EE 214 (Fundamentals of Electric Circuits)

Electricity - is the natural phenomena of the attraction and repulsion of charge particles.
Electric Charge (Q)-is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in
an electromagnetic field. Electron has an electrical charge of 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb (C).
Electric Current (I)- is the intensity of the movement of electrons. Mathematically, it is the rate of
charge that passes through a point per second, measured in Ampere (A).

I = Δq/Δt, coulomb/sec, Ampere

where: t = time, in second (s)

q= charge, in coulomb (C)

Types of Electric Current

1. Direct Current (DC) - a current that flows in one direction only.
Forms of DC Current
a. Pure DC -a current with constant amplitude.
b. Pulsating and Unidirectional DC - a current whose magnitude changes with time
2. Alternating Current (AC) - a current that whose magnitude changes continuously and the
direction flow changes periodically.
Forms of AC Current
a. Sinusoidal AC - a current whose magnitude varies sinusoidally with time and the
frequency is constant.
b. Non-Sinusoidal AC - a current whose waveform consists of multiple sinewaves
contained at different frequencies.

Electromotive Force (EMF), Voltage (E or V), or Electric Potential - the force that causes electric current.
Mathematically, it is the work needed to move a charge from one point to another,measured in Volt (V).
It is also a measure of the difference in potential between two points. Electric current flows from a
higher to a lower potential.
V = ΔW /Δq, Joules/Coulomb, Volt

where: W = work done in moving the charge, in Joules (J)

q= charge, in coulomb (C)

Electrical Power (P) -is the rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in Watt. Mathematically,

P = ΔW/Δt , Joules/sec, Watt (W)

where: W = work done in moving the charge, in Joules (J)

t = time, in second (s)

Also,
P = ΔW/Δt = (ΔW/Δq) (Δq/Δt) = VI, Volt*Ampere, Watt (W)
 Another unit for power is Horsepower (HP), wherein,

1 HP = 745.7 Watts or roughly ~ 746 Watts

Electrical Energy (W)- capacity to do work, measured in Watt-sec. it is a measure of how long a power is
expended or absorbed.

W = Power x time, Watt-second

Electric power utility companies uses KiloWatt-Hour (KW-Hr) to measure the energy consumption of its
costumer.

Electric Circuit- an interconnection of circuit elements where conversion of energy takes place.

Fundamental Elements of Electric Circuit:

1. Source of electrical energy - this could be in a voltage source or current source form. Most common
sources of energy are the storage battery or cell or a generator that comes in many forms. Source of
energy either comes in DC or AC form. The electric current that is produced by the source is
dependent on the nature of the source.
2. Load or consuming elements - this is the circuit element where the energy from the source is
transferred. It is where the conversion of energy takes place. There two kinds of elements, namely,
passive, which an element not capable of generating energy, and active elements, which are capable
of generating energy. Resistors, Inductors, and Capacitors are examples of passive elements, while
transistor is an example of an active element. Source of energy are likewise considered as active
element.
3. Conducting wires - are used to connect the sources of energy to the consuming elements. This are
metallic in form and is where movement of electrons takes place.

Forms of Electromotive Force

1. Direct Current Voltage (DCV or VDC) – a form of EMF that flows in one direction only.
Types of DC EMF
a. Pure DC – a DC EMF whose amplitude is constant. Example is the cell or battery.

b. Pulsating DC – a DC EMF generated by rectifier circuits.

 c. Unidirectional DC – a DC EMF generated by DC generators.

2. Alternating Current Voltage (ACV or VAC) - a form of EMF whose amplitude changes continuously
and the polarity reverses periodically.

Types of DC EMF
a. Sinusoidal AC

b. Square Wave AC

c. Triangular Wave AC
Load or Consuming Elements – any device that consumes electrical power.

Types of Loads according to their electrical property

1. Resistive Load - consume electrical power in such a manner that the current wave remains in
phase with the voltage wave. This means power factor for a resistive load is unity. Examples are
electric heaters and resistors.
2. Reactive Load - a load which is carried by an alternating current generating station or system in
which the current and voltage are out of phase.
Types:
a. Inductive Load - causes the current wave to lag the voltage wave. Thus, power factor of an
inductive load is lagging. Examples of inductive load include transformers, motors, coils etc.
b. Capacitive Load - causes the current wave to lead the voltage wave. Thus, power factor of a
capacitive load is leading. Examples of capacitive loads are capacitor banks, buried cables,
capacitors used in various circuits such as motor starters etc.

