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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Lecture
CE 413-Geotechnical Engg 1
2
Introduction
Definition of Soil
The term soil according to engineering point of view
is defined as the material, by means of which and upon
which engineers build their structures. The term soil
includes entire thickness of the earth’s crust (from
ground surface to bed rock), which is accessible and
feasible for practical utilization as foundation support
or construction material. It is composed of loosely
bound mineral particles of various sizes and shapes
formed due to weathering of rocks.
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Al-naser Dome
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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength
capacity of soil!
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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength
capacity of soil!
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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Settlement
Seepage Problems
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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Dam Failure - Seepage
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Soil Formation
Physical weathering
Involves reduction of size without any change in the
original composition of the parent rock. The main
agents responsible for this process are exfoliation,
erosion, freezing, and thawing.
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the
earth's surface include the actions of water, frost,
temperature changes, wind and ice. They cause
disintegration and the products are mainly coarse soils.
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Soil Formation
Physical weathering
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Soil Formation
Chemical weathering
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Soil Types
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Residual Soil
Residual Soils
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have
been formed. Generally, the depth of residual soils varies
from 5 to 20 m.
Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions
than in cold, dry regions causing a faster breakdown of
rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes place as the rate
of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or
transportation of the weathered material. In humid regions,
the presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility of
soil transportation.
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Residual Soil
Residual Soils
As leaching action due to percolating surface water
decreases with depth, there is a corresponding decrease
in the degree of chemical weathering from the ground
surface downwards. This results in a gradual reduction
of residual soil formation with depth, until unaltered
rock is found.
Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle
sizes, shapes and composition.
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Transported Soil
Transported Soils
Weathered rock materials can be moved from
their original site to new locations by one or
more of the transportation agencies to form
transported soils. Transported soils are classified
based on the mode of transportation and
the final deposition environment.
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Transported Soil
DESERT SOIL Contains soluble salts.
Originated by Mechanical disintegration & wind
deposit. Porous and coarse. 90% sand & 5% clay..
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Transported Soil
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Transported Soil
Transported Soils
Transported soils are classified based on the mode of
transportation and the final deposition environment.
(a)Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are
called alluvial deposits.
(b)Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface
runoff while entering a lake are called lacustrine deposits.
Alternate layers are formed in different seasons depending
on flow rate.
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Transported Soil
Transported Soils
(c)If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are
called marine deposits. Marine deposits contain both
particulate material brought from the shore as well as
organic remnants of marine life forms.
(d)Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the
materials scoured by it leading to formation of glacial
deposits.
(e)Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited
are known as Aeolian deposits.
Transported Soil
Gravity Soils
Gravity can transport materials only for a
short distance.
Gravity soils are termed as talus these soils
are generally loose and porous.
Phases System of Soils
Voids
Solids
Three Phases System
Idealization:
Three Phases Diagram
Two - Phases System
Water
Solid Particles
Idealization:
Two Phases Diagram
Two - Phases System
Dry soil
Air
Solid Particles
Idealization:
Two Phases Diagram
Phase Relations of Soils
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water
and air components.
Volume Symbols Weight Symbols
WW Wa ≈ 0
Va Air
VV
Water
VW
WT
VT
VS
WS
Solid Particles
Three - Phases System
WW Wa ≈ 0
wT = ws + ww + Wa (1-1) Air
where,
WT = total weigℎt o f soil ssanple
Water
WT
W s= weigℎt o f soil solids
WS
Solid Particles
Wa = weigℎt o f air ≈ 0
Weight Relations
Water content
The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass
of solid particles is called the water content (mc), or
sometimes the moisture content.
ww (1-2)
mcc % = × 100%
ws
The water content of a soil is found by weighing a sample
of the soil and then placing it in an oven at 110 ∓ 50C
until the weight of the sample remains constant , that is, all
the absorbed water is driven out.
ws Ύs Vs
Gc = = = Ύs (1-3)
ww Ύw Vw Ύw
nkN
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Ύw= unit weigℎt o f water = 9.81
Weight Relations
Specific Gravity,
Va
VV
3. Degree of saturation (S)
VW
Water
4. Air content (a)
(1-4) VT
VT = Vs + Vw+ Va
VS
Solid Particles
VV = Vw+ Va
Volume Relations
Porosity (n)
Vw VS 1 ww yc wc × Gc
S= × = × × = (1-10)
Vv VS e yw wc e
a 100% = n 1 − S (1-12)
The air- voids, Va , is that part of the voids
space not occupied by water
For a perfectly dry soil : a = n
For a saturated soil : a=0
Weight –volume relationship
Unit weight ( γ )
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a
unit volume of material. Unit weight is a measure
of the weight of a unit volume of material.
