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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2004-01-2943

Residual Gas Fraction Estimation:

Application to a GDI Engine with
Variable Valve Timing and EGR
Nicolò Cavina
DIEM - University of Bologna

Carlo Siviero and Rosanna Suglia

Magneti Marelli Powertrain

Reprinted From: SI Engine Performance and Additives,

Gasoline Engine Cold Start, and Direct Injection
(SP-1895)

Powertrain & Fluid Systems

Conference & Exhibition
Tampa, Florida USA
October 25-28, 2004

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760 Web: www.sae.org
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Residual Gas Fraction Estimation: Application to a GDI Engine
with Variable Valve Timing and EGR
Copyright © 2004 SAE International
ABSTRACT
The paper presents an original review and extension of
existing mathematical models for on-line residual gas
fraction estimation. The resulting model has first of all
been extended to take into account also the presence of
externally recirculated exhaust gas (external EGR), and
then critically analyzed to highlight the importance of a
correct Intake Valve Opening and Exhaust Valve Closing
effective position identification. As shown in the paper,
such quantities may be evaluated by using experimental
data, either acquired in the test-cell or on a valve flow
bench.
The main objective is to obtain a simple and reliable
model (that could be run in real time within the engine
control unit) also in presence of Variable Valve Timing
(VVT, both on intake and exhaust valves) and external
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) systems. In fact, the
two main contributions to residual gas fraction (backflow
of the burned gas during the valve overlap period, and
amount of gas trapped within the cylinder) are strongly
affected by intake and exhaust valves timing, and EGR
flow should be taken into account in order to determine
the total exhaust gas mass within the cylinder at IVC.
Therefore, real time estimation of residual gas mass and
composition is crucial for designing VVT and EGR
management strategies that allow an optimal control of
the combustion process.
The new model has been applied to experimental data
acquired on a 3.2 liter V6 GDI engine, equipped with
intake and exhaust Variable Valve Timing systems.
Tests were performed throughout the engine operating
range for different combinations of intake and exhaust
valve timings, while varying EGR flow. Model results are
in good agreement with other measured quantities (such
as Spark Advance angle and NOx emissions), and the
proposed approach therefore represents a powerful tool
for on-board optimal combustion control.
2004-01-2943
Nicolò Cavina
DIEM - University of Bologna
Carlo Siviero and Rosanna Suglia
Magneti Marelli Powertrain
INTRODUCTION
Availability of residual gas fraction (Xrg) values (or even
only of its trend over the engine operating range) to the
ECU may play a crucial role when designing control
strategies for powertrains that are every day more and
more complex and “flexible” (for example characterized
by the presence of VVT systems, intake and/or exhaust
variable geometry manifolds, external EGR circuits,
direct injection that allows both stratified and
homogeneous charge operation, …).
If a VVT system (or even simply a variable geometry
manifold) equips the powertrain under study, on-board
gas fraction estimation could be used to determine
optimal management strategies of the VVT system itself
(or of the variable geometry mechanism), of the spark
advance angle, and of external EGR circuit. In fact, the
combustion process could be optimised by controlling
the quantity of exhaust gas and its quality (“external” or
“internal”), acting on two main parameters: VVT
configuration and EGR valve management. Moreover,
also the optimal spark advance could be evaluated as a
function of the residual gas fraction. Such model-based
approach would allow to drastically reduce development
time and costs associated to the experimental
identification of a continuously increasing number of
parameters (that are to be stored in the ECU memory).
Model-based residual gas fraction estimation becomes
even more crucial in designing control strategies for GDI
engines, where the oxygen content of burnt gas may be
extremely variable (depending on the actual in-cylinder
charge operation – stratified or homogeneous).
Several models for residual gas fraction estimation are
available in the literature. They are particularly
interesting since on one hand a direct measurement of
the residual gas fraction is obviously not feasible on-
board the vehicle, and also because the measurement
techniques that have been proposed for test-cell
purposes are still quite complex and particularly
expensive (the simplest ones are based on gas
composition measurement, to be performed both inside
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the cylinder – during compression phase – and in the from the exhaust port to the cylinder during the valve
exhaust manifold) [1-3]. If the objective is on-board overlap period (mof), and the trapped gas in the cylinder
implementation of residual gas fraction estimation, such at IVO (mIVO):
models may be subdivided into two main categories: the
ones that take as inputs only data that are usually t EVC
available to the ECU, and the ones that use also
experimental data normally not available on-board the
m RG = m of + m IVO = ∫ m& of dt + m IVO (1)
t IVO
vehicle, such as indicated pressure of the various
cylinders [4-6]. Figure 1 shows the Input/Output (I/O) And the residual gas fraction results as:
layout of two models that respectively belong to the
above mentioned categories.
m RG m of m
X RG = = + IVO = X RG ,of + X RG , IVO (2)
m cyl m cyl m cyl

