FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR A SILICON INDUSTRY

IN SOUTHLAND, NEW ZEALAND

By
J. M. HOPE,1 JUNIOR MEMBER, D. S. NICHOLSON,1 MEMBER,
and T. MARSHALL,1 MEMBER

ABSTRACT Marubeni-lida Company of Japan established the

Reserves of high-grade quartz gravel, lignite, and tiffioo
be.r suitable for the production of silicon metal and
ferrosilicon on large scale occur within 40 miles of Bluff
Harbour. Undeveloped hydroelectric power resources on
the Clutha River are located within 50 miles of the most
promising quartz gravel deposits while opencastable lig-
nite, potentially suitable for electric power production,
occurs in the same locality as the quartz gravels. A pre-
liminary study of production economics indicates that
the commercial feasibility of silicon/ferrosilicon produc-
tion would depend mainly on the cost of electric power,
total capital cost of plant, and the market value of the
products. The proximity of Bluff Harbour is advantageous
for the export of products.
INTRODUCTION
In 1963 the Mineral Resources Committee ap-
pointed by the New Zealand Government (DSIR
1963) recommended that a search be made for
sources of silica suitable for the production of ferro-
silicon.
Initially, the search for sources of silica was con-
fined to solid quartzite rock deposits. In 1967, when
Chemistry Division officers sampled and colour-
sorted quartz gravels from the north shore of Awa-
rua Bay near Bluff, consideration was also given to
quartz gravels as a possible raw material. Subsequent
work by Chemistry Division officers in collaboration
with Allied Concrete Ltd. of Southland and the
1 Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
Original manuscript received at The Institute 8th December
1970. This paper was presented at the Annual Conference of The
Institute held in New Zealand, 1st-8th March 1971.
occurrence, within 40 miles of Bluff Harbour, of
many millions of tons of quartz gravels which could
be upgraded by washing and screening to ferrosilicon
quality. Colour sorting may be necessary to upgrade
the gravel for the higher grades of silicon metal.
Several grades of ferrosilicon and silicon metal are
marketed, and are produced in submerged arc electric
furnaces of 5,000 to 50,000 kVA capacity by smelt-
ing various grades of quartz with reductants such as
coke, char, charcoal, coal, or wood chips, together
with scrap steel in the case of ferrosilicon. "
Production of the various grades of ferrosilicon
and silicon metal uses from 2,000 to 15,000 kWh/ton
of product, hence large resources of industrial electric
power are required.
Table 1 (ASTM, 1968) gives specifications for
grades of ferrosilicon marketed. Table 2 (Morning,
1965) gives specifications for five standard grades
of silicon metal.
RAW MATERIALS FOR SILICON
'FERROALLOY PRODUCTION
Lump silica
For quartz used in ferrosilicon manufacture, Elyu-
tin et al. (1957) indicate a minimum silica content
of 96·0 per cent with the lowest possible levels of
Al2 0 g, MgO, CaO, P;05' and a minimum particle
size of t in. diameter. Usually the Al2 0 g content is
required to be less than 2 per cent, and the P 2 0 5
content less than 0·1 per cent. Quartz for silicon
production is stated by Elyutin et al. to require a

TABLE 1
Specifications for standard grades offerrosilicon
Grade A GradeB Grade C GradeD Grade E Grade F
Silicon, % 92-95 83-88 74-79 65-70 47-51 20-24
Carbon, max % 0·10 0·15 0·10 0·10 0·10 0·50
Sulphur, max % 0·025 0·025 0·025 0·025 0·025 0·025
Phosphorus,max % 0·025 0'030 0·035 0·035 0'040 0·10
Aluminium, max % 2·00 1·75 1·50 1·25 1·25 1·00
Manganese, max % 0'25 0'35 0·40 0·50 0·75 1'00
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971 83
84 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL

TABLE 2 percentage of impurities permitted in the mixture

Grades ofsilicon of metallurgical quality of reducing agents being governed by the quality of
the lump silica and scrap steel.
Si, % Fe, % Ca, % Al, % The reducing agents for smelting ferrosilicon
Grade minimum maximum maximum maximum should have the lowest possible ash content, since ash
introduces compounds such as alumina and calcium
Maximum oxide which promote the formation of slag. The
0'35% Fe 98·40 0·35 0·07 - phosphorus and arsenic contents of the ash should
Maximum
1-00% Fe 98·00 1'00 0·07 - also be as low as possible because they contaminate
Low the alloy or metal.
calcium 98·00 1·00 0·03 - The sulphur content of the reducing agent is not
High
calcium 97·50 1·00 0·40 - critical, most being removed during smelting in
Low the form of volatile sulphur-silicon compounds such
aluminium 97·50 1·00 0·03 0·10 as silicon monosulphide.
For the production of metallurgical-grade silicon
metal the reducing agents should have low percen-
minimum silica content of 98·0 per cent, with lowest tages of iron oxides in addition to meeting the re-
possible levels of AlzOg, MgO, CaO, PZ0 5, FezOg, quirements for ferrosilicon.
and a minimum particle size of 1 in. diameter. The Electrode penetration, current. density distribu-
maximum FezOg content permitted is usually 0·7 per tion, and the location, configuration, and average
cent, and in America a maximum permissible CaO temperature of the smelting zone are governed by
level about 0-4 per cent may also be applied. For the relationship between charge resistance and its
silicon used to alloy aluminium the AlzOg content of variation with temperature and contact pressure at
the quartz is not critical. different locations in the furnace crucible. High
Because of difficulties encountered in furnace fiXed-carbon reducing agents such as petroleum
operation it is essential also that the silica used cokes, bituminous cokes, charred lignite, and wood
should not decrepitate on heating to 950°C, and the charcoal become reactive near the top of the smelt-
softening point should be at least 1,700°C to avoid ing zone. High-volatile materials such as coal be-
premature fusion in the upper layers of the charge come active at deeper levels after the volatiles have
above the smelting zone (Hooper, 1965). , been driven off., Woodchips or other suitable forms
of wood waste are used to control the porosity of the
Reducing agents charge. In practice it has been found that a combina-
Carbonaceous reducing agents serve several pur- tion of wood chips with deep, intermediate, and
poses in the submerged arc smelting' furnace (Fair- shallow reacting reducers gives maximum production
child, 1970). They act rates commensurate with satisfactory impurity con-
trol (Fairchild, 1970).
1. as the principal conductor of electric current
through the charge,
2. to provide a source of active carbon for the re- High fixed-carbon reducing agents
duction reaction, High fixed-carbon reducing agents include wood
3. to provide a strong, porous, contacting bed charcoal, petroleum coke, pitch coke, bituminous
which will enhance the 'rate and completeness coke, sub-bituminous char, and lignite char. Analyses
of the desired reactions, and of some typical high fixed-carbon reducing agents are
given in Table 3 compiled from Fairchild (1970)
4. to provide permeability for the emission of
and Thomas (1961).
gaseous products.
The ash contents and electrical resistivities of wood
Slag in the furnace tends to form viscous sheets charcoals and petroleum coke products are usually
resulting in impeded emission of gases and a marked very low, and these materials are used for smelting
decrease in chemical reactivity, and because of this metallic silicon. By-product bituminous cokes are
the operation is kept as dry as possible. As a result, also used for smelting silicon metal but the per-
most of the impurities in each of the raw materials centage permitted in the mix of reducing agents is
(lump silica, reducing agents, and scrap steel) enter governed by their ash content. Chars made from sub-
the smelted product. They also tend to depress the bituminous coals and lignites. could also be used in
meltfng p-oint of the charge b-elow the' theoretical limite-d proportions. TIre cokes arret chars-should 'have
minimum reducing temperature, with the preferential low fines contents, and Hooper (1965) recommends
formation of slag. For these reasons all raw ma- a size range of 1'6 in. to tin.
terials should be as pure as possible, the maximum By~product bituminous cokes are widely used in

Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971

 FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SILICON INDUSTRY IN NEW ZEALAND
TABLE 3
Analyses of some typical high fixed-carbon reductants
Apparent
Reducing agent Density
glc.c.
Calcined 0·4 99·3 Not
petroleum coke available
Raw 12·5 86·9 Not
Petroleum coke available
Petroleum coke 18'5 8101 1-8
briquette
By-product coke 0·9 86·6 0'75-101
Beech charcoal 15 83·4 0·3-0·6
the smelting of ferrosilicon since the level of im-
purities is less critical.
Medium- and high-volatile reducing agents
Medium- and high-volatile reducing agents include
bituminous coal, sub-bituminous coal, lignite, and
wood waste. Bituminous coal is widely used in the
production of various grades of ferrosilicon, and in
limited percentages for smelting silicon metal. Some
plants use blends of low-, medium-, and high-vola-
tile coals (Fairchild 1970). The fines contents
of the coals should be as low as possible.
Wood chips are widely used in the smelting of
both the alloy and the metal as a low-level reducing
agent and also to control the porosity of the charge.
Iron nnits
In ferrosilicon production iron is usually intro-
duced in the form of steel scrap (Elyutin et al.,
1957) which prevents compacting of the charge and
allows free emission of gases. Scrap from special
steels and dirty scrap should be avoided, particularly
chrome steels which should not exceed a chromium
content of 0·7 per cent. The scrap should be in short
lengths of not more than .4 in. Use of cast iron scrap
should be avoided because of the harmful effects of
contained phosphorus. If sufficient scrap steel is not
available it can be replaced by a high-grade iron ore,
as an emergency measure.
Raw material logistics
Ideally, all raw materials required should be lo-
cated close together and close to electric power
sources to provide low assembly costs at a smelting
plant located within economic transmission range for
electric power. Also, when most of the products are
to be exported, an overseas shipping port is required
close to the plant to minimize product transport
costs.
Electric power
The two products most likely to be of interest in
New Zealand are 75 per cent ferrosilicon, which has
the largest world market, and silicon metal. Power
consumption for the production of 75 per cent
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
85
ferrosilicon is quoted by Elyutin et al. (1957)
as varying between 8,000 and 9,000 kWh/ton and
Fairchild (1970) gives power consumption for
production of silicon metal in America as varying
between 13,000 and 15,000 kWh/ton. The necessity
for a relatively cheap source of electric power for
these products to sell on world markets is obvious.
RAW MATERIALS SURVEY
Lump silica
Bearing in mind the logistic requirements enu-
merated above, a reconnaissance survey was under-
taken in the latter part of January, 1970, by officers
of Geological Survey and Chemistry Division, to
assess quartz gravel and lignite deposits in South-
land and Otago. In calculating reserves of quartz
gravels the areas of the deposits Were measured by
planimeter and the maximum and minimum tonnages
calculated by estimating maximum and minimum
depths or thicknesses of each deposit, assuming 1
cu. yd. of gravel to weigh 1· 5 tons. Results are
given in Table 4 and Fig. 1.
The data in Table 4 indicate the following fea-
tures.
1. Quartz deposits near Dunedin are too small,
too impure, or of too fine a particle size to
be attractive sources for silicon ferroalloy pro-
duction.
2. Deposits in Central Otago, while attractively
high in silica and low in alumina, are unattrac-
tively remote from ports.
3. The quartz gravels of Southland lying be-
tween Waimumu and Awarua Bay are, from
their proximity to large reserves of coal and to
the port of Bluff, very suitably located for
the export production of silicon ferroalloys.
Most of these deposits contain a reasonable
proportion of gravel of size and purity suitable
for ferrosilicon production. Their contents of
other impurities not shown in Table 4 were
typically 0·08 per cent Fe20g, 0·01 per cent
MgO, and 0·01 per cent P 20 5 • Firing tests on
the plus t in. gravel also showed thermal be-
haviour suitable for silicon ferroalloy produc-
tion, with no significant decrepitation at 950·C.
.The limited amount of plus 1 in. material in these
deposits is an unsatisfactory feature for silicon metal
production. Deposits of quartzite rock in the dis-
trict are therefore being studied as an additional
source of plus 1 in. quartz. The purity of quartz
gravel, as sampled, in these deposits is also marginal
for production of the highest grades of silicon
metal. Hence hand colour sorting, to simulate mech-
anized electronic colour sorting, was conducted on
the plus t in. fractions of five washed Southland
samples, with results as shown in Table 5.
86 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL

TABLE 4
Results of reconnaissance survey of quartz gravels of Southland and Otago
Reserves I Chemical Analysis·
Size analysis
Sample Percentage retained on + tin. - tin. + tin.
Sheet and Grid Thickness Overburden Minimum Maximum fraction fraction Remarks
Referencet sampled thickness Tonnage Tonnage
x 10 6 x 106 2 in. 1 in. tin. *in. tin. Pan Si02I AI20 3 Si0 2 Ah03
% % % .%
Boulder Hill
---- - - -- Too fine.
S163/042814 20 ft. Up to 400ft. See remarks - - 0·9 5-9 18·5 74'7 unwarranted Insufficient
reserves
Brighton
---- - -- - Impure.
S163/004634 7 ft. Up to 10ft. See remarks - 0·6 2·6 16'0 33-3,47'5 unwarranted Insufficient
reserves
Viewbank Mine
S171-600395
100 ft.
10ft. Grab
6 ft.
10ess
- - Sample too fine to warrant consideration -
McCorkindales
SI71/5943.l3
7 ft. 4 ft.
loess
- - Sample too impure and too fine to warrant consideration -
Kaitangata
SI79/613210
120 ft.
10ft. Grab
6 ft.
10ess
- Very
large - 1-4 5'0 11-6 15'4 66'0 90'1 4·6 - -
Too impure in
spite ofim-
mense reserves
- - - - -- - - - -- - ---
Waimumu
. SI69/716372
7 ft. 2 ft. loess 170 >200 3-2 12·4 24·3 20·3 11'5 28·3 97·9 0·44 96·4 0·41 -
2 ft. sand
-2·1- -18·6- -- - - -- - - - - -
Hedgehope
SI69/572302
8 ft. 1 ft.-4 ft.
loess
140 160 - 27·9 18'8 32·6 98'7 0·51 - - -
Summit Pebbly
-- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -
Hill 7 ft. 1-2 ft. 1500 5000 - 5'8 2301 25·3 16·3 29·5 96·3 0·47 93·7 0·42 -
SI77/561245 loess
- - - - -- - - -- - - --- - - - - - - - - - -
East of Pebbly
Hill
SI77/607217
5 ft. 5 ft. loess
and clay
25 50 - 7-3 29·9 23-6 12'0 27·2 95·6 0·45 96·3
I
0·45 -
MabelBush 6 ft. 1-2 ft. -
-- - -- - - - -- - - -----
3·5 17-8 31'7 21-1 25·9 91'9 0·63 97·0 0·47 -
SI77/553193 10ess
--
- -- -- - - - - -- ----- -
Grove Bush
SI77/448167
6 ft. 4 ft.
10ess
800 1100 2·1 25·5 30'7 17·1 24·6 98·8 0·41 - -
Mabel Bush 7· ft. 1-6 ft.
--
-
-- -- - - - - -- -------
7-6 28·6 26'0 12·5 25·3 94·7 0·44 97·0 0·36 -
SI77/488213 10ess
- - - - - - -- - - -- ---
Woodend 6 ft. 1 ft.
peat
100 200 - 6·8 18'7 19·6 12·5 42·4 92·4 2'70 93·6 2·90 -
S182/393932
- - - - - - -- - - - - - - -
Awarua Bay 6 ft. 3-6 ft.
peat
85 170 - 10'2 25·4 29·8 15·5 19'1 90·2 HO 91-8 2·40 -
S182/405835
- - - - -- --
2 ft. soil Too fine.
Pierces Creek
SI26/673928
6 ft. 6 ft. white
clay
See remarks - - 1'0 18·0 30·8 50·2 unwarranted Insufficient
reserves.
- - - - - - --
St. Bathans
S125/536933
6ft. 0-100 ft. 1 2 - - 14'3 23·8 17'0 44·9 99·5 0·20 99'31 0'13 -
20 ft.
Hyde
SI45/926420
at 5 ft.
intervals
10ft. 6 16 -
--
6·9
-- - - - -
14·4 17·0 61'7 98·6 0·19
-=-1 - -
Kokonga 7 ft. 4 ft.
10ess
See remarks - - 0·2 6·9 28·8 64'1 unwarranted Too fine.
S135/971536
-- -- - - - - WiIiiams
(1965) gives
Mt. Buster
S126/928873
7 ft. - 30 40 - 5·0 21-8 21-6 16·4 35'2 98·6 0·48 - - 0'22%A1 2 0 3
in + ,iin.
material.
- - - - - - - - - - -- --- --
Maerewhenua
SI36/170792
7 ft. 1-2 ft.
loess
10 100 - - 14'0 27'0 21'2 37·8 99'1 0·28 - - Relatively,low
% + tin.
- - -8'3- -24-9- -- - - -- --- --
Ngapara
S127/355842
7 ft. 1-4 ft.
loess
25 75 - - 22·1 44'7 91'7 0·27 97-6 0'21 Relatively low
% + tin.
Shag P~int Mine 6 ft. - <1 <1 -
-- - - - - - - -- ----- - -
- 7·4 15'7 18·0 58·9 91'4 1'2 - - Relatively low
S136/420202 % + tin.
• Analyses of samples screened but not washed.
t New Zealand National I-mile map series.

Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971'

 FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SILICON INDUSTRY IN NEW ZEALAND
_.~.~
_>_or.N
1!-
I)
CHJIII'TCHVIlt:H
thMI41N
INYCMt::AltillL/.
FIG. I-Location of quartz gravel deposits.
Examination of this table shows that the two most
favourable localities indicated by the sampling pro-
gramme are Waimumu where 28·3 per cent of the
original sample meets silicon metal grade, with 39·9
per cent of ferrosilicon grade; Pebbly Hill (607217)
with 37·2 per cent of ferrosilicon grade and 31·4 per
cent with the purity required for production of sili-
con. Ultrasonic washing of these two materials shows
no improvement on ordinary water washing. Treat-
ment of two finely ground samples, one with concen-
trated H 2 S0 4 , the other with 85 per cent H sP0 4 , took
the alumina into solution, indicating the presence
of feldspar mineral. The Al 20 s contents of these two
samples were reduced from 0·20 and 0·25 per cent
to 0·01 per cent in both cases. This indicates that
residual Al 20 s in the washed and colour sorted
gravels is probably present as feldspar inclusions and
cannot be removed by simple washing.
The quartz gravels of Otago and Southland have
been known for many years to be auriferous (Mac-
Pherson, 1933, 1936).
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
87
$ca/(/
Examination of the minus t in. fraction showed
that the fine gravels are suitable for use in concrete
and exposed aggregates, and that the sands could be
used for foundry moulding purposes, and possibly
for the manufacture of glass. Ultra-violet scanning of
the minus 25 mesh B.S.S. fraction showed the pres-
ence in most samples of trace amounts of zircon and
scheelite. At present the main use of the gravels is for
road metal.
Reducing agents
Coal, coke, and char
Reserves of coal in Southland and Otago are
shown in Table 6, together with the range of proxi-
mate analyses for coals from each coalfield. Locali-
ties are shown in Fig. 2. Typical ash analyses for
the coals are given in Table 7.
Data on reserves of coal in the various coalfields
were either adopted from published information, in
which case the reference is quoted in Table 6, or were
calculated by the writers. The latter, based on a
88 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL

TABLE 5
Colour sorting 0/ seiected washed Southland samples
Colour sorted Rejected material
Sample and +!
in. material Colour sorted material material
map reference expressed as percentage as percentage
of original sample of original material Si0 2 Al 2 0 3 Si0 2 Ab 0 3
% % % %
Waimumu
SI69/716372 39·9 28·3 99·7 0·15 99·0 0·32
Summit Pebbly Hill
SI77/561245 28'9 16·6 99·5 0·12 99·4 0·51
Pebbly Hill
SI77/6072l7 37·2 31·4 99-4 0·19 99·0 0·37
Awarua Bay
SI82/405385 35·6 23·7 96·7 1·30 84·5 6·9
Mabel Bush
S177/553193 21·3 IN 99·3 0·24 98·9 0·58

TABLE 6
Coals 0/ Southland and Otago
Range of proximate analyses (air dried)
Calorific Reserves recoverable coal
tons x 106
I
Coalfield Coal rank Volatile Fixed value Reserve
Moisture matter carbon Ash Sulphur B.T.V./lb Reference
% % % % % i
Measured Indicated Inferred ,
-20-40
- - -4-17-
North Otago
Green Island
Nevis Valley
Lignite
Lignite
Lignite
20-34
14-33
18-24
30-43
31-42
35-40
31-44
30-36
2-9
4-23
0·3-4·9
2-l-H
6800-9100
7900-9100
0'25
0'25
I - -
2'00
3'00
Mines Statement, 1964
Mines Statement, 1964
0'S-O'8 7500-10060 - 5·00 100+ WiJliams, 1965
Cromwell
Manuherikia
Lignite
Lignite
22-26
22-34
39-44
36-48
24-33
15-28
5-9
6--10
0'3-1-4
0·2-0·9
7700-8700
6800-8200
no estimates available
no estimates 10+
-
This paper
Roxburgh Lignite 17-25 41-54 19-29 4-ll 0,2-1,3 8200-10100 - I 0·5 3'00 Harrington, 1949
Ida Valley Lignite 21-34 34-44 23-36 1-7 0·1-0·6 8000-8500 no estimates 10+ This paper
Maniototo Lignite 18-24 26-45 28-36 6--13 0·3-6·7 not available no estimates 1+ This paper
Pomahaka
Kaitangata
Lignite
Brown
14-16
22-35
42-50
32-36
31-33
30-35
3-ll
3-8
0·3-1·5
0·2-4'0
not available
7500-9000
-
1·30
-
7'185
60'00
42'20
Wilson, 1950
Harrington, 1958
lignite
Kaitangata Black
lignite 19-26 35-40 32-40 3-8 1'0-5'0 8600-9700 3'00 13·29 32-88 Harrington, 1958
Kaitangata sub-
bituminous 16--21 33-39 3S-41 4-7 0'1-2,4 9000-10400 1·92 0·50 0·50 Harrington, 1958
Mataura
Valley Lignite 19-38 33-43 25-35 3-7 O'I-H 6800-9000 1·70 35-678 1,181.70 This paper
Ohai sub-
bituminous 14-19 33-38 40-47 3-8 0,2-1,2 9000-11200 7-70 8·90 90·00 Bowen, 1964
Orepuki sub-
bituminous 23-25 33-34 37-38 3-5 1,2-5,0 8700-9000 - 0·04 1·00 Wood,1969

