have come up
since you were there last? Where do you think the materials for
making these roads and buildings have come from?
Try and make a list of the materials and their probable sources.
Discuss the list you have prepared with your classmates. Can
you think of ways in which the use of these materials be reduced?
268 Science
16.1 WHY DO WE NEED TO MANAGE OUR RESOURCES?
Not just roads and buildings, but all the things we use or consume –
food, clothes, books, toys, furniture, tools and vehicles – are obtained
from resources on this earth. The only thing we get from outside is energy
which we receive from the Sun. Even this energy is processed by living
organisms and various physical and chemical processes on the earth
before we make use of it.
Why do we need to use our resources carefully? Because these are
not unlimited and with the human population increasing at a
tremendous rate due to improvement in health-care, the demand for all
resources is increasing at an exponential rate. The management of
natural resources requires a long-term perspective so that these will
last for the generations to come and will not merely be exploited to the
hilt for short term gains. This management should also ensure equitable
distribution of resources so that all, and not just a handful of rich and
powerful people, benefit from the development of these resources.
Another factor to be considered while we exploit these natural
resources is the damage we cause to the environment while these
resources are either extracted or used. For example, mining causes
pollution because of the large amount of slag which is discarded for
every tonne of metal extracted. Hence, sustainable natural resource
management demands that we plan for the safe disposal of these
wastes too.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What changes can you make in your habits to become more environment-
friendly?
2. What would be the advantages of exploiting resources with short-term
aims?
3. How would these advantages differ from the advantages of using a long-
term perspective in managing our resources?
4. Why do you think there should be equitable distribution of resources?
What forces would be working against an equitable distribution of our
resources?
16.2 FORESTS AND WILD LIFE

Forests are ‘biodiversity hot spots’. One measure of the biodiversity of
an area is the number of species found there. However, the range of
different life forms (bacteria, fungi, ferns, flowering plants, nematodes,
insects, birds, reptiles and so on) is also important. One of the main
aims of conservation is to try and preserve the biodiversity we have
inherited. Experiments and field studies suggest that a loss of diversity
may lead to a loss of ecological stability.

16.2.1 Stakeholders
Activity 16.5
Make a list of forest produce that you use.
What do you think a person living near a forest would use?
What do you think a person living in a forest would use?
Discuss with your classmates how these needs differ or do not
differ and the reasons for the same.
We all use various forest produce. But our dependency on forest

resources varies. Some of us have access to alternatives, some do not.
When we consider the conservation of forests, we need to look at the
stakeholders who are –
(i) the people who live in or around forests are dependent on forest
produce for various aspects of their life (see Fig. 16.2).
(ii) the Forest Department of the Government which owns the land
and controls the resources from forests.
(iii) the industrialists – from those who use ‘tendu’ leaves to make
bidis to the ones with paper mills – who use various forest produce,
but are not dependent on the forests in any one area.
(iv) the wild life and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature
in its pristine form.
Let us take a look at what each of these groups
needs/gets out of the forests. The local people
need large quantities of firewood, small timber
and thatch. Bamboo is used to make slats for huts,
and baskets for collecting and storing food
materials. Implements for agriculture, fishing and
hunting are largely made of wood, also forests
are sites for fishing and hunting. In addition to
people gathering fruits, nuts and medicines from
the forests, their cattle also graze in forest areas
or feed on other fodder which is collected from
forests.
Figure 16.2
Do you think such use of forest resources would lead to the
A view of a forest life
exhaustion of these resources? Do not forget that before the British came
and took over most of our forest areas, people had been living in these
forests for centuries. They had developed practices to ensure that the
resources were used in a sustainable manner. After the British took
control of the forests (which they exploited ruthlessly for their own
purposes), these people were forced to depend on much smaller areas
and forest resources started becoming over-exploited to some extent.
The Forest Department in independent India took over from the British
but local knowledge and local needs continued to be ignored in the
management practices. Thus vast tracts of forests have been converted
to monocultures of pine, teak or eucalyptus. In order to plant these
trees, huge areas are first cleared of all vegetation. This destroys a large
amount of biodiversity in the area. Not only this, the varied needs of the
270 Science
local people – leaves for fodder, herbs for medicines, fruits and nuts for
food – can no longer be met from such forests. Such plantations are
useful for the industries to access specific products and are an important
source of revenue for the Forest Department.
Do you know how many industries are based on forest produce? A
short count reveals timber, paper, lac and sports equipment.
Activity 16.6
Find out about any two forest produce that are the basis for an
industry.
Discuss whether this industry is sustainable in the long run. Or
do we need to control our consumption of these products?
Industries would consider the forest as merely a source of raw

material for its factories. And huge interest-groups lobby the government
for access to these raw materials at artificially low rates. Since these
industries have a greater reach than the local people, they are not
interested in the sustainability of the forest in one particular area. For
example, after cutting down all the teak trees in one area, they will get
their teak from a forest farther away. They do not have any stake in
ensuring that one particular area should yield on optimal amount of
some produce for all generations to come. What do you think will stop
the local people in behaving in a similar manner?
Lastly, we come to the nature and wildlife enthusiasts who are in no
way dependent on the forests, but who may have considerable say in
their management. The conservationists were initially taken up with large
animals like lions, tigers, elephants and rhinoceros. They now recognise
the need to preserve biodiversity as a whole. But shouldn’t we recognise
people as forming part of the forest system? There have been enough
instances of local people working traditionally for conservation of forests.
For example, the case of the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan, for whom
conservation of forest and wildlife has been a religious tenet. The
Government of India has recently instituted an ‘Amrita Devi Bishnoi
National Award for Wildlife Conservation’ in the memory of Amrita Devi
Bishnoi, who in 1731 sacrificed her life along with 363 others for the
protection of ‘khejri’ trees in Khejrali village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
Studies have shown that the prejudice against the traditional use of
forest areas has no basis. Here is an example – the great Himalayan
National Park contains, within its reserved area, alpine meadows which
were grazed by sheep in summer. Nomadic shepherds drove their flock
up from the valleys every summer. When this national park was formed,
this practice was put to an end. Now it is seen that without the regular
grazing by sheep the grass first grows very tall, and then falls over
preventing fresh growth.
Management of protected areas, by keeping the local people out, by
using force cannot possibly be successful in the long run. In any case, the
damage caused to forests cannot be attributed to only the local people –
one cannot turn a blind eye to the deforestation caused by industrial

needs or development projects like building roads or dams. The damage
caused in these reserves by tourists or the arrangements made for their
convenience is also to be considered.
We need to accept that human intervention has been very much a
part of the forest landscape. What has to be managed in the nature and
extent of this intervention. Forest resources ought to be used in a manner
that is both environmentally and developmentally sound – in other words,
while the environment is preserved, the benefits of the controlled
exploitation go to the local people, a process in which decentralised
economic growth and ecological conservation go hand in hand. The kind
of economic and social development we want will ultimately determine
whether the environment will be conserved or further destroyed. The
environment must not be regarded as a pristine collection of plants and
animals. It is a vast and complex entity that offers a range of natural
resources for our use. We need to use these resources with due caution
for our economic and social growth, and to meet our material aspirations.
16.2.2 Sustainable Management

We need to consider if the goals of all the above stakeholders with regard
to the management of the forests are the same. Forest resources are
often made available for industrial use at rates far below the market
value while these are denied to the local people. The Chipko Andolan
(‘Hug the Trees Movement’) was the result of a grassroot level effort to
end the alienation of people from their forests. The movement originated
from an incident in a remote village called Reni in Garhwal, high-up in
the Himalayas during the early 1970s. There was a dispute between the
local villagers and a logging contractor who had been allowed to fell
trees in a forest close to the village. On a particular day, the contractor’s
workers appeared in the forest to cut the trees while the men folk were
absent. Undeterred, the women of the village reached the forest quickly
and clasped the tree trunks thus preventing the workers from felling the
trees. Thus thwarted, the contractor had to withdraw.
Inherent in such a competition to control a natural resource is the
conservation of a replenishable resource. Specifically the method of use
was being called into question. The contractor would have felled the
trees, destroying them forever. The communities traditionally lop the
branches and pluck the leaves, allowing the resource to replenish over
time. The Chipko movement quickly spread across communities and
media, and forced the government, to whom the forest belongs, to rethink
their priorities in the use of forest produce. Experience has taught people
that the destruction of forests affected not just the availability of forest
products, but also the quality of soil and the sources of water.
Participation of the local people can indeed lead to the efficient
management of forests.
An Example of People’s Participation in the Management of Forests
In 1972, the West Bengal Forest Department recognised its failures in
reviving the degraded Sal forests in the southwestern districts of the
state. Traditional methods of surveillance and policing had led to a
272 Science
‘complete alienation of the people from the administration’, resulting in
frequent clashes between forest officials and villagers. Forest and land
related conflicts in the region were also a major factor in fuelling the
militant peasant movements led by the Naxalites.
Accordingly, the Department changed its strategy, making a
beginning in the Arabari forest range of Midnapore district. Here, at the
instance of a far-seeing forest officer, A.K. Banerjee, villagers were involved
in the protection of 1,272 hectares of badly degraded sal forest. In return
for help in protection, villagers were given employment in both silviculture
and harvesting operations, 25 per cent of the final harvest, and allowed
fuelwood and fodder collection on payment of a nominal fee. With the
active and willing participation of the local community, the sal forests of
Arabari underwent a remarkable recovery – by 1983, a previously
worthless forest was valued Rs 12.5 crores.
Activity 16.7
Debate the damage caused to forests by the following –
(a) Building rest houses for tourists in national parks.
(b) Grazing domestic animals in national parks.
(c) Tourists throwing plastic bottles/covers and other litter in
national parks.
Q U E S T I O N S
1.
2.
Why should we conserve forests and wildlife?
Suggest some approaches towards the conservation of forests.
?
16.3 WATER FOR ALL
Activity 16.8
Villages suffering from chronic water shortage surround a water
theme park in Maharashtra. Debate whether this is the optimum
use of the available water.
Water is a basic necessity for all terrestrial forms of life. We studied in

Class IX about the importance of water as a resource, the water cycle
and how human intervention pollutes water bodies. However, human
intervention also changes the availability of water in various regions.
Activity 16.9
Study the rainfall patterns in India from an atlas.
Identify the regions where water is abundant and the regions of
water scarcity.

After the above activity, would you be very surprised to learn that
regions of water scarcity are closely correlated to the regions of acute
poverty?
A study of rainfall patterns does not reveal the whole truth behind
the water availability in various regions in India. Rains in India are largely
due to the monsoons. This means that most of the rain falls in a few
months of the year. Despite nature’s monsoon bounty, failure to sustain
water availability underground has resulted largely from the loss of
vegetation cover, diversion for high water demanding crops, and pollution
from industrial effluents and urban wastes. Irrigation methods like dams,
tanks and canals have been used in various parts of India since ancient
times. These were generally local interventions managed by local people
and assured that the basic minimum requirements for both agriculture
and daily needs were met throughout the year. The use of this stored
water was strictly regulated and the optimum cropping patterns based
on the water availability were arrived at on the basis of decades/centuries
of experience, the maintenance of these irrigation systems was also a
local affair,
The arrival of the British changed these systems as it changed many
other things. The conception of large scale projects – large dams and
canals traversing large distances were first conceived and implemented
by the British and carried on with no less gusto by our newly formed
independent government. These mega-projects led to the neglect of the
local irrigation methods, and the government also increasingly took over
the administration of these systems leading to the loss of control over
the local water sources by the local people.
More to Know!
Kulhs in Himachal Pradesh

Parts of Himachal Pradesh had evolved a local system of canal irrigation called kulhs
over four hundred years ago. The water flowing in the streams was diverted into
man-made channels which took this water to numerous villages down the hillside.
The management of the water flowing in these kulhs was by common agreement among
all the villages. Interestingly, during the planting season, water was first used by the
village farthest away from the source of the kulh, then by villages progressively higher
up. These kulhs were managed by two or three people who were paid by the villagers.
In addition to irrigation, water from these kulhs also percolated into the soil and fed
springs at various points. After the kulhs were taken over by the Irrigation Department,
most of them became defunct and there is no amicable sharing of water as before.
16.3.1 Dams
Why do we seek to build dams? Large dams can ensure the storage of
adequate water not just for irrigation, but also for generating electricity,
as discussed in the previous chapter. Canal systems leading from these
dams can transfer large amounts of water great distances. For example,
the Indira Gandhi Canal has brought greenery to considerable areas of
Rajasthan. However, mismanagement of the water has largely led to the
benefits being cornered by a few people. There is no equitable distribution
274 Science
of water, thus people close to the source grow water intensive crops like
sugarcane and rice while people farther downstream do not get any water.
The woes of these people who have been promised benefits which never
arrived are added to the discontentment among the people who have
been displaced by the building of the dam and its canal network.
In the previous chapter, we mentioned the reasons for opposition to
the construction of large dams, such as the Tehri Dam on the river Ganga.
You must have read about the protests by the Narmada Bachao Andolan
(‘Save the Narmada Movement’) about raising the height of the Sardar
Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada. Criticisms about large dams address
three problems in particular –
(i) Social problems because they displace large number of peasants
and tribals without adequate compensation or rehabilitation,
(ii) Economic problems because they swallow up huge amounts of
public money without the generation of proportionate benefits,
(iii) Environmental problems because they contribute enormously
to deforestation and the loss of biological diversity.
The people who have been displaced by various development projects
are largely poor tribals who do not get any benefits from these projects
and are alienated from their lands and forests without adequate
compensation. The oustees of the Tawa Dam built in the 1970s are still
fighting for the benefits they were promised.
16.3.2 Water Harvesting

Watershed management emphasises scientific soil and water
conservation in order to increase the biomass production. The aim is to
develop primary resources of land and water, to produce secondary
resources of plants and animals for use in a manner which will not cause
ecological imbalance. Watershed management not only increases the
production and income of the watershed community, but also mitigates
droughts and floods and increases the life of the downstream dam and
reservoirs. Various organisations have been working on rejuvenating
ancient systems of water harvesting as an alternative to the ‘mega-projects’
like dams. These communities have used hundreds of indigenous water
saving methods to capture every trickle of water that had fallen on their
land; dug small pits and lakes, put in place simple watershed systems,
built small earthen dams, constructed dykes, sand and limestone
reservoirs, set up rooftop water-collecting units. This has recharged
groundwater levels and even brought rivers back to life.
Water harvesting is an age-old concept in India. Khadins, tanks
and nadis in Rajasthan, bandharas and tals in Maharashtra, bundhis
in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, ahars and pynes in Bihar,
kulhs in Himachal Pradesh, ponds in the Kandi belt of Jammu region,
and eris (tanks) in Tamil Nadu, surangams in Kerala, and kattas in
Karnataka are some of the ancient water harvesting, including water
conveyance, structures still in use today (see Fig. 16.3 for an
example). Water harvesting techniques are highly locale specific and
the benefits are also localised. Giving people control over their local
water resources ensures that mismanagement and over-exploitation
of these resources is reduced/removed.

Figure 16.3 Traditional water harvesting system — an ideal setting of the khadin system
In largely level terrain, the water harvesting structures are mainly

crescent shaped earthen embankments or low, straight concrete-and-
rubble “check dams” built across seasonally flooded gullies. Monsoon
rains fill ponds behind the structures. Only the largest structures hold
water year round; most dry up six months or less after the monsoons.
Their main purpose, however, is not to hold surface water but to recharge
the ground water beneath. The advantages of water stored in the ground
are many. It does not evaporate, but spreads out to recharge wells and
provides moisture for vegetation over a wide area. In addition, it does
not provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes like stagnant water collected
in ponds or artificial lakes. The ground-water is also relatively protected
from contamination by human and animal waste.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Find out about the traditional systems of water harvesting/management
in your region.
2. Compare the above system with the probable systems in hilly/
mountainous areas or plains or plateau regions.
3. Find out the source of water in your region/locality. Is water from this
source available to all people living in that area?
16.4 COAL AND PETROLEUM

We have seen some of the issues involved in the conservation and
sustainable use of resources like forests, wild-life and water. These can
meet our needs perpetually if we were to use them in a sustainable
manner. Now we come to yet another important resource – fossil fuels,
that is, coal and petroleum, which are important sources of energy for
us. Since the industrial revolution, we have been using increasing
amounts of energy to meet our basic needs and for the manufacture of a
276 Science
large number of goods upon which our lives depend. These energy needs
have been largely met by the reserves of coal and petroleum.
The management of these energy sources involves slightly different
perspectives from those resources discussed earlier. Coal and petroleum
were formed from the degradation of bio-mass millions of years ago and
hence these are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter
how carefully we use them. And then we would need to look for alternative
sources of energy. Various estimates as to how long these resources will
last us exist and one is that at present rates of usage, our known
petroleum resources will last us for about forty years and the coal
resources will last for another two hundred years.
But looking to other sources of energy is not the only consideration
when we look at the consumption of coal and petroleum. Since coal and
petroleum have been formed from bio–mass, in addition to carbon, these
contain hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. When these are burnt, the
products are carbon dioxide, water, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of
sulphur. When combustion takes place in insufficient air (oxygen), then
carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon dioxide. Of these products,
the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous
at high concentrations and carbon dioxide is a green-house gas. Another
way of looking at coal and petroleum is that they are huge reservoirs of
carbon and if all of this carbon is converted to carbon dioxide, then the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is going to increase leading
to intense global warming. Thus, we need to use these resources
judiciously.
Activity 16.10
Coal is used in thermal power stations and petroleum products
like petrol and diesel are used in means of transport like motor
vehicles, ships and aeroplanes. We cannot really imagine life
without a number of electrical appliances and constant use of
transportation. So can you think of ways in which our consumption
of coal and petroleum products be reduced?
Some simple choices can make a difference in our energy consumption

patterns. Think over the relative advantages, disadvantages and
environment-friendliness of the following –
(i) Taking a bus, using your personal vehicle or walking/cycling.
(ii) Using bulbs or fluorescent tubes in your homes.
(iii) Using the lift or taking the stairs.
(iv) Wearing an extra sweater or using a heating device (heater or
‘sigri’) on cold days.
The management of coal and petroleum also addresses the efficiency
of our machines. Fuel is most commonly used in internal combustion
engines for transportation and recent research in this field concentrates
on ensuring complete combustion in these engines in order to increase
efficiency and also reduce air pollution.

Activity 16.11
You must have heard of the Euro I and Euro II norms for emission
from vehicles. Find out how these norms work towards reducing
air pollution.
1 6 . 5 AN OVERVIEW OF NATUR
NATUR AL RESOURCE
TURAL
MANAGEMENT
Sustainable management of natural resources is a difficult task. In
addressing this issue, we need to keep an open mind with regard to the
interests of various stakeholders. We need to accept that people will act
with their own best interests as the priority. But the realisation that
such selfish goals will lead to misery for a large number of people and a
total destruction of our environment is slowly growing. Going beyond
laws, rules and regulations, we need to tailor our requirements,
individually and collectively, so that the benefits of development reach
everyone now and for all generations to come.

Our resources like forests, wild life, water, coal and petroleum need to be used in a
sustainable manner.
We can reduce pressure on the environment by sincerely applying the maxim of
‘Reduce, Reuse and Recycle’ in our lives.
Management of forest resources has to take into account the interests of various
stakeholders.
The harnessing of water resources by building dams has social, economic and
environmental implications. Alternatives to large dams exist. These are locale-specific
and may be developed so as to give local people control over their local resources.
The fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, will ultimately be exhausted. Because of this
and because their combustion pollutes our environment, we need to use these
resources judiciously.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What changes would you suggest in your home in order to be environment-friendly?
2. Can you suggest some changes in your school which would make it environment-
friendly?
3. We saw in this chapter that there are four main stakeholders when it comes to
forests and wildlife. Which among these should have the authority to decide the
management of forest produce? Why do you think so?
278 Science
4. How can you as an individual contribute or make a difference to the management
of (a) forests and wildlife, (b) water resources and (c) coal and petroleum?
5. What can you as an individual do to reduce your consumption of the various
natural resources?
6. List five things you have done over the last one week to –
(a) conserve our natural resources.
(b) increase the pressure on our natural resources.
7. On the basis of the issues raised in this chapter, what changes would you incorporate
in your life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our resources?

UNIT
III
CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND SOIL

This unit deals with
• Weather and climate – spatial and temporal distribution of temperature,
pressure, winds and rainfall; Indian monsoons: mechanism, onset and
variability – spatial and temporal; climatic types
• Natural vegetation – forest types and distribution; wild life
conservation; biosphere reserves
• Soils – major types and their distribution, soil degradation and
conservation
CHAPTER
CLIMATE
W
e drink more water during summers. the weather and climate of different regions of
Your uniform during the summer is India. For example, the climate of Kerala and
different from the winters. Why do Tamil Nadu in the south are so different from
you wear lighter clothes during summers and that of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north,
heavy woollen clothes during winters in north and yet all of these have a monsoon type of
India? In southern India, woollen clothes are climate. The climate of India has many regional
not required. In northeastern states, winters variations expressed in the pattern of winds,
are mild except in the hills. There are variations temperature and rainfall, rhythm of seasons
in weather conditions during different seasons. and the degree of wetness or dryness. These
These changes occur due to the changes in the regional diversities may be described as
elements of weather (temperature, pressure, sub-types of monsoon climate. Let us take a
wind direction and velocity, humidity and closer look at these regional variations in
precipitation, etc.). temperature, winds and rainfall.
While in the summer the mercury
Weather is the momentary state of the occasionally touches 55°C in the western
atmosphere while climate refers to the Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus
average of the weather conditions over a 45°C in winter around Leh. Churu in Rajasthan
longer period of time. Weather changes may record a temperature of 50°C or more on a
quickly, may be within a day or week but
June day while the mercury hardly touches
climate changes imperceptively and may
19°C in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) on the
be noted after 50 years or even more.
same day. On a December night, temperature
in Drass (Jammu and Kashmir) may drop down
You have already studied about the
to minus 45°C while Tiruvanantapuram or
monsoon in your earlier classes. You are also
Chennai on the same night records 20°C or
aware of the meaning of the word, “monsoon”.
22°C. These examples confirm that there are
Monsoon connotes the climate associated with
seasonal variations in temperature from place
seasonal reversal in the direction of winds.
to place and from region to region in India. Not
India has hot monsoonal climate which is the
only this, if we take only a single place and
prevalent climate in south and southeast Asia.
record the temperature for just one day,
variations are no less striking. In Kerala and in
UNITY AND DIVERSITY IN THE MONSOON CLIMATE
the Andaman Islands, the difference between
The monsoon regime emphasises the unity of day and night temperatures may be hardly
India with the rest of southeast Asian region. seven or eight degree Celsius. But in the Thar
This view of broad unity of the monsoon type desert, if the day temperature is around 50°C,
of climate should not, however, lead one to at night, it may drop down considerably upto
ignore its regional variations which differentiate 15°-20°C.
34 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Now, let us see the regional variations in experiences extreme climate with high daily
precipitation. While snowfall occurs in the and annual range of temperature.
Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the
country. Similarly, variations are noticeable not The Himalayan Mountains : The lofty Himalayas
only in the type of precipitation but also in its in the north along with its extensions act as an
amount. While Cherrapunji and Mawsynram effective climatic divide. The towering mountain
in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall chain provides an invincible shield to protect
over 1,080 cm in a year, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan the subcontinent from the cold northern winds.
rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during These cold and chilly winds originate near the
the same period. Arctic circle and blow across central and eastern
Tura situated in the Garo Hills of Asia. The Himalayas also trap the monsoon
Meghalaya may receive an amount of rainfall winds, forcing them to shed their moisture
in a single day which is equal to 10 years of within the subcontinent.
rainfall at Jaisalmer. While the annual
Distribution of Land and Water : India is
precipitation is less than 10 cm in the north-
flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in
west Himalayas and the western deserts, it
the south and girdled by a high and
exceeds 400 cm in Meghalaya.
continuous mountain-wall in the north. As
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of
compared to the landmass, water heats up or
Orissa are hit by strong rain-bearing storms
almost every third or fifth day in July and cools down slowly. This differential heating of
August while the Coromandal coast, a land and sea creates different air pressure
thousand km to the south, goes generally dry zones in different seasons in and around the
during these months. Most parts of the country Indian subcontinent. Difference in air pressure
get rainfall during June-September, but on the causes reversal in the direction of monsoon
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, it rains in the winds.
beginning of the winter season. Distance from the Sea : With a long coastline,
In spite of these differences and variations, large coastal areas have an equable climate.
the climate of India is monsoonal in rhythm Areas in the interior of India are far away from
and character. the moderating influence of the sea. Such
areas have extremes of climate. That is why,
FACTORS DETERMINING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA the people of Mumbai and the Konkan coast
India’s climate is controlled by a number of have hardly any idea of extremes of
factors which can be broadly divided into two temperature and the seasonal rhythm of
groups — factors related to location and relief, weather. On the other hand, the seasonal
and factors related to air pressure and winds. contrasts in weather at places in the interior of
the country such as Delhi, Kanpur and
Factors related to Location and Relief Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life.
Latitude : You already know the latitudinal and Altitude : Temperature decreases with height.
longitudinal extent of the land of India. You Due to thin air, places in the mountains are
also know that the Tropic of Cancer passes cooler than places on the plains. For example,
through the central part of India in east-west Agra and Darjiling are located on the same
direction. Thus, northern part of the India lies latitude, but temperature of January in Agra
in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the is 16°C whereas it is only 4°C in Darjiling.
part lying south of the Tropic of Cancer falls in
the tropical zone. The tropical zone being Relief : The physiography or relief of India also
nearer to the equator, experiences high affects the temperature, air pressure, direction
temperatures throughout the year with small and speed of wind and the amount and
daily and annual range. Area north of the distribution of rainfall. The windward sides of
Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall
CLIMATE 35
during June-September whereas the southern up in the lower troposphere, about three km
plateau remains dry due to its leeward above the surface of the earth, a different pattern
situation along the Western Ghats. of air circulation is observed. The variations in
the atmospheric pressure closer to the surface
Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind of the earth have no role to play in the making of
upper air circulation. All of Western and Central
To understand the differences in local climates
Asia remains under the influence of westerly
of India, we need to understand the
winds along the altitude of 9-13 km from west
mechanism of the following three factors:
to east. These winds blow across the Asian
(i) Distribution of air pressure and winds continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas
on the surface of the earth. roughly parallel to the Tibetan highlands
(ii) Upper air circulation caused by factors (Figure 4.1). These are known as jet streams.
controlling global weather and the inflow Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path of
of different air masses and jet streams. these jet streams. As a result, jet streams get
(iii) Inflow of western cyclones generally bifurcated. One of its branches blows to the north
known as disturbances during the winter of the Tibetan highlands, while the southern
season and tropical depressions during branch blows in an eastward direction, south of
the south-west monsoon period into the Himalayas. It has its mean position at 25°N
India, creating weather conditions in February at 200-300 mb level. It is believed
favourable to rainfall. that this southern branch of the jet stream
The mechanism of these three factors can exercises an important influence on the winter
be understood with reference to winter and weather in India.
summer seasons of the year separately.
Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season

Surface Pressure and Winds : In winter
months, the weather conditions over India are
generally influenced by the distribution of
pressure in Central and Western Asia. A high
pressure centre in the region lying to the north
of the Himalayas develops during winter. This
centre of high pressure gives rise to the flow of
air at the low level from the north towards the
Indian subcontinent, south of the mountain
range. The surface winds blowing out of the high
pressure centre over Central Asia reach India
in the form of a dry continental air mass. These
continental winds come in contact with trade
winds over northwestern India. The position of
this contact zone is not, however, stable.
Occasionally, it may shift its position as far east
as the middle Ganga valley with the result that
the whole of the northwestern and northern Figure 4.1 : Direction of Winds in India in
Winter at the Height of 9-13 km
India up to the middle Ganga valley comes
under the influence of dry northwestern winds. Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Tropical
Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation : The Cyclones : The western cyclonic disturbances
pattern of air circulation discussed above is which enter the Indian subcontinent from the west
witnessed only at the lower level of the and the northwest during the winter months,
atmosphere near the surface of the earth. Higher originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are
brought into India by the westerly jet stream. An shifts northwards, roughly parallel to the
increase in the prevailing night temperature Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N. By this
generally indicates an advance in the arrival of these time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from
cyclones disturbances. the Indian region. In fact, meteorologists have
Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of found an interrelationship between the
Bengal and the Indian ocean. These tropical northward shift of the equatorial trough (ITCZ)
cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy and the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream
rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh from over the North Indian Plain. It is generally
and Orissa coast. Most of these cyclones are very believed that there is a cause and effect
destructive due to high wind velocity and torrential relationship between the two. The ITCZ being
rain that accompanies it. Have you seen their a zone of low pressure, attracts inflow of winds
movement in the weather report in the television? from different directions. The maritime tropical
airmass (mT) from the southern hemisphere,
Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season after crossing the equator, rushes to the low
pressure area in the general southwesterly
Surface Pressure and Winds : As the summer direction. It is this moist air current which is
sets in and the sun shifts northwards, the wind popularly known as the southwest monsoon.
circulation over the subcontinent undergoes
a complete reversal at both, the lower as well Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation : The
as the upper levels. By the middle of July, the pattern of pressure and winds as mentioned
low pressure belt nearer the surface [termed above is formed only at the level of the
as Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)] troposphere. An easterly jet stream flows over
Figure 4.2 : Summer Monsoon Winds : Surface Circulation

CLIMATE 37
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the equator
where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July, the
ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called
the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough encourages the development of thermal low
over north and northwest India. Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the southern
hemisphere cross the equator between 40° and 60°E longitudes and start blowing from
southwest to northeast due to the Coriolis force. It becomes southwest monsoon. In winter,
the ITCZ moves southward, and so the reversal of winds from northeast to south and
southwest, takes place. They are called northeast monsoons.
the southern part of the Peninsula in June, and THE NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON
has a maximum speed of 90 km per hour
(Figure 4.3). In August, it is confined to 15oN Monsoon is a familiar though a little known
latitude, and in September up to 22o N latitudes. climatic phenomenon. Despite the observations
The easterlies normally do not extend to the north spread over centuries, the monsoon continues
of 30o N latitude in the upper atmosphere. to puzzle the scientists. Many attempts have
been made to discover the exact nature and
causation of monsoon, but so far, no single
theory has been able to explain the monsoon
fully. A real breakthrough has come recently
when it was studied at the global rather than
at regional level.
Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall
in the South Asian region help to understand
the causes and salient features of the monsoon,
particularly some of its important aspects,
such as:
(i) The onset of the monsoon.
(ii) Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical
cyclones) and the relationship between
their frequency and distribution of
monsoon rainfall.
(iii) Break in the monsoon.
Onset of the Monsoon

Figure 4.3 : The Direction of Winds at 13 km Towards the end of the nineteenth century, it
Altitude in Summer Season
was believed that the differential heating of
Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical Cyclones : The land and sea during the summer months is
easterly jet stream steers the tropical the mechanism which sets the stage for the
depressions into India. These depressions play monsoon winds to drift towards the
a significant role in the distribution of monsoon subcontinent. During April and May when the
rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. The sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer,
tracks of these depressions are the areas of the large landmass in the north of Indian ocean
highest rainfall in India. The frequency at which gets intensely heated. This causes the
these depressions visit India, their direction formation of an intense low pressure in the
and intensity, all go a long way in determining northwestern part of the subcontinent. Since
the rainfall pattern during the southwest the pressure in the Indian Ocean in the south
monsoon period. of the landmass is high as water gets heated
The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also

related to the phenomenon of the withdrawal
of the westerly jet stream from its position over
the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas.
The easterly jet stream sets in along 15°N
latitude only after the western jet stream has
withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly
jet stream is held responsible for the burst of
the monsoon in India.
Entry of Monsoon into India : The southwest
monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast by 1st
June and moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and
Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By mid-
July, southwest monsoon engulfs the entire
subcontinent (Figure 4.5)
Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall

Distribution
There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in
Figure 4.4 : Onset of Monsoon
India. First originate in the Bay of Bengal
causing rainfall over the plains of north India.
Second is the Arabian Sea current of the south-
slowly, the low pressure cell attracts the west monsoon which brings rain to the west
southeast trades across the Equator. These coast of India. Much of the rainfall along the
conditions help in the northward shift in the Western Ghats is orographic as the moist air is
position of the ITCZ. The southwest monsoon obstructed and forced to rise along the Ghats.
may thus, be seen as a continuation of the The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of
southeast trades deflected towards the Indian India is, however, related to two factors:
subcontinent after crossing the Equator. These (i) The offshore meteorological conditions.
winds cross the Equator between 40°E and (ii) The position of the equatorial jet stream
60°E longitudes. along the eastern coast of Africa.
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon

EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing
drought, floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm
currents off the coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places including
India. EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced temporarily
by cold Peruvian current or Humbolt current (locate these currents in your atlas). This current
increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10°C. This results in:
(i) the distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation;
(ii) irregularities in the evaporation of sea water;
(iii) reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the sea.
The word EI-Nino means ‘Child Christ’ because this current appears around Christmas
in December. December is a summer month in Peru (Southern Hemisphere).
EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there
was a wild EI-Nino event and the onset of southwest monsoon was delayed over most parts of
the country ranging from five to twelve days.
CLIMATE 39
Figure 4.5 : India : Normal Dates of Onset of the Southwest Monsoon

The frequency of the tropical depressions may be quite low, sometimes going below
originating from the Bay of Bengal varies from freezing point in Punjab and Rajasthan.
year to year. Their paths over India are mainly There are three main reasons for the excessive
determined by the position of ITCZ which is cold in north India during this season :
generally termed as the monsoon trough. As (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and
the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates, there Rajasthan being far away from the
are fluctuations in the track and direction of moderating influence of sea experience
these depressions, and the intensity and the continental climate.
amount of rainfall vary from year to year. The (ii) The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan
rain which comes in spells, displays a declining ranges creates cold wave situation; and
trend from west to east over the west coast, and (iii) Around February, the cold winds coming
from the southeast towards the northwest over from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan
the North Indian Plain and the northern part bring cold wave along with frost and fog
of the Peninsula. over the northwestern parts of India.
Break in the Monsoon Understanding the Monsoon

