1.

Verbal irony

occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say. It is an

intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it
simply, it occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its
literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. Writers rely on the audience’s intelligence
for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey
exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as “soft as concrete.”

Types of Verbal Irony

 Sarcasm
 Exaggeration or Overstatement
 Understatement

Examples of Verbal Irony from Literature

Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare)

“Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked away with
his nose in the air, saying: ‘I am sure they are sour.’ ”

“I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather than Paris.”

Juliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she dislikes and instead adores
Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry Romeo and tells her mother about it ironically that
whenever she would marry, it would be Romeo – whom she dislikes – and not Paris, thus confusing her
mother.

Example #2: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen)

“She is tolerable but not handsome enough to tempt me.”

We can find many fine examples of verbal irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this example, we relish ironic
flavor of Darcy’s statement, as we later find out that the woman he found unsuitable to dance with, ends
up taking a place in his heart.

Example #3: The Unknown Citizen (By W. H. Auden)

The title of the poem, The Unknown Citizen, employs verbal irony, as the poet describes a person whom
everyone knows, yet he is still unknown. Also, by deliberately capitalizing common words, the speaker
makes them sound meaningless, ironic, and sarcastic: “the Greater Community,” “Social Psychology,”
“Union,” “Public Opinion,” and “High Grade Living.” All of these terms sound formal, pompous,
bureaucratic, and arrogant. Simply, through verbal irony, the poet shows how governmental agencies,
which should serve human beings, have rather enslaved them.
Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)

TIRESIAS:
“You are all ignorant. I will not reveal the troubling things inside me, which I can call your grief as well.”

OEDIPUS:
“Do you intend to betray me and destroy the city?”

All types of ironies are prevalent throughout the entire play, Oedipus Rex. One fine example of verbal
irony occurs when Tiresias refuses to reveal the prophecy to Oedipus.

In fact, Oedipus has misunderstood Tiresias’ statement, “… which I can call your grief as well.” By this,
Tiresias means that, if he reveals the truth, it would become Oedipus’ grief that he is the murderer of his
king, Laius. This is a verbal irony which Oedipus fails to realize that this “grief” is going to be an
impending fate for him.

Example #5: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift)

“I rather recommend buying the children alive and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do roasting
pigs.”

Verbal irony is a dominant literary device in this novel by Swift. For instance, in the above statement the
author intends to point out that the government should not treat Irish people like animals. In irony, he
compares the Irish to animals.

Example #6: Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography (By Lemony Snicket)

“Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate; if the cup of hot
chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours.”

Snicket uses verbal irony by employing ironic simile. Then, he proceeds to break down this simile, by
overturning its meaning. By making a complex structure, the author creates verbal irony to let readers
enjoy.

Functions of Verbal Irony

Verbal irony is very common in everyday speech, plays, novels, and poetry, and usually occurs in the form
of sarcasm. It depends upon timing and suitable circumstances to achieve its effect. Verbal irony develops
funny and dramatic situations. Through verbal irony, writers and poets can convey their bitter messages
indirectly, in a less bitter and more effective way. It makes a literary piece more effective by provoking
readers into analyzing and thinking harder about a situation. By contrasting and comparing suppositions
with reality, the readers can better understand the writer’s intent.

Verbal Irony is when words express something contrary to truth or someone says the opposite of
what they really feel or mean. Verbal irony is often sarcastic.
Examples of Verbal Irony:
Verbal Irony Examples:
1. Looking at her son's messy room, Mom says, "Wow, you could win an award for cleanliness!"
2. On the way to school, the school bus gets a flat tire and the bus driver says, "Excellent! This day
couldn't start off any better!"
3. Mark is very upset over the fact that his brand new truck has a little speck of mud on the bumper,
and Jennifer, who has a used car, says, "My goodness! That's a shame!"
4. A student who goes to the restroom every day during class asks the teacher if he can go. Her
response is "Sure, it's not like we do anything important in this class."
5. A mother with three noisy children has been waiting in line at the market. When it is her turn, the
cashier asks if she would mind waiting while she runs to the restroom. The mother says, "Of course
not-why in the world would you think I would mind?"
6. A small child does not flush the toilet, and the mother says, "I really appreciate when you flush the
toilet! Thank you for remembering your manners!"
Examples of Verbal Irony in Literature:
1. In the movie Annie, the orphans say, "We love you Ms. Hannigan," to their guardian who is mean
to them.
2. In Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Marc Antony gives a speech in which he repeatedly refers to
Brutus as "an honorable man," when Brutus just participated in murdering Caesar.
3. In Beauty and the Beast, an animated Disney movie, Belle refuses to marry Gaston by saying "I
just don't deserve you!"
4. In The Lord of the Flies, by William Golding, a group of school boys is stranded on an island while
a war is going on in the world around them. Piggy, one of the characters, says that they are acting
like a "crowd of kids," and that grownups would have "tea and talk" about their situation. His
statement is ironic because of the grownup war that is raging in the world.

2. Situational Irony

Irony is when something is said that is the opposite of what is meant or when something occurs that
is the opposite of what is expected. There are three types of irony: verbal, situational, and
dramatic.
Situational Irony occurs when actions or events have the opposite result from what is expected or
what is intended.
Examples of Situational Irony:
1. Ralph wakes up late and thinks he is going to be late to school. After rushing around to get
dressed, he realizes it is Saturday.
2. The fire station burns down while the firemen are out on a call.
3. Sara is trying to avoid a water gun fight that her brothers are having and she falls into a puddle.
4. A man who owns a lawn maintenance business cannot get grass to grow in his own backyard.
Examples of Situational Irony in Literature:
1. In "The Gift of the Magi," by O. Henry, the husband sells his watch to buy his wife combs for her
hair and the wife sells her hair to buy her husband a chain for his watch.
2. In the Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Coleridge, the men are surrounded by an ocean of water,
but they are dying of thirst ("Water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink.")
3. "The Story of an Hour," by Kate Chopin tells of a wife who learns that her husband is dead. She
feels a sense of freedom as she thinks about a life without restriction. Then, he returns (he wasn't
dead after all) and she dies of shock.
4. In "The Necklace" by Guy de Maupassant, a woman borrows what she thinks is a costly necklace
from a friend and loses it. She and her husband sacrifice to replace it, only to learn years later that
the necklace was a fake.