Using a simplified thermodynamic cycle analysis, Fox et

al show in [4] how the two components of the residual
gas fraction can be related to six independent
parameters, usually available to the ECU: engine speed
(N), intake and exhaust pressure (pi and pe, the latter
either measured or estimated on-board), valve Overlap
Factor (OF), compression ratio (rc) and fuel/air
equivalence ratio (φ):

Figure 1: Input/Output layout for two types of k +1 ⎫

residual gas fraction estimation models: model # 1 ⎛p ⎞ 2k ⎛ OF ⎞ pe − pi ⎪
X RG ,of = C1 ⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟⋅
[4, 5], and model # 2 [6]. ⎝ pi ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠ ρ a ⎪⎪
This work is focused on the first type of mathematical ⎬ (3)
1
⎪
models. The results that will be presented have been ⎛p φ ⎞k ⎪
obtained by considering what was available in the X RG , IVO = C 2 ⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⋅
⎝ p i ⎠ rc ⎪
literature [4, 5], and extending such methodologies on ⎭
one hand to the presence of external EGR, and, last but
not least, to the case of an engine equipped with a VVT For the most general case of an engine having Zi intake
system both on intake and exhaust sides. The main valves and Ze exhaust valves per cylinder, the Overlap
objective is the design of a tool that allows defining VVT Factor is defined as [4]:
and EGR control strategies for optimal combustion
management (both in terms of fuel consumption and IV = EV EVC

emissions reduction). Z i ⋅ Di ⋅ ∫ L i dθ + Z e ⋅ D e ⋅ ∫ L e dθ
IVO IV = EV
OF = (4)
MATHEMATICAL MODELS Vd

Even if the knowledge of the residual gas mass trapped
within each cylinder at the end of the intake process may
result particularly useful both for engine control
strategies design, and for a better understanding of the
combustion process, there has been relatively little work
towards the development of a generally applicable
model for quantitative estimations of residual gas
fraction. This observation is particularly true if the
objective is the development of a mathematical model
that is on one hand able to run in real-time within the
ECU (therefore sufficiently “simple” and requiring input
variables usually available to a production ECU), and
also able to provide satisfactory results in presence of
VVT and EGR systems.
The starting point of this work is a simple, zero-
dimensional model for calculating residual gas fraction
presented in [4], and extended in [5] to the case of
compression ignition engines. The residual gas mass
(mRG) is attributed to the back-flow of the burned gas
The parameters C1 and C2 of the model described by (3)
are identified in [4] by using experimental data, and by
considering the following assumptions:
I. The parameter C1 is considered as a constant
coefficient, while, from the ideal cycle analysis, it
should also depend on Xrg (an iterative approach
could therefore be used to evaluate Xrg itself);
II. The influence of VIVO on Xrg,IVO is neglected, since
VIVO is considered to be very close to the in-cylinder
volume at TDC (V0 or VTDC);
III. No external exhaust gas recirculation is explicitly
taken into account;
IV. IVO and EVC are the crankshaft angular positions
(with respect to TDC of the given cylinder) at which
the corresponding valve lift equals 0.15 mm.
The correlation obtained by Fox et al is given by
Equation (5), while Equation (6) shows a similar result
(even if apparently quite different) obtained in [5] for the
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case of spark ignition engines, and identified using the In (8), mcyl is the total mass inside the cylinder before
same experimental data of [4]: combustion takes place. Such quantity is related to
several components (mf, mair, mRG, and eventually mEGR),
0.87
pe − pi and for the GDI engine under study it has been
⎛p ⎞ ⎛ OF ⎞
X RG = 1.266 ⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟⋅ + considered equal to the total mass inside the given
⎝ pi ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠ 10 5 cylinder at IVC, since only homogeneous charge
(5)
0.74 operation has been taken into account in this work (i.e.,
⎛p ⎞ φ fuel injection inside the cylinder ending before IVC):
+ 0.632 ⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⋅
⎝ pi ⎠ rc

