PLOT

(The Most Dangerous Game)

...the series of events that comprise the whole story that is
told in a novel, play, movie, TV show, etc.

DIALOGUE
(Catch the Moon)
...the "lines" (words, facial expressions, body language)
"spoken" by characters in a drama or fiction intended to
convey intent, feeling, action or thought

CHARACTER
(The Secret Life of Walter Mitty)
...the "people" in a novel, play, movie, TV show, etc. that
exhibit characteristics (attributes and experiences that
determine or influence moral, ethical, intellectual and
emotional actions, reactions and thought processes)

AUDIENCE
(The Gift of the Magi)
...a gathering of spectators or listeners at a (usually public)
performance

STAGECRAFT
(To Build a Fire)
...the art and craft of establishing the physical environment
of a production

GENRE
(A Sound of Thunder)
...a kind of literary or artistic work that follows a particular
technique or includes certain characteristic forms
CONVENTION
(The Incident at Owl Creek Bridge)
...the set of practices or characteristics within a drama or
artistic work that are expected to be included in order to
establish the genre

THEME
(A Very Old Man with an Enormous Pair of Wings/Thank
You, Ma'am)
...the unifying idea that is reflected through recurrent
elements within a literary or artistic work

1. THE ELEMENTS OF RADIO The Elements of Radio by Rubén Bermejo is licensed under a Creative Commons
AttributionNonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
2. 2. THE ELEMENTS OF RADIO The main set of elements involved in the creation of a radio script are: 1. Human voice 2. Music 3.
Sound effects 4. Silence
3. 3. Human voice Voice is a crucial element in radio. It can provoke different reactions on the listener depending on its
characteristics.
4. 4. Human voice If we do not take care of our voice and the way we speak, we will not make it easy for the listener to understand
our message. Tips • Speak slowly. We are not in a hurry! • Move your mouth as much as you can while pronouncing words. • Do
not laugh! (if not on script) There are people listening to you.
5. 5. Music Music is very important. Its main aim is to generate the appropriate atmosphere so as to make language work on the
listener and with the desired objective.
6. 6. Music Music does not transmit ideas or concrete realities, instead it works on emotions. The listener would understand and feel
different emotions depending on the images and feelings generated by the music. It is one of the most meaningful elements of the
radio language.
7. 7. Music Music functions: • Grammatical: it joins different spaces and identifies different contents and sections of the programme. •
Descriptive: when the music is part of the narration. • As content: in musical programmes.
8. 8. Silence Silence is a very useful resource to put emphasis and atmosphere to the radio message. However, there is usually not
much place for silence in radio scripts. Silence can provide a message with tension, emotion and very deep feelings.
9. 9. Silence Silence functions: • Expressive: to represent emotional states. • Interactive: when doing interviews, the interviewer does
not speak to stimulate the thinking time. • Narrative: to represent a gap in time.
10. 10. Sound Effects Sound effects are sounds produced by a human voice or by other things (e.g. animals, objects) which are
neither words nor music. Noises and effects provoke the listener to imagine, thus they are very important in a radio message.
11. 11. Sound Effects Effects function: • Descriptive: effects are crucial in the process of building a sound landscape.
12. 12. THE ELEMENTS OF RADIO Human voice, music, sound effects and silence combine altogether and create sound
landscapes or sound images.
13. 13. Sound Landscapes Radio listeners create images in their minds with the help of these sound elements. A radio piece makes
your listeners imagine.

Elements of Radio Drama and how they informed the creation of my own.
Sound Effects:

The use of sound effects in our radio drama is vastly important. Without them, the drama and the atmosphere that we needed to make it work would
have been lacking a crucial element. Sound effects play a vital part when vision is not part of the media product. Without vision, it is easy to confuse
your audience if you don't include the right sound effects at the right time. I have learnt this through allowing people to listen to the drafts of my work,
and when they said they were confused, I knew that more information and more precise sound effects needed to be added

Voice:

Like sound effects, voice is the most obvious and key element of any radio drama. The importance of this elements made us aware that, if the quality
of the voice were poor then the drama would lose it's effect. This is why, when we wrote the script we tired to make it sound as natural as we could. As
are group are all good friends, we fed off our regular conversation styles to achieve this effect.