During the south-west monsoon period after Attempts have been made to
having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur understand the nature and
for one or more weeks, it is known as break in mechanism of the monsoon on the
the monsoon. These dry spells are quite basis of data collected on land, oceans
and in the upper atmosphere. The
common during the rainy season. These
intensity of southwest monsoon winds
breaks in the different regions are due to of southern oscillation can be
different reasons: measured, among others, by measuring
(i) In northern India rains are likely to fail if the difference in pressure between
the rain-bearing storms are not very Tahiti (roughly 20°S and 140°W) in
frequent along the monsoon trough or French Polynesia in East Pacific and
the ITCZ over this region. port Darwin (12°30'S and 131°E) in
(ii) Over the west coast the dry spells are northern Australia. Indian Meteorological
associated with days when winds blow Department (IMD) can forecast the
parallel to the coast. possible behaviour of monsoons on the
basis of 16 indicators.
THE RHYTHM OF SEASONS
The climatic conditions of India can best be The Peninsular region of India, however,
does not have any well-defined cold weather
described in terms of an annual cycle of
season. There is hardly any seasonal change
seasons. The meteorologists recognise the
in the distribution pattern of the temperature
following four seasons :
in coastal areas because of moderating
(i) the cold weather season influence of the sea and the proximity to
(ii) the hot weather season equator. For example, the mean maximum
(iii) the southwest monsoon season temperature for January at Thiruvanantapuram
(iv) the retreating monsoon season. is as high as 31°C, and for June, it is 29.5°C.
Temperatures at the hills of Western Ghats
The Cold Weather Season remain comparatively low (Figure 4.6).
Temperature : Usually, the cold weather Pressure and Winds : By the end of December
season sets in by mid-November in northern (22nd December), the sun shines vertically
India. December and January are the coldest over the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern
months in the northern plain. The mean daily hemisphere. The weather in this season is
temperature remains below 21°C over most characterised by feeble high pressure
parts of northern India. The night temperature conditions over the northern plain. In south
CLIMATE 41
Figure 4.6 : India : Mean Monthly Temperatures of the Day in January

India, the air pressure is slightly lower. The Himalayan rivers during the summer
isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb pass months. The precipitation goes on
through northwest India and far south, decreasing from west to east in the
respectively (Figure 4.7). plains and from north to south in the
As a result, winds start blowing from mountains. The average winter rainfall
northwestern high pressure zone to the low air in Delhi is around 53 mm. In Punjab
pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in the and Bihar, rainfall remains between 25
south. mm and 18 mm respectively.
Due to low pressure gradient, the light (ii) Central parts of India and northern
winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km per parts of southern Peninsula also get
hour begin to blow outwards. By and large, winter rainfall occasionally.
the topography of the region influences the (iii) Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the
wind direction. They are westerly or northeastern parts of India also have
northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They rains between 25 mm and 50 mm
become northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra during these winter months.
delta. Free from the influence of topography, (iv) D u r i n g O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r,
they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay of northeast monsoon while crossing over
Bengal. the Bay of Bengal, picks up moisture
During the winters, the weather in India and causes torrential rainfall over the
is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions, Tamil Nadu coast, southern Andhra
however, at intervals, get disturbed by shallow Pradesh, southeast Karnataka and
cyclonic depressions originating over the east southeast Kerala.
Mediterranean Sea and travelling eastwards
across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and The Hot Weather Season
Pakistan before they reach the northwestern Temperature: With the apparent northward
parts of India. On their way, the moisture movement of the sun towards the Tropic of
content gets augmented from the Caspian Sea Cancer in March, temperatures start rising
in the north and the Persian Gulf in the south. in north India. April, May and June are the
What is the role of Westerly Jet Streams in months of summer in north India. In most
steering these depressions in India? parts of India, temperatures recorded are
Rainfall : Winter monsoons do not cause between 30°-32°C. In March, the highest day
rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is temperature of about 38°C occurs in the
because firstly, they have little humidity; and Deccan Plateau while in April, temperature
secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation on ranging between 38°C and 43°C are found
land, the possibility of rainfall from them in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In May,
reduces. So, most parts of India do not have the heat belt moves further north, and in the
rainfall in the winter season. However, there are north-western part of India, temperatures
some exceptions to it: around 48°C are not uncommon (Figure 4.8).
(i) In northwestern India, some weak The hot weather season in south India is
temperate cyclones from the mild and not so intense as found in north
Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in India. The Peninsular situation of south
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western India with moderating effect of the oceans
Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount keeps the temperatures lower than that
is meagre, it is highly beneficial for prevailing in north India. So, temperatures
rabi crops. The precipitation is in the remain between 26°C and 32°C. Due to
form of snowfall in the lower altitude, the temperatures in the hills of
Himalayas. It is this snow that Western Ghats remain below 25°C. In the
sustains the flow of water in the coastal regions, the north-south extent of
CLIMATE 43
Figure 4.7 : India : Pressure and Surface Winds (January)

Figure 4.8 : India : Mean Monthly Temperature of the Day in July

CLIMATE 45
isotherms parallel to the coast confirms that

Some Famous Local Storms of Hot
temperature does not decrease from north Weather Season
to south rather it increases from the coast
(i) Mango Shower : Towards the end of
to the interior. The mean daily minimum
summer, there are pre-monsoon
temperature during the summer months showers which are a common
also remains quite high and rarely goes phenomena in Kerala and coastal
below 26°C. areas of Karnataka. Locally, they
are known as mango showers since
Pressure and Winds : The summer months they help in the early ripening of
are a period of excessive heat and falling air mangoes.
pressure in the northern half of the country. (ii) Blossom Shower : With this shower,
Because of the heating of the subcontinent, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and
nearby areas.
the ITCZ moves northwards occupying a (iii) Nor Westers : These are dreaded
position centred at 25°N in July. Roughly, evening thunderstorms in Bengal
this elongated low pressure monsoon and Assam. Their notorious nature
trough extends over the Thar desert in the can be understood from the local
north-west to Patna and Chotanagpur nomenclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, a
calamity of the month of Baisakh.
plateau in the east-southeast (Figure 4.9). These showers are useful for tea,
The location of the ITCZ attracts a surface jute and rice cultivation. In Assam,
circulation of the winds which are these storms are known as “Bardoli
southwesterly on the west coast as well as Chheerha”.
a l o n g t h e c o a s t o f We s t B e n g a l a n d (iv) Loo : Hot, dry and oppressing winds
blowing in the Northern plains from
Bangladesh. They are easterly or south- Punjab to Bihar with higher
easterly over north Bengal and Bihar. It has intensity between Delhi and Patna.
been discussed earlier that these currents
of southwesterly monsoon are in reality THE SOUTHWEST MONSOON SEASON
‘displaced’ equatorial westerlies. The influx
As a result of rapid increase of temperature in
of these winds by mid-June brings about a
May over the northwestern plains, the low
change in the weather towards the rainy
pressure conditions over there get further
season.
intensified. By early June, they are powerful
In the heart of the ITCZ in the northwest,
enough to attract the trade winds of Southern
the dry and hot winds known as ‘Loo’, blow
Hemisphere coming from the Indian Ocean.
in the afternoon, and very often, they These southeast trade winds cross the equator
continue to well into midnight. Dust storms and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
in the evening are very common during May Sea, only to be caught up in the air circulation
in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and over India. Passing over the equatorial warm
Uttar Pradesh. These temporary storms currents, they bring with them moisture in
bring a welcome respite from the oppressing abundance. After crossing the equator, they
heat since they bring with them light rains follow a southwesterly direction. That is why
and a pleasant cool breeze. Occasionally, the they are known as southwest monsoons.
moisture-laden winds are attracted towards The rain in the southwest monsoon season
the periphery of the trough. A sudden begins rather abruptly. One result of the first
contact between dry and moist air masses rain is that it brings down the temperature
gives rise to local storms of great intensity. substantially. This sudden onset of the
These local storms are associated with moisture-laden winds associated with
violent winds, torrential rains and even violent thunder and lightening, is often
hailstorms. termed as the “break” or “burst” of the
Figure 4.9 : India : Pressure and Surface Winds (July)

CLIMATE 47
monsoons. The monsoon may burst in the and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of
first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, Bengal branch. These two branches,
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the reinforced by each other, cause rains in
interior parts of the country, it may be delayed the western Himalayas,
to the first week of July. The day temperature
registers a decline of 5°C to 8°C between mid- Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal
June and mid-July.
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast
As these winds approach the land, their
of Myanmar and part of southeast
southwesterly direction is modified by the relief
Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the
and thermal low pressure over the northwest
coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this
India. The monsoon approaches the landmass
branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The
in two branches:
monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and
(i) The Arabian Sea branch
Bangladesh from south and southeast
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
instead of from the south-westerly direction.
From here, this branch splits into two under
Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
the influence of the Himalayas and the
The monsoon winds originating over the thermal low is northwest India. Its one
Arabian Sea further split into three branches: branch moves westward along the Ganga
(i) Its one branch is obstructed by the plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains.
Western Ghats. These winds climb the The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra
slopes of the Wester n Ghats from valley in the north and the northeast, causing
900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool, widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the
and as a result, the windward side of the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya.
Sahyadris and Western Coastal Plain Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi
receive very heavy rainfall ranging hills, receives the highest average annual
between 250 cm and 400 cm. After rainfall in the world.
crossing the Western Ghats, these winds Here it is important to know why the Tamil
descend and get heated up. This reduces Nadu coast remains dry during this season.
humidity in the winds. As a result, these There are two factors responsible for it:
winds cause little rainfall east of the
Western Ghats. This region of low rainfall (i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated
is known as the rain-shadow area. Find parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of
out the rainfall at Kozhikode, Mangalore, southwest monsoon.
Pune and Bangalore and note the (ii) It lies in the rainshadow area of the
difference (Figure 4.10). Arabian Sea branch of the south-west
(ii) Another branch of the Arabian sea monsoon.
monsoon strikes the coast north of
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall
Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and
Tapi river valleys, these winds cause (i) Rainfall received from the southwest
rainfall in extensive areas of central India. monsoons is seasonal in character,
The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm which occurs between June and
rainfall from this part of the branch. September.
Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains (ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed
and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch. by relief or topography. For instance
(iii) A third branch of this monsoon wind the windward side of the Western Ghats
strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the register a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again,
Kachchh. It then passes over west the heavy rainfall in the northeastern
Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, states can be attributed to their hill
causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab ranges and the Eastern Himalayas.
Figure 4.10 : India : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)

CLIMATE 49
(iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By the
trend with increasing distance from the middle of December, the centre of low pressure
sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm during is completely removed from the Peninsula.
the southwest monsoon period, Patna The retreating southwest monsoon season
105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi is marked by clear skies and rise in
56 cm. temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to
(iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet spells the conditions of high temperature and
of few days duration at a time. The wet humidity, the weather becomes rather
spells are interspersed with rainless oppressive. This is commonly known as the
interval known as ‘breaks’. These breaks ‘October heat’. In the second half of October,
in rainfall are related to the cyclonic the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly
depressions mainly formed at the head in northern India. The weather in the
of the Bay of Bengal, and their crossing retreating monsoon is dry in north India but
into the mainland. Besides the frequency it is associated with rain in the eastern part of
and intensity of these depressions, the the Peninsula. Here, October and November
passage followed by them determines are the rainiest months of the year.
the spatial distribution of rainfall. The widespread rain in this season is
(v) The summer rainfall comes in a heavy associated with the passage of cyclonic
downpour leading to considerable run depressions which originate over the
off and soil erosion. Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
(vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These
agrarian economy of India because over tropical cyclones are very destructive. The
three-fourths of the total rain in the thickly populated deltas of the Godavari,
country is received during the south- Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred targets.
west monsoon season. Every year cyclones bring disaster here. A few
(vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven cyclonic storms also strike the coast of West
which ranges from 12 cm to more than Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. A bulk of
250 cm. the rainfall of the Coromondal coast is derived
(viii) The beginning of the rains sometimes from these depressions and cyclones. Such
is considerably delayed over the whole cyclonic storms are less frequent in the
or a part of the country. Arabian Sea.
(ix) The rains sometimes end considerably
earlier than usual, causing great TRADITIONAL INDIAN SEASONS
damage to standing crops and making
In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into
the sowing of winter crops difficult.
six two-monthly seasons. This cycle of seasons,
which the common people in north and central
Season of Retreating Monsoon
India follow is based on their practical
The months of October and November are experience and age-old perception of weather
known for retreating monsoons. By the end phenomena. However, this system does not
of September, the southwest monsoon match with the seasons of south India where
becomes weak as the low pressure trough of there is little variation in the seasons.
the Ganga plain starts moving southward in
Seasons Months Months
response to the southward march of the sun. (According to the (According to the
The monsoon retreats from the western Indian Calendar) Indian Calendar)
Rajasthan by the first week of September. It
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by the Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
end of the month. By the beginning of October, Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
the low pressure covers northern parts of the Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Bay of Bengal and by early November, it moves Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February
Distribution of Rainfall Peninsula, eastern plains of the Ganga,

northeastern India, Uttaranchal and Himachal
The average annual rainfall in India is about
Pradesh and south-western part of Jammu and
125 cm, but it has great spatial variations
Kashmir. These areas have an annual rainfall
(Figure 4.11).
of over 100 cm. A variability of over 50 per cent
Areas of High Rainfall : The highest rainfall exists in the western part of Rajasthan, northern
occurs along the west coast, on the Western part of Jammu and Kashmir and interior parts
Ghats, as well as in the sub-Himalayan areas of the Deccan plateau. These areas have an
is the northeast and the hills of Meghalaya. Here annual rainfall of less than 50 cm. Rest of India
the rainfall exceeds 200 cm. In some parts of have a variability of 25-50 per cent and these
Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds areas receive an annual rainfall between
1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the 50 -100 cm (Figure 4.12).
adjoining hills, the rainfall is less then 200 cm.
Climatic Regions of India
Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall between
100-200 cm is received in the southern parts The whole of India has a monsoon type of
of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, northeastern climate. But the combination of elements of the
Peninsula covering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, weather, however, reveal many regional
eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain variations. These variations represent the sub-
along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley types of the monsoon climate. It is on this basis
and Manipur. that the climatic regions can be identified. A
climatic region has a homogeneous climatic
Areas of Low Rainfall : Western Uttar Pradesh, condition which is the result of a combination
Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, of factors. Temperature and rainfall are two
eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau important elements which are considered to be
receive rainfall between 50-100 cm. decisive in all the schemes of climatic
Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the classification. The classification of climate,
Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, however, is a complex exercise. There are
Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and most different schemes of classification of climate.
of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm. Major climatic types of India based on
Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan Koeppen’s scheme have been described below:
Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic
region.
classification on monthly values of temperature
Identify the pattern of rainfall after
and precipitation. He identified five major
consulting the rainfall map.
climatic types, namely:
(i) Tropical climates, where mean monthly
Variability of Rainfall
temperature throughout the year is over
A characteristic feature of rainfall in India is its 18°C.
variability. The variability of rainfall is computed (ii) Dry climates, where precipitation is very
with the help of the following formula: low in comparison to temperature, and
Standard Deviation hence, dry. If dryness is less, it is semi-
C.V. = × 100 arid (S); if it is more, the climate is arid(W).
Mean
(iii) Warm temperate climates, where mean
where C.V. is the coefficient of variation. temperature of the coldest month is
The values of coefficient of variation show between 18°C and minus 3°C.
the change from the mean values of rainfall. The (iv) Cool temperate climates, where mean
actual rainfall in some places deviates from temperature of the warmest month is over
20-50 per cent. The values of coefficient of 10°C, and mean temperature of the
variation show variability of rainfall in India. A coldest month is under minus 3°C.
variability of less than 25 per cent exists on the (v) Ice climates, where mean temperature of
western coasts, Western Ghats, northeastern the warmest month is under 10°C.
CLIMATE 51
Figure 4.11 : India : Annual Rainfall

Figure 4.12 : India : Variability of Annual Rainfall

CLIMATE 53
Koeppen used letter symbols to denote (vii) Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in
climatic types as given above. Each type is north India is highly beneficial for rabi crops.
further sub-divided into sub-types on the (viii) Regional climatic variation in India is
basis of seasonal variations in the reflected in the vast variety of food, clothes
distributional pattern of rainfall and and house types.
temperature. He used S for semi-arid and W
for arid and the following small letters to define GLOBAL WARMING
sub-types: f (sufficient precipitation), m (rain
forest despite a dry monsoon season), w (dry You know that change is the law of nature.
season in winter), h (dry and hot), c (less than Climate has also witnessed change in the past
four months with mean temperature over at the global as well as at local levels. It is
10°C), and g (Gangetic plain). Accordingly, changing even now but the change is
India can be divided into eight climatic regions imperceptible. A number of geological
(Table 4.1; Figure 4.13). evidences suggest that once upon a time,
Table 4.1 : Climatic Regions of India According to Koeppen’s Scheme
Type of Climate Areas
Amw Monsoon with short dry season West coast of India south of Goa
As – Monsoon with dry summer Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu
Aw – Tripical savannah Most of the Peninsular plateaus, south of the Tropic of Cancer
Bwhw – Semi-arid steppe climate North-western Gujarat, some parts of western Rajasthan and
Punjab
Bwhw – Hot desert Extreme western Rajasthan
Cwg – Monsoon with dry winter Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh,
most of North-east India
Dfc – Cold humid winter with short summer Arunachal Pradesh
E – Polar type Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal
Monsoons and the Economic Life in India (see geological time scale in Chapter 2 of
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, NCERT,
(i) Monsoon is that axis around which
2006) large part of the earth was under ice cover.
revolves the entire agricultural cycle of
Now you might have read or heard the debate
India. It is because about 64 per cent
on global warming. Besides the natural causes,
people of India depend on agriculture for
human activities such as large scale
their livelihood and agriculture itself is
industrialisation and presence of polluting gas
based on southwest monsoon.
(ii) Except Himalayas all the parts of the in the atmosphere are also important factors
country have temperature above the responsible for global warming. You might have
threashold level to grow the crops or heard about the “green house effect” while
plants throughout the year.. discussing global warming.
(iii) Regional variations in monsoon climate The temperature of the world is
help in growing various types of crops. significantly increasing. Carbon dioxide
(iv) Variability of rainfall brings droughts or produced by human activities is a major
floods every year in some parts of the country. source of concern. This gas, released to the
(v) Agricultural prosperity of India depends atmosphere in large quantities by burning
very much on timely and adequately of fossil fuel, is increasing gradually. Other
distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons,
is adversely affected particularly in those and nitrous oxide which are present in much
regions where means of irrigation are not smaller concentrations in the atmosphere,
developed. together with carbon dioxide are known as
(vi) Sudden monsoon burst creates problem green house gases. These gases are better
of soil erosion over large areas in India. absorbers of long wave radiations than carbon
Figure 4.13 : India : Climatic Regions According to Koppen’s Scheme

CLIMATE 55
dioxide, and so, are more effective at ice melt in response to warming. According
enhancing the green house effect. These to the current prediction, on an average, the
gases have been contributing to global sea level will rise 48 cm by the end of twenty
warming. It is said that due to global warming first century. This would increase the
the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers incidence of annual flooding. Climatic
would melt and the amount of water in the change would promote insect-borne
oceans would increase. diseases like malaria, and lead to shift in
The mean annual surface temperature climatic boundaries, making some regions
of the earth in the past 150 years has wetter and others drier. Agricultural pattern
increased. It is projected that by the year would shift and human population as well
2,100, global temperature will warm about as the ecosystem would experience change.
2°C. This rise in temperature will What would happen to the Indian sea
accompany many other changes: one of coasts if the sea level rises 50 cm above the
these is a rise in sea level, as glacier and sea present one?
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) What causes rainfall on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu in the beginning
of winters?
(a) South-West monsoon (c) North-Eastern monsoon
(b) Temperate cyclones (d) Local air circulation
(ii) What is the proportion of area of India which receives annual rainfall less
than 75 cm?
(a) Half (c) Two-third
(b) One-third (d) Three-fourth
(iii) Which one of the following is not a fact regarding South India?
(a) Diurnal range of temperature is less here.
(b) Annual range of temperature is less here.
(c) Temperatures here are high throughout the year.
(d) Extreme climatic conditions are found here.
(iv) Which one of the following phenomenon happens when the sun shines
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere?
(a) High pressure develops over North-western India due to low
temperatures.
(b) Low pressure develops over North-western India due to high
temperatures.
(c) No changes in temperature and pressure occur in north-western
India.
(d) ‘Loo’ blows in the North-western India.
(v) In which of the following states in India do we find ‘As’ type of climate as
per Koeppen’s classification?
(a) In Kerala and coastal Karnataka
(b) In Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(c) On Coromandal coast
(d) In Assam and Arunachal Pradesh

(i) What are the three important factors which influence the mechanism of
Indian weather?
(ii) What is the Inter-Tropical Convergene Zone?
(iii) What is meant by ‘bursting of monsoon’? Name the place of India which
gets the highest rainfall.
(iv) Define ‘climatic region’? What are the bases of Koeppen’s classification?
(v) Which type(s) of cyclones cause rainfall in north-western India during
winter? Where do they originate?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 125 words.
(i) Notwithstanding the broad climatic unity, the climate of India has many
regional variations. Elaborate this statement giving suitable examples.
(ii) How many distinct seasons are found in India as per the Indian
Meteorological Department? Discuss the weather conditions associated
with any one season in detail.
Project/Activity
On the outline map of India, show the following:
(i) Areas of winter rain
(ii) Wind direction during the summer season
(iii) Areas having variability of rainfall over 50 per cent
(iv) Areas having less than 15°C temperature in January
(v) Isohyte of 100 cm.
CHAPTER
NATURAL VEGETATION
H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic? Tropical Evergreen and
You might have surely gone to a park if Semi Evergreen Forests
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
These forests are found in the western slope
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
variety may be found growing wild in the forest They are found in warm and humid areas with
under natural conditions and the same tree an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
may be the planted one in your garden under mean annual temperature above 22 oC.
human supervision. Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
Natural vegetation refers to a plant with layers closer to the ground and are
community that has been left undisturbed over covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
a long time, so as to allow its individual species structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
to adjust themselves to climate and soil In these forests, trees reach great heights up
conditions as fully as possible. to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
India is a land of great variety of natural trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with fruition. As such these forests appear green
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and all the year round. Species found in these
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical ebony, etc.
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi The semi evergreen forests are found in the
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii, less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation. have a mixture of evergreen and moist
Depending upon the variations in the climate deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes provide an evergreen character to these forests.
from one region to another. Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests. Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation

NATURAL VEGETATION 59
The British were aware of the economic the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
value of the forests in India, hence, large scale higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau
exploitation of these forests was started. The and the northern Indian plain, these forests
structure of forests was also changed. The oak have a parkland landscape with open stretches
forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced in which teak and other trees interspersed with
by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway patches of grass are common. As the dry
lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing season begins, the trees shed their leaves
plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The completely and the forest appears like a vast
British also used timber for construction grassland with naked trees all around. Tendu,
activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced the common trees of these forests. In the
by commercial use. western and southern part of Rajasthan,
vegetation cover is very scanty due to low
Tropical Deciduous Forests rainfall and overgrazing.
These are the most widespread forests in India.
They are also called the monsoon forests. They Tropical Thorn Forests
spread over regions which receive rainfall Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
availability of water, these forests are further of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes
divided into moist and dry deciduous. semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
remain leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as
the under growth.
Figure 5.3 : Deciduous Forests
The Moist deciduous forests are more

pronounced in the regions which record rainfall
between 100-200 cm. These forests are found
in the northeastern states along the foothills of
Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Orissa. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, Figure 5.4 : Tropical Thorn Forests
amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are Montane Forests
the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of In mountainous areas, the decrease in
the country, where rainfall ranges between temperature with increasing altitude leads to
70 -100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
transition to the moist deciduous, while on the Mountain forests can be classified into two
drier margins to thorn forests. These forests types, the northern mountain forests and the
are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and southern mountain forests.
The Himalayan ranges show a succession The southern mountain forests include
of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, the forests found in three distinct areas of
which change in with the altitude. Deciduous Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
forests are found in the foothills of the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer
Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the
temperate type of forests between an altitude sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher
of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of regions, and subtropical on the lower regions
northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate
such as oak and chestnut are predominant. forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris,
Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other
well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as trees of this forest of economic significance
a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and
valued endemic species grows mainly in the wattle. Such forests are also found in the
western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
is a durable wood mainly used in construction
activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, Littoral and Swamp Forests
which sustain the famous Kashmir India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and About 70 per cent of this comprises areas
spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m. under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet
At many places in this zone, temperate land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites —
grasslands are also found. But in the higher Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National
reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
and pastures. Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of
and rhododendrons, etc. occur between International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
3,000-4,000 m. However, these pastures are
used extensively for transhumance by tribes An international convention is an
like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas agreement among member states of
and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the the United Nations.
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
because of relatively higher precipitation than The country’s wetlands have been grouped
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher into eight categories, viz. (i) the reservoirs of the
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the
tundra vegetation. lagoons and other wetlands of the southern
west coast; (ii) the vast saline expanses of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat
eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh; (iv) the
delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast
(Chilika Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the
Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the
hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the montane
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the
mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island
arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt
Figure 5.5 : Montane Forests marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species Most of the forests in Punjab and Haryana have
of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant been cleared for cultivation. States with 10-20
water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter per cent forest area are Tamil Nadu and West
to a wide variety of birds. Bengal. In Peninsular India, excluding Tamil
Nadu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa, the area
under forest cover is 20-30 per cent. The
northeastern states have more than 30 per cent
of the land under forest. Hilly topography and
heavy rainfall are good for forest growth.
There is a lot of variation in actual forest cover,
which ranges from 9.56 per cent in Jammu and
Kashmir to 84.01 per cent in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. From the table showing the
distribution of forests in India (Appendix IV), it is
clear that there are 15 states where the forest cover
is more than one-third of the total area, which is
the basic requirement for maintaining the
Figure 5.6 : Mangrove Forests ecological balance.
On the basis of the percentage of the actual
In India, the mangrove forests spread over forest cover, the states have been grouped into
6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s four regions:
mangrove forests. They are highly developed in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the The Region Percentage
Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of Cover of the
Forest
significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and
the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being (i) The region of high concentration > 40
encroached upon, and hence, need conservation. (ii) The region of medium concentration 20-40
(iii) The region of low concentration 10-20
FOREST COVER IN INDIA
(iv) The region of very low concentration < 10
According to state records, the forest area
covers 23.28 per cent of the total land area of Taking the data from Appendix IV, list the states under
the country. It is important to note that the the four regins of forest cover
forest area and the actual forest cover are not
the same. The forest area is the area notified FOREST CONSERVATION
and recorded as the forest land irrespective of Forests have an intricate interrelationship with
the existence of trees, while the actual forest life and environment. These provide numerous
cover is the area occupied by forests with
direct and indirect advantages to our economy
canopy. The former is based on the records of
and society. Hence, conservation of forest is of
the State Revenue Department, while the latter
vital importance to the survival and prosperity
is based on aerial photographs and satellite
of humankind. Accordingly, the Government
imageries. In 2001, the actual forest cover was
only 20.55 per cent. Of the forest cover, the of India proposed to have a nation-wide forest
share of dense and open forests was 12.60 per conservation policy, and adopted a forest
cent and 7.87 per cent rerspectively. policy in 1952, which was further modified in
Both forest area and forest cover vary from 1988. According to the new forest policy, the
state to state. Lakshadweep has zero per cent Government will emphasise sustainable forest
forest area; Andaman and Nicobar Islands have management in order to conserve and expand
86.93 per cent. Most of the states with less than forest reserve on the one hand, and to meet
10 per cent of the forest area lie in the north and the needs of local people on the other.
northwestern part of the country. These are The forest policy aimed at : (i) bringing 33
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. per cent of the geographical areas under forest
cover; (ii) maintaining environmental stability Based on the forest conservation policy the
and to restore forests where ecological balance following steps were initiated:
was disturbed; (iii) conserving the natural
heritage of the country, its biological diversity Social Forestry
and genetic pool; (iv) checks soil erosion,
Social forestry means the management and
extension of the desert lands and reduction of
protection of forests and afforestation on barren
floods and droughts; (v) increasing the forest
lands with the purpose of helping in the
cover through social forestry and afforestation
environmental, social and rural development.
on degraded land; (vi) increasing the
The National Commission on Agriculture
productivity of forests to make timber, fuel,
(1976) has classified social forestry into three
fodder and food available to rural population
dependant on forests, and encourage the categories. These are Urban forestry, Rural
substitution of wood; (vii) creating of a massive forestry and Farm forestry.
peoples movement involving women to Urban forestry pertains to the raising and
encourage planting of trees, stop felling of trees management of trees on public and privately
and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest. owned lands in and around urban centres
such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
Forests and Life industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
To a vast number of tribal people, the Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion
forest is a home, a livelihood, their of agro-forestry and community-forestry.
very existence. It provides them food, Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and
fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey, agriculture crops on the same land inclusive
nourishing roots and wild game. It of the waste patches. It combines forestry with
provides them with material to build agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous
their houses and items for practising production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and
their arts. The importance of forests
fruit. Community forestry involves the raising
in tribal economy is well-known as
they are the source of sustenance and
of trees on public or community land such as
livelihood for tribal communities. It is the village pasture and temple land, roadside,
commonly believed that the tribal canal bank, strips along railway lines, and
communities live in harmony with schools etc. Community forestry programme
nature and protect forests. Out of a aims at providing benefits to the community
total of 593 districts 187 (2001) have as a whole. Community forestry provides a
been identified as tribal districts. The means under which the people of landless
tribal districts account for about 59.8 classes can associate themselves in tree-
per cent of the total forest cover of the
raising and thus, get those benefits which
country whereas the geographical
area of 187 tribal districts forms only otherwise are restricted for landowners.
33.6 per cent of the total geographical
area of the country. It demonstrates Farm Forestry
that tribal districts are generally rich Farm forestry is a term applied to the process
in forest cover.
under which farmers grow trees for
Forest and tribals are very closely commercial and non-commercial purposes on
related. The age-old knowledge of their farm lands.
tribals regarding forestry can be used Forest departments of various states
in the development of forests. Rather distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to
than treating tribals as minor forest
small and medium farmers. Several lands
produce collectors they should be
made growers of minor forest produce such as the margins of agricultural fields,
and encouraged to participate in grasslands and pastures, land around homes
conservation. and cow sheds may be used for raising trees
under non-commercial farm forestry.
WILDLIFE In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act

was enacted, which provides the main legal
You would have visited a zoo and may have
framework for conservation and protection
seen animals and birds in captivity. Wildlife
of wildlife in India. The two main objectives
of India is a great natural heritage. It is
of the Act are; to provide protection to the
estimated that about 4-5 per cent of all
endangered species listed in the schedule of
known plant and animal species on the earth
are found in India. The main reason for this the Act and to provide legal support to the
remarkable diversity of life forms is the great conservation areas of the country classified
diversity of the ecosystem which this country as National parks, sanctuaries and closed
has preserved and supported through the areas. This Act has been comprehensively
ages. Over the years, their habitat has been amended in 1991, making punishments
disturbed by human activities and as a more stringent and has also made provisions
result, their numbers have dwindled for the protection of specified plant species
significantly. There are certain species that and conservation of endangered species of
are at the brink of extinction. wild animals.
Some of the important reasons of the There are 92 National parks and 492
declining of wildlife are as follows: wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of 15.67
million hectares in the country.
(i) Industrial and technological
Wildlife conservation has a very large
advancement brought about a rapid
ambit with unbounded potential for the well-
increase in the exploitation of forest
being of humankind. However, this can be
resources.
achieved only when every individual
(ii) More and more lands were cleared for
understands its significance and contributes
agriculture, human settlement, roads,
his bit.
mining, reservoirs, etc.
For the purpose of effective conservation
(iii) Pressure on forests mounted due to
of flora and fauna, special steps have been
lopping for fodder and fuelwood and
initiated by the Government of India in
removal of small timber by the local
collaboration with UNESCO’s ‘Man and
people.
Biosphere Programme’.
(iv) Grazing by domestic cattle caused an
Special schemes like Project Tiger (1973)
adverse effect on wildlife and its habitat.
and Project Elephant (1992) have been
(v) Hunting was taken up as a sport by
launched to conserve these species and their
the elite and hundreds of wild animals
habitat in a sustainable manner.
were killed in a single hunt. Now
Project Tiger has been implemented since
commercial poaching is rampant.
1973. The main objective of the scheme is to
(vi) Incidence of forest fire.
ensure maintenance of viable population of
It is being felt that conservation of wildlife tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic,
is of great significance to the national as well cultural and ecological values, and to
as the world heritage along with the promotion preserve areas of biological importance as
of ecotourism. What steps have been initiated natural heritage for the benefit, education
by the government in this direction? and enjoyment of the people. Initially, the
Project Tiger was launched in nine tiger
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA reserves, covering an area of 16,339 sq. km,
The protection of wildlife has a long tradition which has now increased to 27 tiger reserves,
in India. Many stories of Panchtantra and encompassing 37,761sq. km of tiger habitats
Jungle Books, etc. have stood the test of time distributed in 17 states. The tiger population
relating to the love for wildlife. These have a in the country has registered an increase
profound impact on young minds. from 1,827 in 1972 to 3,642 in 2001-2002.
Project Elephant was launched in 1992 BIOSPHERE RESERVES

to assist states having free ranging A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and
population of wild elephants. It was aimed representative ecosystem of terrestrial and
at ensuring long-term survival of identified coastal areas which are internationally
viable population of elephants in their recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s
natural habitat. The project is being Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The
implemented in 13 states. Biosphere Reserve aims at achieving the three
objectives as depicted in Figure 5.8.
There are 14 Biosphere Reserves in India
(Table 5.1, Figure 5.9). Four Biosphere
Reserves, namely (i) Nilgiri; (ii) Nanda Devi;
Figure 5.7 : Elephants in their Natural Habitat

Apart from this, some other projects such
as Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul
and conservation of Himalayan Musk deer have
also been launched by the Government of India. Figure 5.8 : Objectives of a Biosphere Reserve
Table 5.1 : List of Biosphere Reserves