1
m cyl = m IVC = m f + m air + m RG + m EGR (9)
−
⎛ m f ⋅ LHV ⎞ 2k
⎛ rc − 1 ⎞
X RG = 3.3089 ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜
⎜ r ⎟⋅
⎟ In order to run such model on-board the vehicle, all the
⎜ m ⋅ c ⋅ r k −1 ⋅ T ⎟ terms on the right hand side of Equation (7) have to be
⎝ cyl v c i ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
available to the ECU. A few issues should be considered
k +1
p e − p i ⎛ RTi
0.5 at this point:
⎛p ⎞ 2 k ⎛ OF
⎞ ⎞
⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ +
⎝ pi ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠ 10 5 ⎜⎝ p e ⎟
⎠ (6)
• the quantity m EGR may not be directly known, while
the fraction of externally recirculated exhaust gas
1
− 1 with respect to the total mass entering the cylinder
⎛ m f ⋅ LHV ⎞ k
⎛ pe ⎞ k
+ 2.2662 ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ p ⎟ ⋅ from the intake manifold ( X EGR =
m EGR
) is
⎜ m ⋅ c ⋅ r k −1 ⋅ T ⎟
⎝ cyl v c i ⎠ ⎝ i ⎠ mair + m EGR
1
(
⋅ ⋅ φ 2 − 0.5295 ⋅ φ + 0.5295
rc
) usually mapped as a function of the engine
operating conditions.
• both quantities m f and mair may not be directly
As it will be shown in the following, both gray box known, while the Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR) is measured
models (5) and (6) do not seem to be particularly on-board, for the engine under study, using a linear
suitable to the case of the SI engine under study, oxygen sensor. This type of sensor is today widely
equipped with extremely variable valve timing systems used on-board, and therefore AFR can generally be
(both on intake and exhaust sides) and with external gas considered known to the ECU.
recirculation that may be active or not. In particular, both
models tend to over-predict residual gas fraction for Given these remarks, and considering Equation (9),
operating conditions characterized by very large overlap Equation (8) may be reformulated using only parameters
angles. One solution would be to identify and validate that are available to the ECU. In particular, the ratio
model (3) using experimental data of the residual gas between total mass, mcyl, and fuel mass, mf, may be
fraction for the specific engine under study, but since evaluated as follows:
such type of data are not available, the first approach
proposed in this paper is to drop some of the m cyl X RG ⎛ AFR ⎞ AFR ⋅ X EGR
= 1 + AFR + ⎜1 + ⎟+ (10)
assumptions used in [4] and [5]. In particular, mf 1 − X RG ⎜ 1− X ⎟ 1 − X EGR
assumptions I and II have been neglected, while the ⎝ EGR ⎠
original model has been modified to explicitly account
also for externally recirculated gas that may be present The next section briefly describes the setup used for the
inside the cylinder. This methodology allows obtaining a experimental tests, while the results obtained using the
white box mathematical model (i.e., with no parameters mathematical models (5), (6) and (7) will be compared
to be experimentally identified) defined by Equation (7): and discussed in the subsequent sections of the paper.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
1 π ⋅ 2 rc − 1 ⎛ OF ⎞ R ⋅ Ti ⋅ p e − p i
X RG = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⋅
C 360 rc ⎝ N ⎠ pe ENGINE DESCRIPTION
k +1 1 (7)
⎛p ⎞ 2k 1 rc − 1 V ⎛p ⎞k The test engine used in this study is a 3.2-liters V6 GDI
⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ + ⋅ ⋅ φ ⋅ IVO ⋅ ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ engine, with four valves per cylinder. The engine is
⎝ pi ⎠ C rc Vd ⎝ pi ⎠
characterized by a narrow V angle (15°) between the
where the parameter C may be evaluated as: banks, to save space and for on-board housing reasons.
The particular engine design has forced an asymmetric
1 configuration of inlet and exhaust runners and manifolds
⎡ ⎤k structure, which in turn may lead to a different behavior
⎢ ⎥ of the two banks in terms of air mass flow entering the
⎢ LHV ⎥ cylinders (and therefore also in terms of fuel quantity, if
C = ⎢1 + ⎥ (8)
⎢ ⎛ m cyl ⎞ k −1 ⎥ AFR is controlled at the same value for the two banks).
⎢ c v ⋅ Ti ⋅⎜ ⎟⋅r
⎜ mf ⎟ c ⎥ Finally, inlet and exhaust configuration suggested a
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥ particular exhaust line instrumentation during the tests:
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• 2 linear oxygen sensors (UEGO) controlling the AFR lift profiles are shown in Figure 3: With respect to the
of the two different banks; default position with minimum overlap (VVT = 0°-0°), the
• 2 pre-catalysts (one for each bank); Intake Valves Opening angle (IVO) can be advanced,
• 2 lambda on/off sensors (one for each bank); while the Exhaust Valves Closing angle (EVC) can be
• 2 temperature sensors (one for each bank); delayed, thus reaching an extreme overlap configuration
• 2 NO x trap catalysts (one for each bank); defined as VVT = 40°-40° (maximum IVO advance and
• 1 fast NO x sensor. EVC delay).