TABLE 7
Ash analyses 0/ coals from Southland and Otago
Type Ash, % of Ash analysis (%)
Coalfield Mine Mine
No. of air-dried
sample coal Si0 2 Ti0 2 3 AI 0 Fe203 MnO MgO CaO Na20 K 0 P O.
Nevis Ritchies
- - 2- - - - - - - - -2 - - -
2
-
Valley Pit -
Face 6·0 - - - - - - - - 0·6 0·55
Cromwell Shepherds S133 Face 7-1 27-1 0·90 20'82 7-35 0·10 4·41 23·29 0·26
Creek M5 0·22 0·69
Coal SI52
Roxburgh Creek M3 - 4·2 25-16 0·93 22·70 8·22 0·14 8·44 27-81 Trace Trace 0·81
Kaitangata KaitangataSI79 ROM* 5·5 35·2 1·74 16·37 6·73 0·04 3·00 23·77 0·12
No. 2 M38 4'47 0·34
Mataura Waimumu SI69 Face 7·0 23·5
Valley M9 0'55 10·8 15·0 0·26 H 21·3 1·0 1·0 0·14
Ohai Linton SI68 ROM 3-7 35'56 0·89 16·13 9·85 0·05 3·01 19·65 4·22 0·24
M54 O'll
Ohai
Ohai Screens -ROM 3·50 25'2 0·54 ll'7 15·9 0·18 4·4 23·6 6·1 0'16 0·14
Mataura Diamond SI82 Face 5·4 23-3 0·21 3·9
Valley Lignite M5 24·7 0·40 7-8 22·0 0·56 0·08 0·14
Mataura N.Z.Paper SI78 Face
Valley Mills M23 4·9 9'1 0'11 3-4 15-1 0·32 4·7 46·8 0·28 0·06 0·08

• ROM = run-of-mine sample

Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
 FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SILICON INDUSTRY IN NEW ZEALAND 89

t "tlvil Va//",Y
Cca/!i~/"

,
I
r;q
A~//'t'/d
11

SCALI£;
20 /5 I(J 5 (J ;l() ...,oM/ltts
E3 E3 I I

FIG. 2-Locatioll of coal deposits,

density equivalent to 1,000 tons of coal in the
ground per acre-foot, are calculated as follows.
Measured coal
Measured quantities represent
1. coal standing in pillars in existing under-
ground mines, or stripped awaiting extraction
in opencast pits,
2. coal in an area defined by drillholes and! or
outcrops situated not more than 5 ch apart,
and
3. coal in a strip 2t ch wide beyond existing
workings, drillholes, or outcrops.
Indicated coal
Indicated reserves represent coal in areas defined
by drillholes, well exposed outcrops, past or present
mine workings, spaced from 5 ch to 1t miles depend-
ing on field evidence as to the coal thicknesses, thin-
Proc. Aust, lnst, Min. Met. No, 240, Dec. 1971
ning rates, splitting of seams, and the geological
structure of the area. The maximum spacing per-
mitted thus varies from coalfield to coalfield and
from one part of a coalfield to another.
Inferred coal
Inferred reserves represent possible coal deposits
in areas of coal measures for which little informa-
tion is available. They are based mainly on an as-
sumed repetition of deposits known to exist in
other parts of the coalfield. For instance, in the
northern portion of the Mataura Valley Coalfield
individual seams are known to persist for 3 to 4
miles along the strike (Wood, 1956) and similar
repetitions have been assumed elsewhere. The in-
formation used in assessing the reserves in the
Mataura Coalfield also included 25 boreholes drilled
in 1948 in the area north of Dacre and several bore-
holes near Awarua Bay in the south. The results of
90 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL
the drilling enabled estimates of thickness to be
made in areas where no other information was
available.
Data in Tables 6 and 7 show that
1. deposits of lignite and sub-bituminous coal
are of widespread occurrence in Otago and
Southland, and
2. very large deposits of medium-ash lignite un-
derlie the Southland Plain between Gore and
the north shore of Awarua Bay. Thick seams
crop out on the west bank of Hedgehope
Stream at Waimumu close to deposits of high-
quality quartz conglomerate. The geological
structure of the Mataura Lignite Measures and
the borehole data suggest that a high percent-
age of the reserves should be recoverable by
open-cast mining at low overburden ratios
(less than 1: 1).
The overburden consists of gravels, loosely con-
solidated sands and silts, with sporadic lenses of
clay and could be excavated at low cost, without the
use of explosives, by modem machinery. Parts of
these coal seams lie under farmlands, and parts under
extensive swamps and swampy river valleys.
Lignite is at present being quarried on a small
scale with a 1: 1 stripping ratio and transported 30
miles by road for a total cost of less than $2.50/ton
(Mr. D. A. Bradley, Manager, Cross Keys, No. 2
pit, personal communication). Large-scale opera-
tions would probably enable similar costs of produc-
tion to be attained with higher stripping ratios.
Typical proximate analyses, ash content ranges,
and reserves of Southland coals are listed in Tables
8, 9, and 10. Theoretical carbonization yields and
char analyses are listed in Table 11. Present mining
locations and annual tonnages mined are listed in
Table 12.
Bituminous coal
The high-swelling, low-ash bituminous coals of the
West Coast, and coke made from them exhibit attrac-
TABLE 8
Proximate analyses of air-dried coals
Volatile
Location of sample Sample Moisture Matter
% %
Waimumu
(Mataura Valley) ROM* 19·5 41·0
Mataura
(Mataura Valley) ROM 21·5 39·0
Ashers Siding
(Toetoes Coastal Plain) Face 26-1 40'0
Ohai
Ohai Coalfield ROM 15-3 35-6
• ROM = run-of-mine sample
tive properties for ferroalloy furnace operation. De-
livered costs of fixed-carbon units from this source
are estimated to be comparatively low, in spite of the
transport distance involved. The attractive properties
are low ash content, high agglutinating properties re-
sulting in desirably large coke size, and low bulk
density on carbonization which promotes charge
porosity.
Typical analyses of the most suitable West Coast
coals, their swelling properties, and reserves are
shown in Table 13.
Yields and properties of typical coke made from
coal from No. 2 Block, Stockton, are quoted from
CSIRO (1961) in Table 14.
Wood and charcoal
Large stands of Southland beech (Nothofagus
menziesii) occur 40 miles west, and 50 miles east of
InvercargilI. Plantations of exotic species, mainly
Pinus radiata, have been established at Pebbly Hills
30 miles north of InvercargiII and at Landslip Hill
and Conical Hills north of Gore.
The mean annual increment for mature beech
forests in Southland has been estimated by Thomas
(1961) at 750 tons/sq. mile. The mean annual in-
crement for the faster growing Pinus species at Coni-
cal Halls has been estimated at 2000 tons/sq. mile.
The afforested areas of Southland cover some
hundreds of square miles, and the mean annual in-
crement is sufficient to supply all the requirements of
any proposed ferroalloy plant.
Scrap steel
Only small tonnages of suitable steel scrap would
be available in the South Island, and the nearest iron
ore deposits (of rather low grade) are located at
Onekaka (WiIIiams, 1965). Some of the scrap or
ore requirements would probably have to be shipped
in from Onekaka, from the North Island, or from
overseas.
Fixed Calorific
Carbon Ash Sulphur value
% % % B.T.U.jlb
32·5 7 0·61 8,680
34·6 4·9 0·49 8,700
28'5 H 0·3 7,780
45-6 3·5 0·37 11,000
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
 FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SILICON INDUSTRY IN NEW ZEALAND 91