Sl. Name of the Biosphere Total
No. Reserve Geographical Location (States)
Area (km2)
1. * Nilgiri 5,520 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai,
Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka)
2. * Nanda Devi 2,236.74 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora districts
(Uttar Pradesh) and part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
3. Nokrek 820 Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
4. Manas 2,837 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup
and Darrang districts (Assam)
5. * Sunderbans 9,630 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West
Bengal)
6. * Gulf of Mannar 10,500 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka
(Tamil Nadu)
7. Great Nicobar 885 Southernmost islands of the Andaman and Nicobar
(A & N Islands)
8. Similipal 4,374 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)
9. Dibru-Saikhowa 765 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam)
10. Dihang Dibang 5,111.5 Part of Siang and Debang valley in Arunachal Pradesh
11. Kanchenjunga 2,619.92 Parts of North and West Sikkim
12. Pachmari 4,926.28 Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of
Madhya Pradesh
13. Agasthyamalai 1,701 Agasthyamalai Hills in Kerala
14. Achanakmar- Amarkantak 3,835.51 Parts of Anupur and Dindori district of MP and parts of
Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh
* have been recognised by the UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves
Source : Annual Report (2004-05), Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India
Figure 5.9 : India : Biosphere Reserves

(iii) Sunderbans; and (iv) Gulf of Mannar have weed and orchids like latifolie and
been recognised by the UNESCO on World rhododendron. The biosphere reserve has a
Network of Biosphere Reserves. rich fauna, for example the snow leopard,
black bear, brown bear, musk deer, snow-
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve cock, golden eagle and black eagle.
Major threats to the ecosystem are the
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), the first collection of endangered plants for medicinal
of the fourteen biosphere reserves of India, was use, forest fires and poaching.
established in September 1986. It embraces
the sanctuary complex of Wyanad, Nagarhole, Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve
Bandipur and Mudumalai, the entire forested
hill slopes of Nilambur, the Upper Nilgiri It is located in the swampy delta of the river
plateau, Silent Valley and the Siruvani hills. Ganga in West Bengal. It extends over a vast
The total area of the biosphere reserve is area of 9,630 sq. km and consists of mangrove
around 5,520 sq. km. forests, swamps and forested islands.
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve possesses Sunderbans is the home of nearly 200 Royal
different habitat types, unspoilt areas of Bengal tigers.
natural vegetation types with several dry The tangled mass of roots of mangrove
scrubs, dry and moist deciduous, semi- trees provide safe homes for a large number
evergreen and wet evergreen forests, evergreen of species, from fish to shrimp. More than 170
sholas, grasslands and swamps. It includes birds species are known to inhabit these
the largest known population of two mangrove forests.
endangered animal species, namely the Nilgiri Adapting itself to the saline and fresh water
Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque. The largest environment, the tigers at the park are good
south Indian population of elephant, tiger, swimmers, and they hunt scarce preys such
gaur, sambar and chital as well as a good as chital deer, barking deer, wild pig and even
number of endemic and endangered plants are macaques. In the Sunderbans, the mangrove
also found in this reserve. The habitat of a forests are characterised by Heritiera fomes,
number of tribal groups remarkable for their a species valued for its timber.
traditional modes of harmonious use of the
environment are also found here. Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
The topography of the NBR is extremely The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers
varied, ranging from an altitude of 250 m to an area of 105,000 hectares on the southeast
2,650 m. About 80 per cent of the flowering coast of India. It is one of the world’s richest
plants reported from the Western Ghats occur regions from a marine biodiversity perspective.
in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
The biosphere reserve comprises 21 islands
with estuaries, beaches, forests of the
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
nearshore environment, sea grasses, coral
The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve situated reefs, salt marshes and mangroves. Among the
in Uttaranchal includes parts of Chamoli, Gulf’’s 3,600 plant and animal species are the
Almora, Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts. globally endangered sea cow (Dugong dugon)
The major forest types of the reserve are and six mangrove species, endemic to
temperate. A few important species are silver Peninsular India.
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Sandalwood is an example of:
(a) Evergreen forest (c) Deltaic forest
(b) Deciduous forest (d) Thorny forest
(ii) Which one of the following was the purpose of Project Tiger?
(a) to kill tigers (c) to protect tigers from illegal hunting
(b) to put tigers in the Zoo (d) to make films on tigers
(iii) In which one of the following states is the Nandadevi Biosphere reserve
situated?
(a) Bihar (c) Uttaranchal
(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Orissa
(iv) How many of the following numbers of Biosphere reserves are recognised
by the IUCN?
(a) One (c) Three
(b) Two (d) Four
(v) Which one of the following proportion of area of the country was targeted
to be under forest in Forest Policy of India?
(a) 33 (c) 55
(b) 44 (d) 22
(i) What is natural vegetation? Under what climatic conditions are tropical
evergreen forests develop?
(ii) What do you understand by social forestry?
(iii) Define Biosphere reserves?
(iv) What is the difference between forest area and forest cover?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.
(i) What steps have been taken up to conserve forests?
(ii) How can people’s participation be effective in conserving forests and wildlife?
Project/Activity
1. On the outline map of India, mark and label the following.
(i) Areas having Mangrove forests.
(ii) Biosphere reserves of Nanda Devi, Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar and Nilgiri.
(iii) Mark the location of Forest Survey of India Head Quarter.
2. List the trees, bush and shrub species found around your school. Write
their local names and their uses.
9
ENVIRONMENT AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
After studying this chapter, the learners will
• understand the concept of environment

• analyse the causes and effects of ‘environmental degradation’ and ‘resource
depletion’
• understand the nature of environmental challenges facing India
• relate environmental issues to the larger context of sustainable
development.
162 INDIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The environment, left to itself, can continue to support life for millions of
years. The single most unstable and potentially disruptive element in the
scheme is the human species. Human beings, with modern technology, have
the capacity to bring about, intentionally or unintentionally, far-reaching
and irreversible changes in the enviornment.
Anonymous
9.1 INTRODUCTION and abiotic factors that influence each

other. While all living elements — the
In the earlier chapters we have
birds, animals and plants, forests,
discussed the main economic issues
fisheries etc.— are biotic elements,
faced by the Indian economy. The
abiotic elements include air, water, land
economic development that we have
etc. Rocks and sunlight are all
achieved so far has come at a very heavy
examples of abiotic elements of the
price — at the cost of environmental
environment. A study of the environment
quality. As we step into an era of
then calls for a study of the inter-
globalisation that promises higher
relationship between these biotic and
economic growth, we have to bear in
abiotic components of the environment.
mind the adverse consequences of the
past development path on our
Functions of the Environment: The
environment and consciously choose a
environment performs four vital
path of sustainable development. To
functions (i) it supplies resources:
understand the unsustainable path of
resources here include both renewable
development that we have taken and
and non-renewable resources.
the challenges of sustainable
Renewable resources are those which
development, we have to first
can be used without the possibility of
understand the significance and
the resource becoming depleted or
contribution of environment to
exhausted. That is, a continuous
economic development. With this in
supply of the resource remains
mind, this chapter is divided into three
available. Examples of renewable
sections. The first part deals with the
resources are the trees in the forests and
functions and role of environment. The
the fishes in the ocean. Non-renewable
second section discusses the state of
resources, on the other hand, are those
India’s environment and the third
which get exhausted with extraction
section deals with steps and strategies
and use, for example, fossil fuel (ii) it
to achieve sustainable development.
assimilates waste (iii) it sustains life by
providing genetic and bio diversity and
9.2 ENVIRONMENT — DEFINITION AND
(iv) it also provides aesthetic services
FUNCTIONS like scenery etc.
Environment is defined as the total The environment is able to perform
planetary inheritance and the totality these functions without any interruption
of all resources. It includes all the biotic as long as the demand on these
ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 163

this results in an
environmental crisis. This
is the situation today
all over the world. The
rising population of the
developing countries and
the affluent consumption
and production standards
of the developed world have
placed a huge stress on the
environment in terms of its
first two functions. Many
resources have become
extinct and the wastes
generated are beyond the
absorptive capacity of the
environment. Absorptive
Fig. 9.1 Water bodies: small, snow-fed Himalayan streams are capacity means the ability
the few fresh-water sources that remain unpolluted.
of the environment to
functions is within its carrying absorb degradation. The result — we
capacity. This implies that the resource are today at the threshold of
extraction is not above the rate of environmental crisis. The past
regeneration of the resource and the development has polluted and dried up
wastes generated are within the rivers and other aquifers making water
assimilating capacity of the an economic good. Besides, the
environment. When this is not so, the intensive and extensive extraction of
environment fails to perform its third both renewable and non-renewable
and vital function of life sustenance and resources has exhausted some of these
Work These Out
¾ Why has water become an economic commodity? Discuss.

¾ Fill in the following table with some common types of diseases and illnesses
that are caused due to air, water and noise pollution.
Air Pollution Water Pollution Noise Pollution
Asthma Cholera

Box 9.1: Global Warming
Global warming is a gradual increase in the average temperature of the earth’s
lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in greenhouse gases since the
Industrial Revolution. Much of the recent observed and projected global
warming is human-induced. It is caused by man-made increases in carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases through the burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation. Adding carbon dioxide, methane and such other gases (that
have the potential to absorb heat) to the atmosphere with no other changes
will make our planet’s surface warmer. The atmospheric concentrations of
carbon dioxide and CH 4 have increased by 31 per cent and 149 per cent
respectively above pre-industrial levels since 1750. During the past century,
the atmospheric temperature has risen by 1.1°F (0.6°C) and sea level has
risen several inches. Some of the longer-term results of global warming are
melting of polar ice with a resulting rise in sea level and coastal flooding;
disruption of drinking water supplies dependent on snow melts; extinction of
species as ecological niches disappear; more frequent tropical storms; and an
increased incidence of tropical diseases.
Among factors that may be contributing to global warming are the burning
of coal and petroleum products (sources of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone); deforestation, which increases the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere; methane gas released in animal waste; and increased cattle
production, which contributes to deforestation, methane production, and use
of fossil fuels. A UN Conference on Climate Change, held in Kyoto, Japan, in
1997, resulted in an international agreement to fight global warming which
called for reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases by industrialised nations.
Source: www.wikipedia.org
vital resources and we are compelled Thus, it is clear that the opportunity
to spend huge amounts on technology costs of negative environmental
and research to explore new resources. impacts are high.
Added to these are the health costs of The biggest question that arises is:
degraded environmental quality — are environmental problems new to this
decline in air and water quality (seventy century? If so, why? The answer to this
per cent of water in India is polluted) question requires some elaboration. In
have resulted in increased incidence of the early days when civilisation just
respiratory and water-borne diseases. began, or before this phenomenal
Hence the expenditure on health is also increase in population, and before
rising. To make matters worse, global countries took to industrialisation, the
environmental issues such as global demand for environmental resources
warming and ozone depletion also and services was much less than their
contribute to increased financial supply. This meant that pollution was
commitments for the government. within the absorptive capacity of the

Box 9.2: Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion refers to the phenomenon of reductions in the amount of ozone
in the stratosphere. The problem of ozone depletion is caused by high levels
of chlorine and bromine compounds in the stratosphere. The origins of these
compounds are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), used as cooling substances in air-
conditioners and refrigerators, or as aerosol propellants, and
bromofluorocarbons (halons), used in fire extinguishers. As a result of depletion
of the ozone layer, more ultraviolet (UV) radiation comes to Earth and causes
damage to living organisms. UV radiation seems responsible for skin cancer
in humans; it also lowers production of phytoplankton and thus affects other
aquatic organisms. It can also influence the growth of terrestrial plants. A
reduction of approximately 5 per cent in the ozone layer was detected from
1979 to 1990. Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful wavelengths of
ultraviolet light from passing through the Earth’s atmosphere, observed and
projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern. This led to
the adoption of the Montreal Protocol banning the use of chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) compounds, as well as other ozone depleting chemicals such as carbon
tetrachloride, trichloroethane (also known as methyl chloroform), and bromine
compounds known as halons.
Source: www.ceu.hu
environment and the rate of resource But with population explosion and with
extraction was less than the rate of the advent of industrial revolution
regeneration of these resources. Hence to meet the growing needs of the
environmental problems did not arise. expanding population, things
changed. The result was that the
demand for resources for both
production and consumption
went beyond the rate of
regeneration of the resources; the
pressure on the absorptive
capacity of the environment
increased tremendously — this
trend continues even today. Thus
what has happened is a reversal
of supply-demand relationship
for environmental quality — we
are now faced with increased
Fig. 9.2 Damodar Valley is one of India’s most demand for environmental
industrialised regions. Pollutants from the heavy
resources and services but their
industries along the banks of the Damodar river
are converting it into an ecological disaster supply is limited due to overuse

and misuse. Hence
the environmental
issues of waste
generation and
pollution have
become critical
today.
9.3 STATE OF INDIA’S

ENVIRONMENT
India has abundant
natural resources in
terms of rich quality
of soil, hundreds of
rivers and tributaries,
Fig. 9.3 Deforestation leads to land degradation, biodiversity loss and
lush green forests, air pollution
plenty of mineral
deposits beneath the land surface, vast pressure on its finite natural
stretch of the Indian Ocean, ranges of resources, besides creating impacts on
mountains, etc. The black soil of the human health and well-being. The
Deccan Plateau is particularly suitable threat to India’s environment poses a
for cultivation of cotton, leading to dichotomy —threat of poverty-induced
concentration of textile industries in this environmental degradation and, at the
region. The Indo-Gangetic plains — same time, threat of pollution from
spread from the Arabian Sea to the Bay affluence and a rapidly growing
of Bengal — are one of the most fertile, industrial sector. Air pollution,
intensively cultivated and densely water contamination, soil erosion,
populated regions in the world. India’s deforestation and wildlife extinction
forests, though unevenly distributed,
are some of the most pressing
provide green cover for a majority of its
environmental concerns of India. The
population and natural cover for its
priority issues identified are (i) land
wildlife. Large deposits of iron-ore, coal
degradation (ii) biodiversity loss (iii) air
and natural gas are found in the
pollution with special reference to
country. India alone accounts for
nearly 20 per cent of the world’s total vehicular pollution in urban cities (iv)
iron-ore reserves. Bauxite, copper, management of fresh water and (v) solid
chromate, diamonds, gold, lead, lignite, waste management. Land in India
manganese, zinc, uranium, etc. are also suffers from varying degrees and types
available in different parts of the of degradation stemming mainly from
country. However, the developmental unstable use and inappropriate
activities in India have resulted in management practices.

Box. 9.3: Chipko or Appiko — What’s in a Name?
You may be aware of the Chipko Movement, which aimed at protecting forests
in the Himalayas. In Karnataka, a similar movement took a different name,
‘Appiko’, which means to hug. On 8 September 1983, when the felling of trees
was started in Salkani forest in Sirsi
district, 160 men, women and children
hugged the trees and forced the
woodcutters to leave. They kept vigil in
the forest over the next six weeks. Only
after the forest officials assured the
volunteers that the trees will be cut
scientifically and in accordance with the
working plan of the district, did they
leave the trees.
When commercial felling by
contractors damaged a large number of
natural forests, the idea of hugging the
trees gave the people hope and
confidence that they can protect the
forests. On that particular incident, with
the felling discontinued, the people saved
12,000 trees. Within months, this
movement spread to many adjoining
districts.
Indiscriminate felling of trees for
fuelwood and for industrial use has led to many environmental problems.
Twelve years after setting up of a paper mill in Uttar Kanara area, bamboo
has been wiped out from that area. “Broad-leaved trees which protected the
soil from the direct onslaught of rain have been removed, the soil washed
away, and bare laterite soil left behind. Now nothing grows but a weed”, says
a farmer. Farmers also complain that rivers and rivulets dry up quicker, and
that rainfall is becoming erratic. Diseases and insects earlier unknown are
now attacking the crops.
Appiko volunteers want the contractors and forest officials to follow certain
rules and restrictions. For instance, local people should be consulted when
trees are marked for felling and trees within 100 metres of a water source
and on a slope of 30 degrees or above should not be felled.
Do you know that the government allocates forestlands to industries to
use forest materials as industrial raw material? Even if a paper mill employs
10,000 workers and a plywood factory employs 800 people but if they deprive
the daily needs of a million people, is it acceptable? What do you think?
Source: Excerpts from ‘State of India’s Environment 2: The Second Citizens’ Report 1984-85’,
Centre for Science and Environment, 1996, New Delhi.

Some of the factors responsible the competing uses of land for
for land degradation are (i) loss forestry, agriculture, pastures, human
of vegetation occuring due to settlements and industries exert an
deforestation (ii) unsustainable fuel enormous pressure on the country’s
wood and fodder extraction (iii) shifting finite land resources.
cultivation (iv) encroachment into forest The per capita forestland in the
lands (v) forest fires and over grazing country is only 0.08 hectare against
(vi) non-adoption of adequate soil the requirement of 0.47 hectare to meet
conservation measures (vii) improper basic needs, resulting in an excess
crop rotation (viii) indiscriminate use of felling of about 15 million cubic metre
agro-chemicals such as fertilisers and forests over the permissible limit.
pesticides (ix) improper planning and Estimates of soil erosion show that
management of irrigation systems soil is being eroded at a rate of 5.3
(x) extraction of ground water in billion tonnes a year for the entire
Work These Out
¾ In order to enable the students to appreciate the contribution of environment

to economic development, the following game can be introduced. One student
may name a product used by any enterprise and the other student may
trace out its roots to nature and earth.
trucks steel and rubber

steel iron mineral earth
rubber trees forests earth
books paper trees fruit earth
cloth cotton plant nature
petrol earth
machinery Iron Mineral Earth
¾A truck driver had to pay Rs 1,000 as challan as his truck was emitting
black soot. Why do you think he was penalised? Was it justified? Discuss.
excess of the recharge capacity (xi) country as a result of which the

open access resource and (xii) poverty country loses 0.8 million tonnes of
of the agriculture-dependent people. nitrogen, 1.8 million tonnes of
India supports approximately 16 phosphorus and 26.3 million tonnes
per cent of the world’s human and 20 of potassium every year. According to
per cent of livestock population on a the Government of India, the quantity
mere 2.5 per cent of the world’s of nutrients lost due to erosion each
geographical area. The high density year ranges from 5.8 to 8.4 million
of population and livestock and tonnes.

Box 9.4 : Pollution Control Boards
In order to address two major environmental concerns in India, viz., water
and air pollution, the government set up the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) in 1974. This was followed by states establishing their own state level
boards to address all the environmental concerns. They investigate, collect
and disseminate information relating to water, air and land pollution, lay down
standards for sewage/trade effluent and emissions. These boards provide
technical assistance to governments in promoting cleanliness of streams and
wells by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and improve
the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
These boards also carry out and sponsor investigation and research
relating to problems of water and air pollution and for their prevention, control
or abatement. They also organise, through mass media, a comprehensive mass
awareness programme for the same. They also prepare manuals, codes and
guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents.
They assess the air quality through regulation of industries. In fact, state
boards, through their district level officials, periodically inspect every industry
under their jurisdiction to assess the adequacy of treatment measures provided
to treat the effluent and gaseous emissions. It also provides background air
quality data needed for industrial siting and town planning.
The pollution control boards collect, collate and disseminate technical and
statistical data relating to water pollution. They monitor the quality of water
in 125 rivers (including the tributaries), wells, lakes, creeks, ponds, tanks,
drains and canals.
¾ Visit a nearby factory/irrigation department and collect the details of
measures that they adopt to control water and air pollution.
¾ You might be seeing advertisements in newspapers, radio and television
or billboards in your locality on awareness programmes relating to water
and air pollution. Collect a few news-clippings, pamphlets and other
information and discuss them in the classroom.
In India, air pollution is widespread vehicles (two-wheeled vehicles and cars
in urban areas where vehicles are the only) constituted about 80 per cent of
major contributors and in a few other the total number of registered vehicles
areas which have a high concentration thus contributing significantly to total
of industries and thermal power plants. air pollution load.
Vehicular emissions are of particular India is one of the ten most
concern since these are ground level industrialised nations of the world.
sources and, thus, have the maximum But this status has brought with
impact on the general population. The it unwanted and unanticipated
number of motor vehicles has increased consequences such as unplanned
from about 3 lakh in 1951 to 67 crores urbanisation, pollution and the risk of
in 2003. In 2003, personal transport accidents. The CPCB (Central Pollution

Control Board) has identified seventeen allow all future generations to have a
categories of industries (large potential average quality of life that is
and medium scale) as significantly at least as high as that which is being
polluting. enjoyed by the current generation. The
concept of sustainable development
Work This Out was emphasised by the United Nations
Conference on Environment and
¾ You can see a column on the Development (UNCED), which defined
measure of air pollution in it as: ‘Development that meets the need
any national daily. Cut out of the present generation without
the news item a week before compromising the ability of the future
Diwali, on the day of Diwali
generation to meet their own needs’.
and two days after Diwali.
Do you observe a significant
Read the definition again. You will
difference in the value? notice that the term ‘need’ and the
Discuss in your class. phrase ‘future generations’ in the
definition are the catch phrases. The
The above points highlight the use of the concept ‘needs’ in the
challenges to India’s environment. The definition is linked to distribution of
various measures adopted by the resources. The seminal report — Our
Ministry of Environment and the Common Future — that gave the above
central and state pollution control definition explained sustainable
boards may not yield reward unless development as ‘meeting the basic
we consciously adopt a path of needs of all and extending to all the
sustainable development. The concern opportunity to satisfy their aspirations
for future generations alone can make for a better life’. Meeting the needs of
development last forever. Development all requires redistributing resources
to enhance our current living styles, and is hence a moral issue.
without concern for posterity, will Edward Barbier defined sustainable
deplete resources and degrade development as one which is directly
environment at a pace that is bound to concerned with increasing the material
result in both environmental and standard of living of the poor at
economic crisis. the grass root level — this can be
quantitatively measured in terms of
9.4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT increased income, real income,
Environment and economy are educational services, health care,
interdependent and need each other. sanitation, water supply etc. In more
Hence, development that ignores its specific terms, sustainable development
repercussions on the environment will aims at decreasing the absolute poverty
destroy the environment that sustains of the poor by providing lasting and
life forms. What is needed is sustainable secure livelihoods that minimise
development: development that will resource depletion, environmental

degradation, cultural disruption and line for the economy, human scale grows
social instability. Sustainable beyond the carrying capacity of the earth
development is, in this sense, a and deviates from sustainable
development that meets the basic needs development (ii) technological progress
of all, particularly the poor majority, for should be input efficient and not input
employment, food, energy, water, consuming (iii) renewable resources
housing, and ensures growth of should be extracted on a sustainable
agriculture, manufacturing, power and basis, that is, rate of extraction should
services to meet these needs. not exceed rate of regeneration (iv) for
The Brundtland Commission non-renewable resources rate of depletion
emphasises on protecting the future should not exceed the rate of creation
generation. This is in line with the of renewable substitutes and
argument of the environmentalists who (v) inefficiencies arising from pollution
emphasise that we have a moral should be corrected.
obligation to hand over the planet earth
in good order to the future generation; 9.5 S TRATEGIES FOR S USTAINABLE
that is, the present generation should DEVELOPMENT
bequeath a better environment to the Use of Non-conventional Sources of
future generation. At least we should Energy: India, as you know, is hugely
leave to the next generation a stock of dependent on thermal and hydro
‘quality of life’ assets no less than what power plants to meet its power
we have inherited. needs. Both of these have adverse
The present generation should environmental impacts. Thermal
promote development that enhances power plants emit large quantities of
the natural and built environment in carbon dioxide which is a green house
ways that are compatible with gas. It also produces fly ash which, if
(i) conservation of natural assets not used properly, can cause pollution
(ii) preservation of the regenerative of water bodies, land and other
capacity of the world’s natural components of the environment.
ecological system (iii) avoiding the Hydroelectric projects inundate forests
imposition of added costs or risks on and interfere with the natural flow of
future generations. water in catchment areas and the river
According to Herman Daly, a leading basins. Wind power and solar rays are
environmental economist, to achieve good examples of conventional but
sustainable development, the following cleaner and greener technologies which
needs to be done (i) limiting the human can be effectively used to replace
population to a level within the carrying thermal and hydro-power.
capacity of the environment. The carrying
capacity of the environment is like a ‘ LPG, Gobar Gas in Rural Areas:
plimsoll line’ of the ship which is its load Households in rural areas generally use
limit mark. In the absence of the plimsoll wood, dung cake or other biomass as

fuel. This practice has several adverse
implications like deforestation, Work This Out
reduction in green cover, wastage of
cattle dung and air pollution. To rectify ¾ In Delhi buses and other
the situation, subsidised LPG is being public transport vehicles
use CNG as fuel instead of
provided. In addition, gobar gas plants
petrol or diesel; some
are being provided through easy loans
vehicles use convertible
and subsidy. As far as liquefied engines; solar energy is
petroleum gas (LPG) is concerned, it is being used to light up the
a clean fuel — it reduces household streets. What do you think
pollution to a large extent. Also, energy about these changes?
wastage is minimised. For the gobar Organise a debate in class
gas plant to function, cattle dung is fed on the need for sustainable
to the plant and gas is produced which development in India.
is used as fuel while the slurry which Wind Power: In areas where speed of
is left over is a very good organic wind is usually high, wind mills can
fertiliser and soil conditioner. provide electricity without any adverse
impact on the environment. Wind
CNG in Urban Areas: In Delhi, the use of
turbines move with the wind and
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as fuel in
electricity is generated. No doubt, the
public transport system has significantly
initial cost is high. But the benefits are
lowered air pollution and the air has
such that the high cost gets easily
become cleaner in the last few years.
absorbed.
Fig.9.4 Gobar Gas Plant uses cattle dung to produce energy

Solar Power through Photovoltaic They have been more a component of
Cells: India is naturally endowed with the environment and not its controller.
a large quantity of solar energy in the If we look back at our agriculture
form of sunlight. We use it in different system, healthcare system, housing,
ways. For example, we dry our clothes, transport etc., we find that all practices
grains, other agricultural products as have been environment friendly. Only
well as various items made for daily use. recently have we drifted away from the
We also use sunlight to warm ourselves traditional systems and caused large
in winter. Plants use solar energy to scale damage to the environment and
perform photosynthesis. Now, with the also our rural heritage. Now, it is time
help of photovoltaic cells, solar energy to go back. One apt example is in
can be converted into electricity. These healthcare. India is very much
cells use special kind of materials to privileged to have about 15,000 species
capture solar energy and then convert of plants which have medicinal
the energy into electricity. This properties. About 8,000 of these are in
technology is extremely useful for remote regular use in various systems of
areas and for places where supply of treatment including the folk tradition.
power through grid or power lines is With the sudden onslaught of the
either not possible or proves very costly. western system of treatment, we were
This technique is also totally free from ignoring our traditional systems such
pollution. as Ayurveda, Unani, Tibetan and folk
systems. These healthcare systems are
Mini-hydel Plants: In mountainous in great demand again for treating
regions, streams can be found almost chromic health problems. Now a days
everywhere. A large percentage of such every cosmetic produce — hair oil,
streams are perennial. Mini-hydel toothpaste, body lotion, face cream and
plants use the energy of such streams what not — is herbal in composition.
to move small turbines. The turbines Not only are these products environment
generate electricity which can be used friendly, they are relatively free from side
locally. Such power plants are more or effects and do not involve large-scale
less environment-friendly as they do not industrial and chemical processing.
change the land use pattern in areas
where they are located; they generate Biocomposting: In our quest to
enough power to meet local demands. increase agricultural production
This means that they can also do away during the last five decades or so, we
with the need for large scale almost totally neglected the use of
transmission towers and cables and compost and completely switched over
avoid transmission loss. to chemical fertilisers. The result is that
large tracts of productive land have
Traditional Knowledge and been adversely affected, water bodies
Practices: Traditionally, Indian people including ground water system have
have been close to their environment. suffered due to chemical contamination

and demand for irrigation has been help in controlling pests. For example,
going up year after year. snakes are one of the prime group of
Farmers, in large numbers all over animals which prey upon rats, mice and
the country, have again started using various other pests. Similarly, large
compost made from organic wastes of varieties of birds, for example, owls and
different types. In certain parts of the peacocks, prey upon vermin and pests.
country, cattle are maintained only If these are allowed to dwell around the
because they produce dung which is agricultural areas, they can clear large
an important fertiliser and soil varieties of pests including insects.
conditioner. Lizards are also important in this
Earthworms can convert organic regard. We need to know their value and
matter into compost faster than the save them.
normal composting process. This Sustainable development has
process is now being widely used. become a catch phrase today. It is
Indirectly, the civic authorities are ‘indeed’ a paradigm shift in
benefited too as they have to dispose development thinking. Though it has
reduced quantity of waste. been interpreted in a number of ways,
adherence to this path ensures lasting
Biopest Control: With the advent of development and non-declining welfare
green revolution, the entire country for all.
entered into a frenzy to use more and
more chemical pesticides for higher 9.6 CONCLUSION
yield. Soon, the adverse impacts began
to show; food products were Economic development, which aimed at
contaminated, soil, water bodies and increasing the production of goods and
even ground water were polluted with services to meet the needs of a rising
pesticides. Even milk, meat and fishes population, puts greater pressure on
were found to be contaminated. the environment. In the initial stages
To meet this challenge, efforts are of development, the demand for
on to bring in better methods of pest environmental resources was less than
control. One such step is the use of that of supply. Now the world is
pesticides based on plant products. faced with increased demand for
Neem trees are proving to be quite environmental resources but their
useful. Several types of pest controlling supply is limited due to overuse and
chemicals have been isolated from neem misuse. Sustainable development aims
and these are being used. Mixed at promoting the kind of development
cropping and growing different crops that minimises environmental problems
in consecutive years on the same land and meets the needs of the present
have also helped farmers. generation without compromising the
In addition, awareness is spreading ability of the future generation to meet
about various animals and birds which their own needs.

Recap
¾ Environment performs four functions: supplies resources, assimilates

wastes, sustains life by providing genetic and bio diversity and provides
aesthetic services.
¾ Population explosion, affluent consumption and production have placed
a huge stress on the environment.
¾ Developmental activities in India have put immense pressure on its finite
natural resources, besides creating impact on human health and
well-being.
¾ The threat to India’s environment is of two dimensions — threat of poverty
induced environmental degradation and the threat of pollution from
affluence and a rapidly growing industrial sector.
¾ Though the government, through various measures, attempts to safeguard
the environment, it is also necessary to adopt a path of sustainable
development.
¾ Sustainable development is development that meets the need of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to
meet their own needs.
¾ Promotion of natural resources, conservation, preserving regenerative
capacity of ecological system and avoiding the imposition of environmental
risks on future generations would lead to sustainable development.
EXERCISES
1. What is meant by environment?

2. What happens when the rate of resource extraction exceeds that of
their regeneration?
3. Classify the following into renewable and non-renewable resources
(i) trees (ii) fish (iii) petroleum (iv) coal (v) iron-ore (vi) water.
4. Two major environmental issues facing the world today are ____________
and _____________.
5. How do the following factors contribute to the environmental crisis

in India? What problem do they pose for the government?
(i) Rising population
(ii) Air pollution

(iii) Water contamination
(iv) Affluent consumption standards
(v) Illiteracy
(vi) Industrialisation
(vii) Urbanisation
(viii) Reduction of forest coverage
(ix) Poaching
(x) Global warming.
6. What are the functions of the environment?
7. Identify six factors contributing to land degradation in India.
8. Explain how the opportunity costs of negative environmental impact
are high.
9. Outline the steps involved in attaining sustainable development in India.
10. India has abundant natural resources — substantiate the statement.
11. Is environmental crisis a recent phenomenon? If so, why?
12. Give two instances of
(a) Overuse of environmental resources
(b) Misuse of environmental resources.
13. State any four pressing environmental concerns of India. Correction
for environmental damages involves opportunity costs — explain.
14. Explain the supply-demand reversal of environmental resources.
15. Account for the current environmental crisis.
16. Highlight any two serious adverse environmental consequences of
development in India. India’s environmental problems pose a dichotomy
— they are poverty induced and, at the same time, due to affluence in
living standards — is this true?
17. What is sustainable development?
18. Keeping in view your locality, describe any four strategies of sustainable
development.
19. Explain the relevance of intergenerational equity in the definition of
sustainable development.
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
1. Suppose 70 lakh cars are added every year to the roads of metropolitans.
Which type of resources do you think are undergoing depletion? Discuss.
2. Make a list of items that can be recycled.