The main intake line characteristics involve runners with Figure 3 also shows that the intake (and exhaust) valve
variable length (on/off variable intake geometry) and profiles are quite flat near the opening and closing
specific valves for controlling tumble. An external EGR angular positions. This aspect should be carefully taken
circuit connects the exhaust and intake sections, and into account when defining the quantities IVC (or EVC)
two gas analysis systems have been connected to the and IVO (or EVO), corresponding respectively to the
exhaust runners, each of them taking as input the angular positions of effective valve closing or opening
exhaust gases of the corresponding bank. For research (i.e., when the flow through the valves can be
and development purposes, the engine has been considered ended or started). This issue will be
equipped with additional sensors, mainly pressure analyzed in detail in the following sections.
sensors inside each cylinder, temperature and pressure
sensors in the intake and exhaust lines, inside the
VVT = 0°-0°
catalysts, and along the external EGR circuit. Figure 2 10 VVT = 40°-40°
shows a schematic of the engine mounted in the test
9
cell.
gas or smoke analysis UE GO sensor 8
T_ENV
temperature NOx sensor
Valve Lift [mm]
pressure ECU data (ASAP3)
P_ENV 7
HUM_ENV
other
6
ECU_SA ECU_EGRPOS
ECU_SOI
ECU_PRAIL
ECU_THRPOS Type Indiset
IMEP1,...,IMEP6
5
ECU_TJ / ECU_TJS IMEP1std,..., IM EP6std
ECU_IVO MAP MISFIRE1, … ,MISFIRE6
IMEPavg 4
ECU_M AP IMEPHavg
IMEPLavg
Type Gas ECU_AIRT
CAPM AX
CA10M FBavg
3 EXHAUST INTAKE
Bench 1
CA50M FBavg
CO_perc_b1
CA90M FBavg
HC_b1
NOX_b1
2
O2_b1
CO2_perc_b1
LAM BDA 1
Bench 2 Type D yn & Fuel balance
CO_perc_b2
ENGSPEED FC 0
HC_b2
4 2 TORQUE FUELMstk -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
NOX_b2
O2_b2
6 POW ER BSFC
BMEP
CO2_perc_b2
LAM BDA2

EGR
5 3 1 AIRM flow
AIRM stk
TWATERin
TWATERout
T_OIL
Crank Angle [°] , 0° = TDC
VOLEFFenv P_OIL
CO2_intk
EGR_RAT E Figure 3: Valve lift profiles for the two most extreme
VVT configurations.
TESTS DESCRIPTION
T_CYL_6 T_CYL_5 T _CYL_4 T_CYL_3 T _CYL_2 T_CYL_1