3. Dramatic Irony

There are three types of irony-verbal, situational, and dramatic. Irony is defined as the difference
between what is said and what is meant or the difference between what appears to happen and what
actually happens.
Dramatic Irony occurs when the audience (of a movie, play, etc.) understands something about a
character's actions or an event but the characters do not.
Dramatic irony is an important stylistic device that is commonly found in plays, movies, theaters,
and sometimes in poetry. Storytellers use this irony as a useful plot device for creating situations
in which the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their
resolutions before the leading characters or actors. That is why readers observe that the speech
of actors takes on unusual meanings.
For instance, the audience knows that a character is going to be murdered, or will make a
decision to commit suicide; however, one particular character or others may not be aware of
these facts. Hence, the words and actions of characters would suggest a different meaning to the
audience from what they indicate to the characters and the story. Thus, it creates
intense suspense and humor. This speech device also emphasizes, embellishes, and conveys
emotions and moods more effectively.
Examples of Dramatic Irony:
1. Girl in a horror film hides in a closet where the killer just went (the audience knows the killer is
there, but she does not).
2. In Romeo and Juliet, the audience knows that Juliet is only asleep-not dead-but Romeo does not,
and he kills himself.
3. In Macbeth, King Duncan says that he trusts Macbeth ("he was a gentleman on whom I built an
absolute trust), but the audience knows that Macbeth is plotting to kill Duncan.
4. The Greek myth of Oedipus, as told in Sophocles' play Oedipus Rex, is full of dramatic irony. King
Oedipus wants to expose the killer of the former king, Laius. The audience knows that Oedipus is the
killer, but Oedipus does not realize that he killed the king.
5. In Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, we know that the old woman bringing the apple is the
wicked queen who wants to kill Snow White, but she does not. She purchases the apple, takes a bite,
and falls.
6. Another Disney movie, Beauty and the Beast, has examples of dramatic irony. The audience
knows from the beginning of the movie that the beast is a prince, but Belle does not.
Examples of Dramatic Irony from Literature
Example #1: Macbeth (By J William Shakespeare)

“There’s no art
To find the mind’s construction in the face:
He was a gentleman on whom I built
An absolute trust.”

This is one of the best examples of dramatic irony. In this case, Duncan says that he trusts
Macbeth, not knowing about the prophecy of witches that Macbeth is going to be the king, and
that he would kill him. The audience, on the other hand, knows about the prophecy. This
demonstrates dramatic irony.

Example #2: There’s Something About Mary (By Jonathan Richman)

“I’ve done it several times before.”

“It’s no big deal.”

Jonathan Richman’s comedy movie, There’s Something About Mary, contains several instances
of dramatic irony. For instance, when Ted thinks that the police have arrested him for picking up a
hitchhiker, the audience knows that the police are actually interrogating him about a murder.
Therefore, when Ted delivers these seemingly-innocuous lines, it is comedic to the audience.

Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare)

“Othello: I think thou dost.

And for I know thou ‘rt full of love and honesty
And weigh’st thy words before thou giv’st them breath…”

This is another very good example of dramatic irony, when Iago manipulates Othello, and Othello
puts his faith in Iago as an honest man. However, Iago is plotting against him without his
knowledge. Again, the audience knows that Iago is deceiving, but Othello does not.

Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)

“If someone knows the killer is a stranger,

from some other state, let him not stay mute…
I pray, too,
that, if he should become an honoured guest
in my own home and with my knowledge,
I may suffer all those things I’ve just called down
upon the killers.”

Oedipus Rex presents one of the best examples of dramatic irony of all time. In the play, Oedipus
seeks to expose the murderer of King Laius to solve a riddle; nonetheless, he himself is the
murderer. Here, he declares that the murderer, who has killed Laius, might also kill him, not
realizing the fact that he himself is the murderer.
Example #5: A Doll’s House (By Henrik Ibsen)

“To be able to be free from care, quite free from care; to be able to play and romp with the
children; to be able to keep the house beautifully and have everything just as Torvald likes it!”

Nora is delightedly looking forward to those moments when she would be able to pay off her
debts to Krogstad. This reflects that she would be free. However, her speech shows the use of
dramatic irony when the readers know that her freedom is, in fact, bondage, which she comes to
realize by the end of the story.

 Figurative language refers to the color we use to amplify our writing. It takes an ordinary statement and
dresses it up in an evocative frock. It gently alludes to something without directly stating it. Figurative language is a
way to engage your readers, ushering them through your writing with a more creative tone.
Although it's often debated how many "types" of figurative language there are, it's safe to say there are at least five distinct
categories. They are: metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, and symbolism.
In this article, we'll highlight the main branches of the tree, or "the big five." In truth, this is only scratching the surface. There
are waves of other literary devices that color our writing, including alliteration,
onomatopoeia, idioms, irony, oxymorons, puns, synecdoche, and more. As a starting point, let's have some fun with the ones
you're most likely to come across in your daily readings.