3. Prepare a chart on the causes and remedies of soil erosion in India.
4. How does population explosion contribute to the environmental crisis?
Debate in the classroom.
5. The nation has to pay heavily for correcting environmental damages —
discuss.
6. A paper factory is to be set up in your village. Arrange a role play
consisting of an activist, an industrialist and a group of villagers.
REFERENCES
BOOKS
AGARWAL, ANIL and SUNITA NARAIN. 1996. Global Warming in an Unequal World.
Centre for Science and Environment, Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
BHARUCHA, E. 2005. Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate
Courses, Universities Press (India) Pvt Ltd.
CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT. 1996. State of India’s Environment
1: The First Citizens’ Report 1982. Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT. 1996. State of India’s Environment
2: The Second Citizens’ Report 1985, Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
KARPAGAM, M. 2001.Environmental Economics: A Textbook. Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi.
RAJAGOPALAN, R. 2005. Environmental Studies: From Crisis to Cure. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
SCHUMACHER, E.F. Small is Beautiful. Abacus Publishers, New York.
Journals
Scientific American, India, Special Issue, September 2005
Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi.
Websites
http://envfor.nic.in
http://cpcb.nic.in
http://www.cseindia.org

398 CHEMISTRY
UNIT 14
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
The world has achieved brilliance without wisdom, power

without conscience. Ours is a world of nuclear giants and
ethical infants.
After studying this unit, you will be
able to
• understand the meaning of
environmental chemistry; You have already studied about environment in your earlier
• define atmospheric pollution, list classes. Environmental studies deal with the sum of all
reasons for global warming. green social, economical, biological, physical and chemical
house effect and acid rain; interrelations with our surroundings. In this unit the focus
• identify causes for ozone layer will be on environmental chemistry. Environmental
depletion and its effects; chemistry deals with the study of the origin, transport,
reactions, effects and fates of chemical species in the
• give reasons for water pollution
and know about international
environment. Let us discuss some important aspects of
standards for drinking water; environmental chemistry.
• describe causes of soil pollution; 14.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
• suggest and adopt strategies Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes
for control of environmental in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants,
pollution; animals and human beings. A substance, which causes
• appreciate the importance of green pollution, is known as pollutant. Pollutants can be solid,
chemistry in day to day life. liquid or gaseous substances present in greater
concentration than in natural abundance and are
produced due to human activities or due to natural
happenings. Do you know, an average human being
requires nearly 12-15 times more air than the food. So,
even small amounts of pollutants in the air become
significant compared to similar levels present in the food.
Pollutants can be degradable, like discarded vegetables
which rapidly break down by natural processes. On the
other hand, pollutants which are slowly degradable, remain
in the environment in an unchanged form for many
decades. For example, substances such as dichlorodi-
phenyltrichloroethane (DDT), plastic materials, heavy
metals, many chemicals, nuclear wastes etc., once released
into the environment are difficult to remove. These
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 399
pollutants cannot be degraded by natural sulphur dioxide, is a gas that is poisonous to

processes and are harmful to living organisms. both animals and plants. It has been reported
In the process of environmental pollution, that even a low concentration of sulphur
pollutants originate from a source and get dioxide causes respiratory diseases e.g.,
transported by air or water or are dumped into asthma, bronchitis, emphysema in human
the soil by human beings. beings. Sulphur dioxide causes irritation to
the eyes, resulting in tears and redness. High
14.2 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION concentration of SO2 leads to stiffness of flower
The atmosphere that surrounds the earth is buds which eventually fall off from plants.
not of the same thickness at all heights. There Uncatalysed oxidation of sulphur dioxide is
are concentric layers of air or regions and each slow. However, the presence of particulate
layer has different density. The lowest region matter in polluted air catalyses the oxidation
of atmosphere in which the human beings of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
along with other organisms live is called
2SO2 (g) +O2 (g) → 2SO3(g)
troposphere. It extends up to the height of
~ 10 km from sea level. Above the troposphere, The reaction can also be promoted by
between 10 and 50 km above sea level lies ozone and hydrogen peroxide.
stratosphere. Troposphere is a turbulent,
SO2 (g) +O3 (g) → SO3(g) + O2 (g)
dusty zone containing air, much water vapour
and clouds. This is the region of strong air SO2(g) + H2O2(l) → H2SO4(aq)
movement and cloud formation. The (b) Oxides of Nitrogen: Dinitrogen and
stratosphere, on the other hand, contains dioxygen are the main constituents of air.
dinitrogen, dioxygen, ozone and little water These gases do not react with each other at a
vapour. normal temperature. At high altitudes when
Atmospheric pollution is generally studied lightning strikes, they combine to form oxides
as tropospheric and stratospheric pollution. of nitrogen. NO2 is oxidised to nitrate ion, NO3−
The presence of ozone in the stratosphere which is washed into soil, where it serves as a
prevents about 99.5 per cent of the sun’s fertilizer. In an automobile engine, (at high
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiations from temperature) when fossil fuel is burnt,
reaching the earth’s surface and thereby dinitrogen and dioxygen combine to yield
protecting humans and other animals from its significant quantities of nitric oxide (NO) and
effect. nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) as given below:
14.2.1 Tropospheric Pollution N2 (g) + O2 (g) 
1483K
→ 2NO(g)
Tropospheric pollution occurs due to the NO reacts instantly with oxygen to give NO2
presence of undesirable solid or gaseous 2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
particles in the air. The following are the major
gaseous and particulate pollutants present in Rate of production of NO2 is faster when
the troposphere: nitric oxide reacts with ozone in the
stratosphere.
1. Gaseous air pollutants: These are oxides
of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, hydrogen NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone and other The irritant red haze in the traffic and
oxidants. congested places is due to oxides of nitrogen.
2. Particulate pollutants: These are dust, Higher concentrations of NO2 damage the
leaves of plants and retard the rate of
mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc.
photosynthesis. Nitrogen dioxide is a lung
1. Gaseous air pollutants irritant that can lead to an acute respiratory
(a) Oxides of Sulphur: Oxides of sulphur disease in children. It is toxic to living tissues
are produced when sulphur containing fossil also. Nitrogen dioxide is also harmful to
fuel is burnt. The most common species, various textile fibres and metals.
400 CHEMISTRY
(c) Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are atmosphere. With the increased use of fossil
composed of hydrogen and carbon only and fuels, a large amount of carbon dioxide gets
are formed by incomplete combustion of fuel released into the atmosphere. Excess of CO2
used in automobiles. Hydrocarbons are in the air is removed by green plants and this
carcinogenic, i.e., they cause cancer. They maintains an appropriate level of CO2 in the
harm plants by causing ageing, breakdown of atmosphere. Green plants require CO2 for
tissues and shedding of leaves, flowers and photosynthesis and they, in turn, emit oxygen,
twigs. thus maintaining the delicate balance. As you
(d) Oxides of Carbon know, deforestation and burning of fossil fuel
(i ) Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide (CO) increases the CO2 level and disturb the balance
is one of the most serious air pollutants. It is a in the atmosphere. The increased amount of
colourless and odourless gas, highly CO2 in the air is mainly responsible for global
poisonous to living beings because of its ability warming.
to block the delivery of oxygen to the organs Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
and tissues. It is produced as a result of About 75 % of the solar energy reaching the
incomplete combustion of carbon. Carbon earth is absorbed by the earth’s surface, which
monoxide is mainly released into the air by increases its temperature. The rest of the heat
automobile exhaust. Other sources, which radiates back to the atmosphere. Some of the
produce CO, involve incomplete combustion
heat is trapped by gases such as carbon
of coal, firewood, petrol, etc. The number of
dioxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbon
vehicles has been increasing over the years all
compounds (CFCs) and water vapour in the
over the world. Many vehicles are poorly
atmosphere. Thus, they add to the heating of
maintained and several have inadequate
the atmosphere. This causes global warming.
pollution control equipments resulting in the
release of greater amount of carbon monoxide We all know that in cold places flowers,
and other polluting gases. Do you know why vegetables and fruits are grown in glass
carbon monoxide is poisonous? It binds to covered areas called greenhouse. Do you know
haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, that we humans also live in a greenhouse? Of
which is about 300 times more stable than the course, we are not surrounded by glass but a
oxygen-haemoglobin complex. In blood, when blanket of air called the atmosphere, which has
the concentration of carboxyhaemoglobin kept the temperature on earth constant for
reaches about 3–4 per cent, the oxygen centuries. But it is now undergoing change,
carrying capacity of blood is greatly though slowly. Just as the glass in a
reduced. This oxygen deficiency, results into greenhouse holds the sun’s warmth inside,
headache, weak eyesight, nervousness and atmosphere traps the sun’s heat near the
cardiovascular disorder. This is the reason why earth’s surface and keeps it warm. This is
people are advised not to smoke. In pregnant called natural greenhouse effect because it
women who have the habit of smoking the maintains the temperature and makes the
increased CO level in blood may induce earth perfect for life. In a greenhouse, visible
premature birth, spontaneous abortions and light passes through the transparent glass and
deformed babies. heats up the soil and the plants. The warm
(ii) Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is soil and plants emit infrared radiations. Since
released into the atmosphere by respiration, glass is opaque to infrared (heat) radiations, it
burning of fossil fuels for energy, and by partly reflects and partly absorbs these
decomposition of limestone during the radiations. This mechanism keeps the energy
manufacture of cement. It is also emitted of the sun trapped in the greenhouse.
during volcanic eruptions. Carbon dioxide gas Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules also trap
is confined to troposphere only. Normally it heat as they are transparent to sunlight but
forms about 0.03 per cent by volume of the not to the heat radiation. If the amount of
carbon dioxide crosses the delicate proportion

Think it Over
of 0.03 per cent, the natural greenhouse
balance may get disturbed. Carbon dioxide is What can we do to reduce the rate of global
the major contributor to global warming. warming?
Besides carbon dioxide, other greenhouse If burning of fossil fuels, cutting down
forests and trees add to greenhouse gases
gases are methane, water vapour, nitrous
in the atmosphere, we must find ways to
oxide, CFCs and ozone. Methane is produced use these just efficiently and judiciously.
naturally when vegetation is burnt, digested One of the simple things which we can do
or rotted in the absence of oxygen. Large to reduce global warming is to minimise the
amounts of methane are released in paddy use of automobiles. Depending upon the
fields, coal mines, from rotting garbage dumps situation, one can use bicycle, public
and by fossil fuels. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) transport system, or go for carpool. We
are man-made industrial chemicals used in should plant more trees to increase the
air conditioning etc. CFCs are also damaging green cover. Avoid burning of dry leaves,
wood etc. It is illegal to smoke in public
the ozone layer (Section 14.2.2). Nitrous oxide
places and work places, because it is
occurs naturally in the environment. In recent
harmful not only for the one who is smoking
years, their quantities have increased but also for others, and therefore, we should
significantly due to the use of chemical avoid it. Many people do not understand
fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels. If the greenhouse effect and the global
these trends continue, the average global warming. We can help them by sharing the
temperature will increase to a level which may information that we have.
lead to melting of polar ice caps and flooding
of low lying areas all over the earth. Increase Acid rain
in the global temperature increases the We are aware that normally rain water has a
+
incidence of infectious diseases like dengue, pH of 5.6 due to the presence of H ions formed
malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness etc. by the reaction of rain water with carbon
Fig. 14.1 Acid deposition

402 CHEMISTRY
dioxide present in the atmosphere.

Activity 1
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) U H2CO3 (aq) You can collect samples of water from
+ – nearby places and record their pH values.
H2CO3 (aq) U H (aq) + HCO3 (aq)
Discuss your results in the class. Let us
When the pH of the rain water drops below discuss how we can help to reduce the
5.6, it is called acid rain. formation of acid rain.
Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid This can be done by reducing the
from the atmosphere is deposited on the emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
earth’s surface. Oxides of nitrogen and dioxide in the atmosphere. We should use
sulphur which are acidic in nature can be less vehicles driven by fossil fuels; use less
blown by wind along with solid particles in the sulphur content fossil fuels for power
plants and industries. We should use
atmosphere and finally settle down either on
natural gas which is a better fuel than coal
the ground as dry deposition or in water, fog or use coal with less sulphur content.
and snow as wet deposition. (Fig. 14.1) Catalytic converters must be used in cars
Acid rain is a byproduct of a variety of to reduce the effect of exhaust fumes on
human activities that emit the oxides of the atmosphere. The main component of
sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. As the converter is a ceramic honeycomb
mentioned earlier, burning of fossil fuels (which coated with precious metals — Pd, Pt and
Rh. The exhaust gases containing unburnt
contain sulphur and nitrogenous matter) such
fuel, CO and NOx, when pass through the
as coal and oil in power stations and furnaces converter at 573 K, are converted into CO2
or petrol and diesel in motor engines produce and N2. We can also reduce the acidity of
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. SO2 and the soil by adding powdered limestone to
NO2 after oxidation and reaction with water neutralise the acidity of the soil. Many
are major contributors to acid rain, because people do not know of acid rain and its
polluted air usually contains particulate harmful effects. We can make them aware
matter that catalyse the oxidation. by passing on this information and save
the Nature.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)+ 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq) Taj Mahal and Acid Rain
Ammonium salts are also formed and can The air around the city of Agra, where the
be seen as an atmospheric haze (aerosol of fine Taj Mahal is located, contains fairly high
particles). Aerosol particles of oxides or levels of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. It is
ammonium salts in rain drops result in wet- mainly due to a large number of industries
deposition. SO2 is also absorbed directly on and power plants around the area. Use of
both solid and liquid ground surfaces and is poor quality of coal, kerosene and firewood
as fuel for domestic purposes add up to
thus deposited as dry-deposition.
this problem. The resulting acid rain
Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees reacts with marble, CaCO3 of Taj Mahal
and plants as it dissolves and washes away (CaCO 3 +H 2 SO 4 → CaSO 4 + H 2 O+ CO 2 )
nutrients needed for their growth. It causes causing damage to this wonderful
respiratory ailments in human beings and monument that has attracted people from
animals. When acid rain falls and flows as around the world. As a result, the
ground water to reach rivers, lakes etc. it affects monument is being slowly disfigured and
plants and animal life in aquatic ecosystem. It the marble is getting discoloured and
corrodes water pipes resulting in the leaching lustreless. The Government of India
announced an action plan in early 1995
of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper
to prevent the disfiguring of this historical
into the drinking water. Acid rain damages
monument. Mathura refinery has already
buildings and other structures made of stone taken suitable measures to check the
or metal. The Taj Mahal in India has been emission of toxic gases.
affected by acid rain.
This plan aims at clearing the air in herbicides and insecticides that miss their
the ‘Taj Trapezium’– an area that includes targets and travel through air and form
the towns of Agra, Firozabad, Mathura and mists.
Bharatpur. Under this plan more than
(d) Fumes are generally obtained by the
2000 polluting industries lying inside the
trapezium would switch over to the use of condensation of vapours during
natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas sublimation, distillation, boiling and
instead of coal or oil. A new natural gas several other chemical reactions. Generally,
pipeline would bring more than half a organic solvents, metals and metallic
million cubic metres of natural gas a day oxides form fume particles.
to this area. People living in the city will
also be encouraged to use liquefied
The effect of particulate pollutants are
petroleum gas in place of coal, kerosene or largely dependent on the particle size. Air-
firewood. Vehicles plying on highways in borne particles such as dust, fumes, mist etc.,
the vicinity of Taj would be encouraged to are dangerous for human health. Particulate
use low sulphur content diesel. pollutants bigger than 5 microns are likely to
lodge in the nasal passage, whereas particles
2. Particulate Pollutants of about 1.0 micron enter into lungs easily.
Particulates pollutants are the minute solid Lead used to be a major air pollutant
particles or liquid droplets in air. These are emitted by vehicles. Leaded petrol used to be
present in vehicle emissions, smoke particles the primary source of air-borne lead emission
from fires, dust particles and ash from in Indian cities. This problem has now been
industries. Particulates in the atmosphere overcome by using unleaded petrol in most of
may be viable or non-viable. The viable the cities in India. Lead interferes with the
particulates e.g., bacteria, fungi, moulds, development and maturation of red blood cells.
algae etc., are minute living organisms that are Smog
dispersed in the atmosphere. Human beings The word smog is derived from smoke and fog.
are allergic to some of the fungi found in air. This is the most common example of air
They can also cause plant diseases. pollution that occurs in many cities
Non-viable particulates may be classified throughout the world. There are two types of
according to their nature and size as follows: smog:
(a) Smoke particulates consist of solid or (a) Classical smog occurs in cool humid
mixture of solid and liquid particles formed climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and
during combustion of organic matter. sulphur dioxide. Chemically it is a
Examples are cigarette smoke, smoke from reducing mixture and so it is also called
burning of fossil fuel, garbage and dry as reducing smog.
leaves, oil smoke etc. (b) Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry
(b) Dust is composed of fine solid particles and sunny climate. The main components
(over 1µm in diameter), produced during of the photochemical smog result from the
crushing, grinding and attribution of solid action of sunlight on unsaturated
materials. Sand from sand blasting, saw hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
dust from wood works, pulverized coal, produced by automobiles and factories.
cement and fly ash from factories, dust Photochemical smog has high
storms etc., are some typical examples of concentration of oxidising agents and is,
this type of particulate emission. therefore, called as oxidising smog.
(c) Mists are produced by particles of spray Formation of photochemical smog
liquids and by condensation of vapours in When fossil fuels are burnt, a variety of
air. Examples are sulphuric acid mist and pollutants are emitted into the earth’s
404 CHEMISTRY
troposphere. Two of the pollutants that are to produce chemicals such as formaldehyde,
emitted are hydrocarbons (unburnt fuels) and acrolein and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
nitric oxide (NO). When these pollutants build 3CH4 + 2O3 → 3CH2 = O + 3H2O
up to sufficiently high levels, a chain reaction
Formaldehyde
occurs from their interaction with sunlight in
which NO is converted into nitrogen dioxide CH2=CHCH=O CH3COONO2
(NO2). This NO2 in turn absorbs energy from 
sunlight and breaks up into nitric oxide and O
free oxygen atom (Fig. 14.2). Acrolein Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
NO2(g) NO(g) + O(g) (i) Effects of photochemical smog
Oxygen atoms are very reactive and The common components of photochemical
combine with the O2 in air to produce ozone. smog are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein,
formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
O(g) + O2 (g) U O3 (g) (ii) Photochemical smog causes serious health
The ozone formed in the above reaction (ii) problems. Both ozone and PAN act as powerful
reacts rapidly with the NO(g) formed in the eye irritants. Ozone and nitric oxide irritate the
reaction (i) to regenerate NO2. NO2 is a brown nose and throat and their high concentration
gas and at sufficiently high levels can causes headache, chest pain, dryness of the
contribute to haze. throat, cough and difficulty in breathing.
Photochemical smog leads to cracking of
NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g) (iii) rubber and extensive damage to plant life. It
Ozone is a toxic gas and both NO2 and O3 also causes corrosion of metals, stones,
are strong oxidising agents and can react with building materials, rubber and painted
the unburnt hydrocarbons in the polluted air surfaces.
Fig. 14.2 Photochemical smog occurs where sunlight acts on vehicle pollutants.
How can photochemical smog be in the production of plastic foam and by the
controlled ? electronic industry for cleaning computer
Many techniques are used to control or reduce parts etc. Once CFCs are released in the
the formation of photochemical smog. If we atmosphere, they mix with the normal
control the primary precursors of atmospheric gases and eventually reach the
photochemical smog, such as NO 2 and stratosphere. In stratosphere, they get broken
hydrocarbons, the secondary precursors such down by powerful UV radiations, releasing
as ozone and PAN, the photochemical smog chlorine free radical.
will automatically be reduced. Usually catalytic
CF2Cl2 (g) (g) + F2Cl (g) (i)
converters are used in the automobiles, which
prevent the release of nitrogen oxide and The chlorine radical then react with
hydrocarbons to the atmosphere. Certain stratospheric ozone to form chlorine monoxide
plants e.g., Pinus, Juniparus, Quercus, Pyrus radicals and molecular oxygen.
• •
and Vitis can metabolise nitrogen oxide and C l (g) + O3 (g) → Cl O (g) + O2 (g) (ii)
therefore, their plantation could help in this
matter. Reaction of chlorine monoxide radical with
atomic oxygen produces more chlorine
14.2.2 Stratospheric Pollution radicals.
• •
Formation and Breakdown of Ozone Cl O (g) + O (g) → C l (g) + O2 (g) (iii)
The upper stratosphere consists of The chlorine radicals are continuously
considerable amount of ozone (O3), which regenerated and cause the breakdown of
protects us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV)
ozone. Thus, CFCs are transporting agents for
radiations (λ 255 nm) coming from the sun.
continuously generating chlorine radicals into
These radiations cause skin cancer
the stratosphere and damaging the ozone layer.
(melanoma) in humans. Therefore, it is
important to maintain the ozone shield. The Ozone Hole
Ozone in the stratosphere is a product of In 1980s atmospheric scientists working in
UV radiations acting on dioxygen (O 2 ) Antarctica reported about depletion of ozone
molecules. The UV radiations split apart layer commonly known as ozone hole over the
molecular oxygen into free oxygen (O) atoms. South Pole. It was found that a unique set of
These oxygen atoms combine with the conditions was responsible for the ozone hole.
molecular oxygen to form ozone. In summer season, nitrogen dioxide and
methane react with chlorine monoxide
O2 (g) O(g) + O(g) (reaction iv) and chlorine atoms (reaction v)
O(g) + O2 (g) O3 (g) forming chlorine sinks, preventing much ozone
depletion, whereas in winter, special type of
Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and
clouds called polar stratospheric clouds are
decomposes to molecular oxygen. Thus, a
formed over Antarctica. These polar
dynamic equilibrium exists between the
stratospheric clouds provide surface on which
production and decomposition of ozone
chlorine nitrate formed (reaction iv) gets
molecules. In recent years, there have been
hydrolysed to form hypochlorous acid
reports of the depletion of this protective ozone
(reaction (vi)). It also reacts with hydrogen
layer because of the presence of certain
chloride produced as per reaction (v) to give
chemicals in the stratosphere. The main
molecular chlorine.
reason of ozone layer depletion is believed to •
be the release of chlorofluorocarbon Cl O (g) + NO2 (g) → ClONO2(g) (iv)
• •
compounds (CFCs), also known as freons. C l (g) + CH4 (g) → C H3(g) + HCl(g) (v)
These compounds are nonreactive, non
ClONO2(g) + H2O (g) → HOCl (g) + HNO3 (g) (vi)
flammable, non toxic organic molecules and
therefore used in refrigerators, air conditioners, ClONO2(g) + HCl (g) → Cl2 (g) + HNO3 (g) (vii)
406 CHEMISTRY
When sunlight returns to the Antarctica in where pollutants enter the water-source. Non
the spring, the sun’s warmth breaks up the point sources of pollution are those where a
clouds and HOCl and Cl2 are photolysed by source of pollution cannot be easily identified,
sunlight, as given in reactions (viii) and (ix). e.g., agricultural run off (from farm, animals
• • and crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water
HOCl (g) 
hν
→ O H (g) + Cl(g) (viii)
drainage (from streets, parking lots and lawns),
•
Cl2 (g) 
hν
→ 2 Cl (g) (ix) etc. Table 14.1 lists the major water pollutants
and their sources.
The chlorine radicals thus formed, initiate
the chain reaction for ozone depletion as 14.3.1 Causes of Water Pollution
described earlier. (i) Pathogens: The most serious water
Effects of Depletion of the Ozone Layer pollutants are the disease causing agents
called pathogens. Pathogens include bacteria
With the depletion of ozone layer, more UV
and other organisms that enter water from
radiation filters into troposphere. UV
domestic sewage and animal excreta. Human
radiations lead to ageing of skin, cataract,
excreta contain bacteria such as Escherichia
sunbur n, skin cancer, killing of many
coli and Streptococcus faecalis which cause
phytoplanktons, damage to fish productivity
gastrointestinal diseases.
etc. It has also been reported that plant
proteins get easily affected by UV radiations (ii) Organic wastes: The other major water
which leads to the harmful mutation of cells. pollutant is organic matter such as
It also increases evaporation of surface water leaves, grass, trash etc. They pollute water as
through the stomata of the leaves and a consequence of run off. Excessive
decreases the moisture content of the soil. phytoplankton growth within water is also a
Increase in UV radiations damage paints and cause of water pollution. These wastes are
fibres, causing them to fade faster. biodegradable.
The large population of bacteria
14.3 WATER POLLUTION decomposes organic matter present in water.
Water is essential for life. Without water there They consume oxygen dissolved in water. The
would be no life. We usually take water as amount of oxygen that water can hold in the
granted for its purity, but we must ensure the solution is limited. In cold water, dissolved
quality of water. Pollution of water originates oxygen (DO) can reach a concentration up to
from human activities. Through different 10 ppm (parts per million), whereas oxygen in
paths, pollution reaches surface or ground air is about 200,000 ppm. That is why even a
water. Easily identified source or place of moderate amount of organic matter when
pollution is called as point source. e.g., decomposes in water can deplete the water of
municipal and industrial discharge pipes its dissolved oxygen. The concentration of
Table 14.1 Major Water Pollutants
Pollutant Source
Micro-organisms Domestic sewage
Organic wastes Domestic sewage, animal excreta and waste, decaying animals
and plants, discharge from food processing factories.
Plant nutrients Chemcial fertilizers
Toxic heavy metals Industries and chemical factories
Sediments Erosion of soil by agriculture and strip mining
Pesticides Chemicals used for killing insects, fungi and weeds
Radioactive substances Mining of uranium containing minerals
Heat Water used for cooling in industries
dissolved oxygen in water is very important The organic chemicals are another group
for aquatic life . If the concentration of dissolved of substances that are found in polluted water.
oxygen of water is below 6 ppm, the growth of Petroleum products pollute many sources of
fish gets inhibited. Oxygen reaches water water e.g., major oil spills in oceans. Other
either through atmosphere or from the process organic substances with serious impacts are
of photosynthesis carried out by many the pesticides that drift down from sprays or
aquatic green plants during day light. runof f from lands. Various industrial
However, during night, photosynthesis stops chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls,
but the plants continue to respire, resulting (PCBs) which are used as cleansing solvent,
in reduction of dissolved oxygen. The detergents and fertilizers add to the list of
dissolved oxygen is also used by water pollutants. PCBs are suspected to be
microorganisms to oxidise organic matter. carcinogenic. Nowadays most of the detergents
available are biodegradable. However, their use
If too much of organic matter is added to
can create other problems. The bacteria
water, all the available oxygen is used up. This
responsible for degrading biodegradable
causes oxygen dependent aquatic life to die.
detergent feed on it and grow rapidly. While
Thus, anaerobic bacteria (which do not require
growing, they may use up all the oxygen
oxygen) begin to break down the organic waste
dissolved in water. The lack of oxygen kills all
and produce chemicals that have a foul smell
other forms of aquatic life such as fish and
and are harmful to human health. Aerobic
plants. Fertilizers contain phosphates as
(oxygen requiring) bacteria degrade these
additives. The addition of phosphates in water
organic wastes and keep the water depleted
enhances algae growth. Such profuse growth
in dissolved oxygen. of algae, covers the water surface and reduces
Thus, the amount of oxygen required by the oxygen concentration in water. This leads
bacteria to break down the organic matter to anaerobic conditions, commonly with
present in a certain volume of a sample of accumulation of abnoxious decay and animal
water, is called Biochemical Oxygen Demand death. Thus, bloom-infested water inhibits the
(BOD). The amount of BOD in the water is a growth of other living organisms in the
measure of the amount of organic material in water body. This process in which nutrient
the water, in terms of how much oxygen will enriched water bodies support a dense plant
be required to break it down biologically. Clean population, which kills animal life by depriving
water would have BOD value of less than it of oxygen and results in subsequent loss of
5 ppm whereas highly polluted water could biodiversity is known as Eutrophication.
have a BOD value of 17 ppm or more.
14.3.2 International Standards for
(iii) Chemical Pollutants: As we know that Drinking Water
water is an excellent solvent, water soluble
The International Standards for drinking water
inorganic chemicals that include heavy metals
are given below and they must be followed.
such as cadmium, mercury, nickel etc
constitute an important class of pollutants. All Fluoride: For drinking purposes, water
these metals are dangerous to humans should be tested for fluoride ion concentration.
because our body cannot excrete them. Over Its deficiency in drinking water is harmful to
the time, it crosses the tolerance limit. These man and causes diseases such as tooth decay
metals then can damage kidneys, central etc. Soluble fluoride is often added to drinking
nervous system, liver etc. Acids (like sulphuric water to bring its concentration upto 1 ppm
–3 –
acid) from mine drainage and salts from many or 1 mg dm . The F ions make the enamel on
different sources including raw salt used to teeth much harder by converting
melt snow and ice in the colder climates hydroxyapatite, [3(Ca3(PO4)2.Ca(OH)2], the
(sodium and calcium chloride) are water enamel on the surface of the teeth, into much
soluble chemical pollutants. harder fluorapatite, [3(Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .CaF 2 ].
408 CHEMISTRY
–
However, F ion concentration above 2 ppm pollution levels. Ensure that appropriate
causes brown mottling of teeth. At the same action is taken. You can write to the press
time, excess fluoride (over 10 ppm) causes also. Do not dump waste into a
harmful effect to bones and teeth, as reported household or industrial drain which can
from some parts of Rajasthan. enter directly to any water body, such as,
Lead: Drinking water gets contaminated with river, pond, stream or lake. Use compost
lead when lead pipes are used for instead of chemical fertilizers in gardens.
transportation of water. The prescribed upper Avoid the use of pesticides like DDT,
limit concentration of lead in drinking water malathion etc., at home and try to use
is about 50 ppb. Lead can damage kidney, dried neem leaves to help keep insects
liver, reproductive system etc. away. Add a few crystals of potassium
permanganate (KMnO 4) or bleaching
Sulphate: Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) in powder to the water tank of your house.
drinking water causes laxative effect, otherwise
at moderate levels it is harmless.
14.4 SOIL POLLUTION
Nitrate: The maximum limit of nitrate in
India being an agriculture based economy
drinking water is 50 ppm. Excess nitrate in
gives high priority to agriculture, fisheries and
drinking water can cause disease such as
livestock development. The surplus
methemoglobinemia (‘blue baby’ syndrome).
production is stored by governmental and
Other metals: The maximum concentration non-governmental organisations for the lean
of some common metals recommended in season. The food loss during the storage also
drinking water are given in Table 14.2. needs special attention. Have you ever seen the
damages caused to the crops, food items by
insects, rodents, weeds and crop diseases etc?
Table 14.2 Maximum Prescribed Concen- How can we protect them? You are acquainted
tration of Some Metals in
with some insecticides and pesticides for
Drinking Water.
protection of our crops. However, these
Metal Maximum concentration insecticides, pesticides and herbicides cause
–3
(ppm or mg dm ) soil pollution. Hence, there is a need for their
Fe 0.2 judicious use.
Mn 0.05 14.4.1 Pesticides
Al 0.2 Prior to World War II, many naturally
Cu 3.0 occurring chemicals such as nicotine (by
Zn 5.0 planting tobacco plants in the crop field), were
Cd 0.005 used as pest controlling substance for major
crops in agricultural practices.
Activity 2 During World War II, DDT was found to be
of great use in the control of malaria and other
You can visit local water sources and insect-borne diseases. Therefore, after the war,
observe if the river/lake/tank/pond are DDT was put to use in agriculture to control
unpolluted/slightly polluted/ moderately the damages caused by insects, rodents, weeds
polluted or severely polluted by looking and various crop diseases. However, due to
at water or by checking pH of water. adverse effects, its use has been banned in
Document the name of the river and the India.
nearby urban or industrial site from
where the pollution is generated. Inform Pesticides are basically synthetic toxic
about this to Pollution Control Board’s chemicals with ecological repercussions. The
office set up by Government to measure repeated use of the same or similar pesticides
give rise to pests that are resistant to that
group of pesticides thus making the pesticides sodium chlorate (NaClO3), sodium arsinite
ineffective. Therefore, as insect resistance of (Na3AsO3) and many others. During the first
DDT increased, other organic toxins such as half of the last century, the shift from
Aldrin and Dieldrin were introduced in the mechanical to chemical weed control had
market by pesticide industry. Most of the provided the industry with flourishing
organic toxins are water insoluble and non- economic market. But one must remember that
biodegradable. These high persistent toxins these are also not environment friendly.
are, therefore, transferred from lower trophic Most herbicides are toxic to mammals but
level to higher trophic level through food chain are not as persistent as organo-chlorides.
(Fig.14.3). Over the time, the concentration of These chemicals decompose in a few months.
toxins in higher animals reach a level which Like organo-chlorides, these too become
causes serious metabolic and physiological concentrated in the food web. Some herbicides
disorders. cause birth defects. Studies show that corn-
fields sprayed with herbicides are more prone
to insect attack and plant disease than fields
that are weeded manually.
Pesticides and herbicides represent only a
very small portion of widespread chemical
pollution. A large number of other compounds
that are used regularly in chemical and
industrial processes for manufacturing
activities are finally released in the atmosphere
in one or other form.
14.5 INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Industrial solid wastes are also sorted out as
biodegradable and non-degradable wastes.
Biodegradable wastes are generated by cotton
mills, food processing units, paper mills, and
textile factories.
Non-biodegradable wastes are generated
by thermal power plants which produce fly
Fig. 14.3 At each trophic level, the pollutant ash; integrated iron and steel plants which
gets 10 times concentrated. produce blast furnace slag and steel melting
In response to high persistence of slag. Industries manufacturing aluminium,
chlorinated organic toxins, a new series of less zinc and copper produce mud and tailings.
persistent or more bio-degradable products Fertilizer industries produce gypsum.
called organo-phosphates and carbamates Hazardous wastes such as inflammables,
have been introduced in the market. But these composite explosives or highly reactive
chemicals are severe nerve toxins and hence substances are produced by industries
more harmful to humans. As a result, there dealing in metals, chemicals, drugs, pharma-
are reports of some pesticides related deaths ceuticals, dyes, pesticides, rubber goods etc.
of agricultural field workers. Insects have The disposal of non-degradable industrial
become resistant to these insecticides also. The solid wastes, if not done by a proper and
insecticide industry is engaged in developing suitable method, may cause serious threat to
new groups of insecticides. But one has to the environment. New innovations have led to
think, is this the only solution to pest menace? different uses of waste material. Nowadays,
These days, the pesticide industry has fly ash and slag from the steel industry are
shifted its attention to herbicides such as utilised by the cement industry. Large
410 CHEMISTRY
quantities of toxic wastes are usually destroyed household discards, there are medical,
by controlled incineration, whereas small agricultural, industrial and mining wastes. The
quantities are burnt along with factory improper disposal of wastes is one of the major
garbage in open bins. Moreover, solid wastes causes of environmental degradation.
if not managed effectively, affect the Therefore, the management of wastes is of
components of the environment. utmost importance.
Collection and Disposal
Do you know about waste recycling?
Domestic wastes are collected in small bins,
• Fuel obtained from plastic waste has which are then transferred to community bins
high octane rating. It contains no lead by private or municipal workers. From these
and is known as “green fuel”. community bins, these are collected and
• Due to recent developments made in carried to the disposable site. At the site,
chemical and textile industries, clothes garbage is sorted out and separated into
will be made from recycled plastic biodegradable and non-biodegradable
waste. These will be available soon in materials. Non-biodegradable materials such
the global textile market. as plastic, glass, metal scraps etc. are sent for
• In India, our cities and towns face recycling. Biodegradable wastes are deposited
endless hours of power cut. We can also in land fills and are converted into compost.
see piles of rotting garbage here and
The waste if not collected in garbage bins,
there. There is a good news that we can
finds its way into the sewers. Some of it is eaten
get rid from both these problems
by cattle. Non-biodegradable wastes like
simultaneously. Technology has now
been developed to produce electricity
polythene bag, metal scraps, etc. choke the
from the garbage. A pilot plant has been sewers and cause inconvenience. Polythene
set up, where after removing ferrous bags, if swallowed by cattle can cost their lives
metals, plastic, glass, paper etc. from also.
garbage, it is mixed with water. It is then As a normal practice, therefore, all
cultured with bacterial species for domestic wastes should be properly collected
producing methane, commonly known and disposed. The poor management causes
as biogas. The remaining product is health problems leading to epidemics due to
used as manure and biogas is used to contamination of ground water. It is specially
produce electricity. hazardous for those who are in direct contact
with the waste such as rag pickers and workers
14.6 STRATEGIES TO CONTROL involved in waste disposal, as they are the ones
who handle waste materials mostly without
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
protective device such as gloves or water proof
After studying air, water, soil and industrial boots and gas masks. What can you do for
waste pollution in this unit, by now you must them?
have started feeling the need of controlling
environmental pollution: How can you save 14.7 GREEN CHEMISTRY
your immediate environment? Think of the 14.7.1 Introduction
steps/activities, which you would like to
It is well known fact that self-sufficiency in food
undertake for controlling air, water, soil and th
industrial waste pollution in your has been achieved in India since late 20
neighbourhood. Here, an idea about the century by using fertilizers and pesticides and
strategies for the management of waste is given. exploring improved methods of farming, good
quality seeds, irrigation etc. But over -
14.6.1 Waste Management exploitation of soil and excessive use of
Solid waste is not the only waste, which you fertilizers and pesticides have resulted in the
see in your household garbage box. Besides deterioration of soil, water and air.
The solution of this problem does not lie in tetrachloride etc., are highly toxic. One should
stopping the process of development that has be careful while using them.
been set in; but to discover methods, which
As you know, a chemical reaction involves
would help in the reduction of deterioration of
reactants, attacking reagents and the medium
the environment. Green chemistry is a way of
in which the reaction takes place. Extent of any
thinking and is about utilising the existing
knowledge and principles of chemistry and reaction depends upon physical parameters
other sciences to reduce the adverse impact like temperature, pressure and use of catalyst.
on environment. Green chemistry is a In a chemical reaction, if reactants are fully
production process that would bring about converted into useful environmental friendly
minimum pollution or deterioration to the products by using an environment friendly
environment. The byproducts generated medium then there would be no chemical
during a process, if not used gainfully, add pollutants introduced in the environment.
to the environmental pollution. Such During a synthesis, care must be taken to
processes are not only environmental
choose starting materials that can be converted
unfriendly but also cost-ineffective. The
into end products with yield approximately
waste generation and its disposal both are
economically unsound. Utilisation of existing upto 100 per cent. This can be achieved by
knowledge base for reducing the chemical arriving at optimum conditions of synthesis.
hazards along with the developmental It may be worthwhile to carry out synthetic
activities is the foundation of green reactions in aqueous medium since water has
chemistry. Have you perceived the idea of green high specific heat and low volatility. Water is
chemistry ? It is well known that organic cost effective, noninflammable and devoid of
solvents such as benzene, toluene, carbon any carcinogenic effects.
Nobel goes to Green Chemists
Yves Chauvin Robert H. Grubbs Richard R. Schrock
Yves Chauvin, Institut Français du Pétrole, Rueil-Malmaison France, Robert H. Grubbs