TABLE 9 sources would be available for industry of this type,

Ash content ranges of Southland coals and at what price. Another possible source of in-
dustrial power is the large reserves of lignite under-
Locality Range of ash content lying most of the Southland Plain between Waimumu
% and Bluff. Geological and borehole evidence covering
Waimumu (Mataura Valley) 3,4-8 most of these lignite reserves warrant calculation of
Mataura (Mataura Valley) 3'7 -6·4 inferred reserves of up to 1,181 million tons, some
Ashers Siding hundreds of million tons of which could probably be
(Toetoes Coastal Plain) 3·3 -7·5
Ohai (Ohai Coalfield) 2·6-7·6 mined by opencast methods on a large scale by
modern equipment at very low cost per ton. Since
some of the thickest seams of lignite either underlie
TABLE 10 or are in close proximity to some of the highest-
Reserves of Southland coals grade quartz gravels, these lignites, as well as being
used as one of the reducing agents in the manufac-
Recoverable coal in millions of tons ture of ferrosilicon, could possibly also be used as
Locality
Measured Indicated Inferred the major raw material for producing electric power
for the process.
Waimumu 1'75 5·85 56·00
Mataura 0·10 9·00 50·00 Manufacture of 75 per cent ferrosilicon
Ashers Siding 0'05 3-90 300·00
Ohai 7-70 8·90 90·00 Table 15 lists the estimated quantities of raw ma-
terials needed for the production of 1 ton of 75 per
cent ferrosilicon. A study of Table 4 shows that
TABLE 11 screened and washed gravels from all points sampled
Theoretical carbonization yields and char analyses in the Waimumu-Pebbly Hills-Grove Bush area,
and from St. Bathans, Hyde, Mt. Buster, and Maere-
Fixed Tons of coal whenua are of qualities suitable for the smelting of
Char carbon Ash Alz Os P needed to yield
% %% % one ton of char 75 per cent ferrosilicon.
---- Possible reducing agents for ferrosilicon produc-
Waimumu 80 17·5 1·89 0·0107 2t tion include locally produced lignite char and raw
Mataura 85 12'25 0·417 0·0043 2t lignite, sub-bituminous coal and char, locally pro-
Ashers
Siding 78 16·2 0·632 0·0100 3 duced wood chips and wood charcoal, and high-
Ohai 90 7·0 0·82 0·0043 2 swelling, low-ash West Coast coal or coke produced
from this coal. A mixture of these reducing agents
would undoubtedly give best smelting conditions, and
TABLE 12 the economic optimum mixture could be determined
Present mining locations and annnual tonages only by smelting tests using these reductants with the
Southland quartz gravels, Supplies of suitable scrap
Location Production steel in the South Island are limited and much is
1969
already committed to the Auckland steel plants.
Waimumu 54,194 Much of the scrap requirements, or alternative iron
Mataura 39,360 ore supplies, would probably have to' be shipped in
Ashers Siding 1,457
or made available by arrangement with the Auckland
Ohai 249,438
steel companies.
Manufacture of silicon metal
Electric power Table 16 lists the estimated quantities of raw ma-
Following again one of the logistic requirements, terials needed for the production of 1 ton of silicon
proximity to a cheap source of electric power, a metal.
study was first made of possible hydroelectric power A study of Tables 4 and 5 shows that screened and
sources and it was found that, in the Waitaki Basin, washed gravels from Hedgehope, Mabel Bush, St.
schemes eventually capable of feeding power into Bathans, Hyde, Mt. Buster, and Maerewhenua con-
the national grid at about Q'35c/kWh, are in the tain more than 98·5 per cent Si02 with Al2 0 a con-
initial stages of development, while others planned on tents in the range 0·19 per cent to 0·51 per cent.
the Clutha River are expected eventually to supply They all appear to be of the purity required for
the grid with power at a production cost of about manufacture of some grades of silicon metal, but the
DAD c/kWh (NZED, 1968, p. IS). It is, however, limited. percentage of coarse material in these de-'
a matter of Government policy whether these power posits would be a serious problem.
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met.- No. 240, Dec. 1971
 92 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL

TABLE 13
Analyses and reserves of selected West Coast coals
Reserves
Volatile Fixed Calorific Crucible
Locality Moisture Ash matter carbon Sulphur value swelling Measured Indicated Inferred
% % % % % B.T.U./lb No. tons x 106 tons x 106 tons x 106
Bill/er Coalfield
Stockton
No. 2 Block 1-6 0·2 35'0 63·2 0·53 15,280 9 2-84 Nil Nil
Mt. Frederick 1·0 1-4 30·5 67-1 0·80 - 9+ 2·31 Nil Nil
Greymollth
Coalfield
Roa mine 0·9 3·2 21-6 74·3 0·40 15,310 9++ 0·18 0'17 Nil
Liverpool 1-6 7·8 34-6 56'1 0·30 14,070 9 1·00 Nil Nil