LAM LS_L2 LAM LS_L1

P_EXH
T_EXH_L2 T_EXH_L1

T_PCAT_L2 T _PCAT_L1
Steady-state tests were performed throughout the
T_PCATO_L1
engine operating range. Engine speed was varied from
T_PCATO_L2
1000 to 4000 rpm with 1000 rpm intervals, while intake
T_CATAI_L2 T_CATAI_L1 manifold pressure was controlled at constant values of
T_CATA_L2
T_CATA2_L2
T_CATA_L1
T_CATA2_L1
300, 600 and 900 mbar for each engine speed condition.
T_CATA3_L2 T_CATA3_L1
For any engine operating point, acquisitions were made
T_CATAO_L2 T_CATAO_L1
in stoichiometric conditions for different combinations of
intake and exhaust valve timings, while varying EGR
flow. Overall, up to 25 VVT combinations were tested for
SMOKEfsn_L1 each breakpoint, depending on combustion stability
limits variation.
Figure 2: Schematic of the engine mounted in the
As already mentioned, several additional sensors were
test cell, showing both the set of sensors used on-
installed with respect to the engine on-board
board, and the ones installed for research purposes.
configuration. In particular, for each steady-state
VVT SYSTEM DESCRIPTION operating point several pressure measurements have
been performed with a resolution of 1° CA:
The cam timing system of the engine under study is
characterized by a continuous VVT mechanism on the • indicated pressure, by using un-cooled sensors
intake and exhaust sides, with the same angular stroke installed inside each cylinder;
of 40° CA on both sides. The intake and exhaust valve
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• intake runner pressure, by using two sensors
designed for research purposes, respectively
positioned inside the intake runners of cylinder n.3
and n. 4;
• exhaust runner pressure, by using two water-cooled
sensors, respectively positioned inside the exhaust
runners of cylinder n.3 and n. 4.
Finally, the air mass flow values were obtained from
fuel consumption and AFR measurements, the latter
performed using a gas analysis system for each bank
(all the main exhaust gas polluting emissions were also
measured with such systems).
the “average” bank behavior, since they have been
computed as the mean values of the two banks signals.
Figure 4 shows the residual gas fraction trend for
extreme VVT configurations, applying the three models
to a medium speed-medium load engine operating
condition (2000 rpm, 600 mbar of intake manifold
pressure, with no external EGR), while Figure 5 shows
the complete residual gas fraction estimation obtained
by applying the white box model described by Equation
(7) to the same engine operating condition.

Before proceeding further, it should be recalled that

most of the measurements performed at the engine test
bench are not to be considered as inputs to the model
that has been developed (see Figure 1, model # 1).
Such measurements have been used in this work to
assess the validity of the approach, and to develop a
critical discussion of the model results.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Before introducing residual gas fraction estimates

obtained using the mathematical models presented in
the previous sections, it should be recalled that one
critical aspect still to be confronted is represented by the
choice of the effective IVO and EVC angular positions. Figure 4: Comparison of residual gas fraction
As it is well known, effective valve opening and closing estimations obtained using different models
positions should be defined at a certain valve lift value (2000 rpm, 600 mbar, “average” bank).
[4,7], since they correspond to the valve position where
the flow through the valve can be considered
approximately equal to zero (either ending or starting,
respectively if the valve is closing or opening). Effective
IVO and EVC are therefore different from theoretical IVO
and EVC obtained from the geometrical valve lift profiles
(see Figure 3), and their determination is crucial for the
proposed models, for two reasons:

• they affect both Overlap Factor and V IVO values;