California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, CA, USA and Richard R. Schrock
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA won the 2005 Nobel Prize
in chemistry for work that reduces hazardous waste in creating new chemicals. The trio won
the award for their development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis –a way to
rearrange groups of atoms within molecules that the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
likened to a dance in which couples change partners. The metathesis has tremendous
commercial potential in the pharmaceuticals, biotechnology and food stuffs production
industries. It is also used in the development of revolutionary environmentally-friendlier
polymers.
This represents a great step forward for ‘green chemistry’, reducing potentially hazardous
waste through smarter production. Metathesis is an example of how important application of
basic science is for the benefit of man, society and the environment.
412 CHEMISTRY
14.7.2 Green Chemistry in day-to-day Life Green chemistry, in a nutshell, is a cost

(i) Dry Cleaning of Clothes effective approach which involves reduction in
material, energy consumption and waste
Tetra chlroroethene (Cl2C=CCl2) was earlier
generation.
used as solvent for dry cleaning. The
compound contaminates the ground water and
is also a suspected carcinogen. The process Think it Over
using this compound is now being replaced What is our responsibility as a human
by a process, where liquefied carbondioxide, being to protect our environment?
with a suitable detergent is used. Replacement
of halogenated solvent by liquid CO2 will result Some concepts, if followed by an individual,
in less harm to ground water. contribute towards a better quality of our
environment and human life. Always set up
These days hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is
a compost tin in your garden or any other
used for the purpose of bleaching clothes in
place in your home and use it to produce
the process of laundary, which gives better
results and makes use of lesser amount of manure for your plants to reduce the use
water. of fertilizers. Use a cloth bag and avoid
asking for plastic carry bags when you buy
(ii) Bleaching of Paper
groceries, vegetables or any other item. See
Chlorine gas was used earlier for bleaching that all newspapers, glass, aluminum and
paper. These days, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
other items in your area are recycled. We
with suitable catalyst, which promotes the
might have to take little trouble to locate
bleaching action of hydrogen peroxide, is used.
such dealers. We must realize that we do
(iii) Synthesis of Chemicals not have solutions for every problem but
Ethanal (CH 3 CHO) is now commercially we can concentrate on issues, which we feel
prepared by one step oxidation of ethene in strongly about and can do some thing
the presence of ionic catalyst in aqueous about. We should take care to put into
medium with an yield of 90%. practice whatever we preach. Always
CH2 = CH2 + O2  Catalyst
Pd(II)/ Cu( II )( in water )
→ remember environment protection begins
with us.
CH3CHO ( 90% )
SUMMARY
Environmental chemistry plays a major role in environment. Chemical species present

in the environment are either naturally occurring or generated by human activities.
Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in the surrounding that
have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. Pollutants exist in all the
three states of matter. We have discussed only those pollutants, which are due to human
activities, and can be controlled. Atmospheric pollution is generally studied as
tropospheric and stratospheric pollution. Troposphere is the lowest region of the
atmosphere (~10 km) in which man along with other organisms including plants exist.
Whereas stratosphere extends above troposphere up to 50 km above sea level. Ozone
layer is one of the important constituents of stratosphere. Tropospheric pollution is
basically due to various oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, halogens and also due to
particulate pollutants. The gaseous pollutants come down to the earth in the form of
acid rain. 75% of the solar energy reaching earth is absorbed by the earth surface and
rest is radiated back to the atmosphere. These gases mentioned above trap the heat
which result into global warming. It is important to realise that these very gases are
also responsible for the life on the earth as they trap the requisite amount of solar
energy for the sustainance of life. The increase in the greenhouse gases is raising the
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere which, if not checked, may eventually result in
melting of polar ice caps and consequently may submerge the costal land mass. Many
human activities are producing chemicals, which are responsible for the depletion of
ozone layer in the stratosphere, leading to the formation of ozone hole. Through the
ozone hole, ultraviolet radiations can penetrate into the earth’s atmosphere causing
mutation of genes. Water is the elixir of life but the same water, if polluted by pathogens,
organic wastes, toxic heavy metals, pesticides etc., will turn into poison. Therefore, one
should take care to follow international standards to maintain purity levels of drinking
water. Industrial wastes and excessive use of pesticides, result into pollution of land
mass and water bodies. Judicious use of chemicals required for agricultural practices
can lead to sustainable development. Strategies for controlling environmental
pollution can be: (i) waste management i.e., reduction of the waste and proper disposal,
also recycling of materials and energy, (ii) adopting methods in day-to-day life, which
results in the reduction of environmental pollution. The second method is a new branch
of chemistry, which is in its infancy known as green chemistry. It utilizes the existing
knowledge and practices so as to bring about reduction in the production of pollutants.
EXERCISES
14.1 Define environmental chemistry.

14.2 Explain tropospheric pollution in 100 words.
14.3 Carbon monoxide gas is more dangerous than carbon dioxide gas. Why?
14.4 List gases which are responsible for greenhouse effect.
14.5 Statues and monuments in India are affected by acid rain. How?
14.6 What is smog? How is classical smog different from photochemical smogs?
14.7 Write down the reactions involved during the formation of photochemical smog.
14.8 What are the harmful effects of photochemical smog and how can they be
controlled?
14.9 What are the reactions involved for ozone layer depletion in the stratosphere?
14.10 What do you mean by ozone hole? What are its consequences?
14.11 What are the major causes of water pollution? Explain.
14.12 Have you ever observed any water pollution in your area? What measures would
you suggest to control it?
14.13 What do you mean by Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)?
14.14 Do you observe any soil pollution in your neighbourhood? What efforts will you
make for controlling the soil pollution?
14.15 What are pesticides and herbicides? Explain giving examples.
14.16 What do you mean by green chemistry? How will it help decrease environmental
pollution?
14.17 What would have happened if the greenhouse gases were totally missing in the
earth’s atmosphere? Discuss.
14.18 A large number of fish are suddenly found floating dead on a lake. There is no
evidence of toxic dumping but you find an abundance of phytoplankton. Suggest
a reason for the fish kill.
14.19 How can domestic waste be used as manure?
14.20 For your agricultural field or garden you have developed a compost producing
pit. Discuss the process in the light of bad odour, flies and recycling of wastes
for a good produce.
UNIT
VI
LIFE ON THE EARTH

This unit deals with
• Biosphere — importance of plants and other organisms;
ecosystems, bio-geo chemical cycle and ecological balance;
biodiversity and conservation
CHAPTER
LIFE ON THE EARTH
B
y now you might have realised that all E COLOGY
units of this book have acquainted you
You have been reading about ecological and
with the three major realms of the
environmental problems in newspapers and
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
magazines. Have you ever thought what
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
ecology is? The environment as you know, is
that living organisms of the earth, constituting
made up of abiotic and biotic components. It
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
would be interesting to understand how the
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
diversity of life-forms is maintained to bring a
components of the earth. It consists of all plants
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
and animals, including all the micro-
a particular proportion so that a healthy
interaction between the biotic and the abiotic
Life on the earth is found almost components goes on.
everywhere. Living organisms are found The interactions of a particular group of
from the poles to the equator, from the organisms with abiotic factors within a
bottom of the sea to several km in the particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, energy flows and material cycles on land, water
from under the sea to underground water
and air, are called ecological systems.
lying below the earth’s surface.
The term ecology is derived from the Greek

organisms that live on the planet earth and their word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined
interactions with the surrounding environment. with the word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science
Most of the organisms exist on the lithosphere of’ or ‘the study of ’. Literally, ecology is
and/or the hydrosphere as well as in the the study of the earth as a ‘household’,
atmosphere. There are also many organisms of plants, human beings, animals and
micro-organisms. They all live together
that move freely from one realm to the other.
as interdependent components. A
The biosphere and its components are very German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who
significant elements of the environment. These used the term as ‘oekologie’ in 1869,
elements interact with other components of the became the first person to use the term
natural landscape such as land, water and ‘ecology’. The study of interactions
soil. They are also influenced by the between life forms (biotic) and the
atmospheric elements such as the temperature, physical environment (abiotic) is the
science of ecology. Hence, ecology can be
rainfall, moisture and sunlight. The
defined as a scientific study of the
interactions of biosphere with land, air and interactions of organisms with their
water are important to the growth, physical environment and with each other.
development and evolution of the organism.
128 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
of the physical and chemical factors that marshes and bogs.
constitute the general environment. A system
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems
consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in The structure of an ecosystem involves a
ecosystem are inter related and interact with description of the available plant and animal
each other. Different types of ecosystems exist species. From a structural point of view, all
with varying ranges of environmental ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
conditions where various plants and animal Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature,
species have got adapted through evolution. sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
This phenomenon is known as ecological conditions, inorganic substances (carbon
adaptation. dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.). Biotic factors include the
Types of Ecosystems
producers, (primary, secondary, tertiary) the
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial consumers and the decomposers. The
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be producers include all the green plants, which
further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is a manufacture their own food through
plant and animal community that covers a photosynthesis. The primary consumers
large geographical area. The boundaries of include herbivorous animals like deer, goats,
different biomes on land are determined mainly mice and all plant-eating animals. The
by climate. Therefore, a biome can be defined carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals
as the total assemblage of plant and animal like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
species interacting within specific conditions. that feed also on carnivores are known as top
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
and soil conditions. Some of the major biomes Decomposers are those that feed on dead
of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and organisms (for example, scavengers like
tundra biomes. Aquatic ecosystems can be vultures and crows), and further breaking
classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. down of the dead matter by other decomposing
Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, coastal agents like bacteria and various micro-
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater organisms.
Figure 15.1 : Structure and functions of ecosystems

LIFE ON THE EARTH 129
The producers are consumed by the aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
primary consumers whereas the primary of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
consumers are, in turn, being eaten by the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary Biogeochemical Cycles
consumers are consumed by the tertiary The sun is the basic source of energy on which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead all life depends. This energy initiates life
at each and every level. They change them into processes in the biosphere through
various substances such as nutrients, organic photosynthesis, the main source of food and
and inorganic salts essential for soil fertility. energy for green plants. During photosynthesis,
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together carbon dioxide is converted into organic
through a foodchain (Figure 15.1). For compounds and oxygen. Out of the total solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only
paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
eaten by a snake, which is then consumed by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
a hawk. This sequence of eating and being respiration and the remaining part is
eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from temporarily stored or is shifted to other
one level to another is known as the food-chain. portions of the plant.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the Life on earth consists of a great variety of
process of a foodchain from one level to living organisms. These living organisms exist
another is known as flow of energy. However, and survive in a diversity of associations. Such
food-chains are not isolated from one another. survival involves the presence of systemic flows
For example, a mouse feeding on grain may such as flows of energy, water and nutrients.
be eaten by different secondary consumers These flows show variations in different parts
(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten of the world, in different seasons of the year
by other different tertiary consumers (top and under varying local circumstances. Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the have shown that for the last one billion years,
carnivores may consume more than one type the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been
of prey. As a result, the food- chains get composed of approximately the same balance
interlocked with one another. This inter- of chemical components. This balance of the
connecting network of species is known as food chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic
web. Generally, two types of food-chains are passage through the tissues of plants and
recognised: grazing food-chain and detritus animals. The cycle starts by absorbing the
food-chain. In a grazing food-chain, the first chemical elements by the organism and is
level starts with plants as producers and ends returned to the air, water and soil through
with carnivores as consumers as the last level, decomposition. These cycles are largely
with the herbivores being at the intermediate energised by solar insolation. These cyclic
level. There is a loss of energy at each level movements of chemical elements of the
which may be through respiration, excretion biosphere between the organism and the
or decomposition. The levels involved in a food- environment are referred to as biogeochemical
chain range between three to five and energy cycles. Bio refers to living organisms and geo
is lost at each level. A detritus food-chain is to rocks, soil, air and water of the earth.
based on autotrophs energy capture initiated There are two types of biogeochemical
by grazing animals and involves the cycles : the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of
wastes and dead matter derived from the nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In
grazing food-chain. the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of
Types of Biomes the earth’s crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the The Water Cycle
meaning of the term ‘biome’. Let us now try to
identify the major biomes of the world. There All living organisms, the atmosphere and the
are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, lithosphere maintain between them a
Table 15.1 : World Biomes

Climatic
Biomes Subtypes Regions Soil Flora and Fauna
Characteristics
Forest A. Tropical A1. 10° N-S A1. Temp. 20-25°C, A1. Acidic, A1. M u l t i - l a y e r e d
1. Equitorial A2. 10° - 25° N-S evenly distributed poor in canopy tall and
2. Deciduous B. Eastern North A2. Temp. 25-30°C, nutrients large trees
B. Temperate America, N.E. Rainfall, ave. ann. A2. Rich in A2. Less dense, trees
C. Boreal Asia, Western 1,000mm, seasonal nutrients of medium height;
and Central B. Temp. 20-30° C, B. Fertile, many varieties co-
Europe Rainfall evenly en-riched exis t. Insects,
C. Broad belt of distributed 750- with bats, birds and
Eurasia and 1,500mm, Well- decaying mammals are
North America, defined seasons litter common species
parts of and distinct winter. C. Acidic and in both
Siberia, C. Short moist moder- poor in B. Moderately dense
Alaska, ately warm nutrients, broad leaved trees.
Canada and summers and long thin soil With less diversity
Scandinavia cold dry winter; cover of plant species.
very low Oack, Beach,
temperatures. Maple etc. are
Precipitation mostly some common
snowfall species. Squirrels,
400 -1,000mm rabbits, skunks,
birds, black bears,
mountain lions etc.
C. Evergreen conifers
like pine, fur and
spruce etc. Wood
peckers, hawks,
bears, wolves,
deer, hares and
bats are common
animals
Desert A. Hot and Dry A. S a h a r a , A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in A-C. Scanty vege-
desert Kalahari, B. 21 - 38°C. nutrients with tation; few large
B. Semi arid Marusthali, C. 15 - 35°C. little or no mammals,
desert Rub-el-Khali D. 2 - 25°C organic matter insects, reptiles
C. Coastal B. Marginal areas A-D Rainfall is less than and birds
desert of hot deserts 50 mm D. Rabbits, rats,
D. Cold desert C. Atacama antelopes
D. Tundra climatic and ground
regions squirrels
Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas A. Warm hot A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees
Savannah of A f r i c a , climates, Rainfall thin layer of and large shrubs
B. Temperate Australia, 500-1,250 mm humus. absent; giraffes
Steppe South B. Hot summers and B. Thin floccu- zebras, buffalos,
America and cold winter. lated soil, leopards, hyenas,
India Rainfall 500 - rich in bases elephants, mice,
B. P a r t s of 900 mm moles, snakes
Eurasia and and worms etc.,
North America are common
animals
B. Grasses; occ-
asional trees
such as cotton-
woods, oaks and
willows; gazelles,
zebras, rhin-
oceros, wild
horses, lions,
varieties of birds,
worms, snakes
etc., are common
animals
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, swamps Algal and other aquatic
B. Marine rivers and widely with cooler air and marshes and marine plant
wetlands temperatures and communities with
B. Oceans, coral high humidity B.Water, tidal varieties of water
reefs, lagoons swamps and dwelling animals
and estuaries marshes
Altitudinal ——— Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra
mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
Rockies
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle (Figure 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
organisms. It forms the basic constituent of
all the organic compounds. The biosphere
contains over half a million carbon compounds
in them. The carbon cycle is mainly the
conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion
is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
Such conversion results in the production of
carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted
to other organic compounds such as sucrose,
starch, cellulose, etc. Here, some of the
carbohydrates are utilised directly by the plant Figure 15.2 : Carbon Cycle
itself. During this process, more carbon dioxide
The Oxygen Cycle
is generated and is released through its leaves
or roots during the day. The remaining Oxygen is the main by-product of
carbohydrates not being utilised by the plant photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation
become part of the plant tissue. Plant tissues of carbohydrates with the release of energy,
are either being eaten by the herbivorous carbon dioxide and water. The cycling of
animals or get decomposed by the micro- oxygen is a highly complex process. Oxygen
organisms. The herbivores convert some of the occurs in a number of chemical forms and
consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide combinations. It combines with nitrogen to
for release into the air through respiration. The form nitrates and with many other minerals
micro-organisms decompose the remaining and elements to form various oxides such as
carbohydrates after the animal dies. The the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others.
carbohydrates that are decomposed by the Much of oxygen is produced from the
micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon decomposition of water molecules by sunlight
during photosynthesis and is released in the Other Mineral Cycles

atmosphere through transpiration and
Other than carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and
respiration processes of plants.
hydrogen being the principal geochemical
components of the biosphere, many other
The Nitrogen Cycle
minerals also occur as critical nutrients for
Nitrogen is a major constituent of the plant and animal life. These mineral elements
atmosphere comprising about seventy-nine required by living organisms are obtained
per cent of the atmospheric gases. It is also an initially from inorganic sources such as
essential constituent of different organic phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and potassium.
compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic They usually occur as salts dissolved in soil
acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments. Only water or lakes, streams and seas. Mineral salts
a few types of organisms like certain species of come directly from the earth’s crust by
soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable weathering where the soluble salts enter the
of utilising it directly in its gaseous form. water cycle, eventually reaching the sea. Other
Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is salts are returned to the earth’s surface through
fixed. Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is sedimentation, and after weathering, they again
biological. The principal source of free nitrogen enter the cycle. All living organisms fulfill their
is the action of soil micro-organisms and mineral requirements from mineral solutions
associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen in their environments. Other animals receive
found in pore spaces of the soil. Nitrogen can their mineral needs from the plants and animals
also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and they consume. After the death of living
cosmic radiation. In the oceans, some marine organisms, the minerals are returned to the soil
animals can fix it. After atmospheric nitrogen and water through decomposition and flow.
has been fixed into an available form, green
plants can assimilate it. Herbivorous animals Ecological Balance
feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it.
Ecological balance is a state of dynamic
Dead plants and animals, excretion of
equilibrium within a community of organisms
nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites
in a habitat or ecosystem. It can happen when
by the action of bacteria present in the soil.
the diversity of the living organisms remains
Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into
relatively stable. Gradual changes do take
nitrates that can be used again by green plants.
place but that happens only through natural
There are still other types of bacteria capable
succession. It can also be explained as a stable
of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a
balance in the numbers of each species in an
process known as denitrification (Figure 15.3).
ecosystem. This occurs through competition
and cooperation between different organisms
where population remains stable. This balance
is brought about by the fact that certain species
compete with one another determined by the
environment in which they grow. This balance
is also attained by the fact that some species
depend on others for their food and
sustenance. Such accounts are encountered
in vast grasslands where the herbivorous
animals (deer, zebras, buffaloes, etc.) are found
in plenty. On the other hand, the carnivorous
animals (tigers, lions, etc.) that are not usually
in large numbers, hunt and feed on the
herbivores, thereby controlling their
population. In the plants, any disturbance in
the native forests such as clearing the forest
Figure 15.3 : Nitrogen Cycle for shifting cultivation usually brings about a
change in the species distribution. This change the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
is due to competition where the secondary and has caused adverse effects to the general
forest species such as grasses, bamboos or environment. Ecological imbalances have
pines overtakes the native species changing brought many natural calamities like
the original forest structure. This is called floods, landslides, diseases, erratic climatic
succession. occurrences, etc.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due There is a very close relationship between
to the introduction of new species, natural the plant and animal communities within
hazards or human causes. Human interference particular habitats. Diversity of life in a
has affected the balance of plant communities particular area can be employed as an
leading to disturbances in the ecosystems. indicator of the habitat factor. Proper
Such disturbances bring about numerous knowledge and understanding of such factors
secondary successions. Human pressure on provide a strong base for protecting and
the earth’s resources has put a heavy toll on conserving the ecosystems.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following is included in biosphere?
(a) only plants (c) only animals
(b) all living and non-living organisms (d) all living organisms
(ii) Tropical grasslands are also known as :
(a) the prairies (c) the steppes
(b) the savannas (d) none of the above
(iii) Oxygen combines with iron found in the rocks to form :
(a) iron carbonate (c) iron oxides
(b) iron nitrites (d) iron sulphate
(iv) During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide combines with water in the
presence of sunlight to form :
(a) proteins (c) carbohydrates
(b) amino acids (d) vitamins
(i) What do you understand by the term ‘ecology’?
(ii) What is an ecological system? Identify the major types of ecosystems in
the world.
(iii) What is a food-chain? Give one example of a grazing food-chain identifying
the various levels.
(iv) What do you understand by the term ‘food web’? Give examples.
(v) What is a biome?

(i) What are bio-geochemical cycles? Explain how nitrogen is fixed in the
atmosphere.
(ii) What is an ecological balance? Discuss the important measures needed
to prevent ecological imbalances.
Project Work
(i) Show the distribution of the different biomes on the outline map of the
world with a note highlighting the important characteristics of each biome.
(ii) Make a note of trees, shrubs and perennial plants in your school campus
and devote half a day to observe the types of birds which come to the
garden. Can you describe the diversity of birds?
CHAPTER
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Y
ou have already learnt about the the earth are today extinct. Biodiversity is not
geomorphic processes particularly found evenly on the earth. It is consistently
weathering and depth of weathering richer in the tropics. As one approaches the
mantle in different climatic zones. See the polar regions, one finds larger and larger
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. populations of fewer and fewer species.
You should know that this weathering mantle Biodiversity itself is a combination of two
is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for simple terms, biodiversity is the number and
such weathering variations and resultant variety of organisms found within a specified
biodiversity is the input of solar energy and geographic region. It refers to the varieties of
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum genes they contain and the ecosystems they
of biodiversity. form. It relates to the variability among living
organisms on the earth, including the
Biodiversity as we have today is the result variability within and between the species and
of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before that within and between the ecosystems.
the advent of humans, our earth Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result
supported more biodiversity than in any
of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary
other period. Since, the emergence of
history.
humans, however, biodiversity has begun
a rapid decline, with one species after Biodiversity can be discussed at three
another bearing the brunt of extinction levels : (i) Genetic diversity; (ii) Species diversity;
due to overuse. The number of species (iii) Ecosystem diversity.
globally vary from 2 million to 100 million,
with 10 million being the best estimate. Genetic Diversity
New species are regularly discovered
most of which are yet to be classified (an Genes are the basic building blocks of various
estimate states that about 40 per cent of life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the
fresh water fishes from South America variation of genes within species. Groups of
are not classified yet). Tropical forests are individual organisms having certain
very rich in bio-diversity. similarities in their physical characteristics are
called species. Human beings genetically
Biodiversity is a system in constant belong to the homo sapiens group and also
evolution, from a view point of species, as well differ in their characteristics such as height,
as from view point of an individual organism. colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably.
The average half-life of a species is estimated This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic
at between one and four million years, and 99 diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of
per cent of the species that have ever lived on population of species.
Species Diversity ecosystem evolves and sustains without any

reason. That means, every organism, besides
This refers to the variety of species. It relates to
extracting its needs, also contributes something
the number of species in a defined area. The
of useful to other organisms. Can you think of
diversity of species can be measured through
the way we, humans contribute to the
its richness, abundance and types. Some areas
sustenance of ecosystems. Species capture
are more rich in species than others. Areas rich
and store energy, produce and decompose
in species diversity are called hotspots of
organic materials, help to cycle water and
diversity (Figure 16.5).
nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix
atmospheric gases and help regulate the
Ecosystem Diversity
climate. These functions are important for
You have studied about the ecosystem in the ecosystem function and human survival. The
earlier chapter. The broad differences between more diverse an ecosystem, better are the
ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats chances for the species to survive through
and ecological processes occurring within each adversities and attacks, and consequently, is
ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem more productive. Hence, the loss of species
diversity. The ‘boundaries’ of communities would decrease the ability of the system to
(associations of species) and ecosystems are not maintain itself. Just like a species with a high
very rigidly defined. Thus, the demarcation of genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high
ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex. biodiversity may have a greater chance of
adapting to environmental change. In other
words, the more the variety of species in an
ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is
likely to be.
Economic Role of Biodiversity

For all humans, biodiversity is an important
resource in their day-to-day life. One important
part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is
also called agro-biodiversity. Biodiversity is
seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn
upon for the manufacture of food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. This
Figure 16.1 : Grasslands and sholas in Indira Gandhi
National Park, Annamalai, Western Ghats — an concept of biological resources is responsible
example of ecosystem diversity for the deterioration of biodiversity. At the same
time, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing
Importance of Biodiversity with rules of division and appropriation of
natural resources. Some of the important
Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to economic commodities that biodiversity
the development of human culture and, in supplies to humankind are: food crops,
turn, human communities have played a major livestock, forestry, fish, medicinal resources,
role in shaping the diversity of nature at the etc.
genetic, species and ecological levels.
Biodiversity plays the following roles: Scientific Role of Biodiversity
ecological, economic and scientific.
Biodiversity is important because each species
Ecological Role of Biodiversity can give us some clue as to how life evolved
and will continue to evolve. Biodiversity also
Species of many kinds perform some function helps in understanding how life functions and
or the other in an ecosystem. Nothing in an the role of each species in sustaining
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 137
ecosystems of which we are also a species. This The International Union of Conservation of
fact must be drawn upon every one of us so Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
that we live and let other species also live their classified the threatened species of plants and
lives. animals into three categories for the purpose
It is our ethical responsibility to consider of their conservation.
that each and every species along with us have
an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally Endangered Species
wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any
It includes those species which are in danger
species. The level of biodiversity is a good
of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
indicator of the state of our relationships with
about endangered species world-wide as the
other living species. In fact, the concept of
Red List of threatened species.
biodiversity is an integral part of many human
cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Since the last few decades, growth in human
population has increased the rate of
consumption of natural resources. It has
accelerated the loss of species and habitation
in different parts of the world. Tropical regions
which occupy only about one-fourth of the
total area of the world, contain about three-
fourth of the world human population. Over-
exploitation of resources and deforestation
have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large
population. As these tropical rain forests
contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, Figure 16.2 : Red Panda — an endangered species
destruction of natural habitats have proved
disastrous for the entire biosphere.
Natural calamities such as earthquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires,
droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and
fauna of the earth, bringing change the
biodiversity of respective affected regions.
Pesticides and other pollutants such as
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy
the weak and sensitive species. Species which
are not the natural inhabitants of the local
habitat but are introduced into the system, are
called exotic species. There are many
examples when a natural biotic community of Figure 16.3 : Zenkeria Sebastinei — a critically
endangered grass in Agasthiyamalai peak (India)
the ecosystem suffered extensive damage
because of the introduction of exotic species.
Vulnerable Species
During the last few decades, some animals like
tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks This includes the species which are likely to
and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers be in danger of extinction in near future if the
for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has resulted factors threatening to their extinction continue.
in the rendering of certain types of organisms Survival of these species is not assured as their
as endangered category. population has reduced greatly.
Rare Species (i) Efforts should be made to preserve the

species that are endangered.
Population of these species is very small in the
(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper
world; they are confined to limited areas or
planning and management.
thinly scattered over a wider area.
(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants,
timber trees, livestock, animals and
their wild relatives should be preserved;
(iv) Each country should identify habitats
of wild relatives and ensure their
protection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest
and nurse their young should be
safeguarded and protected.
(vi) International trade in wild plants and
animals be regulated.
To protect, preserve and propagate the
variety of species within natural boundaries,
the Government of India passed the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972, under which national
Figure 16.4 : Humbodtia decurrens Bedd — highly rare parks and sanctuaries were established and
endemic tree of Southern Western Ghats (India) biosphere reserves declared. Details of these
biosphere reserves are given in the book India:
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY Physical Environment (NCERT, 2006).
Biodiversity is important for human existence. There are some countries which are
All forms of life are so closely interlinked that situated in the tropical region; they possess a
disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in large number of the world’s species diversity.
the others. If species of plants and animals They are called mega diversity centres. There
become endangered, they cause degradation are 12 such countries, namely Mexico,
in the environment, which may threaten Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Zaire,
human being’s own existence. Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia,
There is an urgent need to educate people to Indonesia and Australia in which these centres
adopt environment-friendly practices and are located (Figure 16.5). In order to
reorient their activities in such a way that our concentrate resources on those areas that are
development is harmonious with other life forms most vulnerable, the International Union for
and is sustainable. There is an increasing the Conservation of Nature and Natural
consciousness of the fact that such conservation Resources (IUCN) has identified certain areas
with sustainable use is possible only with the as biodiversity hotspots. Hotspots are defined
involvement and cooperation of local according to their vegetation. Plants are
communities and individuals. For this, the important because these determine the
development of institutional structures at local primary productivity of an ecosystem. Most,
levels is necessary. The critical problem is not but not all, of the hotspots rely on species-
merely the conservation of species nor the habitat rich ecosystems for food, firewood, cropland,
but the continuation of process of conservation. and income from timber. In Madagascar, for
The Government of India along with 155 example, about 85 per cent of the plants and
other nations have signed the Convention of animals are not only found nowhere else in
Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at Riode the world, but its people are also among the
Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The world world’s poorest and rely on slash and burn
conservation strategy has suggested the agriculture for subsistence farming. Other
following steps for biodiversity conservation: hotspots in wealthy countries are facing
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 139
Figure 16.5 : Ecological ‘hotspots’ in the world
different types of pressures. The islands of that are threatened by introduced species and
Hawaii have many unique plants and animals land development.
EXERCISES

(i) Conservation of biodiversity is important for :
(a) Animals (c) Plants
(b) Animals and plants (d) All organisms
(ii) Threatened species are those which :
(a) threaten others
(b) Lion and tiger
(c) are abundant in number
(d) are suffering from the danger of extinction
(iii) National parks and sanctuaries are established for the purpose of :
(a) Recreation (c) Pets
(b) Hunting (d) Conservation
(iv) Biodiversity is richer in :

(a) Tropical Regions (c) Temperate Regions
(b) Polar Regions (d) Oceans
(v) In which one of the following countries, the ‘Earth Summit’ was held?
(a) the UK (c) Brazil
(b) Mexico (d) China
(i) What is biodiversity?
(ii) What are the different levels of biodiversity?
(iii) What do you understand by ‘hotspots’?
(iv) Discuss briefly the importance of animals to human kind.
(v) What do you understand by ‘exotic species’?
(i) What are the roles played by biodiversity in the shaping of nature?
(ii) What are the major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity?
What steps are needed to prevent them?
Project Work
Collect the names of national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves of the
state where your school is located and show their location on the map of India.
Diversity is not only a characteristic of living organisms but
Chapter 13
also of content in biology textbooks. Biology is presented either
Organisms and Populations
as botany, zoology and microbiology or as classical and
modern. The later is a euphemism for molecular aspects of
Chapter 14
biology. Luckily we have many threads which weave the
Ecosystem
different areas of biological information into a unifying
principle. Ecology is one such thread which gives us a holistic
Chapter 15
perspective to biology. The essence of biological understanding
Biodiversity and Conservation
is to know how organisms, while remaining an individual,
interact with other organisms and physical habitats as a group
Chapter 16
and hence behave like organised wholes, i.e., population,
Environmental Issues
community, ecosystem or even as the whole biosphere.
Ecology explains to us all this. A particular aspect of this is the
study of anthropogenic environmental degradation and the
socio-political issues it has raised. This unit describes as well as
takes a critical view of the above aspects.
Ramdeo Misra is revered as the Father of Ecology in India. Born on 26 August
1908, Ramdeo Misra obtained Ph.D in Ecology (1937) under Prof. W. H. Pearsall,
FRS, from Leeds University in UK. He established teaching and research in
ecology at the Department of Botany of the Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi. His research laid the foundations for understanding of tropical
communities and their succession, environmental responses of plant
populations and productivity and nutrient cycling in tropical forest and
grassland ecosystems. Misra formulated the first postgraduate course in
ecology in India. Over 50 scholars obtained Ph. D degree under his supervision
and moved on to other universities and research institutes to initiate ecology
teaching and research across the country.
He was honoured with the Fellowships of the Indian National Science
RAMDEO MISRA Academy and World Academy of Arts and Science, and the prestigious Sanjay
(1908-1998)
Gandhi Award in Environment and Ecology. Due to his efforts, the
Government of India established the National Committee for Environmental
Planning and Coordination (1972) which, in later years, paved the way
for the establishment of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (1984).
CHAPTER 13
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
13.1 Organism and Its