Understanding the Concept

Any time your writing goes beyond the actual meanings of your words, you're using figurative language. This allows the reader
to gain new insights into your work.
One of the best ways to understand the concept of figurative language is to see it in action. Here are some examples:
 This coffee shop is an ice box! (Metaphor)
 She's drowning in a sea of grief. (Metaphor)
 She's happy as a clam. (Simile)
 I move fast like a cheetah on the Serengeti. (Simile)
 The sea lashed out in anger at the ships, unwilling to tolerate another battle. (Personification)
 The sky misses the sun at night. (Personification)
 I've told you a million times to clean your room! (Hyperbole)
 Her head was spinning from all the new information. (Hyperbole)
 She was living her life in chains. (Symbolism - Chains are a symbol of oppression of entrapment.)
 When she saw the dove soar high above her home, she knew the worst was over. (Symbolism - Doves are a symbol of
peace and hope.)

The Big Five

Let's dive deeper into "the big five." We'll consider their place in your writing, and give some examples to paint a better picture
for you.

Metaphor
When you use a metaphor, you make a statement that doesn't literally make sense. For example, "Time is a thief." Time is not
actually stealing from you but this conveys the idea that hours or days sometimes seem to slip by without you noticing.
Metaphors only makes sense when the similarities between the two things being compared are apparent or readers understand
the connection between the two words. Examples include:
 The world is my oyster.
 You're a couch potato.
 Time is money.
 He has a heart of stone.
 America is a melting pot.
 You are my sunshine.
Simile
A simile also compares two things. However, similes use the words "like" or "as."
Examples include:
 Busy as a bee.
 Clean as a whistle.
 Brave as a lion.
 The tall girl stood out like a sore thumb.
 It was as easy as shooting fish in a barrel.
 My mouth was as dry as a bone.
 They fought like cats and dogs.
 Watching that movie was like watching grass grow.
Personification
Personification gives human characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, or ideas. This can really affect the way
the reader imagines things. Personification is often used in poetry, fiction, and children's rhymes.
Examples include:
 Opportunity knocked at his door.
 The sun greeted me this morning.
 The sky was full of dancing stars.
 The vines wove their delicate fingers together.
 The radio suddenly stopped singing and stared at me.
 The sun played hide and seek with the clouds.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an outrageous exaggeration that emphasizes a point. It tends toward the ridiculous or the funny.
Hyperbole adds color and depth to a character.
Examples include:
 You snore louder than a freight train!
 It's a slow burg. I spent a couple of weeks there one day.
 She's so dumb, she thinks Taco Bell is a Mexican phone company.
 I had to walk 15 miles to school in the snow, uphill, in bare feet.
 You could've knocked me over with a feather.
Symbolism
Symbolism occurs when a word has its own meaning but is used to represent something entirely different.
Examples in everyday life include:
 Using the image of the American flag to represent patriotism and a love for one's country.
 Incorporating a red rose in your writing to symbolize love.
 Using an apple pie to represent a traditional American lifestyle.
 Using a chalkboard to represent education.
 Incorporating the color black in your writing as a symbol for evil or death.
 Using an owl to represent wisdom.
Symbolism examples in literature include:
"All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, and one man in
his time plays many parts." - As You Like It, William Shakespeare
The "stage" here symbolizes the world and the "players" represent human beings.
"My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I'm well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love
for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary." - Wuthering Heights, Emily
Bronte
Bronte uses imagery of the natural world to symbolize the wild nature and deep feelings of her characters.
Some Fun Sounds
So, that covers "the big five." But, we'd be remiss if we didn't briefly touch upon some literary sound devices that can
hang with the best similes and metaphors.

Alliteration
Alliteration is a sound device. It is the repetition of the first consonant sounds in several words.
Examples include:
 We're up, wide-eyed, and wondering while we wait for others to awaken.
 Betty bought butter but the butter was bitter, so Betty bought better butter to make the bitter butter better.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is also a sound device where the words sound like their meaning, or mimic sounds. They add a level
of fun and reality to writing.
Here are some examples:
 The burning wood hissed and crackled.
 Sounds of nature are all around us. Listen for the croak, caw, buzz, whirr, swish, hum, quack, meow, oink, and
tweet.

Figurative Language Engages the Reader

Regardless of the type of word you use, figurative language can make you look at the world differently; it can
heighten your senses, add expression and emphasis, and help you feel like you're having the same experience as
the author. With each brush stroke across the canvas a painter adds depth to their masterpiece. Figurative language
adds the same kind of depth to our writing.

 Literal language by definition does not use figures of speech. Instead, literal language uses
the actual meanings of words or phrases in their exact sense. Literal language is very straightforward and to the
point. Literal language is precise and often tells the reader exactly the point. The reader or listener does not
have to extract meaning.
 Literal language is often used within the fields of science and research. You might consider using literal language
when writing a term paper on the defectiveness of alternative energy solutions. If you were writing a paper in
chemistry class, the use of precise, straightforward language would be the best option. Literary language should
be used when the goal is to give an explicit explanation. Authors use literal language when they want to get their
point across in a direct manner.
 Literal language means exactly what it says, while figurative language uses similes, metaphors, hyperbole, and
personification to describe something often through comparison with something different. See the examples
below:
Literal Descriptions
 Grass looks green.
 Sand feels rough.
 The flower smells sweet.
 Grasshoppers make a high pitched noise.
 The sky is blue.
 The old wall is falling apart.
 The wheelbarrow is full of manure.
 I write with a pencil
 The sky is blue
 The whiteboard is white
 This question was asked and answered on Quora
35 Literary Devices and Literary Terms
(with Definitions and Examples
A clear list of literary devices is a good resource for any writer to have on hand. Strong device usage can
help elevate a book from a story people forget, to a piece of literature that stays with them long after they've
turned the final page.

After all, in As You Like It, Shakespeare could have simply written, "Everyone has a role in life." But
instead, he used a literary device and penned one of the famous metaphors of all time:

All the world’s a stage

And all the men and women merely players

And the rest is history.

