What is theory?

Originating from the Greek word “theoria”, theory means or at least, may mean a well-focused
mental look taken at something in a state of contemplation with the intention to grasp or
understand it.
Arnold Brecht refers to both the broad and the narrow meaning of the word theory. In the
broader sense, theory means “ A thinker’s entire teaching on a subject”, including the
description of facts, his explaination , his conception of history, his value judegments and the
proposals of goals, policies and principles.
In the narrow sense, he says, theory means explanatory thought only or at least primarily. In his
book “political Theory, Brecht use theory in the narrow sense, saying explaining is the function
of theory” . Thus for him, theory means a proposition or a set of propositions designed to
explain something with reference to data or inter-relations not directly observed or not
otherwise manifest.
# Theory has to be scientific, without the quantum of science, it is unthinkable But theory,
without theory or say philosophy, is as meaningless as it is, without science. Theory is a
combination of elements characteristic of both science and philosophy. Theory is not practice,
because doing too needs thinking. Theory involves a theoretical frame which practice really
lacks.
Therefore, theory implies both science as well as philosophy. It is against the background, that
one may say that theorist is both a scientist and philosopher; a theorist is more than a scientist;
he is more than philosopher. To understand theory when applied to politics would mean
understanding politics as a theory, as a science and a also a philosophy. Political theory as “ an
explanation of what politics is all about, a general understanding of the political world, a frame
of reference. Without one we should be unable to recognize an event as political , decide
anything about why it happened, judge whether it was good or bad, or decide what was likely
to happen next.
A theory helps us identify what is happening in a particular case of politics. It helps us to explain
why an event occurred and predict future events. Theory also is a tool for evaluating what is
happening and for guiding our political choice…
The job of the political theorist is really important. Brecht makes a note of it saying.. “ it is the
function of the political theorist to see, sooner than others, and to analyse, more profoundly
than others, the immediate and potential problems of the political life of society, to supply the
practical politicians, well in advance, with alternative course of action, the foreseeable
consequences of which have been fully thought through; and to supply him not only with
brilliant ideas, but with a solid block of knowledge on which to build. When political theory
performs its function well, “it is one of the most important weapons in our struggle for the
advance of humanity.

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What political theory would help us identity the characteristic implications or the major aspects
of political theory.
1. The area in which political theory works extends to the realms of politics only- political
life of the citizen, his political behavior, his political ideas, the government that he seeks
to establish, and the tasks expected from such a government.
2. The methods, which political theory adopts, include description, explanation and
investigation of the political phenomenon.
3. Though political theory is all about what is ‘political’ yet it attempt to understand ‘
political relation to social, economic, psychological, ecological, moral and the like.
4. The objective which political theory seeks to achieve is to build a good state in a good
society, and in the process, create processes, procedures, institutions and structures
historically tested and rationally attained.
5. As a body of thought, political theory attempts to explain, evaluate and predict political
phenomena, and in the process builds not only scientifically testable models, but
suggests values as rules of human conduct.
6. Political theory is both prescriptive and explanatory.

Political Theory –
Politics as a political activity is usually associated with cynicism, and skepticism, demonstrating
self-seeking behavior, hypocrisy, and manipulation of attitudes. This negative connotation
hardly holds any ground. Political theory is neither a theory of politicking, nor a theory of
political intriques.
It is a disciplined investigation of what constitutes the political. Its contents have varied from
time to time.
From the early Greeks, in the Western Political tradition, to the end of the 18th century, political
theory concerned itself mostly with what politics ‘ ought to be ‘. Almost during the whole 19 th
century and the first half of the 20th century, political theory dealt, largely with the nature and
structure of government as a decision making body.
# The concern of political theory, today, has been both the nature and proper ends of the
government. Political theory, as a disciplined investigation of political phenomena, is closely
related to why and what of the institutions of the government, and the whole political system
in which the government operates.
To study the political theory is to study the context in which it exists. We need to understand
political theory within the realm of the political system, the political system within the realms of
the social system, the social system within the realm of the period it exist, and in the
environment it breeds.
The contents of political theory include understanding of what is really political, to link political
with what is non-political and to integrate and coordinate the results of the numerous social

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sciences for knowing its own nature. Its scope is not limited to what it constitutes, but to what
exists in the periphery and beyond.
Sheldon Wolin (Politics and Vision 1960) includes the following in the contents of political
theory:
# a form of activity centering around the quest for competitive advantage between groups,
individuals, or societies.
# a form of activity conditioned by the fact that it occurs within situation of change and relative
scarcity.
# a form of activity in which the pursuits of advantage produce consequences of such
magnitude that they affect in a significant way the whole society or a substantial portion of it.