Environment
13.2 Populations Our living world is fascinatingly diverse and amazingly
complex. We can try to understand its complexity by
investigating processes at various levels of biological
organisation–macromolecules, cells, tissues, organs,
individual organisms, population, communities and
ecosystems and biomes. At any level of biological
organisation we can ask two types of questions – for
example, when we hear the bulbul singing early morning
in the garden, we may ask – ‘How does the bird sing ?’
Or, ‘Why does the bird sing ?’ The ‘how-type’ questions
seek the mechanism behind the process while the ‘why-
type’ questions seek the significance of the process. For
the first question in our example, the answer might be in
terms of the operation of the voice box and the vibrating
bone in the bird, whereas for the second question the
answer may lie in the bird’s need to communicate with its
mate during breeding season. When you observe nature
around you with a scientific frame of mind you will
certainly come up with many interesting questions of both
types - Why are night-blooming flowers generally white?
How does the bee know which flower has nectar? Why
does cactus have so many thorns? How does the chick
recognise her own mother ?, and so on.
BIOLOGY
You have already learnt in previous classes that Ecology is a subject

which studies the interactions among organisms and between the
organism and its physical (abiotic) environment.
Ecology is basically concerned with four levels of biological
organisation – organisms, populations, communities and biomes. In this
chapter we explore ecology at organismic and population levels.
13.1 ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Ecology at the organismic level is essentially physiological ecology which
tries to understand how different organisms are adapted to their
environments in terms of not only survival but also reproduction. You
may have learnt in earlier classes how the rotation of our planet around
the Sun and the tilt of its axis cause annual variations in the intensity
and duration of temperature, resulting in distinct seasons. These
variations together with annual variation in precipitation (remember
precipitation includes both rain and snow) account for the formation of
major biomes such as desert, rain forest and tundra (Figure 13.1).
Figure 13.1 Biome distribution with respect to annual temperature and precipitation
Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of a
wide variety of habitats. Major biomes of India are shown in Figure 13.2.
220 On planet Earth, life exists not just in a few favourable habitats but even
in extreme and harsh habitats – scorching Rajasthan desert, perpetually
rain-soaked Meghalaya forests, deep ocean trenches, torrential streams,
permafrost polar regions, high mountain tops, boiling thermal springs,
and stinking compost pits, to name a few. Even our intestine is a unique
habitat for hundreds of species of microbes.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 13.2 Major biomes of India : (a) Tropical rain forest; (b) Deciduous forest;
(c) Desert; (d) Sea coast
What are the key elements that lead to so much variation in the
physical and chemical conditions of different habitats? The most
important ones are temperature, water, light and soil. We must remember
that the physico-chemical (abiotic) components alone do not characterise
the habitat of an organism completely; the habitat includes biotic
components also – pathogens, parasites, predators and competitors – of
the organism with which they interacts constantly. We assume that over
a period of time, the organism had through natural selection, evolved
adaptations to optimise its survival and reproduction in its habitat.
13.1.1 Major Abiotic Factors

Temperature: Temperature is the most ecologically relevant
environmental factor. You are aware that the average temperature on
land varies seasonally, decreases progressively from the equator towards
the poles and from plains to the mountain tops. It ranges from subzero
levels in polar areas and high altitudes to >500C in tropical deserts in
221
summer. There are, however, unique habitats such as thermal springs
and deep-sea hydrothermal vents where average temperatures exceed
1000 C. It is general knowledge that mango trees do not and cannot grow
in temperate countries like Canada and Germany, snow leopards are not
found in Kerala forests and tuna fish are rarely caught beyond tropical
BIOLOGY
latitudes in the ocean. You can readily appreciate the significance of

temperature to living organisms when you realise that it affects the kinetics
of enzymes and through it the basal metabolism, activity and other
physiological functions of the organism. A few organisms can tolerate and
thrive in a wide range of temperatures (they are called eurythermal), but, a
vast majority of them are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures (such
organisms are called stenothermal ). The levels of thermal tolerance of
different species determine to a large extent their geographical distribution.
Can you think of a few eurythermal and stenothermal animals and
plants?
In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the gradually
increasing average global temperatures (Chapter 16 ). If this trend
continues, would you expect the distributional range of some species to
be affected?
Water: Next to temperature, water is the most important factor influencing
the life of organisms. In fact, life on earth originated in water and is
unsustainable without water. Its availability is so limited in deserts that
only special adaptations make it possible to live there. The productivity
and distribution of plants is also heavily dependent on water. You might
think that organisms living in oceans, lakes and rivers should not face
any water-related problems, but it is not true. For aquatic organisms the
quality (chemical composition, pH) of water becomes important. The salt
concentration (measured as salinity in parts per thousand), is less than
5 per cent in inland waters, 30-35 per cent the sea and > 100 per cent in
some hypersaline lagoons. Some organisms are tolerant of a wide range
of salinities (euryhaline) but others are restricted to a narrow range
(stenohaline). Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water
and vice versa because of the osmotic problems, they would face.
Light: Since plants produce food through photosynthesis, a process which
is only possible when sunlight is available as a source of energy, we can
quickly understand the importance of light for living organisms,
particularly autotrophs. Many species of small plants (herbs and shrubs)
growing in forests are adapted to photosynthesise optimally under very
low light conditions because they are constantly overshadowed by tall,
canopied trees. Many plants are also dependent on sunlight to meet their
photoperiodic requirement for flowering. For many animals too, light is
important in that they use the diurnal and seasonal variations in light
intensity and duration (photoperiod) as cues for timing their foraging,
reproductive and migratory activities. The availability of light on land is
222 closely linked with that of temperature since the sun is the source for
both. But, deep (>500m) in the oceans, the environment is perpetually
dark and its inhabitants are not aware of the existence of a celestial source
of energy called Sun. What, then is their source of energy?). The spectral
quality of solar radiation is also important for life. The UV component of
the spectrum is harmful to many organisms while not all the colour
components of the visible spectrum are available for marine plants living
at different depths of the ocean. Among the red, green and brown algae
that inhabit the sea, which is likely to be found in the deepest waters?
Why?
Soil: The nature and properties of soil in different places vary; it is
dependent on the climate, the weathering process, whether soil is
transported or sedimentary and how soil development occurred. Various
characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and
aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the
soils. These characteristics along with parameters such as pH, mineral
composition and topography determine to a large extent the vegetation in
any area. This is in turn dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
Similarly, in the aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics often
determine the type of benthic animals that can thrive there.
13.1.2 Responses to Abiotic Factors

Having realised that the abiotic conditions of many habitats may vary
drastically in time, we now ask–how do the organisms living in such
habitats cope or manage with stressful conditions? But before attempting
to answer this question, we should perhaps ask first why a highly variable
external environment should bother organisms after all. One would expect
that during the course of millions of years of their existence, many species
would have evolved a relatively constant internal (within the body)
environment that permits all biochemical reactions and physiological
functions to proceed with maximal
efficiency and thus, enhance the overall
‘fitness’ of the species. This constancy, for
example, could be in terms of optimal
temperature and osmotic concentration of
body fluids. Ideally then, the organism
should try to maintain the constancy of its
internal environment (a process called
homeostasis) despite varying external
environmental conditions that tend to
upset its homeostasis. Let us take an
analogy to clarify this important concept.
Suppose a person is able to perform his/
her best when the temperature is 250C and Figure 13.3 Diagrammatic representation of
wishes to maintain it so, even when it is organismic response
scorchingly hot or freezingly cold outside.
It could be achieved at home, in the car while travelling, and at workplace 223
by using an air conditioner in summer and heater in winter. Then his/
her performance would be always maximal regardless of the weather
around him/her. Here the person’s homeostasis is accomplished, not
through physiological, but artificial means. How do other living
organisms cope with the situation? Let us look at various possibilities
(Figure 13.3).
BIOLOGY
(i) Regulate : Some organisms are able to maintain homeostasis by

physiological (sometimes behavioural also) means which ensures
constant body temperature, constant osmotic concentration, etc.
All birds and mammals, and a very few lower vertebrate and
invertebrate species are indeed capable of such regulation
(thermoregulation and osmoregulation). Evolutionary biologists
believe that the ‘success’ of mammals is largely due to their ability
to maintain a constant body temperature and thrive whether they
live in Antarctica or in the Sahara desert.
The mechanisms used by most mammals to regulate their body
temperature are similar to the ones that we humans use. We maintain
a constant body temperature of – 370C. In summer, when outside
temperature is more than our body temperature, we sweat profusely.
The resulting evaporative cooling, similar to what happens with a
desert cooler in operation, brings down the body temperature. In
winter when the temperature is much lower than 370C, we start to
shiver, a kind of exercise which produces heat and raises the body
temperature. Plants, on the other hand, do not have such
mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures.
(ii) Conform : An overwhelming majority (99 per cent) of animals and
nearly all plants cannot maintain a constant internal environment.
Their body temperature changes with the ambient temperature. In
aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids
change with that of the ambient water osmotic concentration. These
animals and plants are simply conformers. Considering the benefits
of a constant internal environment to the organism, we must ask
why these conformers had not evolved to become regulators. Recall
the human analogy we used above; much as they like, how many
people can really afford an air conditioner? Many simply ‘sweat it
out’ and resign themselves to suboptimal performance in hot
summer months. Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for
many organisms. This is particularly true for small animals like
shrews and humming birds. Heat loss or heat gain is a function of
surface area. Since small animals have a larger surface area relative
to their volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast when it is cold
outside; then they have to expend much energy to generate body
heat through metabolism. This is the main reason why very small
animals are rarely found in polar regions. During the course of
224 evolution, the costs and benefits of maintaining a constant internal
environment are taken into consideration. Some species have evolved
the ability to regulate, but only over a limited range of environmental
conditions, beyond which they simply conform.
If the stressful external conditions are localised or remain only
for a short duration, the organism has two other alternatives.
(iii) Migrate : The organism can move away temporarily from the
stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return when stressful
period is over. In human analogy, this strategy is like a person
moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of summer. Many
animals, particularly birds, during winter undertake long-distance
migrations to more hospitable areas. Every winter the famous
Keolado National Park (Bhartpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of
migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold
northern regions.
(iv) Suspend: In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-
walled spores are formed which help them to survive unfavourable
conditions – these germinate on availability of suitable environment.
In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive
structures serve as means to tide over periods of stress besides helping
in dispersal – they germinate to form new plants under favourable
moisture and temperature conditions. They do so by reducing their
metabolic activity and going into a date of ‘dormancy’.
In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the
stress by escaping in time. The familiar case of bears going into
hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time. Some
snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer–related
problems-heat and desiccation. Under unfavourable conditions
many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter
diapause, a stage of suspended development.
13.1.3 Adaptations
While considering the various alternatives available to organisms for
coping with extremes in their environment, we have seen that some are
able to respond through certain physiological adjustments while others
do so behaviourally (migrating temporarily to a less stressful habitat).
These responses are also actually, their adaptations. So, we can say that
adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological,
behavioural) that enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its
habitat. Many adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time
and are genetically fixed. In the absence of an external source of water,
the kangaroo rat in North American deserts is capable of meeting all its
water requirements through its internal fat oxidation (in which water is
a by product). It also has the ability to concentrate its urine so that
minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory products.
Many desert plants have a thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces and
225
have their stomata arranged in deep pits to minimise water loss through
transpiration. They also have a special photosynthetic pathway (CAM)
that enables their stomata to remain closed during day time. Some desert
plants like Opuntia, have no leaves – they are reduced to spines–and the
photosynthetic function is taken over by the flattened stems.
BIOLOGY
Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and limbs
to minimise heat loss. (This is called the Allen’s Rule.) In the polar seas
aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below their
skin that acts as an insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
Some organisms possess adaptations that are physiological which
allow them to respond quickly to a stressful situation. If you had ever
been to any high altitude place (>3,500m Rohtang Pass near Manali and
Mansarovar, in China occupied Tibet) you must have experienced what
is called altitude sickness. Its symptoms include nausea, fatigue and
heart palpitations. This is because in the low atmospheric pressure of
high altitudes, the body does not get enough oxygen. But, gradually you
get acclimatised and stop experiencing altitude sickness. How did your
body solve this problem? The body compensates low oxygen availability
by increasing red blood cell production, decreasing the binding capacity
of hemoglobin and by increasing breathing rate. Many tribes live in the
high altitude of Himalayas. Find out if they normally have a higher red
blood cell count (or total hemoglobin) than people living in the plains.
In most animals, the metabolic reactions and hence all the
physiological functions proceed optimally in a narrow temperature range
(in humans, it is – 370C). But there are microbes (archaebacteria) that
flourish in hot springs and deep sea hydrothermal vents where
temperatures far exceed 1000C. How is this possible?
Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters where the temperature is always
below zero. How do they manage to keep their body fluids from freezing?
A large variety of marine invertebrates and fish live at great depths in
the ocean where the pressure could be >100 times the normal atmospheric
pressure that we experience. How do they live under such crushing
pressures and do they have any special enzymes? Organisms living in
such extreme environments show a fascinating array of biochemical
adaptations.
Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope with variations
in their environment. Desert lizards lack the physiological ability that
mammals have to deal with the high temperatures of their habitat, but
manage to keep their body temperature fairly constant by behavioural
means. They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body
temperature drops below the comfort zone, but move into shade when
the ambient temperature starts increasing. Some species are capable of
burrowing into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.
226 13.2 POPULATIONS

13.2.1 Population Attributes
In nature, we rarely find isolated, single individuals of any species; majority
of them live in groups in a well defined geographical area, share or compete
for similar resources, potentially interbreed and thus constitute a
population. Although the term interbreeding implies sexual reproduction,

a group of individuals resulting from even asexual reproduction is also
generally considered a population for the purpose of ecological studies.
All the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an abandoned dwelling, teakwood
trees in a forest tract, bacteria in a culture plate and lotus plants in a
pond, are some examples of a population. In earlier chapters you have
learnt that although an individual organism is the one that has to cope
with a changed environment, it is at the population level that natural
selection operates to evolve the desired traits. Population ecology is,
therefore, an important area of ecology because it links ecology to
population genetics and evolution.
A population has certain attributes that an individual organism does
not. An individual may have births and deaths, but a population has birth
rates and death rates. In a population these rates refer to per capita births
and deaths, respectively. The rates, hence, are expressed is change in numbers
(increase or decrease) with respect to members of the population. Here is an
example. If in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year and through
reproduction 8 new plants are added, taking the current population to 28,
we calculate the birth rate as 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year. If 4
individuals in a laboratory population of 40 fruitflies died during a specified
time interval, say a week, the death rate in the population during that period
is 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruitfly per week.
Another attribute characteristic of a population is sex ratio. An
individual is either a male or a female but a population has a sex ratio
(e.g., 60 per cent of the population are females and 40 per cent males).
A population at any given time is composed of individuals of different
ages. If the age distribution (per cent individuals of a given age or age
group) is plotted for the population, the resulting structure is called an
age pyramid (Figure 13.4). For human population, the age pyramids
generally show age distribution of males and females in a combined
diagram. The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the
population - (a) whether it is growing, (b) stable or (c) declining.
227
Figure 13.4 Representation of age pyramids for human population
The size of the population tells us a lot about its status in the habitat.
Whatever ecological processes we wish to investigate in a population, be
it the outcome of competition with another species, the impact of a
BIOLOGY
predator or the effect of a pesticide application, we always evaluate them

in terms of any change in the population size. The size, in nature, could
be as low as <10 (Siberian cranes at Bharatpur wetlands in any year) or
go into millions (Chlamydomonas in a pond). Population size, more
technically called population density (designated as N), need not
necessarily be measured in numbers only. Although total number is
generally the most appropriate measure of population density, it is in
some cases either meaningless or difficult to determine. In an area, if
there are 200 Parthenium plants but only a single huge banyan tree with
a large canopy, stating that the population density of banyan is low relative
to that of Parthenium amounts to underestimating the enormous role of
the Banyan in that community. In such cases, the per cent cover or biomass
is a more meaningful measure of the population size. Total number is
again not an easily adoptable measure if the population is huge and
counting is impossible or very time-consuming. If you have a dense
laboratory culture of bacteria in a petri dish what is the best measure to
report its density? Sometimes, for certain ecological investigations, there
is no need to know the absolute population densities; relative densities
serve the purpose equally well. For instance, the number of fish caught
per trap is good enough measure of its total population density in the lake.
We are mostly obliged to estimate population sizes indirectly, without
actually counting them or seeing them. The tiger census in our national
parks and tiger reserves is often based on pug marks and fecal pellets.
13.2.2 Population Growth

The size of a population for any species is not a static parameter. It keeps
changing in time, depending on various factors including food availability,
predation pressure and reduce weather. In fact, it is these changes in
population density that give us some idea of what is happening to the
population – whether it is flourishing or declining. Whatever might be
the ultimate reasons, the density of a population in a given habitat during
a given period, fluctuates due to changes in four basic processes, two of
which (natality and immigration) contribute an increase in population
density and two (mortality and emigration) to a decrease.
(i) Natality refers to the number of births during a given period in the
population that are added to the initial density.
(ii) Mortality is the number of deaths in the population during a given
period.
228 (iii) Immigration is the number of individuals of the same species that
have come into the habitat from elsewhere during the time period
under consideration.
(iv) Emigration is the number of individuals of the population who
left the habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under
consideration.
So, if N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t +1 is

Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
You can see from the above equation that population density will
increase if the number of births plus the number of immigrants (B + I) is
more than the number of deaths plus the number of emigrants (D + E),
otherwise it will decrease. Under normal conditions, births and deaths
are the most important factors influencing population density, the other
two factors assuming importance only under special conditions. For
instance, if a new habitat is just being colonised, immigration may
contribute more significantly to population growth than birth rates.
Growth Models : Does the growth of a population with time show any
specific and predictable pattern? We have been concerned about unbridled
human population growth and problems created by it in our country
and it is therefore natural for us to be curious if different animal
populations in nature behave the same way or show some restraints on
growth. Perhaps we can learn a lesson or two from nature on how to
control population growth.
(i) Exponential growth : Resource (food and space) availability is
obviously essential for the unimpeded growth of a population. 229
Ideally, when resources in the habitat are unlimited, each species
has the ability to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number,
as Darwin observed while developing his theory of natural selection.
Then the population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.
If in a population of size N, the birth rates (not total number but
BIOLOGY
per capita births) are represented as b and death rates (again, per
capita death rates) as d, then the increase or decrease in N during a
unit time period t (dN/dt) will be
dN/dt = (b – d) × N
Let (b–d) = r, then
dN/dt = rN
The r in this equation is called the ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’
and is a very important parameter chosen for assessing impacts of
any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.
To give you some idea about the magnitude of r values, for the
Norway rat the r is 0.015, and for the flour beetle it is 0.12. In
1981, the r value for human population in India was 0.0205. Find
out what the current r value is. For calculating it, you need to
know the birth rates and death rates.
The above equation describes the exponential or geometric growth
pattern of a population (Figure 13.5) and results in a J-shaped curve
when we plot N in relation to time. If you are familiar with basic
calculus, you can derive the integral form of the
exponential growth equation as
Nt = N0 ert
where
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
Any species growing exponentially under unlimited
resource conditions can reach enormous population
densities in a short time. Darwin showed how even
Figure 13.5 Population growth curve a slow growing animal like elephant could reach
a when responses are not enormous numbers in the absence of checks. The
limiting the growth, plot is following is an anecdote popularly narrated to
exponential,
b when responses are limiting demonstrate dramatically how fast a huge
the growth, plot is logistic, population could build up when growing
K is carrying capacity exponentially.
The king and the minister sat for a chess game. The king, confident
of winning the game, was ready to accept any bet proposed by the
230 minister. The minister humbly said that if he won, he wanted only
some wheat grains, the quantity of which is to be calculated by placing
on the chess board one grain in Square 1, then two in Square 2,
then four in Square 3, and eight in Square 4, and so on, doubling each
time the previous quantity of wheat on the next square until all the 64
squares were filled. The king accepted the seemingly silly bet and started
the game, but unluckily for him, the minister won. The king felt that fulfilling
the minister’s bet was so easy. He started with a single grain on

the first square and proceeded to fill the other squares following
minister’s suggested procedure, but by the time he covered half the
chess board, the king realised to his dismay that all the wheat
produced in his entire kingdom pooled together would still be
inadequate to cover all the 64 squares. Now think of a tiny
Paramecium starting with just one individual and through binary
fission, doubling in numbers every day, and imagine what a mind-
boggling population size it would reach in 64 days. (provided food
and space remain unlimited)
(ii) Logistic growth: No population of any species in nature has its
disposal unlimited resources to permit exponential growth. This
leads to competition between individuals for limited resources.
Eventually, the ‘fittest’ individual will survive and reproduce. The
governments of many countries have also realised this fact and
introduced various restraints with a view to limit human population
growth. In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support
a maximum possible number, beyond which no further growth is
possible. Let us call this limit as nature’s carrying capacity (K) for
that species in that habitat.
A population growing in a habitat with limited resources show
initially a lag phase, followed by phases of acceleration and
deceleration and finally an asymptote, when the population density
reaches the carrying capacity. A plot of N in relation to time (t)
results in a sigmoid curve. This type of population growth is called
Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth (Figure 13.5) and is described by
the following equation:
⎛K −N⎞
dN/dt = rN ⎜ ⎟
⎝ K ⎠
Where N = Population density at time t
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity
Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite
and become limiting sooner or later, the logistic growth model is
considered a more realistic one.
Gather from Government Census data the population figures
for India for the last 100 years, plot them and check which growth
pattern is evident. 231
13.2.3 Life History Variation

Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness, also called
Darwinian fitness (high r value), in the habitat in which they live. Under
a particular set of selection pressures, organisms evolve towards the most
BIOLOGY
efficient reproductive strategy. Some organisms breed only once in their

lifetime (Pacific salmon fish, bamboo) while others breed many times
during their lifetime (most birds and mammals). Some produce a large
number of small-sized offspring (Oysters, pelagic fishes) while others
produce a small number of large-sized offspring (birds, mammals). So,
which is desirable for maximising fitness? Ecologists suggest that life
history traits of organisms have evolved in relation to the constraints
imposed by the abiotic and biotic components of the habitat in which
they live. Evolution of life history traits in different species is currently an
important area of research being conducted by ecologists.
13.2.4 Population Interactions

Can you think of any natural habitat on earth that is inhabited just by a
single species? There is no such habitat and such a situation is even
inconceivable. For any species, the minimal requirement is one more
species on which it can feed. Even a plant species, which makes its own
food, cannot survive alone; it needs soil microbes to break down the organic
matter in soil and return the inorganic nutrients for absorption. And then,
how will the plant manage pollination without an animal agent? It is
obvious that in nature, animals, plants and microbes do not and cannot
live in isolation but interact in various ways to form a biological
community. Even in minimal communities, many interactive linkages
exist, although all may not be readily apparent.
Interspecific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of
two different species. They could be beneficial, detrimental or neutral
(neither harm nor benefit) to one of the species or both. Assigning a ‘+’
sign for beneficial interaction, ‘-’ sign for detrimental and 0 for neutral
interaction, let us look at all the possible outcomes of interspecific
interactions (Table13.1).
Table 13.1 : Population Interactions

Species A Species B Name of Interaction
+ + Mutualism
– – Competition
+ – Predation
+ – Parasitism
232 + 0 Commensalism
– 0 Amensalism
Both the species benefit in mutualism and both lose in competition in

their interactions with each other. In both parasitism and Predation only
one species benefits (parasite and predator, respectively) and the interaction
is detrimental to the other species (host and prey, respectively).

The interaction where one species is benefitted and the other is neither
benefitted nor harmed is called commensalism. In amensalism on
the other hand one species is harmed whereas the other is
unaffected. Predation, parasitism and commensalisms share a common
characteristic– the interacting species live closely together.
(i) Predation: What would happen to all the energy fixed by
autotrophic organisms if the community has no animals to eat the
plants? You can think of predation as nature’s way of transferring
to higher trophic levels the energy fixed by plants. When we think
of predator and prey, most probably it is the tiger and the deer that
readily come to our mind, but a sparrow eating any seed is no less
a predator. Although animals eating plants are categorised
separately as herbivores, they are, in a broad ecological context,
not very different from predators.
Besides acting as ‘conduits’ for energy transfer across trophic
levels, predators play other important roles. They keep prey
populations under control. But for predators, prey species could
achieve very high population densities and cause ecosystem
instability. When certain exotic species are introduced into a
geographical area, they become invasive and start spreading fast
because the invaded land does not have its natural predators. The
prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the early 1920’s
caused havoc by spreading rapidly into millions of hectares of
rangeland. Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under control
only after a cactus-feeding predator (a moth) from its natural habitat
was introduced into the country. Biological control methods adopted
in agricultural pest control are based on the ability of the predator
to regulate prey population. Predators also help in maintaining
species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of
competition among competing prey species. In the rocky intertidal
communities of the American Pacific Coast the starfish Pisaster is
an important predator. In a field experiment, when all the starfish
were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species
of invertebrates became extinct within a year, because of inter-
specific competition.
If a predator is too efficient and overexploits its prey, then the
prey might become extinct and following it, the predator will also
become extinct for lack of food. This is the reason why predators in
233
nature are ‘prudent’. Prey species have evolved various defenses to
lessen the impact of predation. Some species of insects and frogs
are cryptically-coloured (camouflaged) to avoid being detected easily
by the predator. Some are poisonous and therefore avoided by the
predators. The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator
BIOLOGY
(bird) because of a special chemical present in its body.

Interestingly, the butterfly acquires this chemical during its
caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonous weed.
For plants, herbivores are the predators. Nearly 25 per cent of
all insects are known to be phytophagous (feeding on plant sap
and other parts of plants). The problem is particularly severe for
plants because, unlike animals, they cannot run away from their
predators. Plants therefore have evolved an astonishing variety of
morphological and chemical defences against herbivores. Thorns
(Acacia, Cactus) are the most common morphological means of
defence. Many plants produce and store chemicals that make the
herbivore sick when they are eaten, inhibit feeding or digestion,
disrupt its reproduction or even kill it. You must have seen the
weed Calotropis growing in abandoned fields. The plant produces
highly poisonous cardiac glycosides and that is why you never see
any cattle or goats browsing on this plant. A wide variety of chemical
substances that we extract from plants on a commercial scale
(nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc.,) are produced
by them actually as defences against grazers and browsers.
(ii) Competition: When Darwin spoke of the struggle for existence and
survival of the fittest in nature, he was convinced that interspecific
competition is a potent force in organic evolution. It is generally
believed that competition occurs when closely related species
compete for the same resources that are limiting, but this is not
entirely true. Firstly, totally unrelated species could also compete
for the same resource. For instance, in some shallow South
American lakes visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete for
their common food, the zooplankton in the lake. Secondly,
resources need not be limiting for competition to occur; in
interference competition, the feeding efficiency of one species might
be reduced due to the interfering and inhibitory presence of the
other species, even if resources (food and space) are abundant.
Therefore, competition is best defined as a process in which the
fitness of one species (measured in terms of its ‘r’ the intrinsic rate
of increase) is significantly lower in the presence of another species.
It is relatively easy to demonstrate in laboratory experiments, as
Gause and other experimental ecologists did, when resources are
limited the competitively superior species will eventually eliminate
the other species, but evidence for such competitive exclusion
234 occurring in nature is not always conclusive. Strong and persuasive
circumstantial evidence does exist however in some cases. The
Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a
decade after goats were introduced on the island, apparently due
to the greater browsing efficiency of the goats. Another evidence for
the occurrence of competition in nature comes from what is called
‘competitive release’. A species whose distribution is restricted to a

small geographical area because of the presence of a competitively
superior species, is found to expand its distributional range
dramatically when the competing species is experimentally removed.
Connell’s elegant field experiments showed that on the rocky sea
coasts of Scotland, the larger and competitively superior barnacle
Balanus dominates the intertidal area, and excludes the smaller
barnacle Chathamalus from that zone. In general, herbivores and
plants appear to be more adversely affected by competition than
carnivores.
Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’ states that two closely
related species competing for the same resources cannot co-exist
indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated
eventually. This may be true if resources are limiting, but not
otherwise. More recent studies do not support such gross
generalisations about competition. While they do not rule out the
occurrence of interspecific competition in nature, they point out
that species facing competition might evolve mechanisms that
promote co-existence rather than exclusion. One such mechanism
is ‘resource partitioning’. If two species compete for the same
resource, they could avoid competition by choosing, for instance,
different times for feeding or different foraging patterns. MacArthur
showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the
same tree were able to avoid competition and co-exist due to
behavioural differences in their foraging activities.
(iii) Parasitism: Considering that the parasitic mode of life ensures
free lodging and meals, it is not surprising that parasitism has
evolved in so many taxonomic groups from plants to higher
vertebrates. Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific (they
can parasitise only a single species of host) in such a way that both
host and the parasite tend to co-evolve; that is, if the host evolves
special mechanisms for rejecting or resisting the parasite, the
parasite has to evolve mechanisms to counteract and neutralise
them, in order to be successful with the same host species. In
accordance with their life styles, parasites evolved special
adaptations such as the loss of unnecessary sense organs, presence
of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host, loss of digestive
system and high reproductive capacity. The life cycles of parasites 235
are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or vectors
to facilitate parasitisation of its primary host. The human liver fluke
(a trematode parasite) depends on two intermediate hosts (a snail
and a fish) to complete its life cycle. The malarial parasite needs a
vector (mosquito) to spread to other hosts. Majority of the parasites
BIOLOGY
harm the host; they may reduce the survival, growth and
reproduction of the host and reduce its population density. They
might render the host more vulnerable to predation by making it
physically weak. Do you believe that an ideal parasite should be
able to thrive within the host without harming it? Then why didn’t
natural selection lead to the evolution of such totally harmless
parasites?
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism
are called ectoparasites. The most familiar examples of this group
are the lice on humans and ticks on dogs. Many marine fish are
infested with ectoparasitic copepods. Cuscuta, a parasitic plant that
is commonly found growing on hedge plants, has lost its chlorophyll
and leaves in the course of evolution. It derives its nutrition from
the host plant which it parasitises. The female mosquito is not
considered a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction.
Can you explain why?
In contrast, endoparasites are those that live inside the host
body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, red blood cells, etc.).
The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex because of their
extreme specialisation. Their morphological and anatomical features
are greatly simplified while emphasising their reproductive potential.
Brood parasitism in birds is a fascinating example of parasitism
in which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and
lets the host incubate them. During the course of evolution, the
eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in
size and colour to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the
foreign eggs and ejecting them from the nest. Try to follow the
movements of the cuckoo (koel) and the crow in your neighborhood
park during the breeding season (spring to summer) and watch
brood parasitism in action.
(iv) Commensalism: This is the interaction in which one species benefits
and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. An orchid growing
as an epiphyte on a mango branch, and barnacles growing on the
back of a whale benefit while neither the mango tree nor the whale
derives any apparent benefit. The cattle egret and grazing cattle in
close association, a sight you are most likely to catch if you live in
236 farmed rural areas, is a classic example of commensalism. The
egrets always forage close to where the cattle are grazing because
the cattle, as they move, stir up and flush out from the vegetation
insects that otherwise might be difficult for the egrets to find and
catch. Another example of commensalism is the interaction between
sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish that
(a) (b)
Figure 13.6 Mutual relationship between fig tree and wasp: (a) Fig flower is pollinated
by wasp; (b) Wasp laying eggs in a fig fruit
lives among them. The fish gets protection from predators which
stay away from the stinging tentacles. The anemone does not appear
to derive any benefit by hosting the clown fish.
(v) Mutualism: This interaction confers benefits on both the interacting
species. Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship
between a fungus and photosynthesising algae or cyanobacteria.
Similarly, the mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the
roots of higher plants. The fungi help the plant in the absorption of
essential nutrients from the soil while the plant in turn provides the
fungi with energy-yielding carbohydrates.
The most spectacular and evolutionarily fascinating examples
of mutualism are found in plant-animal relationships. Plants need
the help of animals for pollinating their flowers and dispersing their
seeds. Animals obviously have to be paid ‘fees’ for the services that
plants expect from them. Plants offer rewards or fees in the form of
pollen and nectar for pollinators and juicy and nutritious fruits for
seed dispersers. But the mutually beneficial system should also
be safeguarded against ‘cheaters’, for example, animals that try to
steal nectar without aiding in pollination. Now you can see why
plant-animal interactions often involve co-evolution of the
mutualists, that is, the evolutions of the flower and its pollinator
species are tightly linked with one another. In many species of fig
trees, there is a tight one-to-one relationship with the pollinator
237
species of wasp (Figure 13.6). It means that a given fig species can
be pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species and no other species.
The female wasp uses the fruit not only as an oviposition (egg-laying)
site but uses the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing
its larvae. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching
BIOLOGY
for suitable egg-laying sites. In return for the favour of

pollination the fig offers the wasp some of its developing
seeds, as food for the developing wasp larvae.
Orchids show a bewildering diversity of floral
patterns many of which have evolved to attract the right
pollinator insect (bees and bumblebees) and ensure
guaranteed pollination by it (Figure 13.7). Not all
orchids offer rewards. The Mediterranean orchid Ophrys
employs ‘sexual deceit’ to get pollination done by a
species of bee. One petal of its flower bears an uncanny
resemblance to the female of the bee in size, colour and
markings. The male bee is attracted to what it perceives
as a female, ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower, and
during that process is dusted with pollen from the
flower. When this same bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with
Figure 13.7 Showing bee a pollinator another flower, it transfers pollen to it and thus,
on orchid flower pollinates the flower. Here you can see how co-evolution
operates. If the female bee’s colour patterns change even
slightly for any reason during evolution, pollination success will be reduced
unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the resemblance of its
petal to the female bee.
SUMMARY
As a branch of biology, Ecology is the study of the relationships of
living organisms with the abiotic (physico-chemical factors) and biotic
components (other species) of their environment. It is concerned
with four levels of biological organisation-organisms, populations,
communities and biomes.
Temperature, light, water and soil are the most important
physical factors of the environment to which the organisms are
adapted in various ways. Maintenance of a constant internal
environment (homeostasis) by the organisms contributes to optimal
performance, but only some organisms (regulators) are capable of
homeostasis in the face of changing external environment. Others
either partially regulate their internal environment or simply
conform. A few other species have evolved adaptations to avoid
unfavourable conditions in space (migration) or in time (aestivation,
238 hibernation, and diapause).
Evolutionary changes through natural selection take place at
the population level and hence, population ecology is an important
area of ecology. A population is a group of individuals of a given
species sharing or competing for similar resources in a defined
geographical area. Populations have attributes that individual
organisms do not- birth rates and death rates, sex ratio and age
distribution. The proportion of different age groups of males and

females in a population is often presented graphically as age pyramid;
its shape indicates whether a population is stationary, growing or
declining.
Ecological effects of any factors on a population are generally
reflected in its size (population density), which may be expressed in
different ways (numbers, biomass, per cent cover, etc.,) depending
on the species.
Populations grow through births and immigration and decline
through deaths and emigration. When resources are unlimited, the
growth is usually exponential but when resources become
progressively limiting, the growth pattern turns logistic. In either
case, growth is ultimately limited by the carrying capacity of the
environment. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) is a measure
of the inherent potential of a population to grow.
In nature populations of different species in a habitat do not live
in isolation but interact in many ways. Depending on the outcome,
these interactions between two species are classified as competition
(both species suffer), predation and parasitism (one benefits and the
other suffers), commensalism (one benefits and the other is
unaffected), amensalism (one is harmed, other unaffected) and
mutualism (both species benefit). Predation is a very important
process through which trophic energy transfer is facilitated and some
predators help in controlling their prey populations. Plants have
evolved diverse morphological and chemical defenses against
herbivory. In competition, it is presumed that the superior competitor
eliminates the inferior one (the Competitive Exclusion Principle), but
many closely related species have evolved various mechanisms which
facilitate their co-existence. Some of the most fascinating cases of
mutualism in nature are seen in plant-pollinator interactions.
EXERCISES
1. How is diapause different from hibernation?
2. If a marine fish is placed in a fresh water aquarium, will the fish be
able to survive? Why or why not?
3. Define phenotypic adaptation. Give one example.
4. Most living organisms cannot survive at temperature above 450C. How
239
are some microbes able to live in habitats with temperatures exceeding
1000C?
5. List the attributes that populations but not individuals possess.
6. If a population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, what is
the intrinsic rate of increase (r) of the population?
7. Name important defence mechanisms in plants against herbivory.
BIOLOGY
8. An orchid plant is growing on the branch of mango tree. How do you

describe this interaction between the orchid and the mango tree?
9. What is the ecological principle behind the biological control method of
managing with pest insects?
10. Distinguish between the following:
(a) Hibernation and Aestivation
(b) Ectotherms and Endotherms
11. Write a short note on
(a) Adaptations of desert plants and animals
(b) Adaptations of plants to water scarcity
(c) Behavioural adaptations in animals
(d) Importance of light to plants
(e) Effect of temperature or water scarcity and the adaptations of animals.
12. List the various abiotic environmental factors.
13. Give an example for:
(a) An endothermic animal
(b) An ectothermic animal
(c) An organism of benthic zone
14. Define population and community.
15. Define the following terms and give one example for each:
(a) Commensalism
(b) Parasitism
(c) Camouflage
(d) Mutualism
(e) Interspecific competition
16. With the help of suitable diagram describe the logistic population
growth curve.
17. Select the statement which explains best parasitism.
(a) One organism is benefited.
(b) Both the organisms are benefited.
(c) One organism is benefited, other is not affected.
(d) One organism is benefited, other is affected.
18. List any three important characteristics of a population and explain.
240
CHAPTER 14
ECOSYSTEM
14.1 Ecosystem–Structure
and Function
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
14.2. Productivity nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
14.3 Decomposition Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
14.4 Energy Flow biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
14.5 Ecological Pyramids
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
14.6 Ecological Succession to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
14.7 Nutrient Cycling are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
14.8 Ecosystem Services ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.
We will first look at the structure of the ecosystem, in
order to appreciate the input (productivity), transfer of
energy (food chain/web, nutrient cycling) and the output
(degradation and energy loss). We will also look at the
relationships – cycles, chains, webs – that are created as
a result of these energy flows within the system and their
interrelationship.
BIOLOGY
14.1 ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