35+ literary devices to turn you into Shakespeare #amwriting

Click To Tweet

What are literary devices?

Literary devices are tools writers use to express their ideas with artistic depth. These devices can clarify
and emphasize concepts, create resonance within a narrative, and invite readers to dig a little deeper into
the story’s themes.

While all of the tools below fall under the umbrella of “literary devices,” the purpose and impact of them
varies wildly. Some might underscore a narrative and work on an intellectual level, while others have more
of a subtle, visceral, or emotional effect. Finally, they might also work to simply enhance the flow and
pacing of your writing. No matter what, if you're looking to inject something special into your prose,
literary devices are a great place to start.

List of literary devices

1. Allegory
The Tortoise and the Hare is about more than just a turtle, a rabbit, and a race. It also aims to teach the
lesson: slow and steady wins the race. That’s what an allegory does — it’s a type of narrative that uses
characters and plot to exemplify abstract ideas and themes, such as patience. In an allegorical story, events
and characters tend to represent more than they appear on the surface.

Example: Animal Farm by George Orwell. This dystopian novella is one of modern literature’s best-
known allegories. A commentary on the events leading up to Stalin's rise and the formation of the Soviet
Union, the pigs at the heart of the novel blatantly represent figures such as Stalin, Trotsky, and Molotov.

2. Alliteration
Alliteration is a series of words used in quick succession that all start with the same letters or sound. It
lends a pleasing cadence to prose or poetry. And if you doubt whether alliteration really has an impact on a
reader’s experience, just think of the following unforgettable titles: Love’s Labour’s Lost, Sense and
Sensibility, The Haunting of Hill House.

Example: She sells seashells by the seashore.

3. Allusion
You probably allude to things all the time in everyday speech. An allusion is a passing or indirect
descriptive reference to something.

Example: “This list of literary devices will turn me into a bona fide Hemingway.”

4. Anachronism
When something happens or is attributed to a different era than when it actually existed. Anachronism is
usually a mistake, e.g. an author writing a period piece and accidentally using language that’s too modern,
or including some object that had not been invented at the time of the story. However, it can also be
intentionally used as a literary device, if the author wants to comment on a theme like time or society.

Example: When Cassius in Julius Caesar says that “the clock has stricken three” — mechanical clocks had
not been invented in 44 A.D. Of course, it’s debatable whether Shakespeare did this on purpose, to signify
something else. Indeed, there are many famously prominent anachronisms in Shakespeare, such as his
inclusion of the University of Halle-Wittenberg in Hamlet and his mention of the dollar as currency
in Macbeth.
5. Anaphora
Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a series of clauses or sentences. It’s
often seen in poetry and speeches, intended to provoke a emotional response in its audience. (Did you know
there's over 15 types of repetition? Learn them all in our guide to repetition!)

Example: Martin Luther King’s 1963 “I Have A Dream” speech. “I have a dream that one day this nation
will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed … and I have a dream that one day on the red hills of
Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit together at the
table of brotherhood… I have a dream that little children will one day live in a nation where they will not
be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.”

Similar term: repetition (see below)

6. Anastrophe
Anastrophe is a figure of speech in which the traditional sentence structure is reversed. So a traditional
verb-subject-adjective sentence such as “Are you ready?” becomes a Yoda-esque adjective-verb-subject
question: “Ready, are you?” Or a standard adjective-noun pairing like “tall mountains” becomes
“mountains tall.”

Example: “Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing.” — Edgar Allan
Poe, The Raven

7. Anthropomorphism
When one applies human traits or qualities to a non-human thing — such as objects, animals, or weather —
the thing becomes anthropomorphized.

Examples: In Disney’s Beauty and the Beast, Mrs. Potts the teapot, Cogsworth the clock, and Lumière the
candlestick are all household objects that act and behave like humans (which, of course, they were when
they weren’t under a spell).

Similar term: personification (see below)

 The household items in "Beauty and the Beast" have been anthropomorphized. (Image: Buena Vista)

8. Aphorism
A universally accepted truth stated in a concise, to-the-point manner: that's an aphorism. They typically
possess a sharp or witty style that gives them staying power, often taking the form of an adage or proverb.

Example: “To err is human, to forgive divine.” — Alexander Pope

9. Chiasmus
When two or more parallel clauses are inverted. “What does that mean and why would I do that?” you
might be wondering. Well, a chiasmus might sound confusing in definition, but you’ve more than likely
come across it in execution.

Example: “Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country.” — John F.
Kennedy
10. Colloquialism
The use of casual and informal language in writing; this can also include slang. Writers
use colloquialisms to provide further context to settings and characters. Imagine reading a YA novel that
takes place in modern America, and the characters speak to each other like this:

“Good morning, Sue. I hope that you slept well and are prepared for this morning’s science exam.”

It’s not realistic. Inject colloquialisms for more believable dialogue.

“Hey Sue, what’d you get up to last night? This science exam is gonna suck.”

Example: Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh takes place in Scotland — a fact undeniably apparent by simply
glancing at the use of dialect: “Thing is, as ye git aulder, this character-deficiency gig becomes mair
sapping. Thir wis a time ah used tae say tae aw the teachers, bosses, dole punters, poll-tax guys,
magistrates, when they telt me ah was deficient: ’Hi, cool it, gadge, ah’m jist me, jist intae a different sort
ay gig fae youse but, ken?’”

11. Euphemism
A euphemism is an indirect or “politer” way of describing something deemed inappropriate or awkward to
address directly. However, most people will still understand the truth about what's actually happening.

Example: When an elderly person is forced to retire, it’s often said that they’re being “put out to pasture.”