• the valve lift profiles of this engine are particularly
flat near opening and closing positions, and
therefore the mathematical models are particularly
sensitive to the valve lift value chosen as
representative of effective opening or closing.
It should also be observed that the valve lift value at
which effective valve opening and closing takes place
depends on valve lift profile, valve and valve seat shape,
and therefore it may vary from one engine to another
(and even from one cylinder to another, for a given
engine).
If a valve lift value of 0.10 mm is chosen [7], the results
obtained by applying models (5), (6) and (7) to the
experimental data presented in the previous section are
shown in Figures 4 and 5. Even if the comparison
between the two banks is quite interesting, showing a
marked different behavior, probably due to the peculiar
engine architecture, all the results and the
measurements that will be shown in the paper represent
Figure 5: Estimated residual gas fraction. White box
model applied to various VVT configurations
(2000 rpm, 600 mbar, “average” bank).
Figure 4 shows, as expected, that the two models (5)
and (6) produce very similar results (and this is true for
all the engine operating conditions that were tested). On
the other hand, the white box model shows a greater
variability with respect to effective IVO advance, and all
the three models are more influenced by IVO than by
EVC effective positions. By looking also at the XRG trend
shown in Figure 5 and at the measurements presented
in Figure 6, and performed during the same engine
operating conditions, the estimation results could
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apparently be considered acceptable both quantitatively
and qualitatively. This is reasonable also because Spark
Advance (SA) angle was managed in order to control the
in-cylinder pressure peak position at a constant value for
each engine operating point (i.e., for each speed-load
combination, SA was varied, while varying VVT, in order
to maintain in-cylinder peak pressure angular position
constant, compensating for faster or slower flame
propagation speed due to varying XRG).
Figure 6: SA angle and NOx emissions measured
values (2000 rpm, 600 mbar, “average” bank).
Nonetheless, if one applies the same models to low-load
engine operating conditions (still characterized by no
external EGR), such as the case presented in Figure 7,
the results obtained are still qualitatively in good
agreement with SA and NOx measured trends, but the
estimated residual gas fraction values are incompatible
with a stable combustion propagation inside the cylinder
(as the one experimentally observed). This is true if
referring to the VVT configurations that show large
overlap effective angles, as it can be seen in the
example shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Estimated residual gas fraction. White box
model applied to various VVT configurations
(3000 rpm, 300 mbar, “average” bank).
As already mentioned, and determined through a
sensitivity analysis, parameters greatly influencing the
models’ output are IVO and EVC effective positions (or
the valve lift corresponding to such events), therefore
the white box model introduced in the preceding
sections was tuned by determining the most reliable
criterion for effective valve opening (or closing) angle
estimation. The following paragraphs briefly introduce
different methodologies that may be suitable for such
purpose, before applying a specific one to the
experimental data.
The determination of effective valve event (opening or
closing) position, or of the corresponding valve lift, may
theoretically be carried out in the following ways:
A. intake runner pressure signal post-processing;
B. in-cylinder pressure signal post-processing;
C. valve flow bench experimental data processing.
Approach A assumes that the runner pressure trend
measured shortly after the corresponding intake valves
opening event is related to effective IVO. In particular,
the angular (and time) delay between theoretical IVO
position and a typical “signature” in the runner pressure
signal (that can be clearly observed especially at low-
load operating conditions) is considered to be related to
the angular (and time) interval between theoretical and
effective IVO events. In fact, the signal shows two peaks
(positive variation followed by a negative one) that
represent backflow of burned gas from the cylinder into
the intake runner, clearly measurable by the sensor
especially at low loads (when such type of phenomenon
is more evident). Such peaks are usually substantially
delayed with respect to theoretical IVO event, due to
both gas transport and effective IVO delay. An example
of intake runner pressure measured trend is shown in
the next figure, for a low-load, low-speed engine
operating condition: for a VVT configuration of 20°-10°,
the positive peak takes place approximately 30° CA later
than IVO theoretical (around 15° CA after TDC with
respect to almost 15° CA before TDC, respectively).
Figure 8: Measured runner pressure trend. The peak
in the signal takes place at the end of the overlap
phase (1000 rpm, 350 mbar).
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In-cylinder pressure signal could be used to determine