In chapter 13, you have looked at the various components of the
environment- abiotic and biotic. You studied how the individual biotic
and abiotic factors affected each other and their surrounding. Let us look
at these components in a more integrated manner and see how the flow of
energy takes place within these components of the ecosystem.
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical
structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem. Identification
and enumeration of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its
species composition. Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels is called stratification. For example, trees occupy top
vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses
occupy the bottom layers.
The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit when
you consider the following aspects:
(i) Productivity;
(ii) Decomposition;
(iii) Energy flow; and
(iv) Nutrient cycling.
To understand the ethos of an aquatic ecosystem let us take a small
pond as an example. This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather simple
example that explain even the complex interactions that exist in an aquatic
ecosystem. A pond is a shallow water body in which all the above
mentioned four basic components of an ecosystem are well exhibited.
The abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and
organic substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond.
The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length and other climatic
conditions regulate the rate of function of the entire pond. The autotrophic
components include the phytoplankton, some algae and the floating,
submerged and marginal plants found at the edges. The consumers are
represented by the zooplankton, the free swimming and bottom dwelling
forms. The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates especially
abundant in the bottom of the pond. This system performs all the functions
of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole, i.e., conversion of
inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant energy of the
sun by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs;
decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back
for reuse by the autotrophs, these event are repeated over and over again.
242 There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic
levels and its dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
14.2. PRODUCTIVITY
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem
to function and sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount of
ECOSYSTEM
biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g –2) or
energy (kcal m–2). The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
It is expressed in terms of g –2 yr –1 or (kcal m –2) yr –1 to compare the
productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Gross primary
productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter
during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants
in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R),
is the net primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption
to heterotrophs (herbiviores and decomposers). Secondary productivity
is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a
particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors,
availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore,
it varies in different types of ecosystems. The annual net primary
productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons
(dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 per
cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.
Rest of course, is on land. Discuss the main reason for the low
productivity of ocean with your teacher.
14.3 DECOMPOSITION
You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s
‘friend’. This is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic
matter as well as in loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break
down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition.
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of
animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw
material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of
decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralisation.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles.
This process is called fragmentation. By the process of leaching, water-
soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated 243
as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into
simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate
simultaneously on the detritus (Figure 14.1). Humification and
mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads
BIOLOGY
Figure 14.1 Diagrammatic representation of decomposition cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem
to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus

that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition
at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir
of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release
of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as mineralisation.
Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of
decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and
climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate
is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is
244 rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature
and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas low
temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in build
up of organic materials.
ECOSYSTEM
14.4 ENERGY FLOW

Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source
of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less
than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). We
know that plants and photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria
(autotrophs), fix suns’ radiant energy to make food from simple inorganic
materials. Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small
amount of energy sustains the entire living world. So, it is very important
to know how the solar energy captured by plants flows through different
organisms of an ecosystem. All organisms are dependent for their food
on producers, either directly or indirectly. So you find unidirectional flow
of energy from the sun to producers and then to consumers. Is this in
keeping with the first law of thermodynamics?
Further, ecosystems are not exempt from the Second Law of
thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesise
the molecules they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward
increasing disorderliness.
The green plant in the ecosystem-terminology are called producers.
In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody
plants. Likewise, primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem are various
species like phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
You have read about the food chains and webs that exit in nature.
Starting from the plants (or producers) food chains or rather webs are
formed such that an animal feeds on a plant or on another animal and in
turn is food for another. The chain or web is formed because of this
interdependency. No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in
it for ever. The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either passed on
to a consumer or the organism dies. Death of organism is the beginning
of the detritus food chain/web.
All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs.
They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs. If they feed on
the producers, the plants, they are called primary consumers, and if the
animals eat other animals which in turn eat the plants (or their produce)
they are called secondary consumers. Likewise, you could have tertiary
consumers too. Obviously the primary consumers will be herbivores.
Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial
ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more
correctly primary carnivores (though secondary consumers). Those 245
animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled
secondary carnivores. A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted
below:
Grass Goat Man

(Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary consumer)
BIOLOGY
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is
made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by
degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as
saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic
materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy
flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus
food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels:
some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural
ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores.
These natural interconnection of food chains make it a food web. How
would you classify human beings!
Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a
community according to their feeding relationship with other organisms.
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific
place in the food chain that is known as their trophic level. Producers
belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the
second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third (Figure 14.2).
246
Figure 14.2 Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem

ECOSYSTEM
The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at

successive trophic levels. When any organism dies it is converted to
detritus or dead biomass that serves as an energy source for decomposers.
Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level
for their energy demands.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular
time called as the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the
mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. The
biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Why?
The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as
the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the
energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. In
nature, it is possible to have so many levels – producer, herbivore, primary
carnivore, secondary carnivore in the grazing food chain (Figure 14.3) .
Do you think there is any such limitation in a detritus food chain?
Figure 14.3 Energy flow through different trophic levels

247
14.5 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
You must be familiar with the shape of a pyramid. The base of a pyramid
is broad and it narrows down at the apex. One gets a similar shape,
whether you express the food or energy relationship between organisms
BIOLOGY
at different trophic level. Thus, relationship is expressed in terms of

number, biomass or energy. The base of each pyramid represents the
producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or
top level consumer. The three ecological pyramids that are usually studied
are (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of
energy. For detail (see Figure 14.4 a, b, c and d).
Figure 14.4 (a) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores are
supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants
Figure 14.4 (b) Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels
248
Figure 14.4 (c) Inverted pyramid of biomass-small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large
standing crop of zooplankton
ECOSYSTEM
Figure 14.4 (d) An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only 1% of
the energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP
Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to

include all organisms at that trophic level. No generalisations we make
will be true if we take only a few individuals at any trophic level into
account. Also a given organism may occupy more than one trophic level
simultaneously. One must remember that the trophic level represents a
functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more
than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example,
a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a
secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms. Can you work out
how many trophic levels human beings function at in a food chain?
In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and
biomass are upright, i.e., producers are more in number and biomass
than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass
than the carnivores. Also energy at a lower trophic level is always more
than at a higher level.
There are exceptions to this generalisation: If you were to count the
number of insects feeding on a big tree what kind of pyramid would you
get? Now add an estimate of the number of small birds depending on the
insects, as also the number of larger birds eating the smaller. Draw the
shape you would get.
The pyramid of biomass in sea is also generally inverted because the
biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton. Isn’t that a paradox?
How would you explain this?
249
Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because
when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level,
some energy is always lost as heat at each step. Each bar in the energy
pyramid indicates the amount of energy present at each trophic level in a
given time or annually per unit area.
BIOLOGY
However, there are certain limitations of ecological pyramids such as

it does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more
trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost
never exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover,
saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though
they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
14.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

You have learnt in Chapter 13, the characteristics of population and
community and also their response to environment and how such
responses vary from an individual response. Let us examine another aspect
of community response to environment over time.
An important characteristic of all communities is that composition
and structure constantly change in response to the changing
environmental conditions. This change is orderly and sequential, parallel
with the changes in the physical environment. These changes lead finally
to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and
that is called a climax community. The gradual and fairly predictable
change in the species composition of a given area is called ecological
succession. During succession some species colonise an area and their
populations become more numerous, whereas populations of other species
decline and even disappear.
The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a
given area are called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are
termed seral stages or seral communities. In the successive seral stages
there is a change in the diversity of species of organisms, increase in the
number of species and organisms as well as an increase in the total biomass.
The present day communities in the world have come to be because
of succession that has occurred over millions of years since life started on
earth. Actually succession and evolution would have been parallel
processes at that time.
Succession is hence a process that starts where no living organisms
are there – these could be areas where no living organisms ever existed,
say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that
existed there. The former is called primary succession, while the latter is
termed secondary succession.
250 Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly cooled
lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir. The establishment of a
new biotic community is generally slow. Before a biotic community of
diverse organisms can become established, there must be soil. Depending
mostly on the climate, it takes natural processes several hundred to several
thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare rock.
ECOSYSTEM
Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic

communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands,
burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded. Since some soil or
sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
Description of ecological succession usually focuses on changes in
vegetation. However, these vegetational changes in turn affect food and
shelter for various types of animals. Thus, as succession proceeds, the
numbers and types of animals and decomposers also change.
At any time during primary or secondary succession, natural or
human induced disturbances (fire, deforestation, etc.), can convert a
particular seral stage of succession to an earlier stage. Also such
disturbances create new conditions that encourage some species and
discourage or eliminate other species.
14.6.1 Succession of Plants

Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water (or very wet areas)
or it is on very dry areas – succession of plants is called hydrach or xerarch,
respectively. Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas and the
successional series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions. As against
this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress
from xeric to mesic conditions. Hence, both hydrarch and xerach
successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry
(xeric) nor too wet (hydric).
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. In
primary succession on rocks these are usually lichens which are able to
secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering and soil formation.
These later pave way to some very small plants like bryophytes, which
are able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, with time,
succeeded by bigger plants, and after several more stages, ultimately a
stable climax forest community is formed. The climax community remains
stable as long as the environment remains unchanged. With time the
xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one.
In primary succession in water, the pioneers are the small
phytoplanktons, they are replaced with time by free-floating angiosperms,
then by rooted hydrophytes, sedges, grasses and finally the trees. The
climax again would be a forest. With time the water body is converted
into land (Figure 14.5).
In secondary succession the species that invade depend on the
251
condition of the soil, availability of water, the environment as also the
seeds or other propagules present. Since soil is already there, the rate of
succession is much faster and hence, climax is also reached more quickly.
What is important to understand is that succession, particularly
primary succession, is a very slow process, taking maybe thousands of
BIOLOGY
252
Figure 14.5 Diagramatic representation of primary succession
years for the climax to be reached. Another important fact is to understand

that all succession whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to
a similar climax community – the mesic.
ECOSYSTEM
14.7 NUTRIENT CYCLING

You have studied in Class XI that organisms need a constant supply of
nutrients to grow, reproduce and regulate various body functions. The
amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc.,
present in the soil at any given time, is referred to as the standing state. It
varies in different kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.
What is important is to appreciate that nutrients which are never lost
from the ecosystems, they are recycled time and again indefinitely. The
movement of nutrient elements through the various components of an
ecosystem is called nutrient cycling. Another name of nutrient cycling
is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, geo: rocks, air, water).
Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary. The
Figure 14.6 Simplified model of carbon cycle in the biosphere 253

reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle)
exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and
phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. Environmental
factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperaturer etc., regulate the rate of
release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the reservoir is
BIOLOGY
to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx
and efflux.
You have made a detailed study of nitrogen cycle in class XI. Here we
discuss carbon and phosphorus cycles.
14.7.1 Ecosystem – Carbon Cycle

When you study the composition of living organisms, carbon constitutes
49 per cent of dry weight of organisms and is next only to water. If we
look at the total quantity of global carbon, we find that 71 per cent carbon
is found dissolved in oceans. This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Figure 14.6). Do you know that the
atmosphere only contains about 1per cent of total global carbon?
Fossil fuel also represent a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs
through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
According to one estimate 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere
through photosynthesis annually. A considerable amount of carbon
returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory activities of the
producers and consumers. Decomposers also contribute substantially
to CO2 pool by their processing of waste materials and dead organic matter
of land or oceans. Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments
and removed from circulation. Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion
of organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activity are additional sources for
releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle. Rapid
deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport
have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere (see greenhouse effect in Chapter 16).
14.7.2 Ecosystem – Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids
and cellular energy transfer systems. Many animals also need large
quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth. The natural
reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form
of phosphates. When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of the
plants (Figure 14.7). Herbivores and other animals obtain this element
from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed
254 by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike carbon
cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere. Can
you differentiate between the carbon and the phosphorus cycle?
The other two major and important differences between carbon and
phosphorus cycle are firstly, atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through
rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs, and, secondly, gaseous
ECOSYSTEM
Figure 14.7 A simplified model of phosphorus cycling in a terrestrial

ecosystem
exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are

negligible.
14.8 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of economic,
environmental and aesthetic goods and services. The products of
ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services, for example,
healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and
floods, cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat,
maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon
and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. Though value
of such services of biodiversity is difficult to determine, it seems
reasonable to think that biodiversity should carry a hefty price tag.
Robert Constanza and his colleagues have very recently tried to
put price tags on nature’s life-support services. Researchers have put
an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental
ecosystems services, which are largely taken for granted because they
are free. This is nearly twice the value of the global gross national 255
product GNP which is (US $ 18 trillion).
Out of the total cost of various ecosystem services, the soil
formation accounts for about 50 per cent, and contributions of other
services like recreation and nutrient cycling, are less than 10 per
cent each. The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are
about 6 per cent each.
BIOLOGY
SUMMARY
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature and comprises abiotic and
biotic components. Abiotic components are inorganic materials- air,
water and soil, whereas biotic components are producers, consumers
and decomposers. Each ecosystem has characteristic physical structure
resulting from interaction amongst abiotic and biotic components.
Species composition and stratification are the two main structural
features of an ecosystem. Based on source of nutrition every organism
occupies a place in an ecosystem.
Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling are
the four important components of an ecosystem. Primary productivity
is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production of the
producers. It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar energy or
total production of organic matter is called as GPP. NPP is the remaining
biomass or the energy left after utilisation of producers. Secondary
productivity is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.
In decomposition, complex organic compounds of detritus are converted
to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers.
Decomposition involves three processes, namely fragmentation of
detritus, leaching and catabolism.
Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy
and then, food is transferred from the producers to decomposers.
Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are connected to each
other for food or energy relationship forming a food chain. The storage
and movement of nutrient elements through the various components
of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly
used through this process. Nutrient cycling is of two types. gaseous
and sedimentary. Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir for the
gaseous type of cycle (carbon), whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir
for sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of ecosystem processes
are named as ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and water by
forests.
The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes changes with the
passage of time. These changes are sequentially ordered and constitute
ecological succession. Succession begins with invasion of a bare lifeless
area by pioneers which later pave way for successors and ultimately a
stable climax community is formed. The climax community remains
stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
EXERCISES
256
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Plants are called as_________because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers)
is_________type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity
is_________.
ECOSYSTEM
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are_________.

(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is_________.
2. Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(a) Producers
(b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers
(d) Decomposers
3. The second trophic level in a lake is-
(a) Phytoplankton
(b) Zooplankton
(c) Benthos
(d) Fishes
4. Secondary producers are
(a) Herbivores
(b) Producers
(c) Carnivores
(d) None of the above
5. What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), in
the incident solar radiation.
(a) 100%
(b) 50 %
(c) 1-5%
(d) 2-10%
6. Distinguish between
(a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
(b) Production and decomposition
(c) Upright and inverted pyramid
(d) Food chain and Food web
(e) Litter and detritus
(f) Primary and secondary productivity
7. Describe the components of an ecosystem.
8. Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of
number and biomass.
9. What is primary productivity? Give brief description of factors that affect
primary productivity.
10. Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of
decomposition.
11. Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem. 257
12. Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem.
13. Outline salient features of carbon cycling in an ecosystem.
CHAPTER 15
BIODIVERSITY AND
CONSERVATION
15.1 Biodiversity
15.2 Biodiversity Conservation If an alien from a distant galaxy were to visit our planet
Earth, the first thing that would amaze and baffle him
would most probably be the enormous diversity of life
that he would encounter. Even for humans, the rich variety
of living organisms with which they share this planet never
ceases to astonish and fascinate us. The common man
would find it hard to believe that there are more than
20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of beetles, 28,000
species of fishes and nearly 20,000 species of orchids.
Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have been trying
to understand the significance of such diversity by asking
important questions– Why are there so many species?
Did such great diversity exist throughout earth’s history?
How did this diversification come about? How and why
is this diversity important to the biosphere? Would it
function any differently if the diversity was much less?
How do humans benefit from the diversity of life?
15.1 BIODIVERSITY
In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity)
exists not only at the species level but at all levels of
biological organisation ranging from macromolecules
within cells to biomes. Biodiversity is the term popularised
by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson to describe the
combined diversity at all the levels of biological organisation.

The most important of them are–
(i) Genetic diversity : A single species might show high diversity at
the genetic level over its distributional range. The genetic variation
shown by the medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in
different Himalayan ranges might be in terms of the potency and
concentration of the active chemical (reserpine) that the plant
produces. India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains
of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.
(ii) Species diversity : The diversity at the species level. For example,
the Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than
the Eastern Ghats.
(iii) Ecological diversity : At the ecosystem level, India, for instance,
with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands,
estuaries, and alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity
than a Scandinavian country like Norway.
It has taken millions of years of evolution, to accumulate this rich
diversity in nature, but we could lose all that wealth in less than two
centuries if the present rates of species losses continue. Biodiversity and
its conservation are now vital environmental issues of international concern
as more and more people around the world begin to realise the critical
importance of biodiversity for our survival and well- being on this planet.
15.1.1 How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many
in India?
Since there are published records of all the species discovered and named,
we know how many species in all have been recorded so far, but it is not
easy to answer the question of how many species there are on earth.
According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species
described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million, but we have no clear
idea of how many species are yet to be discovered and described. Estimates
vary widely and many of them are only educated guesses. For many
taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete in temperate
than in tropical countries. Considering that an overwhelmingly large
proportion of the species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics,
biologists make a statistical comparison of the temperate-tropical species
richness of an exhaustively studied group of insects and extrapolate this 259
ratio to other groups of animals and plants to come up with a gross
estimate of the total number of species on earth. Some extreme estimates
range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative and scientifically
sound estimate made by Robert May places the global species diversity
at about 7 million.
BIOLOGY
Let us look at some interesting aspects about earth’s biodiversity based

on the currently available species inventories. More than 70 per cent of
all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi,
bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22
per cent of the total. Among animals, insects are the most species-rich
taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total. That
means, out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects. Again, how
do we explain this enormous diversification of insects? The number of
fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the species
of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. In Figure 15.1, biodiversity
is depicted showing species number of major taxa.
Figure 15.1 Representing global biodiversity: proportionate number of

species of major taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates
260 It should be noted that these estimates do not give any figures for
prokaryotes. Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species
there might be. The problem is that conventional taxonomic methods are
not suitable for identifying microbial species and many species are simply
not culturable under laboratory conditions. If we accept biochemical or
molecular criteria for delineating species for this group, then their diversity
alone might run into millions.
Although India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share
of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent. That is what
makes our country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been
recorded from India. How many living species are actually there waiting
to be discovered and named? If we accept May’s global estimates, only
22 per cent of the total species have been recorded so far. Applying this
proportion to India’s diversity figures, we estimate that there are probably
more than 1,00,000 plant species and more than 3,00, 000 animal species
yet to be discovered and described. Would we ever be able to complete
the inventory of the biological wealth of our country? Consider the immense
trained manpower (taxonomists) and the time required to complete the
job. The situation appears more hopeless when we realise that a large
fraction of these species faces the threat of becoming extinct even before
we discover them. Nature’s biological library is burning even before we
catalogued the titles of all the books stocked there.
15.1.2 Patterns of Biodiversity

(i) Latitudinal gradients : The diversity of plants and animals is
not uniform throughout the world but shows a rather uneven
distribution. For many group of animals or plants, there are
interesting patterns in diversity, the most well- known being the
latitudinal gradient in diversity. In general, species diversity
decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles.
With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to
23.5° S) harbour more species than temperate or polar areas.
Colombia located near the equator has nearly 1,400 species of birds
while New York at 41° N has 105 species and Greenland at 71° N
only 56 species. India, with much of its land area in the tropical
latitudes, has more than 1,200 species of birds. A forest in a tropical
region like Equador has up to 10 times as many species of vascular
plants as a forest of equal area in a temperate region like the Midwest
of the USA. The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South
America has the greatest biodiversity on earth- it is home to more
than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of fishes, 1,300 of birds, 427
of mammals, 427 of amphibians, 378 of reptiles and of more than
1,25,000 invertebrates. Scientists estimate that in these rain forests
there might be at least two million insect species waiting to be
discovered and named.
What is so special about tropics that might account for their greater
261
biological diversity? Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have
proposed various hypotheses; some important ones are (a) Speciation
is generally a function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected
to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have remained
relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long
BIOLOGY
evolutionary time for species diversification, (b) Tropical environments,

unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant
and predictable. Such constant environments promote niche
specialisation and lead to a greater species diversity and (c) There
is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to
higher productivity; this in turn might contribute indirectly to greater
diversity.
(ii) Species-Area relationships : During his pioneering and extensive
explorations in the wilderness of South American jungles, the great
German naturalist and geographer Alexander von Humboldt
observed that within a region species
richness increased with increasing
explored area, but only up to a limit. In
fact, the relation between species richness
and area for a wide variety of taxa
(angiosperm plants, birds, bats,
freshwater fishes) turns out to be a
rectangular hyperbola (Figure15.2). On
a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a
straight line described by the equation
log S = log C + Z log A
where
S= Species richness A= Area
Z = slope of the line (regression
coefficient)
C = Y-intercept
Ecologists have discovered that the
Figure 15.2 Showing species area relationship.
value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2,
Note that on log scale the relationship
becomes linear regardless of the taxonomic group or the
region (whether it is the plants in Britain,
birds in California or molluscs in New York state, the slopes of the regression
line are amazingly similar). But, if you analyse the species-area
relationships among very large areas like the entire continents, you will
find that the slope of the line to be much steeper (Z values in the range
of 0.6 to 1.2). For example, for frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and
mammals in the tropical forests of different continents, the slope is found
to be 1.15. What do steeper slopes mean in this context?
262 15.1.3 The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem

Does the number of species in a community really matter to the functioning
of the ecosystem?This is a question for which ecologists have not been
able to give a definitive answer. For many decades, ecologists believed
that communities with more species, generally, tend to be more stable
than those with less species. What exactly is stability for a biological
community? A stable community should not show too much variation

in productivity from year to year; it must be either resistant or resilient to
occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and it must also be
resistant to invasions by alien species. We don’t know how these attributes
are linked to species richness in a community, but David Tilman’s
long-term ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots provide some
tentative answers. Tilman found that plots with more species showed
less year-to-year variation in total biomass. He also showed that in his
experiments, increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.
Although, we may not understand completely how species richness
contributes to the well-being of an ecosystem, we know enough to realise
that rich biodiversity is not only essential for ecosystem health but
imperative for the very survival of the human race on this planet. At a
time when we are losing species at an alarming pace, one might ask–
Does it really matter to us if a few species become extinct? Would Western
Ghats ecosystems be less functional if one of its tree frog species is lost
forever? How is our quality of life affected if, say, instead of 20,000 we
have only 15,000 species of ants on earth?
There are no direct answers to such näive questions but we can develop
a proper perspective through an analogy (the ‘rivet popper hypothesis’)
used by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich. In an airplane (ecosystem) all
parts are joined together using thousands of rivets (species). If every
passenger travelling in it starts popping a rivet to take home (causing a
species to become extinct), it may not affect flight safety (proper functioning
of the ecosystem) initially, but as more and more rivets are removed, the
plane becomes dangerously weak over a period of time. Furthermore,
which rivet is removed may also be critical. Loss of rivets on the wings
(key species that drive major ecosystem functions) is obviously a more
serious threat to flight safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats or
windows inside the plane.
15.1.4 Loss of Biodiversity

While it is doubtful if any new species are being added (through speciation)
into the earth’s treasury of species, there is no doubt about their continuing
losses. The biological wealth of our planet has been declining rapidly
and the accusing finger is clearly pointing to human activities. The
colonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by humans is said to have led to
the extinction of more than 2,000 species of native birds. The IUCN Red
List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (including 338 263
vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 years. Some
examples of recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga
(Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and three
subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger. The last twenty years alone
have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species. Careful analysis of records
BIOLOGY
shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like
amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction. Adding to the
grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species
world-wide are facing the threat of extinction. Presently, 12 per cent of
all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32 per cent of all
amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in the world
face the threat of extinction.
From a study of the history of life on earth through fossil records, we
learn that large-scale loss of species like the one we are currently
witnessing have also happened earlier, even before humans appeared on
the scene. During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and
diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass extinction
of species. How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress different
from the previous episodes? The difference is in the rates; the current
species extinction rates are estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster
than in the pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the
faster rates. Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue,
nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped out within the next
100 years.
In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in
plant production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental perturbations
such as drought and (c) increased variability in certain ecosystem processes
such as plant productivity, water use, and pest and disease cycles.
Causes of biodiversity losses: The accelerated rates of species
extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human
activities. There are four major causes (‘ The Evil Quartet ’ is the sobriquet
used to describe them).
(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most important
cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The most dramatic
examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once
covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these
rain forests now cover no more than 6 per cent. They are being
destroyed fast. By the time you finish reading this chapter, 1000
more hectares of rain forest would have been lost. The Amazon
rain forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’)
harbouring probably millions of species is being cut and cleared
for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for raising
beef cattle. Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by
264 pollution also threatens the survival of many species. When large
habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human
activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain
animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to
population declines.
(ii) Over-exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature for
food and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to
over -exploitation of natural resources. Many species extinctions

in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due
to overexploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish
populations around the world are over harvested, endangering the
continued existence of some commercially important species.
(iii) Alien species invasions: When alien species are introduced
unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them
turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.
The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led
eventually to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of
more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake. You must be
familiar with the environmental damage caused and threat posed
to our native species by invasive weed species like carrot grass
(Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia). The recent
illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for
aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes
in our rivers.
(iv) Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and
animal species associated with it in an obligatory way also become
extinct. When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique
assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate. Another example
is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where
extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction of the other.
15.2 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

15.2.1 Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?
There are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all
equally important. They can be grouped into three categories: narrowly
utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and ethical.
The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity are
obvious; humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature-
food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre, construction material,
industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes ) and
products of medicinal importance. More than 25 per cent of the drugs
currently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants and 25,000
species of plants contribute to the traditional medicines used by native
peoples around the world. Nobody knows how many more medicinally
useful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to be explored.
265
With increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular,
genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic importance),
nations endowed with rich biodiversity can expect to reap enormous
benefits.
The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a
major role in many ecosystem services that nature provides. The fast-
BIOLOGY
dwindling Amazon forest is estimated to produce, through

photosynthesis, 20 per cent of the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.
Can we put an economic value on this service by nature? You can get
some idea by finding out how much your neighborhood hospital spends
on a cylinder of oxygen. Pollination (without which plants cannot give
us fruits or seeds) is another service, ecosystems provide through
pollinators layer – bees, bumblebees, birds and bats. What will be the
costs of accomplishing pollination without help from natural
pollinators? There are other intangible benefits – that we derive from
nature–the aesthetic pleasures of walking through thick woods, watching
spring flowers in full bloom or waking up to a bulbul’s song in the
morning. Can we put a price tag on such things?
The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we
owe to millions of plant, animal and microbe species with whom we share
this planet. Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realise that every
species has an intrinsic value, even if it may not be of current or any
economic value to us. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being
and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future generations.
15.2.2 How do we conserve Biodiversity?