12. Flashback
Though you probably already know what a flashback is — they’re only used in just about every
psychological thriller ever — you may not know how they should be employed. As a literary device,
flashbacks typically split up other scenes of present-day events, building suspense toward a big reveal.
Flashbacks are also an interesting, dramatic way to present exposition for your story, unveiling to the
reader what happened in the past.

Example: Every other chapter in the first part of Gone Girl is a flashback, with Amy’s old diary entries
painting a picture of her relationship with her husband before she disappeared.

Similar term: foreshadowing (see below)

13. Foreshadowing
When authors hint at events yet to come. Foreshadowing is often used to create tension or suspense —
leaving readers just enough breadcrumbs to keep them hungry for more.

Want to become a foreshadowing expert? Check out our post on the subject, which is full of examples.

Example: While there are many ways to foreshadow, a popular method is through partial reveals: the
narrator says something, but leaves out key facts to prompt readers’ curiosity. Jeffrey Eugenides does this
in The Virgin Suicides: “On the morning the last Lisbon daughter took her turn at suicide – it was Mary this
time, and sleeping pills, like Therese, the two paramedics arrived at the house knowing exactly where the
knife drawer was, and the gas oven, and the beam in the basement from which it was possible to tie a rope.”

Similar term: flashback

14. Hyperbole
Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that emphasizes the significance of the statement’s actual meaning.
When a friend says, "Oh my god, I haven't seen you in a million years" — that's hyperbole.

Example: “At that time Bogota was a remote, lugubrious city where an insomniac rain had been falling
since the beginning of the 16th century.” — Gabriel García Márquez,Living to Tell the Tale

15. Hypophora
Much like a rhetorical question, wherein someone asks a question that doesn't require an
answer. Hypophora is where the person raises a question and answers it immediately themselves (hence
the prefix hypo, meaning "under" or "before"). It’s often used when characters are reasoning something
aloud.

Example: “Do you always watch for the longest day of the year and then miss it? I always watch for the
longest day in the year and then miss it.” — F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby
 Musing Daisy Buchanan has a habit of hypophora. (Image: Warner Bros)

16. Imagery
Imagery is a way of appealing to readers’ sense through descriptive language. It’s also crucial for any
writer looking to follow the commonly cited rule “show, don’t tell."

Example: “In the hard-packed dirt of the midway, after the glaring lights are out and the people have gone
to bed, you will find a veritable treasure of popcorn fragments, frozen custard dribblings, candied apples
abandoned by tired children, sugar fluff crystals, salted almonds, popsicles, partially gnawed ice cream
cones and wooden sticks of lollipops.” — E.B. White, Charlotte's Web

17. Irony
Creates contrast between how things seem and how they really are beneath the surface. There are three
types of literary irony: dramatic (when readers know what will happen before characters
do), situational (when readers expect a certain outcome, only to be surprised by a turn of events),
and verbal (when the intended meaning of a statement is the opposite of what was said).

Example: This opening scene from Orson Welles’ A Touch of Evil is a great example of how dramatic
irony can create tension.
18. Isocolon
If you’re a neat freak who likes things just so, isocolon is the literary device for you. This is when two or
more phrases or clauses have a similar structure, rhythm, and even length — such that, when stacked up on
top of each other, they would line up. Isocolon often crops up in brand slogans and famous sayings; the
quick, balanced rhythm makes the phrase more memorable and catchy.

Examples: Veni, vidi, vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”)

19. Juxtaposition
Sometimes the best way for us to understand something is by understanding what it’s not. This is the point
of juxtaposition: by placing two or more characters, themes, concepts, places, etc. side by side, the
profound contrast highlights their differences.

Example: In the opening lines of A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens uses juxtaposition to emphasize
the societal disparity that led to the French Revolution: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times,
it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of
incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the
winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to
Heaven, we were all going direct the other way…”

Similar terms: oxymoron, paradox

Make literary devices your new vice & become an expert writer #amwriting

Click To Tweet
20. Litotes
Litotes (pronounced lie-toe-teez) is the signature literary device of the double negative. Writers use litotes
to express certain sentiments through their opposites, by saying that that opposite is not the case. Don’t
worry, it makes more sense with the examples. 😉

Example: “You won’t be sorry” (meaning you’ll be happy); “you’re not wrong” (meaning you’re right); “I
didn’t not like it” (meaning I did)

21. Malapropism
If Shakespeare is the king of metaphors, Michael Scott is the king of malapropisms. This is when similar-
sounding words replace their appropriate counterparts, typically to comic effect — one of the most
commonly cited is “dance a flamingo,” rather than a “flamenco.” Malapropisms are usually employed in
dialogue when a character flubs up their speech.

Example: “I am not to be truffled with.”

His last name is Christ. He has the power of flight. He can heal leopards. (Image: NBC)

22. Metaphor
When it comes to literary devices, this one is a heavy hitter. Unlike juxtaposition, metaphors help us make
sense of things by comparing the common characteristics of two unlike things.

Example: Metaphors are literature’s bread and butter (metaphor intended) — good luck finding a novel
that is free from a single one. Here’s one from Frances Hardinge’s A Face Like Glass: “Wishes are thorns,
he told himself sharply. They do us no good, just stick into our skin and hurt us.”

(One metaphor example not enough? Check out this post, which has 97 of ‘em!)

Similar term: simile

23. Metonymy
Metonymy is like symbolism, but even more so. A metonym doesn’t just symbolize something else, it
comes to serve as a synonym for that thing or things — typically, a single object embodies an entire
institution.

Examples: “The crown” representing the monarchy, “Washington” representing the U.S. government

Similar term: synecdoche (see below)

24. Motif
Whatever form a motif takes, it recurs throughout the novel and helps develop the theme of the narrative.
This might be a symbol, concept, or image. Check out this post for an helpful guide to motifs!