Resistive Load
Resistor - is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to
divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.

Common types of resistors

 Common resistor symbols

Electrical resistance is the amount of opposition to flow of electricity through it and is measured in
Ohm. An ohm is the resistance that occurs when a current of one ampere passes through a resistor with
a one volt drop across its terminals. “The current is proportional to the voltage across the terminal
ends”. This is known as Ohm’s Law

R = V/I, Ohm or Ω
Where:
R = Electrical Resistance, Ohm or Ω
I = Electric Current, Amp or A
V = Voltage, Volt or V

Resistors can be classified in various ways. It can be can any of the following;

In terms of Resistance value

1. Fixed resistors– are resistors having a fixed, defined electrical resistance which is not adjustable.
2. Variable resistors – are resistors of which the ohmic resistance value can be adjusted.
a. Potentiometer- is the most common variable resistor. It has 3 terminals. It functions as a
potential divider and is used to generate a voltage signal depending on the position of the
potentiometer. This signal can be used for a very wide variety of applications including:
Amplifier gain control (audio volume), measurement of distance or angles, tuning of circuits
and much more. When variable resistors are used to tune or calibrate a circuit or
application, trimmer potentiometers or trimpots are used, this are mostly small
potentiometers mounted on the circuit board, which can be adjusted using a screwdriver.

b. Rheostat - are very similar in construction to potentiometers, but are not used as a potential
divider, but as a variable resistance. They use only 2 terminals instead of the 3 terminals
potentiometers use. One connection is made at one end of the resistive element, the other
at the wiper of the variable resistor.

Resistance dependent on a physical quantity

1. Thermistors - is a temperature sensitive resistor, they are often used as a temperature
sensor. The term thermistor is a contraction of the words “thermal” and “resistor”. All
resistors have some dependency on temperature, which is described by their temperature
coefficient. In most cases for (fixed or variable) resistors the temperature coefficient is
minimized, but in the case of thermistors a high coefficient is achieved. Unlike most other
resistors, thermistors usually have negative temperature coefficients (NTC) which means the
resistance decreases as the temperature increases. These types are called NTC thermistors.
Thermal resistors with a positive temperature coefficient are called PTC thermistors
(Positive Temperature Coefficient). Thermistors are ceramic semiconductors. In most cases
they are composed of metal oxides, which are dried and sintered to obtain the desired form
factor. The types of oxides and additives determine their characteristic behavior. For NTC’s
 cobalt, nickel, iron, copper or manganese are common oxides. For PTC’s barium, strontium
or lead titanates are commonly used.
2. Photo Resistor or Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) - are light sensitive devices most often
used to indicate the presence or absence of light, or to measure the light intensity. In the
dark, their resistance is very high, sometimes up to 1MΩ, but when the LDR sensor is
exposed to light, the resistance drops dramatically, even down to a few ohms, depending on
the light intensity. LDRs have a sensitivity that varies with the wavelength of the light
applied and are nonlinear devices. They are used in many applications but are sometimes
made obsolete by other devices such as photodiodes and phototransistors. Some countries
have banned LDRs made of lead or cadmium over environmental safety concerns.
3. Varistor or Voltage Dependent Resistor (VDR)– is a resistor whose resistance is made
variable depending on the voltage applied. The word is composed of parts of the words
“variable resistor”. Their resistance decreases when the voltage increases. In case of
excessive voltage increases, their resistance drops dramatically. This behavior makes them
suitable to protect circuits during voltage surges. Causes of a surge can include lightning
strikes and electrostatic discharges. The most common type of VDR is the metal oxide
varistor or MOV.
4. Magneto resistor or Magnetic Dependent Resistor (MDR) – is a resistor whose resistance
which is dependent on the magnetic field strength. It can be used to measure magnetic field
presence, strength and direction. A magneto resistor is a subfamily of magnetic field sensors
or magnetometers. Magneto resistors make use of the magnetoresistance effect. This effect
was first discovered in 1856 by William Thomson, also known as Lord Kelvin. The effect is
noticed in ferromagnetic materials and dependent on the magnetic field strength and angle
between the direction of electric current and the magnetic field. This effect is therefore
known as anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR). Permalloy, an alloy consisting of 81% nickel
(Ni) and 19% iron (Fe) has a high anisotropic magneto resistance as well as a low
magnetostriction (change in size due to magnetic fields) and therefore is a favorite material
for magneto resistors. Magneto resistors are often constructed of long thin films of
permalloy. To increase the sensitivity of a permalloy magneto resistor, shorting bars of
aluminum or gold are placed on the thin permallow films under an angle of 45 degrees. This
forces the current to flow in a direction of 45 degrees relative to the length of the film.
Various applications are magnetic field sensing devices, such as electronic compass.
Magnetometry, the measurement of magnetic field intensity and direction, such as position
sensors, angle position sensors, rotary position sensors, and linear position sensors. As well
as Ferrous metal detection in vehicle and traffic detection