Both can be used interchangeably. The units
of density are ton/m³, kg/m³ or g/cm³.
The unit of unit weight is kN/m³.
Weight –volume relationship
Unit weight ( γ )
The unit weight of a soil is the ratio of the weight
of soil to the total volume.
wt
γ= (1-13)
Vt
In natural soils the magnitude of the total unit
weight will depend on how much water happens to
be in the voids as will as the unit weight of the
mineral grains themselves.
Weight –volume relationship
w 1 + ww
wt c wc
γ= = = γd 1 + wc (1-16)
Vt Vt
Weight –volume relationship
yw Gc + e
=
1+e
(1-18)
Weight –volume relationship
Summary
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Worked Examples
Solution of example 1
Volume Weight
Water e e γw
Solid Vs =1 GS γw
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Worked Examples
Solution of example 1
wc × Gc
S =1=
e
e = 0.24 * 2.7 = 0.648
γw Gc + e
=
γ ca t
1+e
γ = (2.7 + 0.648) 9.81/(1+0.648)
γ =19.93 kN/m3
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Use
Worked Examples
Example 2
Prove the following relationships:
a) γd = 1 − n γw Gc
b) γca t = Gc − n Gc − 1 γw
n γw
c) w c(cat) =
γca t − n γw
d) Gc =
γw
γ
−w γ
cat
− γw
c cat
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Use
Worked Examples
Example 3
A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12%
and Gs= 2.72. Determine its
(a) Dry unit weight
(b) Moist unit weight, and the
(c)Amount of water to be added per m3 to make the
soil saturated.
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Worked Examples
Example 4
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Worked Examples
Example 5
A cubic meter of soil in its natural state weighs
17.75 kN; after being dried it weighs 15.08
kN. The specific gravity of the solids is 2.70.
(a)Determine the water content, void ratio,
porosity and degree of saturation for the soil as
it existed in its natural state.
(b)What would be the bulk unit weight and
water content if the soil were fully saturated at
the same void ratio as in its natural state ?
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Worked Examples
Example 6
For a given soil , the following are given : GS = 2.67;
wet unit weight ; γ = 16.8 kN/m³ moisture content
WC = 10.8 % . Determine :
1. Dry unit weight
2. Void ratio
3. Porosity
4. Degree of saturation
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Worked Examples
Example 7
For a soil ; given γd = 16.8 kN/m3 ; e = 0.51,
determine:
1. Specific gravity
2. Saturated unit weight
3. Unit weight when the degree of saturation is 45%.
4. Saturated water content
5. Porosity.
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Worked Examples
Example 8
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Worked Examples
Example 9
A project engineer receives a laboratory report with
tests performed on marine marl calcareous silt). The
engineer suspects that one of the measurements is in
error. Are the engineer’s suspicions correct? If so,
which one of these values is wrong, and what should
be its correct value? ( Gs = 2.65 )
Given: γ = 18.6 kN/m^3 , wc = 40.08 %,
e = 1.18 , and S = 90 %
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Worked Examples
Example 10
The bulk unit weight of the soil has been
measured as 19.17 kN/m³, the moisture content
as 25.3% and the Gs of the solid particles as
2.70. Calculate:
a) the degree of saturation, S.
b) the porosity, and
c) air content.
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Worked Examples
Example 11
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Worked Examples
Example 12
A soil sample has a unit weight of 16.62 kN/m³
and a saturation of 50%. When its saturation
is increased to 75%, its unit weight raises to
17.72 kN/m³
Determine the voids ratio e and the specific
gravity Gs of this soil.
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