Music:

When we first did our radio piece, we included no music in whatsoever, except a song that was supposed to be playing from the radio. However, when
we handed our first draft in for a group of people to listen to and give feedback on, we realised that they were expecting a theme tune or introduction
tune of some kind. Because of this, we added a tune at the beginning to make it seem more like a real radio drama.
Silence:

The use of silence in radio dramas, especially ones with a genre of suspense/thriller is often found. In our radio drama, because they were a group of
young and lively girls, we needed no silence in the conversation between them, except for comedic effect. But when we needed suspense etc, we
found no use for silence, instead we used other elements in the sound effects group to create the suspense we needed.

Dramatic Form
Plays are not written in paragraphs like a novel or short story. Instead, they are written as lines of dialogue in the form of a script. You can
see in this example from August Wilson's Fences that the characters are told exactly what to say for the dialogue. Typically, these scripts
are broken down into one or more acts, or major divisions of the play. And each act is then subdivided into a scene, or smaller divisions
within the act. Usually a change in setting means there will be a change in either the act or the scene. In this case, this is Act I, Scene 2, and
the scene has shifted onto Rose.
Act I
Scene 2
The LIGHTS come up on ROSE hanging up clothes.
SHE hums and sings softly to herself.
It is the following morning.
ROSE. (Sings.)
Jesus, be a fence all around me every day
Jesus, I want you to protect me as I travel on my way.
Jesus, be a fence all around me every day.
(TROY enters from the house)
ROSE
Jesus, I want you to protect me
As I travel on my way.
(To TROY.) Morning. You ready for breakfast? I can fix it as soon as I finish hanging up these clothes?
TROY. I got the coffee on. That'll be all right. I'll just drink some of that this morning.

Setting and Staging

In addition to the dialogue, a script will also include stage directions. These notes, which are often in italics or parentheses, help the actors
interpret the scene for the audience. In this example, when Rose transitions from singing to speaking directly to Troy, the stage directions tell
her to whom she is talking. The audience will only see her turn and direct her comment to Troy.
ACT I
Scene 1
The setting is the yard which fronts the only entrance to the MAXSON household, an ancient two story brick house set back off a small alley
in a big-city neighborhood. The entrance to the house is gained by two or three steps leading to a wooden porch badly in need of paint. A
relatively recent addition to the house and running its full width, the porch lacks congruence. It is a sturdy porch with a flat room. One or two
chairs of dubious value sit at one end where the kitchen window opens on to the porch. An old-fashioned icebox stands silent guard at the
opposite end.
Unlike a novel, which may devote several paragraphs to describing the setting, the play is limited to what the audience can see on stage. It is
important that the playwright give some indication to setting, especially if the actors will use the items on stage. In some cases, the stage
directions provide information on what the stage should look like. Other times, they tell the actors where or how to move, or what facial
expressions or tone of voice is appropriate when speaking a line.
In this except from Fences, the director and actors can visualize how the stage should appear to the audience. And while they will not have
an actual house on a stage, they will have the window and entrances in corresponding places so that the audience can visualize the scene
as well.
Characters and Actors
Before the dialogue in a script, the playwright will often include a cast of characters. Typically, each character, both major and minor, is listed
alongside a brief description of the character's role in the story. In this example, you can see that Troy is the main character, and each
character is described in relation to him.
Characters
TROY MAXSON
JIM BONO, Troy's friend
ROSE, Troy's wife
LYONS, Troy's oldest son by previous marriage
GABRIEL, Troy's brother
CORY, Troy and Rose's son
RAYNELL, Troy's daughter
This list is usually given to audience members on a printed playbill, or program, as they enter the theatre, so that they may identify the major
characters and the actors who will play them. Of course, the biggest difference between characters in prose and characters in drama is that
live people, or actors, are representing the characters in drama. The actors are chosen based on both their physical and verbal ability to
interpret the character. Sometimes it's important that an actor have certain physical characteristics, such as red hair or stocky nature,
because it is an important aspect of the play.