When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all
levels is protected - we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach
is called in situ (on site) conservation. However, when there are situations
where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened and needs urgent
measures to save it from extinction, ex situ (off site) conservation is the
desirable approach.
In situ conservation– Faced with the conflict between development and
conservation, many nations find it unrealistic and economically not feasible
to conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably, the number of species
waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservation resources
available. On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent
conservationists. They identified for maximum protection certain
‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of species richness
and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region
and not found anywhere else). Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were
identified but subsequently nine more have been added to the list,
bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.
These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three of
266 these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and
Himalaya – cover our country’s exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
Although all the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2
percent of the earth’s land area, the number of species they collectively
harbour is extremely high and strict protection of these hotspots could
reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.
In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally

protected as biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. India
now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife
sanctuaries. India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions
that emphasised protection of nature. In many cultures, tracts of forest
were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and
given total protection. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia
Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of
Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas
of Madhya Pradesh. In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges
for a large number of rare and threatened plants.
Ex situ Conservation– In this approach, threatened animals and plants
are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting
where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks,
botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose. There are
many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be
maintained in zoological parks. In recent years ex situ conservation has
advanced beyond keeping threatened species in enclosures. Now gametes
of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for
long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised in
vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds
of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept
for long periods in seed banks.
Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is
therefore a collective responsibility of all nations. The historic Convention
on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in
1992, called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for
conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its benefits. In
a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002
in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment
to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity
loss at global, regional and local levels.
SUMMARY
Since life originated on earth nearly 3.8 billion years ago, there had
been enormous diversification of life forms on earth. Biodiversity refers
to the sum total of diversity that exists at all levels of biological
organisation. Of particular importance is the diversity at genetic, species 267
and ecosystem levels and conservation efforts are aimed at protecting
diversity at all these levels.
More than 1.5 million species have been recorded in the world, but
there might still be nearly 6 million species on earth waiting to be
discovered and named. Of the named species, > 70 per cent are animals,
of which 70 per cent are insects. The group Fungi has more species
BIOLOGY
than all the vertebrate species combined. India, with about 45,000
species of plants and twice as many species of animals, is one of the 12
mega diversity countries of the world.
Species diversity on earth is not uniformly distributed but shows
interesting patterns. It is generally highest in the tropics and decreases
towards the poles. Important explanations for the species richness of
the tropics are: Tropics had more evolutionary time; they provide a
relatively constant environment and, they receive more solar energy
which contributes to greater productivity. Species richness is also
function of the area of a region; the species-area relationship is generally
a rectangular hyperbolic function.
It is believed that communities with high diversity tend to be less
variable, more productive and more resistant to biological invasions.
Earth’s fossil history reveals incidence of mass extinctions in the past,
but the present rates of extinction, largely attributed to human activities,
are 100 to 1000 times higher. Nearly 700 species have become extinct
in recent times and more than 15,500 species (of which > 650 are from
India currently face the threat of extinction. The causes of high
extinction rates at present include habitat (particularly forests) loss
and fragmentation, over -exploitation, biological invasions and
co- extinctions.
Earth’s rich biodiversity is vital for the very survival of mankind.
The reasons for conserving biodiversity are narrowly utilitarian, broadly
utilitarian and ethical. Besides the direct benefits (food, fibre, firewood,
pharmaceuticals, etc.), there are many indirect benefits we receive
through ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, climate
moderation and flood control. We also have a moral responsibility to
take good care of earth’s biodiversity and pass it on in good order to our
next generation.
Biodiversity conservation may be in situ as well as ex situ. In in situ
conservation, the endangered species are protected in their natural
habitat so that the entire ecosystem is protected. Recently, 34
‘biodiversity hotspots’ in the world have been proposed for intensive
conservation ef forts. Of these, three (Wester n Ghats-Sri Lanka,
Himalaya and Indo-Burma) cover India’s rich biodiversity regions. Our
country’s in situ conservation efforts are reflected in its 14 biosphere
reserves, 90 national parks, > 450 wildlife sanctuaries and many sacred
groves. Ex situ conservation methods include protective maintenance
of threatened species in zoological parks and botanical gardens, in vitro
fertilisation, tissue culture propagation and cryopreservation of
gametes.
268
EXERCISES
1. Name the three important components of biodiversity.
2. How do ecologists estimate the total number of species present in the
world?
3. Give three hypotheses for explaining why tropics show greatest levels
of species richness.
4. What is the significance of the slope of regression in a species – area
relationship?
5. What are the major causes of species losses in a geographical region?
6. How is biodiversity important for ecosystem functioning?
7. What are sacred groves? What is their role in conservation?
8. Among the ecosystem services are control of floods and soil erosion.
How is this achieved by the biotic components of the ecosystem?
9. The species diversity of plants (22 per cent) is much less than that of
animals (72 per cent). What could be the explanations to how animals
achieved greater diversification?
10. Can you think of a situation where we deliberately want to make a
species extinct? How would you justify it?
269
CHAPTER 16
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
16.1 Air Pollution and Its

Control
Human population size has grown enormously over the
16.2 Water Pollution and Its last hundred years. This means increase in demand for
Control food, water, home, electricity, roads, automobiles and
numerous other commodities. These demands are exerting
16.3 Solid Wastes
tremendous pressure on our natural resources, and are
16.4 Agro-chemicals and also contributing to pollution of air, water and soil. The
their Effects need of the hour is to check the degradation and depletion
16.5 Radioactive Wastes of our precious natural resources and pollution without
halting the process of development.
16.6 Greenhouse Effect and Pollution is any undesirable change in physical,
Global Warming chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, water or
16.7 Ozone Depletion in the soil. Agents that bring about such an undesirable change
Stratosphere are called as pollutants. In order to control environmental
pollution, the Government of India has passed the
16.8 Degradation by Improper
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to protect
Resource Utilisation and
and improve the quality of our environment (air, water
Maintenance
and soil).
16.9 Deforestation
16.1 AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
We are dependent on air for our respiratory needs. Air
pollutants cause injury to all living organisms. They
reduce growth and yield of crops and cause premature
death of plants. Air pollutants also deleteriously affect the
respiratory system of humans and of animals. Harmful
effects depend on the concentration of pollutants, duration of exposure

and the organism.
Smokestacks of thermal power plants, smelters and other industries
release particulate and gaseous air pollutants together with harmless
gases, such as nitrogen, oxygen, etc. These pollutants must be separated/
filtered out before releasing the harmless gases into the atmosphere.
Figure 16.1 Electrostatic precipitator
There are several ways of removing particulate matter; the most widely
used of which is the electrostatic precipitator (Figure 16.1), which can
remove over 99 per cent particulate matter present in the exhaust from a
thermal power plant. It has electrode wires that are maintained at several
thousand volts, which produce a corona that releases electrons. These
electrons attach to dust particles giving them a net negative charge. The
collecting plates are grounded and attract the charged dust particles.
The velocity of air between the plates must be low enough to allow the
dust to fall. A scrubber (Figure 16.1) can remove gases like sulphur
dioxide. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray of water or
lime. Recently we have realised the dangers of particulate matter that are 271
very very small and are not removed by these precipitators. According to
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), particulate size 2.5 micrometers
or less in diameter (PM 2.5) are responsible for causing the greatest harm
to human health. These fine particulates can be inhaled deep into the
lungs and can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms, irritation,
inflammations and damage to the lungs and premature deaths.
BIOLOGY
Automobiles are a major cause for atmospheric pollution atleast in

the metro cities. As the number of vehicles increase on the streets, this
problem is now shifting to the other cities too. Proper maintenance of
automobiles along with use of lead-free petrol or diesel can reduce the
pollutants they emit. Catalytic converters, having expensive metals namely
platinum-palladium and rhodium as the catalysts, are fitted into
automobiles for reducing emission of poisonous gases. As the exhaust
passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are
converted into carbon dioxide and water, and carbon monoxide and nitric
oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas, respectively. Motor
vehicles equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol
because lead in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
16.1.1 Controlling Vehicular Air Pollution: A Case

Study of Delhi
With its very large population of vehicular traffic, Delhi leads the country
in its levels of air-pollution – it has more cars than the states of Gujarat
and West Bengal put together. In the 1990s, Delhi ranked fourth
among the 41 most polluted cities of the world. Air pollution problems
in Delhi became so serious that a public interest litigation (PIL) was
filed in the Supreme Court of India. After being censured very strongly
by the Supreme Court, under its directives, the government was asked
to take, within a specified time period, appropriate measures, including
switching over the entire fleet of public transport, i.e., buses, from diesel
to compressed natural gas (CNG). All the buses of Delhi were converted
to run on CNG by the end of 2002. You may ask the question as to why
CNG is better than diesel. The answer is that CNG burns most efficiently,
unlike petrol or diesel, in the automobiles and very little of it is left
unburnt. Moreover, CNG is cheaper than petrol or diesel, cannot be
siphoned off by thieves and adulterated like petrol or diesel. The main
problem with switching over to CNG is the difficulty of laying down
pipelines to deliver CNG through distribution points/pumps and
ensuring uninterrupted supply. Simultaneously parallel steps taken
in Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution include phasing out of old
vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low-sulphur petrol and diesel,
use of catalytic converters in vehicles, application of stringent pollution-
level norms for vehicles, etc.
The Government of India through a new auto fuel policy has laid
272 out a roadmap to cut down vehicular pollution in Indian cities. More
stringent norms for fuels means steadily reducing the sulphur and
aromatics content in petrol and diesel fuels. Euro II norms, for example,
stipulates that sulphur be controlled at 350 parts-per-million (ppm) in
diesel and 150 ppm in petrol. Aromatic hydrocarbons are to be contained
at 42 per cent of the concerned fuel. The goal, according to the roadmap,
is to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and bring down the
level to 35 per cent. Corresponding to the fuel, vehicle engines will also
need to be upgraded. The Bharat Stage II (equivalent to Euro-II norms),
which is currently in place in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra,
will be applicable to all automobiles throughout the country from April
1, 2005. All automobiles and fuel-petrol and diesel – were to have met
the Euro III emission specifications in these 11 cities from April 1, 2005
and have to meet the Euro-IV norms by April 1, 2010. The rest of the
country will have Euro-III emission norm compliant automobiles and
fuels by 2010.
Thanks to the efforts made, the air quality of Delhi has significantly
improved. According to an estimate, a substantial fall in CO2 and SO2
level has been found in Delhi between 1997 and 2005.
In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came
into force in 1981, but was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air
pollutant. Noise is undesired high level of sound. We have got used to
associating loud sounds with pleasure and entertainment not realising
that noise causes psychological and physiological disorders in humans.
The bigger the city, the bigger the function, the greater the noise!! A
brief exposure to extremely high sound level, 150 dB or more generated
by take off of a jet plane or rocket, may damage ear drums thus
permanently impairing hearing ability. Even chronic exposure to a
relatively lower noise level of cities may permanently damage hearing
abilities of humans. Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heart
beating, altered breathing pattern, thus considerably stressing humans.
Considering the many dangerous effects of noise pollution can you
identify the unnecessary sources of noise pollution around you which
can be reduced immediately without any financial loss to anybody?
Reduction of noise in our industries can be affected by use of sound-
absorbent materials or by muffling noise. Stringent following of laws laid
down in relation to noise like delimitation of horn-free zones around
hospitals and schools, permissible sound-levels of crackers and of
loudspeakers, timings after which loudspeakers cannot be played, etc.,
need to be enforced to protect ourselves from noise pollution.
16.2 WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL

Human beings have been abusing the water-bodies around the world by
using them for disposal of all kinds of waste. We tend to believe that water
can wash away everything not taking cognizance of the fact that the water 273
bodies are our lifeline as well as that of all other living organisms. Can
you list what all we tend to try and wash away through our rivers and
drains? Due to such activities of human kind the ponds, lakes, stream,
rivers, estuaries and oceans are becoming polluted in several parts of the
world. Realising the importance of maintaining the cleanliness of the water
BIOLOGY
bodies, the Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water resources.
16.2.1 Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents

As we work with water in our homes in the cities and towns, we wash
everything into drains. Have you
ever wondered where the sewage
that comes out our houses go?
What happens in villages? Is the
sewage treated before being
transported to the nearest river
and mixed with it? A mere 0.1
per cent impurities make
domestic sewage unfit for human
use (Figure 16.2).You have read
about sewage treatments
plants in Chapter 10. Solids are
relatively easy to remove, what
Figure 16.2 Composition of waste water is difficult to remove are
274
Figure 16.3 Effect of sewage discharge on some important characteristics of a river

dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates, and other nutrients, and

toxic metal ions and organic compounds. Domestic sewage primarily
contains biodegradable organic matter, which readily decomposes –
thanks to bacteria and other micro-organisms, which can multiply using
these organic substances as substrates and hence utilise some of the
components of sewage. It is possible to estimate the amount of organic
matter in sewage water by measuring Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD). Can you explain how? In the chapter on micro-organisms you
have read about the relation between BOD, micro-organisms and the
amount of biodegradable matter.
Figure 16.3 shows some of the changes that one may notice following
discharge of sewage into a river. Micro-organisms involved in
biodegradation of organic matter in the receiving water body consume a
lot of oxygen, and as a result there is a sharp decline in dissolved oxygen
downstream from the point of sewage discharge. This causes mortality of
fish and other aquatic creatures.
Presence of large amounts of nutrients in waters also causes excessive
growth of planktonic (free-floating) algae, called an algal bloom
(Figure 16.4) which imparts a distinct colour to the water bodies. Algal
blooms cause deterioration of the water quality and fish mortality. Some
bloom-forming algae are extremely toxic to human beings and animals.
You may have seen the beautiful mauve-colored flowers found on
very appealingly-shaped floating plants in water bodies. These plants
which were introduced into India for their lovely flowers have caused havoc
by their excessive growth by causing blocks in our waterways. They grow
faster than our ability to remove them. These are plants of water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes), the world’s most problematic aquatic weed, also
275
Figure 16.4 Pictorial view of an algal bloom

BIOLOGY
called ‘ Terror of Bengal’. They grow abundantly in

eutrophic water bodies, and lead to an imbalance in the
ecosystem dynamics of the water body.
Sewage from our homes as well from hospitals are
likely to contain many undesirable pathogenic micro-
organisms, and its disposal into a water without proper
treatment may cause outbreak of serious diseases, such
as, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera, etc.
Unlike domestic sewage, waste water from industries
like petroleum, paper manufacturing, metal extraction
and processing, chemical manufacturing, etc., often
contain toxic substances, notably, heavy metals (defined
as elements with density > 5 g/cm3 such as mercury,
cadmium, copper, lead, etc.) and a variety of organic
compounds.
A few toxic substances, often present in industrial
waste waters, can undergo biological magnification
(Biomagnification) in the aquatic food chain.
Biomagnification refers to increase in concentration of
the toxicant at successive trophic levels. This happens
because a toxic substance accumulated by an organism
cannot be metabolised or excreted, and is thus passed
on to the next higher trophic level. This phenomenon is
well-known for mercury and DDT. Figure 16.5 shows
biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain. In this
manner, the concentration of DDT is increased at
successive trophic levels; say if it starts at 0.003 ppb
(ppb = parts per billion) in water, it can ultimately can
reach 25 ppm (ppm = parts per million) in fish-eating
birds, through biomagnification. High concentrations of
Figure 16.5 Biomagnification of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes
DDT in an aquatic thinning of eggshell and their premature breaking,
food chain eventually causing decline in bird populations.
Eutrophication is the natural aging of a lake by
biological enrichment of its water. In a young lake the water is cold and
clear, supporting little life. With time, streams draining into the lake
introduce nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which encourage
the growth of aquatic organisms. As the lake’s fertility increases, plant
276 and animal life burgeons, and organic remains begin to be deposited on
the lake bottom. Over the centuries, as silt and organic debris pile up, the
lake grows shallower and warmer, with warm-water organisms
supplanting those that thrive in a cold environment. Marsh plants take
root in the shallows and begin to fill in the original lake basin. Eventually,
the lake gives way to large masses of floating plants (bog), finally converting
into land. Depending on climate, size of the lake and other factors, the
natural aging of a lake may span thousands of years. However, pollutants

from man’s activities like effluents from the industries and homes can
radically accelerate the aging process. This phenomenon has been called
Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication. During the past century, lakes
in many parts of the earth have been severely eutrophied by sewage and
agricultural and industrial wastes. The prime contaminants are nitrates
and phosphates, which act as plant nutrients. They overstimulate the
growth of algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant odors, and
robbing the water of dissolved oxygen vital to other aquatic life. At the
same time, other pollutants flowing into a lake may poison whole
populations of fish, whose decomposing remains further deplete the
water’s dissolved oxygen content. In such fashion, a lake can literally
choke to death.
Heated (thermal) wastewaters flowing out of electricity-generating units,
e.g., thermal power plants, constitute another important category of
pollutants. Thermal wastewater eliminates or reduces the number of
organisms sensitive to high temperature, and may enhance the growth of
plants and fish in extremely cold areas but, only after causing damage to
the indigenous flora and fauna.
16.2.2 A Case Study of Integrated Waste Water Treatment

Wastewater including sewage can be treated in an integrated manner, by
utilising a mix of artificial and natural processes. An example of such an
initiative is the town of Arcata, situated along the northern coast of
California. Collaborating with biologists from the Humboldt
State University, the townspeople created an integrated waste water
treatment process within a natural system. The cleaning occurs in two
stages – (a) the conventional sedimentation, filtering and chlorine
treatments are given. After this stage, lots of dangerous pollutants like
dissolved heavy metals still remain. To combat this, an innovative
approach was taken and (b) the biologists developed a series of six
connected marshes over 60 hectares of marshland. Appropriate plants,
algae, fungi and bacteria were seeded into this area, which neutralise,
absorb and assimilate the pollutants. Hence, as the water flows through
the marshes, it gets purified naturally.
The marshes also constitute a sanctuary, with a high level of
biodiversity in the form of fishes, animals and birds that now reside there.
A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) are responsible
for the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project. . 277
All this time, we have assumed that removal of wastes requires water,
i.e., the creation of sewage. But what if water is not necessary to dispose
off human waste, like excreta? Can you imagine the amount of water that
one can save if one didn’t have to flush the toilet? Well, this is already a
reality. Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human
BIOLOGY
excreta, using dry composting toilets. This is a practical, hygienic, efficient

and cost-effective solution to human waste disposal. The key point to
note here is that with this composting method, human excreta can be
recycled into a resource (as natural fertiliser), which reduces the need for
chemical fertilisers. There are working ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many areas of
Kerala and Sri Lanka.
16.3 SOLID WASTES

Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash. Municipal solid
wastes are wastes from homes, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, etc.,
that are collected and disposed by the municipality. The municipal solid
wastes generally comprise paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals,
rubber, leather, textile, etc. Burning reduces the volume of the wastes,
although it is generally not burnt to completion and open dumps often
serve as the breeding ground for rats and flies. Sanitary landfills were
adopted as the substitute for open-burning dumps. In a sanitary landfill,
wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and
covered with dirt everyday. If you live in a town or city, do you know
where the nearest landfill site is? Landfills are also not really much of
a solution since the amount of garbage generation specially in the metros
has increased so much that these sites are getting filled too. Also there
is danger of seepage of chemicals, etc., from these landfills polluting the
underground water resources.
A solution to all this can only be in human beings becoming more
sensitive to these environment issues. All waste that we generate can
be categorised into three types – (a) bio-degradable, (b) recyclable and
(c) the non-biodegradable. It is important that all garbage generated is
sorted. What can be reused or recycled separated out; our kabadiwallahs
and rag-pickers do a great job of separation of materials for recycling.
The biodegradable materials can be put into deep pits in the ground and
be left for natural breakdown. That leaves only the non-biodegradable to
be disposed off . The need to reduce our garbage generation should be a
prime goal, instead, we are increasing the use of non-biodegradable
products. Just pick any readymade packet of any ‘good quality’ eatable,
say a biscuit packet, and study the packaging – do you see the number
of protective layers used? Note that atleast one layer is of plastic. We have
started packaging even our daily use products like milk and water in
polybags!! In cities, fruits and vegetables can be bought packed in
278 beautiful polysterene and plastic packaging – we pay so much and what
do we do? Contribute heavily to environmental pollution. State
Governments across the country are trying to push for reduction in use
of plastics and use of eco-friendly packaging. We can do our bit by carrying
cloth or other natural fibre carry-bags when we go shopping and by
refusing polythene bags.
16.3.1 Case Study of Remedy for Plastic Waste

A plastic sack manufacturer in Bangalore has managed to find the
ideal solution to the ever-increasing problem of accumulating plastic
waste. Ahmed Khan, aged 57 years old, has been producing plastic
sacks for 20 years. About 8 years ago, he realised that plastic waste
was a real problem. Polyblend, a fine powder of recycled modified plastic,
was developed then by his company. This mixture is mixed with the
bitumen that is used to lay roads. In collaboration with R.V.College of
Engineering and the Bangalore City Corporation, Ahmed Khan proved
that blends of Polyblend and bitumen, when used to lay roads, enhanced
the bitumen’s water repellant properties, and helped to increase road
life by a factor of three. The raw material for creating Polyblend is any
plastic film waste. So, against the price of Rs. 0.40 per kg that rag
pickers had been getting for plastic waste, Khan now offers Rs.6. Using
Khan’s technique, by the year 2002, more than 40 kms of road in
Bangalore has already been laid. At this rate, Khan will soon be running
short of plastic waste in Bangalore, to produce Polyblend. Thanks to
innovations like Polyblend, we might still avoid being smothered by
plastic waste.
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and
other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic micro-organisms. Such
wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. The use of incinerators
is crucial to disposal of hospital waste.
Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as
electronic wastes (e-wastes). E-wastes are buried in landfills or
incinerated. Over half of the e-wastes generated in the developed world
are exported to developing countries, mainly to China, India and Pakistan,
where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are recovered
during recycling process. Unlike developed countries, which have
specifically built facilities for recycling of e-wastes, recycling in developing
countries often involves manual participation thus exposing workers to
toxic substances present in e-wastes. Eventually recycling is the only
solution for the treatment of e-wastes provided it is carried out in an
environment-friendly manner.
16.4 AGRO-CHEMICALS AND THEIR EFFECTS

In the wake of green revolution, use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides
has increased manifold for enhancing crop production. Pesticides, 279
herbicides, fungicides, etc., are being increasingly used. These incidentally,
are also toxic to non-target organisms,that are important components of
the soil ecosystem. Do you think these can be biomagnified in the terrestrial
ecosystems? We know what the addition of increasing amounts of artificial
fertilisers can do to aquatic ecosystems vis-à-vis eutrophication. The
current problems in agriculture are, therefore, extremely grave.
BIOLOGY
16.4.1 Case Study of Organic Farming

Integrated organic farming is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure, where waste
products from one process are cycled in as nutrients for other processes.
This allows the maximum utilisation of resource and increases the
efficiency of production. Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat,
Haryana, is doing just this. He includes bee-keeping, dairy management,
water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of processes,
which support each other and allow an extremely economical and
sustainable venture. There is no need to use chemical fertilisers for crops,
as cattle excreta (dung) are used as manure. Crop waste is used to create
compost, which can be used as a natural fertiliser or can be used to
generate natural gas for satisfying the energy needs of the farm.
Enthusiastic about spreading information and help on the practice of
integrated organic farming, Dagar has created the Haryana Kisan Welfare
Club, with a current membership of 5000 farmers.
16.5 RADIOACTIVE WASTES

Initially, nuclear energy was hailed as a non-polluting way for generating
electricity. Later on, it was realised that the use of nuclear energy has two
very serious inherent problems. The first is accidental leakage, as occurred
in the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl incidents and the second is safe
disposal of radioactive wastes.
Radiation, that is given off by nuclear waste is extremely damaging to
biological organisms, because it causes mutations to occur at a very high
rate. At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal but at lower doses, it creates
various disorders, the most frequent of all being cancer. Therefore, nuclear
waste is an extremely potent pollutant and has to be dealt with utmost
caution.
It has been recommended that storage of nuclear waste, after sufficient
pre-treatment, should be done in suitably shielded containers buried
within the rocks, about 500 m deep below the earth’s surface. However,
this method of disposal is meeting stiff opposition from the public. Why
do you think this method of disposal is not agreeable to many people?
16.6 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

The term ‘Greenhouse effect’ has been derived from a phenomenon that
occurs in a greenhouse. Have you ever seen a greenhouse? It looks like a
280 small glass house and is used for growing plants especially during winter.
In a greenhouse the glass panel lets the light in, but does not allow heat
to escape. Therefore, the greenhouse warms up, very much like inside a
car that has been parked in the sun for a few hours.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is
responsible for heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere. You would be
Figure 16.6 Sunlight energy at the outermost atmosphere
surprised to know that without greenhouse effect the average temperature

at surface of Earth would have been a chilly –18oC rather than the present
average of 15oC. In order to understand the
greenhouse effect, it is necessary to know the
fate of the energy of sunlight that reaches the
outermost atmosphere (Figure16.6). Clouds
and gases reflect about one-fourth of the
incoming solar radiation, and absorb some of
it but almost half of incoming solar radiation
falls on Earth’s surface heating it, while a small
proportion is reflected back. Earth’s surface
re-emits heat in the form of infrared radiation
but part of this does not escape into space as
atmospheric gases (e.g., carbon dioxide,
methane, etc.) absorb a major fraction of it. The
molecules of these gases radiate heat energy, Figure 16.7 Relative contribution of various
greenhouse gases to total global
and a major part of which again comes to
warming
Earth’s surface, thus heating it up once again.
This cycle is repeated many a times. The
281
above-mentioned gases – carbon dioxide and methane – are commonly
known as greenhouse gases (Figure 16.7) because they are responsible
for the greenhouse effect.
Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating
of Earth leading to global warming. During the past century, the
temperature of Earth has increased by 0.6 oC, most of it during the last
BIOLOGY
three decades. Scientists believe that this rise in temperature is leading

to deleterious changes in the environment and resulting in odd climatic
changes (e.g. El Nino effect) , thus leading to increased melting of polar
ice caps as well as of other places like the Himalayan snow caps. Over
many years, this will result in a rise in sea level that can submerge many
coastal areas. The total spectrum of changes that global warming can
bring about is a subject that is still under active research.
How can we control global warming? The measures include cutting
down use of fossil fuel, improving efficiency of energy usage, reducing
deforestation, planting trees and slowing down the growth of human
population. International initiatives are also being taken to reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
16.7 O Z O N E D E P L E T I O N IN THE
STRATOSPHERE
You have earlier studied in the Chemistry
textbook of Class XI about ‘bad’ ozone, formed
in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) that harms
plants and animals. There is ‘good’ ozone also;
this ozone is found in the upper part of the
atmosphere called the stratosphere, and it acts
as a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from
the sun. UV rays are highly injurious to living
organisms since DNA and proteins of living
organisms preferentially absorb UV rays, and its
high energy breaks the chemical bonds within
these molecules. The thickness of the ozone in a
Figure 16.8 Ozone hole is the area above column of air from the ground to the top of the
Antarctica, shown in purple atmosphere is measured in terms of Dobson
colour, where the ozone layer
units (DU).
is the thinnest. Ozone
thickness is given in Dobson Ozone gas is continuously formed by the
unit (see carefully the scale action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also
shown in colour violet to red). degraded into molecular oxygen in the
The ozone hole over Antarctica
stratosphere. There should be a balance between
develops each year between
late August and early production and degradation of ozone in the
October. Curtesy: NASA stratosphere. Of late, the balance has been
disrupted due to enhancement of ozone
282 degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CFCs find wide use as refrigerants. CFCs discharged in the lower part of
atmosphere move upward and reach stratosphere. In stratosphere, UV
rays act on them releasing Cl atoms. Cl degrades ozone releasing
molecular oxygen, with these atoms acting merely as catalysts; Cl atoms
are not consumed in the reaction. Hence, whatever CFCs are added to
the stratosphere, they have permanent and continuing affects on Ozone
levels. Although ozone depletion is occurring widely in the stratosphere,

the depletion is particularly marked over the Antarctic region. This has
resulted in formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer, commonly
called as the ozone hole (Figure 16.8).
UV radiation of wavelengths shorter than UV-B, are almost completely
absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, given that the ozone layer is intact. But,
UV-B damages DNA and mutation may occur. It causes aging of skin,
damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers. In human eye,
cornea absorbs UV-B radiation, and a high dose of UV-B causes
inflammation of cornea, called snow-blindness cataract, etc. Such
exposure may permanently damage the cornea.
Recognising the deleterious affects of ozone depletion, an international
treaty, known as the Montreal Protocol, was signed at Montreal (Canada)
in 1987 (effective in 1989) to control the emission of ozone depleting
substances. Subsequently many more efforts have been made and
protocols have laid down definite roadmaps, separately for developed and
developing countries, for reducing the emission of CFCs and other ozone
depleting chemicals.
16.8 DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILISATION

AND MAINTENANCE
The degradation of natural resources can occur, not just by the action of
pollutants but also by improper resource utilisation practices.
Soil erosion and desertification: The development of the fertile top-soil
takes centuries. But, it can be removed very easily due to human activities
like over-cultivation, unrestricted grazing, deforestation and poor
irrigation practices, resulting in arid patches of land. When large barren
patches extend and meet over time, a desert is created. Internationally, it
has been recognised that desertification is a major problem nowadays,
particularly due to increased urbanisation.
Waterlogging and soil salinity: Irrigation without proper drainage of
water leads to waterlogging in the soil. Besides affecting the crops,
waterlogging draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt then is deposited
as a thin crust on the land surface or starts collecting at the roots of the
plants. This increased salt content is inimical to the growth of crops and
is extremely damaging to agriculture. Waterlogging and soil salinity are
some of the problems that have come in the wake of the Green Revolution.
283
16.9 DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones.
According to an estimate, almost 40 per cent forests have been lost in the
tropics, compared to only 1 per cent in the temperate region. The present
scenario of deforestation is particularly grim in India. At the beginning of
BIOLOGY
the twentieth century, forests covered about 30 per cent of the land of
India. By the end of the century, it shrunk to 19.4 per cent, whereas the
National Forest Policy (1988) of India has recommended 33 per cent forest
cover for the plains and 67 per cent for the hills.
How does deforestation occur? A number of human activities
contribute to it. One of the major reasons is the conversion of forest to
agricultural land so as to feed the growing human population. Trees are
axed for timber, firewood, cattle ranching and for several other purposes.
Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as Jhum cultivation in
the north-eastern states of India, has also contributed to deforestation.
In slash and burn agriculture, the farmers cut down the trees of the forest
and burn the plant remains. The ash is used as a fertiliser and the land is
then used for farming or cattle grazing. After cultivation, the area is left
for several years so as to allow its recovery. The farmers then move on to
other areas and repeat this process. In earlier days, when Jhum cultivation
was in prevalence, enough time-gap was given such that the land recovered
from the effect of cultivation. With increasing population, and repeated
cultivation, this recovery phase is done away with, resulting in
deforestation.
What are the consequences of deforestation? One of the major effects
is enhanced carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere because
trees that could hold a lot of carbon in their biomass are lost with
deforestation. Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to habitat
destruction, disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes soil erosion, and may lead
to desertification in extreme cases.
Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed
but was removed at some point of time in the past. Reforestation may
occur naturally in a deforested area. However, we can speed it up by
planting trees with due consideration to biodiversity that earlier existed
in that area.
16.9.1 Case Study of People’s Participation in
Conservation of Forests
People’s participation has a long history in India. In 1731, the king of
Jodhpur in Rajasthan asked one of his ministers to arrange wood for
constructing a new palace. The minister and workers went to a forest
near a village, inhabited by Bishnois, to cut down trees. The Bishnoi
community is known for its peaceful co-existence with nature. The effort
to cut down trees by the kings was thwarted by the Bishnois. A Bishnoi
284 woman Amrita Devi showed exemplary courage by hugging a tree and
daring king’s men to cut her first before cutting the tree. The tree mattered
much more to her than her own life. Sadly, the king’s men did not heed to
her pleas, and cut down the tree along with Amrita Devi. Her three
daughters and hundreds of other Bishnois followed her, and thus lost
their lives saving trees. Nowhere in history do we find a commitment of
this magnitude when human beings sacrificed their lives for the cause of
the environment. The Government of India has recently instituted the
Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award for individuals or
communities from rural areas that have shown extraordinary courage
and dedication in protecting wildlife.
You may have heard of the Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas.
In 1974, local women showed enormous bravery in protecting trees from
the axe of contractors by hugging them. People all over the world have
acclaimed the Chipko movement.
Realising the significance of participation by local communities,
the Government of India in 1980s has introduced the concept of
Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely with the local
communities for protecting and managing forests. In return for their
services to the forest, the communities get benefit of various forest products
(e.g., fruits, gum, rubber, medicine, etc.), and thus the forest can be
conserved in a sustainable manner.
SUMMARY
Major issues relating to environmental pollution and depletion of
valuable natural resources vary in dimension from local, regional to
global levels. Air pollution primarily results from burning of fossil fuel,
e.g., coal and petroleum, in industries and in automobiles. They are
harmful to humans, animals and plants, and therefore must be removed
to keep our air clean. Domestic sewage, the most common source of
pollution of water bodies, reduces dissolved oxygen but increases
biochemical oxygen demand of receiving water. Domestic sewage is rich
in nutrients, especially, nitrogen and phosphorus, which cause
eutrophication and nuisance algal blooms. Industrial waste waters are
often rich in toxic chemicals, especially heavy metals and organic
compounds. Industrial waste waters harm living organisms. Municipal
solid wastes also create problems and must be disposed of in landfills.
Disposal of hazardous wastes like defunct ships, radioactive wastes
and e-wastes requires additional efforts. Soil pollution primarily results
from agricultural chemicals (e.g., pesticides) and leachates from solid
wastes deposited over it.
Two major environmental issues of global nature are increasing
greenhouse effect, which is warming Earth, and depletion of ozone in
the stratosphere. Enhanced greenhouse effect is mainly due to
increased emission of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs., 285
and also due to deforestation. It may drastically change rainfall pattern,
global temperature, besides deleteriously affecting living organisms.
Ozone in the stratosphere, which protects us from harmful effects of
ultraviolet radiation, is depleting fast due to emission of CFCs thus
increasing the risks of skin cancer, mutation and other disorders.
BIOLOGY
EXERCISES
1. What are the various constituents of domestic sewage? Discuss the
effects of sewage discharge on a river.
2. List all the wastes that you generate, at home, school or during your
trips to other places, could you very easily reduce? Which would be
difficult or rather impossible to reduce?
3. Discuss the causes and effects of global warming. What measures need
to be taken to control global warming?
4. Match the items given in column A and B:
Column A Column B
(a) Catalytic converter (i) Particulate matter
(b) Electrostatic precipitator (ii) Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides
(c) Earmuffs (iii) High noise level
(d) Landfills (iv) Solid wastes
5. Write critical notes on the following:
(a) Eutrophication
(b) Biological magnification
(c)Groundwater depletion and ways for its replenishment
6. Why ozone hole forms over Antarctica? How will enhanced ultraviolet
radiation affect us?
7. Discuss the role of women and communities in protection and
conservation of forests.
8. What measures, as an individual, you would take to reduce
environmental pollution?
9. Discuss briefly the following:
(a) Radioactive wastes
(b) Defunct ships and e-wastes
(c) Municipal solid wastes
10. What initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air pollution in Delhi?
Has air quality improved in Delhi?
11. Discuss briefly the following :
(a) Greenhouse gases
(b) Catalytic converter
(c) Ultraviolet B
286

Environment NCERT Summary

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Environment NCERT Summary

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

8

You read in newspapers daily and watch on T.V. or

COLD WEATHER SEASON OR WINTER

HOT WEATHER SEASON OR SUMMER

SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON OR RAINY SEASON

SEASON OF RETREATING MONSOONS OR AUTUMN

INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 57

TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

58 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS

Figure 8.2 : Tropical Deciduous Forests

INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 59

Figure 8.4 : Mountain Vegetation

metres and 2500 metres most of the trees

60 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

Figure 8.6 : Uses of Forests

INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 61

Figure 8.7 : Wildlife

The tiger is our national animal. It is found in

62 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

?• Why do poachers kill tigers?

INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 63

1. Answer the following questions briefly.

64 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 65

After the long vacation, when Ravi started going to school

Living Things Industries Monuments

increasing day by day; we are therefore modifying and

Where does the water

Fig. 1.2: Domains of the Environment

The domain of water is referred to as hydrosphere. It

Fig. 1.3: A Pond Ecosystem

1. Answer the following questions.

The earth, our homeland is a dynamic planet. It is

You will be surprised to know that one type of rock

INSIDE OUR EARTH 9

1. Answer the following questions.

INSIDE OUR EARTH 11

There are three types

OUR CHANGING EARTH 13

Earthquake – A Case Study

Fig. 3.3a: Destruction

The Niagra falls

Fig. 3.4: Waterfall

As the river enters the plain it twists and turns forming

OUR CHANGING EARTH 15

1. Answer the following questions.

OUR CHANGING EARTH 17

Photograph Name of the Type

OUR CHANGING EARTH 19

Read and Ponder: Is global warming a serious issue in today’s world?

40 Mesosphere: This is the

are the permanent winds. P r e v a i l i n g We s t e r l i e s

period of the day or year in a

CYCLONE – NATURE’S FURY

1. Answer the following questions.

amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is sodium

Take 2 litres of water. Let it represent the total

Water is absolutely essential for survival. Water alone

Fig. 5.3: Pacific Ocean

Fig. 5.4: Waves

During a storm, the winds blowing at very high speed

TSUNAMI – THE EARTH’S PANDEMONIUM