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Theory too be seen as a particular form of language-dependent systematic expression different
form, but related to other forms of systematic reflections on the world. Like other expressions,
a theory articulates in a particular medium a conceptual world lived practically by a specific set
of human agents.
According to Bhargava there are six features what marks a theory out from other language-
dependent systematic expression.
The first features is an almost obsessive and self conscious with the internal structure of
concepts, with how concepts relate to one another and come in clusters, and how in turn they
mark their boundaries. A philosopher or theorist is use terms interchangeably- focuses on the
meaning of words, on the different ways in which the words are used so that she can eventually
answer question. Philosophers must raised questions and understand them in a particular way.
The second feature of theory or philosophy, that it is a rational enterprise, where the term
rational is understood very broadly to mean that the conclusion arrived or hinted at has some
discernible structure of reasons behind it. When they make an assertion or proposal, they must
state why they do so. In other words they must give reason. They cannot be satisfied with
providing one reason and stopping the process of questioning at this point. There can be a
reason for a reason already supplied and a reason for the reason for the initial reason. In other
words whether stated explicitly or not there is a chain of reason that is discernable in a
theoretical or philosophical work. Reason beyond which there is no reason- the foundation of
reason. For example, say education is a fundamental right, then it must also be argued that at
least in modern times there is a connection between education, employment and a life of
dignity and further, a dignified life is a crucial component of human being and so on.
The third is the rational component of theory also illuminates another of its features, its
aspiration to truth and objectivity. This claim must be very cautiously clear. The truths in
theories particularly social and political theories aspire to are not valied for all time and all
places. The truth of most theories is context dependent and therefore limited to specific time
and places. The truth that we achieve is dependent on the collective reason of human beings..
but latter that achieved truth can be detected as flaw by other reasonable beings with new
information or a flaw argument.. Aspiration for a humanly achievable truth and objectivity.
A fourth feature of philosophy/ theory is that it is committed to unearthing the background
assumptions and presuppositions of our statements, beliefs, actions and practices. For example
say when we set out to attend class we make many assumptions which remain in the
background, as part of our pre-reflective understanding. . and the force of gravity is presupposd
by all our situated action.. we don’t articulate but the force of gracvity embodied persons
cannot exist on this earth.
The fifth feature of theory may be begin diverge – a theory aspires to some degree of
generality and abstraction. It does so because it aims to cover a wide variety of related but
disparate phenomena. BThis does not mean that all theories must be universal in scope. But it

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doesn’t mean that all theories must be universal in scope . there cannot be a theory exclusively
for rolling stones. - there is an explicit mandate to unearth assumptions and presuppositions.
Finally, a sixth feature of theories, one that is a product of modern conditions and has emerged
mmore particularly with the birth of modern science. Modern theories cannot be purely
speculative and must pass through and then transcent the empirical world. A theory must be
simultaneously rooted in and transcend the lived experience of a people, the collective
practices of a society, and the embedded understandings and common sense of a community.
There is no theory if there is mere description of lived experience and common sense, but we
have a theory only in name if theoretical propositions are altogether disconnected from
experience, practices and the data collected by sound empirical enquiries.
Thus theory must be distinct from adhoc reflections, speculation, empirical enquiry into the
particular, rich insights, imaginative and other relative narratives. It must be distinct from
ideology, worldview and cosmology.

A theorist work is to understand the facts of an experience or an incident on the basis of same
assumptions or on the basis of the arrangement of assumptions I,e on the basis of the group of
the related assumptions lime objective, intention, outcome, reason freedom, equality and
satisfaction.