Plot
The plot structure of the play doesn't really differ from that in prose. There is an exposition, a rising action, a climax, falling action and the
resolution.
In the play Fences, the exposition explains that Troy Maxson is a garbage man who loves his family, in spite of the fact he is cheating on his
wife, Rose. The main conflict comes when Troy's son, Cory, wants to go to college on a football scholarship, but Troy doesn't want him to go
because he's afraid he'll be discriminated against like he had been when he played baseball. In the rising action, Troy goes to Cory's coach
and tells him that Cory can't play football anymore. Cory accuses Troy of being jealous. Troy's affair with Alberta comes out when she
becomes pregnant.
Alberta dies during childbirth, and Rose agrees to raise the child, but is no longer attached to Troy. The climax is when Troy and Cory fight.
Troy kicks Cory out of the house. During the falling action, several years later, Troy is dead and Cory doesn't want to go to his funeral, a
decision his mother does not agree with. But the resolution comes when Cory and Raynell sing a song together, one that Troy used to sing.
As they sing in honor of Troy, the audience knows that Cory can forgive his father.
The conflict occurs before the rising action begins, and the conflict is the problem that must be solved. Sometimes the conflict is between two
characters, like Troy and Cory, and plays out on stage with dialogue and actions. Other times, it's an internal conflict between the character
and his or her o