effective IVC position (and therefore the corresponding
valve lift) by comparing measured and interpolated data
around the theoretical IVC angle (beginning of the
compression stroke). The main assumption is that the
compression phase may be adequately represented by
a polytropic process defined by an exponent n
approximately equal to 1.32 [1, 8], and that this is true
only if the gas inside the cylinder is isolated (i.e., no
more gas flowing through the intake valves). The
angular position where a specific polytropic curve – the
one that best fits measured data during the end of the
compression stroke (when intake valves are surely
closed) – deviates from the measured trend is then
considered to be related to the end of the intake
process, and therefore to effective IVC angular position.
An example of such type of analysis is given in Figure 9.
Measured and interpolated data start being substantially
different, for this specific VVT configuration and engine
operating condition, at about 35° CA before the
theoretical IVC position (that corresponds to 81° CA
before TDC).
Figure 9: Measured and interpolated in-cylinder
pressure trends during the end of intake stroke.
(1000 rpm, 600 mbar, bank # 2).
Finally, the last and simplest methodology to determine
effective IVO and EVC angular positions is based on
experimental data obtained at a valve flow bench. The
trend of the valve discharge coefficient may then be
represented as a function of the valve lift, and
interpolated to determine the valve lift position that
would correspond to a negligible discharge coefficient
value (essentially equal to zero). The next figure shows
this procedure for the engine under study, considering
again an “average” behavior of the two banks. The
experimental values of the discharge coefficient have
been used to determine a valve lift corresponding to
effective valve opening (or closing) position equal to
0.25 mm.
Figure 10: Measured and interpolated valve
discharge coefficient trends.
The methodology that has finally been used for residual
gas fraction estimation throughout the entire engine
operating range is the one based on valve discharge
coefficient values. The reason is twofold. On one hand,
such type of data are usually available to the engine
control designer, and don’t require the expensive and
costly experimental tests (both from the installation and
execution point of view) that are needed for obtaining
runner or in-cylinder pressure measurements. Secondly,
in this specific application some problems were
encountered while post-processing both runner pressure
and in-cylinder pressure data, the first ones due to
installation constraints (the pressure sensors could only
be installed by connecting them to the intake runners
through small ducts, that introduced resonances and
delays), while the latter due to the low resolution typical
of in-cylinder sensors in the low (atmospheric) pressure
range [1, 9-14].
Figure 11 shows an example of the results obtained by
using the model described by Equation (7), with IVO and
EVC effective positions determined as previously
explained. It should also be pointed out that, after the
effective valve event position identification, the residual
gas fraction estimated values are always compatible
with stable combustion behavior, even for extreme VVT
overlaps and low-load conditions.
Finally, it should again be recalled the obvious
importance of XRG experimental values in assessing the
model performance from a quantitative point of view. If
such type of data is not available, an option could be the
comparison with the results produced by more complex
models (that make use of measurements not available
on-board, such as [6]).
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Carlo Siviero
Affiliation: Magneti Marelli Powertrain
Via del Timavo,33
40131 - Bologna - Italy
e-mail: carlo.siviero@bologna.marelli.it

Rosanna Suglia
Affiliation: Magneti Marelli Powertrain
Via del Timavo,33
40131 - Bologna - Italy
e-mail: rosanna.suglia@bologna.marelli.it

DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS

Figure 11: “White” box model applied to various VVT AFR Air-to-Fuel Ratio
configurations, after having identified IVO and EVC
effective positions BTDC Before Top Dead Center
(1000 rpm, 350 mbar, “average” bank).
CA Crank Angle
CONCLUSION
ECU Electronic Control Unit
The paper presents an original review and extension of
existing mathematical models for on-line residual gas EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation (external)
fraction estimation. The final model has first of all been
extended to take into account also the presence of EVC Exhaust Valve Closing
externally recirculated exhaust gas (external EGR), and
then critically analyzed to highlight the importance of a
EVO Exhaust Valve Opening
correct IVO and EVC effective position identification. As
shown in the paper, such quantities may be evaluated
GDI Gasoline Direct Injection
by using experimental data, either acquired in the test-
cell or on a valve flow bench.
IVC Intake Valve Closing
The new model has been applied to a V6 engine
experimental data, producing results that are in good IVO Intake Valve Opening
agreement with other measured quantities (such as SA
angle and NOx emissions). It therefore represents a TDC Top Dead Center
powerful tool for on-board optimal combustion control,
the most critical aspect still being the need of SA Spark Advance
experimental data (or data obtained with more complex
models that make use of measurements not available VVT Variable Valve Timing
on-board) to assess the model performance from a
quantitative point of view. For this reason, the authors cv Constant-volume specific heat [J/(kgK)]
are actually indirectly validating the model results by
analyzing the relationship between estimated residual De Exhaust valve inner seat diameter [m].
gas fraction and combustion duration on different engine
configurations. Preliminary results are encouraging, and Di Intake valve inner seat diameter [m].
a control strategy is being designed to make use of
residual gas fraction estimation in real time. k Ratio of specific heats

CONTACT Le Exhaust valve lift [m].