Example: In The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, the yellow brick road is a motif that
represents the journey of life and growing up.

Similar term: symbol

25. Onomatopoeia
Amusingly, this difficult-to-pronounce word refers to words that sound like the thing they’re referring to.
Examples of onomatopoeia include whiz, buzz, snap, grunt, etc.

Example: The excellent children's book Click, Clack, Moo: Cows That Type. "Farmer Brown has a
problem. His cows like to type. All day long he hears: Click, clack, moo. Click, clack, moo. Clickety, clack,
moo."

26. Oxymoron
When you put two contradictory words together in a sentence to describe something, you create
an oxymoron. While juxtaposition contrasts two story elements, oxymorons are about the actual words you
are using.

Example: "Parting is such sweet sorrow.” — William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet. Find 100 more
examples of oxymorons here.
Similar terms: juxtaposition, paradox

For Romeo and Juliet, parting is — oxymoronically — such sweet sorrow. (Image: 20th Century Fox)

27. Paradox
From the Greek word paradoxon, which means “beyond belief.” It’s a statement that asks people to think
outside the box by providing seemingly illogical — and yet latently true — premises. Often, authors
uses paradoxes themselves as a novel’s theme.

Example: In George Orwell’s 1984, the slogan of the totalitarian government is built on paradoxes: “War
is Peace, Freedom is Slavery, Ignorance is Strength.” While we might read these statements as obviously
contradictory, in the context of Orwell’s novel, these blatantly corrupt sentiments have become an accepted
truth.

Similar terms: oxymoron, juxtaposition

28. Personification
While anthropomorphism applies human traits to non-human things (think of Donkey from Shrek — or any
animal character from any cartoon), personification uses human traits to describe non-human things (such
as animals, object, or natural phenomena). The behavior of the thing does not change.
Example: “Just before it was dark, as they passed a great island of Sargasso weed that heaved and swung
in the light sea as though the ocean were making love with something under a yellow blanket, his small line
was taken by a dolphin.” — Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea

Similar term: anthropomorphism

29. Point of View

The mode of narration in a story. There are various types of point of view (POV) an author can choose, and
each one will have a huge impact on the reading experience. To learn more about first, second, and third
person POV, check out our comprehensive guide on the subject.

Example: Second person POV is the least common because it directly addresses the reader — not an easy
narrative to pull off. One popular novel that manages to employ this perspective successfully is Bright
Lights, Big City by Jay McInerney: “You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this
time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although
the details are fuzzy.”

30. Polysyndeton
This one is definitely for authors looking to add a bit of artistic flare to their writing. Instead of using a
singular, technically-necessary conjunction or connecting word, polysyndeton involves several used in
succession for a dramatic effect.

Example: “Luster came away from the flower tree and we went along the fence and they stopped and we
stopped and I looked through the fence while Luster was hunting in the grass.” — William Faulkner, The
Sound and the Fury

31. Repetition
Repetition, repetition, repetition… where would we be without it? Though too much repetition is rarely a
good thing, occasional repetition can be used quite effectively to drill home a point, or to create a certain
atmosphere. For example, horror writers often use repetition in one way or another to make the reader feel
trapped and scared, especially since repeating things is seen as a sign of mental instability.
Example: In The Shining, Jack Torrance types over and over again on his pages, “All work and no play
makes Jack a dull boy.” In this case, obsessive repetition demonstrates the character’s unraveling mind.

Similar term: anaphora

Not exactly what you want to see on your husband's desk. (Image: Warner Bros)

32. Satire
Writers use satire to make fun of some aspect of human nature or society — usually through exaggeration,
ridicule, or irony.

Example: The famous adventure novel Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift is a classic example of satire
— criticizing English society: “As to the first, you are to understand, that for above seventy Moons past,
there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan
from the high and low Heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves.”

33. Simile
While both metaphors and similes draw resemblances between two things, the former says that “Thing
A is Thing B,” whereas the latter says that “Thing A is like Thing B.” It might also use the words “such as”
or “as.”
Example: “Time has not stood still. It has washed over me, washed me away, as if I’m nothing more than a
woman of sand, left by a careless child too near the water.” — Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid’s Tale

Similar term: metaphor

34. Soliloquy
Yet another device for which Shakespeare is famous, soliloquy involves a character speaking their thoughts
aloud, usually at length. They may be alone or in the company of others, but they’re not speaking for the
benefit of other people — the purpose of a soliloquy is for a character to reflect independently.

Example: Hamlet’s “to be or not to be” speech, in which he ruminates on the nature of life and death, is a
classic dramatic soliloquy

35. Symbolism
To represent abstract concepts and ideas in their stories, authors turn to symbols and symbolism. Symbols
typically derive from objects — for instance, a dove might represent peace, or raven might represent death.

Example: In The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald uses the Valley of Ashes — a barren wasteland between East
and West Egg — as a symbol to represent the waste and moral decay of the elite.

Similar term: motif

36. Synecdoche
Synecdoche is the usage of a part to represent the whole. That is, rather than an object or title that’s
merely associated with the larger concept (as in metonymy), synecdoche must actually be attached in some
way: either to the name, or to the larger whole itself.

Examples: “Stanford won the game” (Stanford referring to the full title of the Stanford football team) or
“Nice wheels you got there” (wheels referring to the entire car)

Similar term: metonymy

 Prosodic features of speech.

Prosodic features (sometimes known as suprasegmental phonology) are those aspects of speech which go
beyond phonemes and deal with the auditory qualities of sound. In spoken communication, we use and
interpret these features without really thinking about them. There are various conventional ways of
representing them in writing, although the nuances are often hard to convey on paper.