THE ELEMENTS OF DRAMA A toolbox for diagnosing problems with performance The elements of drama
provide a useful checklist for students and teachers working on student performance. As the elements
are the building blocks of a performance, teachers will find it invaluable to focus on each of them when
diagnosing problems with a performance. When students become skilled and confident with the use of
the elements of drama, the facilitator has a ready reference point to work from. As students continue
working with the elements, they will begin to refer to them in their reflection and the development of
their own performance work. In a successful performance the focus will be clear, tension will be
thoughtfully manipulated and managed. This will contribute to the successful creation of an appropriate
atmosphere or mood. Actors, props and sets will be organised in the space in a way that is aesthetically
appropriate and creates meaning. Roles will be sustained in a convincing and appropriate way. Devices
like contrast and symbol are also central to the development of a performance. The following exercises
may assist students to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their piece by using and understanding
the elements of drama in an active way. By using the elements, students can develop the skills needed
in a successful performance. FOCUS “The frame that directs attention to what is most significant and
intensifies the dramatic meaning”. A strong performance piece will have a clear intent which influences
the performers’ motivation and channels the attention of the audience. In other words the piece has a
clear focus which determines the focus of the character and actor and directs the focus of the audience.
There are 4 closely related areas of focus: 1. the focus of the scene 2. the focus of the audience 3. the
focus of the character 4. the focus of the actor. To simply demonstrate the concept of focus and tension,
the class observes three mini-performances, then discusses and compares them. (a) Two people walking
around the acting space. (b) Two people searching in the acting space for a pen. (c) Two people
searching for a bomb in the acting space, time limit 20 seconds, defuse by count of 4. The second
performance has a focus; the third has heightened tension. Activities to develop the focus of the
actor/student (a) The whole group move in the working space. An object thrown onto the floor
alternatively repels then attracts them, providing a whole-group focus. (b) The whole group point to a
corner above their heads and move towards it purposefully. Repeat, focusing attention without finger
point. Walk away from the corner with the focus remaining behind them. Extract from Curriculum
Support for teaching in Creative Arts 7-12 Vol 5 No 1 2000 2 (c) “Nectar of the gods” or “dungeons”. This
creeping up game may be played as a tribe retrieving the nectar of life or prisoners escaping the
dungeon. One person stands at one end of the room with the “key” or the “nectar” on the floor at feet.
When he or she turns his or her back the rest of the group creep up to get the “key” or “nectar”. Anyone
seen moving must return to the start. The group use tactics to pass the object back to the start which
sets them free or empowers the tribe. Variations of this sort of game requiring a freeze help to develop
focus. (d) Group counting 1-21. Anyone may call out a number at any time in an attempt to reach 21
without an overlap of voices. (e) Group clap. The aim is to clap as a group simultaneously without a
signal. Anyone may initiate the move. (f) “Edelweiss clap.” Group stand in a circle with right hand facing
up at right side and left hand facing down at left side. A clap is passed around the circle from hand to
hand. (g) “Ray gun”. An initial ray gunner is nominated. When the person touches another, he/she is hit
by the ray gun. The ray gunner points to a person and moves to touch. The victim must call someone
else’s name before being touched to save his/her life. The named person becomes the new ray gunner.
TENSION “The force that engages the performers and audience in the dramatic action”. Every
performance contains the element of tension. In the first activity on focus, where actors wandered in
the space, the tension was very low. The second performance, searching for a pen, raised the tension
slightly and the third, searching for a bomb, heightened the tension. To demonstrate and define tension:
(a) String tension Two people play a scene. A string is stretched across the front of the space. When it is
tight they play the scene with high tension; when it is loose they play with low tension. e.g. a doctor
presents results of test student in principal’s office opening a birthday present grocery shopping with
kids. (b) Jewel thief and security guard (introduces concept of dramatic tension) Group form protective
circle around two blindfolded performers. One is a thief searching for jewels; the other is the security
guard attempting to capture him. SPACE “The personal and general space used by the actors. It focuses
on the meaning of the size and shape of distances between actor and actor, actor and objects (props
and sets) and actor and audience.” To demonstrate and define the element: (a) Build some statues of
frozen moments e.g. “Don’t speak to your mother like that!” Discuss: “What is the focus of this scene?”,
“How do we know?” Remove facial expression and gestures. (b) Discuss: “How does the space between
the people and the objects on the stage convey meaning?” Demonstrate the power of the space to carry
meaning by moving people around without altering their gestures or expression. In small groups build a
statue which indicates status and relationships through the use of “space”, e.g. a family, a court, a gang,
an argument, a peace treaty. Extract from Curriculum Support for teaching in Creative Arts 7-12 Vol 5 No
1 2000 3 MOOD “The atmosphere created. Mood concentrates the dramatic action and moves the
audience in emotionally appropriate directions.” To demonstrate and define mood: (a) Form small
groups. Listen to an allocated piece of music. Select some scarves from the props box which reflect the
mood, atmosphere or feelings created by the music. (b) Develop 3 freeze frame statues which capture
this mood. Find a way to move from one freeze frame to the next, using the scarves to emphasise the
mood. Punctuate the movement by occasionally calling out a word which reflects the mood that you are
working on. CONTRAST “The use of difference to create dramatic meaning.” Contrast is an effective
means to emphasise, heighten or intensify. Contrasting colours stand out on the stage. Contrasting sizes,
shapes and sounds draw attention. To demonstrate and define contrast: (a) From the previous exercise
select two pieces of music which you feel offer a useful contrast, to create either a serious or humorous
effect. Mime a scene which illustrates this contrast. (b) Explore the effect of improvising with characters
who have contrasting characteristics e.g. fat/thin, loud/ soft, rough/gentle, tall/short, fast/slow,
wise/silly. The contrast exaggerates the feature, throwing emphasis on it. SYMBOL “The use of objects,
gestures or persons to represent meaning beyond the literal.” Every culture has developed an elaborate
series of signals where objects are endowed with meaning. It is possible to signal complex ideas through
commonly recognised symbols. To demonstrate and define symbols: Work in pairs. Select an object
from a collection of symbols; develop a brief scene which relies on the symbolic strength of the object to
convey meaning, e.g. rose, heart, flag, treasure chest, suitcase, lipstick on collar, walking stick, pipe,
dove, teddy bear, cross, stethoscope, heart, skull, peace sign, ring, broken doll, sunset, infinity.
Gestures: handshake, salute, turned back. ROLE Taking on a role requires performers to accept the
physicality, attitudes and beliefs of the characters they are playing. Laban movement exercises provide
an excellent springboard for developing the physicality of character. A range of exercises to develop skill
in other aspects of role may be found in Dramawise by Haseman and O’Toole. As students become
familiar with each of these elements and devices, they are better able to identify for themselves the
areas of their work which need attention. It is often helpful to step away from the performance briefly
and revisit key elements in order to see the work afresh. Teachers can use the elements as a checklist as
they observe and provide students with meaningful feedback on their performance work.