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What is Political?
The term political has multiple meanings. First goes back to classical Greece and its derived
from the word polis which literally means the city but is better, more properly understood as a
place with a common world or even more simply, a community. Political then pertains to
whatever is done within or by the community. More specifically it refers to decision making
within the and about the community. To be political, to live in the polis, as Hannah Arendth
tells us, means that everything is to be decided through words and persuasion and not through
force and violence. In the classical Greece, the term political had to do with the fundamental
decision making about the affairs of the community. To make decisions, however one must first
have the power to do so. If the entire community is involved in decision making, then decision
making presuppose the collective power of the entire community. However, the following are
views of Greeks philosophers on politics:
-In Greek societies, decisions were not made by everybody. Power was not exercised by
everyone. Slaves, women and aliens were excluded from the decision making process.
-There is not distinction between state and society. The state is a community of communities or
associations of associations. Aristotle said, “ the state is a union of families and villages having
for its end perfect and self-sufficient life.
-The state is not man-made but is a natural creation. It is the most perfect form of social
organization and has a separate and independent existence of its own.
-Politics, state and citizens were studied on the moral basis and thus politics was sacrificed for
idealistic ethics. Greek philosophers were more concerned with ought and less with is. They
were primarily concerned with ideals rather than the actual politics. However Aristotle was an
exception, he is regarded as the first political scientist for his empirical studies.
Aristotle saying, Man is a political creature. Indicates towards the underlying human need of
the society and also towards the fact that man can achieve self attainment only through the
medium of politics. For Aristotle politics was so important because it represents such common
political place in which all citizens can participate
In its modern context, the word political represents the state and the related institutions like
government, legislative, or common policy. As Will Kimilika says “ Most of the western political
theorist have been working on such an ideal model of city state in which all citizens share an
ordinary lineage, language and culture. Political aspect of the political theory has been related
to form, nature and organization of the state and government and the study of their relation
with the individual citizens.

The term political has multiple meanings: (A) the collective power to take decisions about every
aspect of the good life in the community. Political here refers both to power and to ethical
values. (b) The power of some groups to control or subordinate others in order to realize not
the good of the entire community but their own narrow interest.. In short to get others to do
things that might go against their own interest. Here the term political is used to relate power

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and self interest. It also refers to power embodied in a separate apparatus, ie the state , (c) to
state power used to realize the common good/values, or (d) state power used to exercise
domination by one group over others.

Meaning of political theory:

As Aristotle says man is a social animal. Political theory is a discipline which suggest the ways
for maintaining law, order and peace in society. It is concerned with the general welfare of the
citizens of the state. It is a disciplined invenstigation of political problems. Political theory plays
an important role during the period of social turmoil and change.
Sabine- It means anything about politics or relevant to politics and narrowly as the disciplined
investigation of political problems.
David Held: it is a network of concepts and generalization about political life involving ideas,
assumptions and statements about the nature, purpose and key features of government, state
society and about the political capabilities of human beings.
Cocker: Political theory is related to the political government, study of its form and activities.
The study based on those facts and evaluation which are related to the permanent
requirements, wishes and ideas of an individual.
Andrew Hecker; It is a combination of a disinterested search for the principles of a good state
and good society on the one hand, and a disinterested search for knowledge of political and
social reality on the other., It is an unprejudiced discovery of the rules related to a good society.

Political theory then is a particular form of word-dependent systematic reflection on any or all
of the following:
(a) the collective power to take decisions about the good life of a community
(b) the mechanism by which power is exercised by one group over another
(c) the use of state power to achieve the good of the community
(d) the use of the state by one group to exercise power over another
(e) on the values by which a particular community governs its life
(f) there can be grand political theory that reflects on the general conditions of the
entire human kind or the values by which the entire humanity may govern its
life.
(g) It is concerned with society, the state, government and citizens in general.
(h) It suggest ways to change society and acts as a guide to practical politics.
(i) It describes, analyses, explains, evaluates prescribes and predicts the political
phenomena.