Pause. Pause as hesitation is a non-fluency feature. However, intentional pauses are used to demarcate
units of grammatical construction, such as sentences or clauses. These can be indicated in writing by full
stops, colons, semi-colons and commas.

Pitch. Different pitch levels, or intonation, can affect meaning. The most obvious example is the way in
which speakers raise the pitch at the end of a question, and this is indicated by a question mark in
writing. However, patterns of rise and fall can indicate such feelings as astonishment, boredom or
puzzlement, and these can be shown in writing only in a special transcription.

A recently-fashionable use of pitch variation is “inlift”, in which the speaker raises the pitch of the voice
in an interrogative way in the middle of a sentence, as if seeking confirmation of the listener’s
comprehension. The popularity of this speech feature has been attributed to Australian soaps, but it
already seems to be in decline.

Stress. Stress, or emphasis, is easy to use and recognise in spoken language, but harder to describe. A
stressed word or syllable is usually preceded by a very slight pause, and is spoken at slightly increased
volume.

At word level, stress can differentiate between, for example, the noun ‘desert and the verb des’ert, a
distinction which cannot be shown in ordinary writing: a reader will have to rely on the context to
determine which is meant.

At sentence level, which word is stressed can alter the meaning of the sentence. Consider the sentence I
like your red shoes. There is a good deal of difference between I like your red shoes; I likeyour red shoes; I
like your red shoes; and I like your red shoes. In writing, this can only be shown typographically, through
the use of italics or underlining. In such cases, a writer will generally italicise the whole word, even if, in a
polysyllabic word, only one syllable actually carries stress.

In any sentence, some words will be stressed more than others: lexical words (nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs) are more likely to be carry primary stress than grammatical words are.

Volume. Apart from the slight increase in loudness to indicate stress, volume is generally used to show
emotions such as fear or anger. In writing, it can be shown by the use of an exclamation mark, or
typographically with capitals or italics (or both).

Tempo. Tempo, or speed, is to some extent a matter of idiolect. Whilst its use is not wholly systematic, it
can indicate the difference between, for example, impatience and reflectiveness. It can be shown in
writing only through unspoken words, e.g. “Certainly not”, he snapped.
 Writing Effective Paragraphs
A paragraph should be unified, coherent, and well developed. Paragraphs are unified around a main point and all
sentences in the paragraph should clearly relate to that point in some way. The paragraph's main idea should be
supported with specific information that develops or discusses the main idea in greater detail.

Creating a Topic Sentence

The topic sentence expresses the main point in a paragraph. You may create your topic sentence by considering the
details or examples you will discuss. What unifies these examples? What do your examples have in common? Reach a
conclusion and write that "conclusion" first. If it helps, think of writing backwards--from generalization to support instead of
from examples to a conclusion.

If you know what your main point will be, write it as clearly as possible. Then, focus on key words in your topic sentence
and try to explain them more fully. Keep asking yourself "How?" or "Why?" or "What examples can I provide to convince a
reader?". After you have added your supporting information, review the topic sentence to see if it still indicates the
direction of your writing.

Purposes of Topic Sentences

 To state the main point of a paragraph

 To give the reader a sense of direction (indicate what information will follow)
 To summarize the paragraph's main point

Placement of Topic Sentences

 Often appear as the first or second sentences of a paragraph

 Rarely appear at the end of the paragraph

Supporting a Topic Sentence with Details

To support a topic sentence, consider some of the possible ways that provide details. To develop a paragraph, use one or
more of these:

 Add examples
 Tell a story that illustrates the point you're making
 Discuss a process
 Compare and contrast
 Use analogies (eg., "X is similar to Y because. . . ")
 Discuss cause and effect
 Define your terms

Reasons for beginning a new paragraph

 To show you're switching to a new idea

 To highlight an important point by putting it at the beginning or end of your paragraph
 To show a change in time or place
 To emphasize a contrast
 To indicate changing speakers in a dialogue
 To give readers an opportunity to pause
 To break up a dense text

Ways of Arranging Information Within or Between Paragraphs

 Order of time (chronology)

 Order of space (descriptions of a location or scene)
 Order of climax (building toward a conclusion)
 Order of importance (from least to most important or from most to least important)
Delivering Your Speech: Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery

Women in Business Leadership Conf. by UCLA Anderson. CC-BY-NC-SA.

Personal Appearance

Here is the golden rule: Dress appropriately for the situation. You don’t need to sport a power tie (the
predictable red tie politicians wore in the 1980s), but you should be comfortable and confident knowing that
you look good.

Table 12.2: Dressing Appropriately

What to Wear: What NOT to wear:

 T-shirts, sweatshirts, or sweatsuits

 Sleeveless tops
 A button-down shirt or blouse
 Printed logos or sayings (unless appropriate to the speech)
 Trousers (khaki or dark) or a skirt
 Caps or hats
 A dress appropriate for a business setting
 Torn jeans
 A nice sweater
 Visible underwear
 Limited, tasteful jewelry
 Noisy or dangling jewelry
 A suit or jacket may be appropriate
 Flip flops
 A tie or scarf (optional)
 Provocative clothing

 Pockets full of keys or change

With the exception of wearing formal black-tie tuxedo to a hockey game, it is good practice to dress a bit more
formal than less. Err on the side of formal. Most class speeches would be best in business casual (which can
vary from place to place and in time). The culture or standards of the audience should be considered. For men,
it is usually a button-down shirt and casual dress pants. For women, it may be skirt or slacks and blouse/shirt.

There are exceptions depending on the speech. A student once arrived in pajamas to deliver his 9 a.m.
speech. At first, I thought he got up too late to dress for class. However, his speech was on Sleep Deprivation,
and his costume was deliberate. What he wore contributed to his speech.
If you have long hair, be sure it is out of the way so it won’t cover your face. Flipping hair out of your face is
very distracting, so it is wise to secure it with clips, gel, or some other method. Be sure you can be seen,
especially your eyes and your mouth, even as you glance down to the podium.