In terms of Material used and Construction

1. Carbon composition- are fixed form resistors. They are made out of fine carbon particles
mixed with a binder.The advantage of carbon composition resistor is their ability to
withstand high energy pulses. When current flows through the resistor, the entire carbon
composition body conducts the energy. The wirewound resistor for example, has a much
smaller volume of the wire to conduct. So the thermal mass of the carbon composition
resistor is much higher, resulting in a higher energy capability. Carbon resistors can be
made with a higher resistance than wirewound resistors, and are considerably cheaper.
 However, the properties are less good in terms of temperature coefficient, noise, voltage
dependence and load.Commercial available carbon composition resistors have dissipation
values between 1/8 Watt up to 5 Watts
2. Carbon film- are constructed out of a ceramic carrier with a thin pure carbon film around it,
that functions as resistive material. Carbon film resistors are a significant improvement on
carbon composition. However, in comparison to metal film and metal oxide film, the
commercially available range steadily decreases. Metal and oxide film are not more
expensive to produce, and have overall better properties.These resistors are available in
values between 1Ω to 10,000 MΩ and have a power rating of 1/16, ⅛, ¼, ½, 1 or 2 Watts.
3. Metal film - have a thin metal layer as resistive element on a non-conducting body. The
appearance of metal film resistors is similar to carbon film resistors, but their properties for
stability, accuracy and reliability are considerably better. The resistance material is often
nickel chromium (NiCr), but for special applications also other alloys are used such as tin and
antimony, gold with platinum and tantalum nitride.
4. Metal oxide film - are made of ceramic rod that is coated with a thin film of metal oxides,
such as tin oxide. Metal oxide film resistors exceed the performance of metal film and
carbon film for the following properties: power rating, voltage rating, overload capabilities,
surges and high temperatures.
5. Wirewound- the resistive element exists out of an insulated metallic wire that is winded
around a core of non-conductive material. The wire material has a high resistivity, and is
usually made of an alloy such as Nickel-chromium (Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese
alloy called Manganin. Common core materials include ceramic, plastic and glass. Wire
wound resistors are the oldest type of resistors that are still manufactured today. The
resistance can be produced very accurately, and have excellent properties for low resistance
values and high power ratings.Wire wound resistors naturally have some capacitance and
inductance. Because of this, they influence the current flow in an alternating current circuit.
This effect is usually not wanted.
Because of the design principle of the wirewound resistor, which is basically an inductor,
these resistors have the worst high frequency properties of all resistor types. It provides a
wide array of power dissipation depending on the material used
6. Foil – is a resistor that has the best precision and stability properties of all resistor types. The
foil is made of an alloy of usually Nichrome with additives. It is mounted on a ceramic carrier
with high heat conductivity. The desired resistance value is achieved by a photoetched
resistive pattern in the foil. The metal foil resistor has a low Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance (TCR), good long term stability, low noise, low capacitance, fast thermal
stabilization and no inductance. The low TCR is one of the most important parameters that
influence the stability. This means that the resistance value will vary only a small amount as
the ambient temperature and the resistor’s internal temperature changes.