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 Scope of Political Theory

The term political theory is sometimes applied to refer to political philosophy or the traditions
of political thought. However with the rise of renewec concern with values since 1970s political
theory stands for a synthesis between political science and political philosophy. According to
Oxford dictionary the distinction between political philosophy and political theory
First, political philosophers have developed and defended particular conceptions of human
nature.. but political theory may be less ambitious, exploring what follows if assumptions are
made about that nature.;
Secondly, political theory, draws upon the work not only of philosophers but also of lawyers,
and social scientist..Particularly sociologists, economists and psychologist and of course political
science. Its ambitions are to explain the political realm , to explore what is at stake in political
practice, and to elucidate the values and motivate political action or which are affected by it.
Political scientist have accepted that it is now widely agreed that political theory cannot be
confined to the so called scientific knowledge, it is equally concerned with determining values
which come within the scope philosophy. We cannot accept the view that values are based on
individual or group preference. Values have sound logical structures unless we mistake them
for biased statements. Upholders of different values can be invited to have dialogue, to have an
opportunity to understand each others point of view, to convince each other and probably to
agree on certain universal principles to judge the validity of values. Determination of values is
the essential ingredients of a sound public policy or decisions. Hence political theory must
comprehend both political science and political philosophy.
Political theory must concern itself both with theoretical and practical issues, with philosophical
as well as organizational and institutional questions.. Successful political theory requires the
philosophical analysis of principles and the empirical understanding of political processes and
structures.
The theorist whose pursuit is political science is interested in describing and explaining the
realities of political behavior. He attempts to draw up generalized propositions about the actual
relations between the states and citizens and about the role of the society. The theorist, whose
interest is in writing political philosophy, is concerned with prescribing the goals which citizens,
states and societies ought to pursue. His aim is to generalize about right conduct in the political
life and about the legitimate uses of power. The best political philosophers have always been
well aware of the existing realities; they have given intense and systematic study to the needs
and capabilities of man and society.

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 Functions of Political Theory
Since political theory aims at a synthesis of political science and political philosophy, its
functions should also reflects this synthesis. We may recognize into three functions of political
theory: Description; Criticism and Reconstruction
Description
Political Theory should be build upon a sound knowledge of facts, eg knowledge of human
nature, economic, cultural and political conditions of prevailing in society, laws governing and
social change- the conditions that give rise of conflict and the tested methods of resolution of
the conflict and so on.
Criticism
This function is akin to political philosophy. Political philosophy is a search for good life. When
we compare the conditions of actual life with our concept of good life, we find many faults,
weaknesses and disadvantages which must be rectified.
Reconstruction:
This function is akin to political thought. It calls for a vision of a new ideal social order which
would be free from the faults found by us in the conditions of actual life. We have a long
tradition of political thinkers who have advanced their schemes of social reconstruction. WE
can certainly learn about them, compare and constrast their views, identify their bias if any,
examine their applicability in the light of contemporary experience and draw our own
conclusion. It is important to note that the history of political thought provides us with
valuable insights into our own problems. Problems of human society cannot be predicted
precisely, nor a final solution thereto can be prescribed by any prophet. Reflection on newly
emerging social problems and their analysis with the help of available insights is the part of our
intellectual exercise which ensures constant development of human knowledge and skill.
It may be conceded that political philosophy deals with the needs, objectives and goals of
human life which cannot be scientifically ascertained. But these can always discussed by the
right thinking people, argued on the basis of available data and reasoning, and some acceptable
point may be reached at the current level of our social consciousness. New arugments can be
introduce thereto and conclusions drawn from the expanding horizons of our knowledge.
Hence the search for values and a criticial review or our position is an ongoing proves which
justify the continuing pursuit of political philosophy.
Political science demands a disinterested search for knowledge of political and social reality.
Ideology:
A set of ideas and arguments used to defend an existing or a proposed distribution of power in
a society. These are accepted to be true by their upholders without inquiring into their validity.
The ruling class may propagate its ideology to strengthen its own position while its opponents
may used their ideology to mobilize the people to replace the existing order by a new one to
acheve some great objectives.

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Classical Political theory
The classical political theory aims at gathering reliable knowledge about the matters concerning
people, philosophical pursuit to establish rational basis for political phenomenon. Its basic unit
of the analysis is polity as a whole, comprising interrelated structures and active and live
relationship. It puts on comparative studies and analysis to get the in-depth knowledge of the
subject. The Aristotle’s classification of the forms of the government testifies this. It is is also
related to the whole, it put emphasis on the order, balance, stability and harmony. It considers
political and public domain as one and the same. It is ethical and its mode of analysis is rooted
in moral outlook.