Nicolò Cavina LHV Lower Heating Value [J/kg]

Affiliation: DIEM, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Li Intake valve lift [m].
University of Bologna
Viale Risorgimento, 2
40136 Bologna – Italy mair Intake air mass [kg/cyl/cycle]
e-mail: nicolo.cavina@mail.ing.unibo.it
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mair Intake air mass [kg/cyl/cycle] ρa “Ambient” reference density, defined at exhaust
pressure and intake temperature [kg/m3]
mcyl Total mass inside cylinder at TDC [kg/cyl/cycle]
REFERENCES
mEGR Exhaust gas mass externally recirculated
[kg/cyl/cycle] 1. Ford, R., Collings, N., Measurement of Residual Gas
Fraction using a Fast Response NO Sensor, SAE
mf Injected fuel mass [kg/cyl/cycle] Technical Paper 1999-01-0208.
2. Johansson, B., Neij, H., Julin, G., Alden, M.,
mIVC Total mass inside cylinder at IVC [kg/cyl/cycle] Residual Gas Visualization with Laser Induced
Fluorescence, SAE Technical Paper 952463.
mIVO Residual gas mass due to trapped gas inside 3. Hinze, P. C., Miles, P. C, Quantitative
the cylinder at IVO [kg/cyl/cycle] Measurements of Residual and Fresh Charge
Mixing in a Modern SI Engine Using Spontaneous
mof Residual gas mass due to valve overlap flow Raman Scattering, SAE Technical Paper 1999-01-
[kg/cyl/cycle] 1106.
4. Fox, J.W., Cheng W.K., J.B. Heywood, A Model for
mRG Residual gas mass [kg/cyl/cycle] predicting residual gas fraction in spark-ignition
engines, SAE Technical Paper 931025.
N Engine speed [rev/s] 5. Senecal P. K., Xin J., Reitz R. D., Predictions of
residual gas fraction in IC engines, SAE Technical
OF Overlap Factor [°/m] Paper 962052.
6. Mladek, M., Onder, C. H., A Model for the Estimation
pcyln Indicated pressure cylinder n [Pa] of Inducted Air Mass and the Residual Gas Fraction
using Cylinder Pressure Measurements, SAE
pe Exhaust Manifold Pressure [Pa] Technical Paper 2000-01-0958.
7. Sandquist, H., Wallesten, J., Enwald, K., Stromberg,
pi Intake Manifold Pressure [Pa] S., Influence of Valve Overlap Strategies on
Residual Gas Fraction and Combustion in a Spark-
R Ideal gas constant [J/(kgK)] Ignition Engine at Idle, SAE Technical Paper
972936.
rc Engine geometrical compression ratio 8. Heywood, J. B., Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals, Mc-Graw Hill International, 1998.
Te Exhaust Manifold Temperature [K] 9. Randolph, A., Methods of processing Cylinder-
Pressure Transducer Signals to maximize Data
Ti Intake Manifold Temperature [K] Accuracy, SAE Technical Paper 900170.
10. Burnt. M. F., Lucas, G., The Effect of Crank-angle
Vd Displacement volume of a single cylinder [m^3]
Resolution on Cylinder Pressure Analysis, SAE
Technical Paper 910041.
VIVO Volume inside a cylinder at effective IVO [m^3]
11. Kuratle, R., Marki, B., Influencing Parameters and
Error Sources during Indication on Internal
VTDC ,V0Volume inside a cylinder at TDC [m^3]
Combustion Engines, SAE Technical Paper 920233.
12. Puzinauskas, P. V., Eves, J. C., Tillman, N. F.,
XEGR Fraction of externally recirculated exhaust gas
Measuring Absolute Cylinder Pressure and Pressure
Drop across Intake Valves of firing Engines, SAE
XRG Residual gas fraction
Technical Paper 941881.
13. Randolph, A. L., Cylinder-pressure-based
XRG,IVO Residual gas fraction component due to trapped
Combustion Analysis in Race Engines, SAE
gas in the cylinder at IVO
Technical Paper 942487.
14. Burnt, M. F., Pond, C. R., Evaluation of Techniques
XRG,of Residual gas fraction component due to overlap
flow for Absolute Cylinder Pressure Correction, SAE
Technical Paper 970036.
Ze Number of exhaust valves per cylinder

Zi Number of intake valves per cylinder

φ Fuel-air normalized (or equivalent) ratio