Resistor Value Marking/Reading

1. Resistor Color Coding - most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate
resistance, which also indicate tolerance, and may also be extended to show
temperature coefficient and reliability class. The power rating is not marked and is
 deduced from the size. The color bands of the carbon resistors can be three, four, five
or, six bands.The electronic color code was developed in the early 1920s by the Radio
Manufacturers Association (RMA), later the Radio Electronics Television Manufacturers'
Association (RETMA), now part of the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). Therefore, the
code was known as RMA, RTMA, RETMA or EIA color code. In 1952, it was standardized
in IEC 62:1952 by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and since 1963
also published as EIA RS-279.[2] Originally only meant to be used for fixed resistors, the
color code was extended to also cover capacitors with IEC 62:1968. The code was
adopted by many national standards like DIN 40825 (1973), BS 1852 (1974) and IS 8186
(1976). The current international standard defining marking codes for resistors and
capacitors is IEC 60062:2016[3] and EN 60062:2016. In addition to the color code, these
standards define a letter and digit code for resistors and capacitors. Color bands were
used because they were easily and cheaply printed on tiny components. However, there
were drawbacks, especially for color blind people. Overheating of a component or dirt
accumulation may make it impossible to distinguish brown from red or orange.

Resistance Marking
The standard color code per IEC 60062:2016
Temperature
Ring color Tolerance
Significant coefficient
Multiplier
figures Percent
Name Code RAL Letter [ppm/K] Letter
[%]
None – – – – ±20 M –
Pink PK 3015 – ×10 −3
×0.001 – –
Silver SR – – ×10−2 ×0.01 ±10 K –
Gold GD – – ×10−1 ×0.1 ±5 J –
Black BK 9005 0 ×100 ×1 – 250 U
Brown BN 8003 1 ×101 ×10 ±1 F 100 S
Red RD 3000 2 ×10 2
×100 ±2 G 50 R
Orange OG 2003 3 ×103 ×1000 ±0.05 W 15 P
Yellow YE 1021 4 ×10 4
×10000 ±0.02 P 25 Q
Green GN 6018 5 ×105 ×100000 ±0.5 D 20 Z
Blue BU 5015 6 ×106 ×1000000 ±0.25 C 10 Z
Violet VT 4005 7 ×10 7
×10000000 ±0.1 B 5 M
Grey GY 7000 8 ×108 ×100000000 ±0.01 L (A) 1 K
White WH 1013 9 ×10 9
×1000000000 – –

A useful mnemonic matches the first letter of the color code, in numeric order. Here are two
that includes tolerance codes gold, silver, and none:Bad Beer Rots Our Young Guts
ButVodka Goes Well –Get Some Now, OR B B ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife
who wore Gold and Silver Necklace.

Resistance Reading

a. Four Band Resistor

b. Five Band Resistor

c. Six Band Resistor

Resistor Tolerance- The percentage of error in the resistor's resistance, or how much more
or less you can expect a resistor's actual measured resistance to be from its stated
resistance.
Temperature Coefficient -The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature
change is called the temperature coefficient of resistance. This factor is represented by the
Greek lower-case letter “alpha” (α). A positive coefficient for a material means that its
resistance increases with an increase in temperature, while a negative coefficient means
that its resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. It is expressed in ppm/°C
(parts per million per degree Centigrade) units

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF COMMON ELEMENTS AND ALLOYS, AT 20 DEGREES C

Material Element/Alloy TCR (per degree Celsius)

Nickel Element 0.005866

Iron Element 0.005671
Molybdenum Element 0.004579
Tungsten Element 0.004403
Aluminum Element 0.004308
Copper Element 0.004041
Silver Element 0.003819
Platinum Element 0.003729
Gold Element 0.003715
Zinc Element 0.003847
Steel Alloy 0.003
Nichrome Alloy 0.00017
Nichrome V Alloy 0.00013
Manganin Alloy +/- 0.000015
Constantan Alloy -0.000074

2. The RKM Code - also referred to as "letter and digit code for resistance and capacitance
values and tolerances" or "R notation", is a notation to specify resistor and capacitor
values defined in the international standard IEC 60062 (formerly IEC 62) since 1952. It is
also adopted by various other standards including DIN 40825 (1973), BS 1852 (1974), IS
8186 (1976) and EN 60062 (1993). The significantly updated IEC 60062:2016 comprises
the most recent release of the standard.