Modern Political theory

The modern political theories may be categorized in mainly two categories: liberal including
individualistic, liberalism and pluralism. And Marxist including idealist, collectivist and socialist.
The modern political theory is called as modern because it is based on objectivity, scientific
analysis, and process oriented. It concentrates more on present realities and it is more
huamane and human behavior oriented.
The modern political theory considers the facts and data as the basis of the study. The facts are
first gathered, studied, explained and tested and verified. It believes that human behavior can
be put to the study and analysis. The regularities and the trends may be generalized and
verifiable and testable theory can be build. It puts more emphasis on analytical explainable of
the political phenomenon rather than philosophical thinking. It is process or procedure
oriented. It prefers observation to the descriptive method of the study and scientific to the
normative one. In it.. facts and values are never mixed. Its methodology is experimental,
quantitative and empirical. It puts emphasis on the interdisciplinary study and borrowing the
tools and techniques of the natural sciences. Modern political theory puts greater emphasis on
“what is’ rather than on ‘ what should or ought to be’.

Contemporary political theory

Contemporary political theory deals with comprehension, explanation and investigation of the
political concepts, principles and institutions. David Held, sums up the nature and features of
the contemporary political theory. First the philosophical concerned, above all with the
conceptual and normative; second, the empirical analytical concerned and with problems of
understanding and explanation. And finally, the strategic concerned, with an assessment of
feasibility of moving from where we are to where we might like to be. The examination of the
the changing meaning of the political discourse, its key concepts, theories and concerns over
time.

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Why do we need political theory?
Humans can live in a society only if they have some understanding of what nature of the society
is. For example it is crucial that in a hierarchical society a person has an understanding of his
own ranks as well as the social standing of others.
The difference between the human and non human world
Modern understanding allows for a much sharper distinction between at least two worlds: the
non-human natural world- the world of physical and chemical objects, and the world plants and
animals. And the world of humans is already constituted by pre-reflective and reflective
understanding. The existence of two worlds does not need to imply that they are completely
disconnected from one another. But no matter how deep the relationship between the two,
there also exist some fundamental differences..
All human actions, practices and situations are constituted by concepts. To understand them is
to understand these concepts. This is why an interpretative components is crucial to what we
mean by the empirical in the human sciences Understanding the human world is to grasp the
complicated structure of concepts that partly constitute it. This is not true of the
understanding of the natural world. So this is the first qualitative difference between the
empirical social sciences and natural science. The word emprirical itself has an entirely
different connotation in the human sciences. The term empirical is related to experience but
the nature of our experience of the natural world is different from experience in the human
world.
What is true of human sciences in general is also true of social and political studies. The state is
not just an ensemble of material things and movements. To describe it materially is absurd.
Besides, such a purely physical understanding fails to distinguish the state from other social and
political institutions. The modern state is a form of public power relatively independent of the
ruler and ruled, embodied in an apparatus that has virtual monopoly of violence in a particular
community of territory and that functions to re produce the conditions of existence and
perpetuation of that community. There are different methods of understanding the concept of
state: power, ruling, the distinction between ruler and ruled, monopoly, violence community,
conditions of existence and so on.
The question of understanding, explanation and prediction about non-human natural world is
answered by the natural sciences. Given the difference between human and non-human
nature, the question pertaining to the understanding, explanation and prediction about the
human world is answered by human sciences (by political science, sociology, anthropology,
economics, etc) though always aided by humanities and the arts.