Think of it as an interview…just like in an interview, you will want to make a good first impression. The
corporate culture of the business will determine the dress. Always dress at the level of the person conducting
the interview. For example, a construction foreman (or project manager) will conduct an interview to hire you
as a carpenter. Do not dress like a carpenter; dress like the project manager.

Actors know when they audition, the role is won by the time they step into the room. A speaker can launch
success by stepping confidently to the podium.

Be tidy and clean. If you appear as though you took time to prepare because your speech is important, then
your audience will recognize and respect what you have to say.

Movement and Gestures

Overall movement and specific gestures are integral to a speech. Body stance, gestures and facial
expressions can be generally categorized as body language. Movement should be relaxed and natural, and
not excessive. How you move takes practice. Actors usually have the advantage of directors helping to make
decisions about movement, but a good objective listener or a rehearsal in front of a large mirror can yield
productive observations.

“Barack Obama at Las Vegas Presidential Forum”by Center for American Progress Action Fund. CC-BY-SA.

Moving around the performance space can be a very powerful component of a speech; however, it should be
rehearsed as part of the presentation. Too much movement can be distracting. This is particularly true if the
movement appears to be a result of nervousness. Avoid fidgeting, stroking your hair, and any other
nervousness-related movement.

Among the traditional common fears of novice speakers is not knowing what to do with one’s hands.
Sometimes the speaker relies on clutching to the podium or keeping hands in pockets. Neither is a good pose.
From my own observation, hand gestures are very common in Italy. We Italians can be seen in conversation
from across the street, and an observer can often tell what is being said. There is no need to imitate an Italian
in delivering a speech, but hand movement and the energy that the movement represents, can help hold
attention as well as help express the message.

An actor practices using his whole body for expression, and regularly practices physical exercises to keep the
body and hands and arms relaxed and in motion. An actor’s hand gestures are developed in rehearsal. A
speaker’s gestures should also be considered during practice.
During the period when elocution was taught, hand gestures were regimented like a sign language. This is
nonsense. Like inflections, gestures and movement should be organic and spontaneous, not contrived. If there
is a hint of artificiality in your presentation, you will sacrifice your credibility.

Try This! Gestures

Using only your hands, convey the following:
1. “It’s OK.”
2. “I give up.”
3. “He’s crazy.”
4. “We will be victorious.”

Facial Expressions

Most readers are very familiar with emoticons like these:

:) :( :p :D ;) :/

“Castefest 2011, Gothic” by Qsimple. CC-BY-NC-SA.

Emoticons were not casual inventions, but graphic depictions of facial expressions that convey various
meanings of emotions. They are based on a nearly universal language of expression that we begin learning
soon after birth. We smile, we frown, we roll our eyes, and we wink. We open eyes wide with astonishment.
We raise our eyebrows…occasionally one at a time, in suspicion; both, in astonishment. Sometimes we pucker
our lips, either to offer a kiss or express disapproval, disappointment, or grave concern.

I pretty much try to stay in a constant state of confusion just because of the expression it leaves on my face. ~
Johnny Depp

Since facial expression is a valid form of communication, it is integral to delivering a speech. The face supports
the text, and the speaker’s commitment to the material is validated. The press scrutinizes a politician for every
twitch of insincerity. Detectives have created a science of facial communication for interviewing suspects. Like
inflections, gestures and movement: facial expressions should be organic and spontaneous, not contrived. If
there is a hint of artificiality in your expression, you will sacrifice your credibility.
Try This! Facial Expressions
While looking in a mirror, try to express these thoughts without words:
1. “I am thrilled that I am getting a raise.”
2. “I am worried about tomorrow.”
3. “Lemons are too sour for me.”
4. “I am suspicious about what he did.”
After you have determined a facial expression for each, say the phrase. And see how well the verbal expression goes with
the nonverbal expression.

Eye Contact

Next to clearly speaking an organized text, eye contact is another very important element of speaking. An
audience must feel interested in the speaker, and know the speaker cares about them.

Whether addressing an audience of 1000 or speaking across a “deuce” (table for two), eye contact solidifies
the relationship between the speaker and audience. Good eye contact takes practice. The best practice is to
be able to scan the audience making each member believe the speaker is speaking to him or her.

However, there are some eye contact failures.

Head Bobber

This is a person who bobs his or her head looking down on the notes and up to the audience in an almost
rhythmic pattern.

Balcony Gazer

A person who looks over the heads of his or her audience to avoid looking at any individual.

The Obsessor

A person who looks at one or two audience members or who only looks in one direction.

The best way to develop good eye contact is to have an objective listener watch and comment on the eye
contact.

The eyes are called the windows to the soul, and the importance of eye contact in communication cannot be
overemphasized. Ideally, a speaker should include 80% to 90% of the delivery time with eye contact.

Eye contact is so important that modern teleprompters are designed to allow the speaker to look at the
audience while actually reading the speech. The Presidential Teleprompter (two angled pieces of glass
functioning like a periscope) is used so the politician can “connect” to the audience without missing a single
syllable. Audience members will be much more attentive and responsive if they believe the speech is directed
to them.

With good eye contact, the speaker can also observe and gauge the attention and response of the audience.
This is actually part of the feedback process of communication. The ideal is that the audience is not overly
aware of the speaker using notes.

How do you develop good eye contact? First, practice the speech with a generous amount of eye contact.
Second, know the speech well enough to only periodically (and quickly) glance at your notes. Third, prepare
your notes so they can be easily read and followed without hesitation.
There are no secrets to success. It is the result of preparation, hard work, and learning from failure. ~ Colin
Powell