TABLE 14 TABLE 15
Yield and properties of coke from Raw materials for 75 %ferrosilicon (l ton)
No. 2 block, Stockton Coal
Quartz Fixed Scrap Electrode
Coke output carbon steel paste
Yield on coal as charged % 69·2 1·9 tons 0·8 tons 0·25 tons 0·05 tons
Volumetric shrinkage of charge % 24-4
Specific gravity-true 1'83
apparent 0'76 TABLE 16
Porosity % VfV 58 Raw materials for production of silicon metal (1 ton)
Size analysis % Quartz Fixed carbon I Pre-baked electrodes
+ 4 in. 64 2·9 tons 1·2 tons 0-09 tons
- 4 in. + 3 in. 20
- 3 in. + 2 in. 12
- 2 in. + 1 in. 303 Possible reducing agents for silicon metal produc-
-1 in. + tin. 0·4 tion again include local lignite and lignite char, sub-
-tin. 0·6 bituminous coal or char, local wood chips or wood
charcoal, low-ash, high-swelling West Coast coal or
Drop shatter test
coke produced from this coal, and imported petro-
2 in. index 27 leum coke. The stringent purity requirements of re-
It in. index 60 ductants for silicon metal production, and require-
t in. index 96·8
ments of larger particle size for charge porosity con-
Drum abrasion test trol would limit the usable amounts of lignite and
sub-bituminous raw materials. Low-ash West Coast
1 in. stability factor 63 coal and coke is expected to be a most suitable
t in. hardness factor 82
charge component, together with wood chips, wood
t in. abrasion index 82·7
charcoal, or petroleum coke. Again the optimum
Chemical analysis (air-dried) mixture of reductants could only be determined by
smelting tests with these various raw materials.
Moisture 0'3
Ash 0·5
0·2 ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon 99·0 To indicate whether or not commercial production
Sulphur 0·46 of silicon ferroalloys in Southland is liKely to be
Phosphorus - 0'0004
Calorific value B.T.U.j1b 14,280 profitable, and to determine the most important fac-
tors controlling commercial profitability, simplified
Table 5 shows that washed gravels from Waimumu production cost estimates were assembled as shown
and Pebbly Hills can be upgraded by colour sorting in Table 17. These estimates cannot be regarded as
to ghee p!.Qd]Jct~ C9I!,t~ining 99·4 to 99·7 per cent exact since costs and selling prices vary with time,
Si02 with Al2 0 S contents ranging between 0·12 and also in the present state of limited Knowfeage -some
0·19 per cent, meeting the purity requirements for of the cost elements will be unduly conservative while
silicon metal production. ' others may prove unduly optimistic. They were mad~_
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
 FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SILICON INDUSTRY IN NEW ZEALAND 93

TABLE 17
Estimated production costs
75% ferrosilicon Silicon metal
Item $ per ton of
$ per ton of Qty Rate
Qty Rate product sold product sold.

Quartz 1'9 $5 9'50* 2-9 $7 20'30*

ton ton
0·8 $25 20,00* 1·2 $25 30,00*
Fixed carbon in reductants
ton ton
Scrap steel 0·25 $30 7,50* - - -
ton
Electrode paste 0·05 $149 7-45 - - -
ton
Prebaked electrodes - - - 0·09
ton
$568 5H2

9,200 $·005 46'00* 13,000 $·005 65'00*

Electric power
kWh kWh
Utilities & services (5'2 % of sales) - - 8'74 - - 18'62
Packing materials - - 5'00* - - 5,00*
3-8 8'7
man $2 7,60* man· $2 17'40*
Labour
hours hours
Administration and overheads (4'5% of sales) - - 7,56* - - 16'11*
Loading and wharfage - - 6'00* - - 6,00*
Insurance and maintenance (3'3 % of plant costs) - - 6'77* - - 7'62*
Rates & local body taxes (estimated) - - 1,39* - - 3,04*

133·51 240·21
Production cost 358·00
F.o.b. selling price 168·00
34-49 117-79
Gross return
Plant capital cost, $ per annual ton 205 231
Working capital (8'3 % of annual material costs plus 18 39
sales) 5
Precommissioning costs 2

Total investment, $ per annual ton 225 275

Gross annual return on investment before tax 15% 43%
Units-metric tons Production rates-50,000 ton/yr ferrosilicon
-$NZ, July 1970 values - 20,000 tonlyr silicon
* Predominantly local cost elements

primarily to see if further investigation is justified,
and to delineate critical factors which require precise
evaluation.
Assumed production rates were 50,000 metric
tons/year for 75 per cent ferrosilicon, and 20,000
metric tons/year for silicon metal, in plants sited
close to Bluff, using July 1970 commercial delivered
prices for most raw materials, estimated delivered
costs for washed and screened quartz gravel from the
Pebbly Hills district, and an assumed price of 0·5
c/kWh for electric power at the plant site. The esti-
mated price of quartz for silicon metal production
was increased by $2 per ton to allow for extra
washing, colour sorting to reject low-grade pebbles,
and addition of coarse quartzite rock to increase
charge permeability. Estimated delivered costs of
fixed carbon units for reduction varied from $15 to
$20 per metric ton for lignite and sub-bituminous
coals and chars, through $25 to $30 per metric ton
Proc. Aust. Inst. M.i~. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
for high-swelling Westland coal or coke and imported
petroleum coke, to $50 to $90 per metric ton for
. wood charcoal and wood chips. A median value of
$25 per metric ton of fixed carbon was used for the
cost estimates, assuming balanced reductant charges
of char (maximum possible), coke, coal and wood
chips (minimum possible) for bulk density and re-
activity control based on European smelting prac-
tice. Raw material consumptions were estimated
mainly from the data of Elyutin et al. (1957) and
Fairchild (1970).
F.o.b. selling prices were based on typical July
1970 prices of Norwegian products delivered c.i.f. to
New Zealand and Asian ports, less $17 per metric
ton allowance for freight and insurance costs.
Plant investment costs were based on plant cost
data supplied by electric furnace equipment manu-
facturers, with allowances for freight, erection, en-
gineering, buildings, services, ancillary facilities, and
94 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL

comIDlsslOning costs b~sed on recent New Zealand
experience with heavy engineering plants.
Results of the cost estimates are shown as gross
annual return on total investment before tax. As a
first approximation a gross return of 20 per cent per
annum may be regarded as marginally profitable, re-
turning about 10 per cent on equity after New Zea-
land July 1970 company tax, according to the par-
ticular financing method used.
Since cost estimates of any type can only be re-
garded as indicative" until a plant is actually operating,
and since capital costs can vary greatly, depending
on source of equipment, design, and efficiency of in-
stallation work, these cost projections were re-
calculated with different input data to assess the sen-
sitivity of profitability to several variants. The vari-
ants altered included unit power' price (± 40 per
cent), plant capital cost (±30 per cent), product
selling price (± 10 per cent). Results shown in Fig.
3 indicate that silicon production is likely to be
more profitable than ferrosilicon production, and that
commercial profitability for both is strongly in-
fluenced by electric power prices, plant capital costs,
and f.o.b. selling prices realized. More sophisticated,
computerized cash flow projections gave very similar
overall results to those from these simplified cost
estimates.
The national profitability, as distinct from com-
mercial profitability, of silicon ferroalloy production
may be assessed approximately by aggregating the
production cost elements (shown with asterisks) in
Table 17, which represent local cost elements, with
little or no overseas cost content. Since the sum of
local cost elements ($117·32 per ton for ferro-

60
Selling prices $168/358
cl per ton.

~
ci
Investments $225/275
,~~ 40 per annual ton.
U;c Silicon
a: ~
mUi

~
e
\9£
~ 20
c
o Ferrosilicon

'3 ,'4 '5 '6, '7 '8

Electric' Power Price, cl
kWh.

~
60 Selling prices $168/358
cl per ton.
Cl.
E~
Electric power price-
=> •
Q;1:: 40 0·5 c/kWh
a: Cl>
IIlE
III III
Silicon
o >Cl>
L.

"'--
\9£ 20
c
0 Ferrosilicon

60
Investments $225/275
cl per annual ton.
ci Electric power price-
c~
5 o. 40 0'5c/kWh
Q;'E
a: ~
III
III -III
e~
~errosj[jcon
20
\9£
c
o

FIG. 3-Effect of changes in unit power price, plant capital

cost, and product selling price on gross return on investment
for ferrosilicon and silicon.
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
 FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SILICON INDUSTRY IN NEW ZEALAND
silicon and $170-47 per ton for silicon metal) repre-
sent a large proportion of f.o.b. selling prices, a
major proportion of receipts from export produc-
tion would represent nett gain of overseas funds.
Production and export of 50,000 tons/year of
ferrosilicon and 20,000 tons per year of silicon metal
would thus be expected to provide mett inflows of
overseas funds of at least $5· 8 million per year and
$3 -4 million per year respectively.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Inve.stigations in Otago and Southland have in-
dicated the presence of very large deposits of quartz
gravels suitable, with washing, screening, and pos-
sibly colour sorting, for the production of ferra-
silicon and silicon metal. Extensive lignite and sub-
bituminous coal deposits in Otago and Southland
appear to be suitable sources of reductants for
smelting operations, supplemented if necessary by
wood chips and wood charcoal from local timber re-
sources, coal and coke from the West Coast, and
imported petroleum coke. The lignite and quartz
gravel deposits in many cases are under very thin
overburden and are thus accessible for low-cost,
opencast mining.
Undeveloped hydroelectric power resources in
Qtago are at least potentially capable of supplying
industrial electric power for silicon/ferrosilicon
smelting; low-cost lignite in the district is also a po-
tential source of energy for electric power genera-
tion.
Production of silicon and/ or ferrosilicon on an
economic scale would far exceed the small New Zea-
land market for such products, and any commercial
production would have to be mainly for export to
overseas markets. The most promising site for ex-
port production would be the Invercargill area, where
quartz deposits, lignite, timber resources, roads, rail
facilities, housing, and fresh water supplies are all
located within reasonable distance of Bluff Harbour.
Preliminary production cost estimates indicate rea-
sonable prospects for profitable commercial export
production, depending mainly on availability and
price of electric power and on the securing of export
markets at prices close to July 1970 world market
prices. Silicon metal production is expected to be
more profitable than ferrosilicon production. Com-
mercial export production would produce substantial
nett inflows of overseas funds.
If serious consideration is given to commercial
development of these resources the authors recom-
mend attention to
1. availability and price of electric power,
2. export markets and prices,
3. smelting tests to determine optimum raw ma-
terial mixtures for economical furnace opera-
tion,
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971
95
4. more detailed evaluation of quartz gravel and
coal deposits, and
5. assessment of recovery and uses of possible
byproducts such as minus t in. quartz gravel,
quartz sand, gold, scheelite, and zircon.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the generous co-
operation of the followign people and organizations
in the conducting of this investigation.
Allied Concrete Ltd. (Mr. Hammington) for co-
operation in locating and establishing the poten-
tials of Southland quartz gravels.
Marubeni-Iida Ltd. (Messrs. Ikeda, Katayama, Ya-
hiro) for advice on raw materials evaluation and
smelting operations,
Elkem A/ S for information on smelting operations.
Messrs. A. G. Palmer, J. Turnbull, C. Hyndman, J.
Lake for assistance in geological and raw ma-
terials survey work,
Messrs. W. Kitt, H. J. Todd, and Dr K. S. Rax-
worthy for numerous raw material analyses.
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Bowen, F. E., 1964. Geology of the Ohai Coalfield, N.Z.
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DSIR, 1963. Development of mineral resources of New
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Elyutin, V. P., Pavlov, Y. A., Levin, B. E., and Alekseev,
E. M., 1957. Production of Ferroalloys, 2nd Edn.
(translated from Russian for the National Science
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Fairchild, W. T., 1970. Electric furnace manufacture of
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Harrington, H. J., 1958. Geology of Kaitangata Coal-
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96 J. M. HOPE, D. S. NICHOLSON, AND T. MARSHALL

Thomas, B. R., 1961. Wood charcoal as a source of elec-
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Proc. Aust. Inst. Min'. Met. No. 240, Dec. 1971