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What then is the role of proper social and political theory? Why do we need it?
Political theory is not a separate function but an integral feature of all social sciences, including
political science. Philosophy is not merely a handmaiden of the human sciences but its integral
feature. This is the interpretative and explanatory role of political theory
Social and political phenomenon has such a large that no specific empirical enquiry can do
justice to it. Nor can it result from a collection of all the empirical detail. Date gathering and
controlled of enquiry can never suffice for the understanding of large social formations and for
the explanation of changes within them or change from one type to another. Political theories
must perform by providing insight and understanding into the most general pattern of human
practices and social change. Bhikhu Parekh call this the contemplative role of political theory.
It makes no sense to ask moral and self- related questions about the physical world. It is no
longer sensible to ask: how do we morally evaluate the force of gravity? Is there anything good
or bad about the laws of motion? Do chemical compounds have self-knowledge? Ethical and
normative questions are at the heart of the human world.
Example: Is that which is right or wrong/ bad or good? (Ethics)
What am I to do? What is to be done? (Normative)
To say that human world is action dependent is to say that it is grounded in one set of reasons
from among several available and that the choice to act on one rather than another is made in
the light of the person’s own understanding and judgment of what is good or right for the agent
in the context. Moreover, what is true of human action is also true of the state of affairs it
brings about. Human action and the world it creates must be necessarily evaluated because a
normative component is an integral part of it. Human being has some degree of ethical or
moral autonomy.

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Political theory in Transition
Western political thought has gone through various phases of development since its inception
in classical times or ancient times. However since 1970s, following a period during which an
almost unquestioned faith in science was often taken to imply that normative theorizing is
meaningless, political theory has reshaped in many ways.
In the first place, modern political theory tends to place a greater emphasis than did earlier
manifestations on the role of history and culture in structuring political understanding. This
implies for instance, that what Plato, Rousseau or Marx wrote may tell us more about the
societies in which they lived than it does about supposedly timeless political and moral issues.
Second, political theory has become increasingly diffuse and fragmented in character. From the
early modern period onwards, political thought acquired an unmistakably liberal character and
political theory came to be virtually coextensive. Since 1960s, a range of rival political traditions
have emerged as critiques of or alternatives to, liberal theory, examples including radical
feminism, communitarianism, green politics and multiculturalism. Growing interest in non-
western political traditions is also evidence as is wider acceptance that no tradition possesses a
monopoly of political wisdom.
Third, conventional political theory has been challenged by the emergence of an anti-
foundationalists critique that questions the rationalism that lay at its heart. Most clearly linked
with postmodernism but also associated in different ways, tradition such as feminism critical
theory and contingent nature of all principles, doctrines and theories based on the belief that
there is no moral and rational high point from which they can be judged.
Finally, political theory has attempted in various ways, to come to term with the heightened
interdependence that accelerated globalization has brought, particularly since the 1980s. This
has meant for instance, political theory’s tendency to frame issues and problems in the context
of the nation-state has been modified by growing awareness of the phenomenon of trans-
nationalism. Another response to heightened interdependence involves attempts to think
globally either by recasting political ideas and concepts by placing them in a world or global
framework as in the case of global justice world society global citizenship and so on, or by
exploring the possibility of redefining political community on a cosmopolitan basis.

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Theory an Ideology
While political theory tries to give the fullest possible reason for why a certain stand point must
be adopted, or why an act must be performed on the basis of one set of principles rather than
another, ideology lacks a commitment to spell out all reasons. Reason is short-circuited and
principles reduced to formulae. This is true of nationalism and fascism but also of liberalism and
Marxism when they function as ideologies.
The case of liberal and Marxist shows that an ideology need not be entirely disconnected from
reason. Theory has instrinsic commitment to reason that an ideology does not have. When
liberalism and Marxism function as ideologies, they have merely a strategic connection with
reason. This is not so when they function as political theories. It is possible then for Marxist or
liberal political to come into conflict with Marxist or liberal ideology.
Political philosophy is even more different form another mode of persuasion and conversation
ie. Propaganda. For in propaganda, conversation is sought by opaque, manipulative methods..
Advertising is good example because here anything goes.. The bad points of a product are never
mentioned and the good ones are exaggerated.
Grand theories do share with ideologies and cosmologies another feature; they all perform one
function- al of them attempts to formulate a common understanding of the world as well as
provide a common normative orientation. When they do both, they provide a common self-
definition, an identity. In the performance of this function, grand theories, ideologies and
cosmologies may on the one hand compete with, rival, and substitute one another and on the
other hand mutually complementary. Ideologies have a function in the society.

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