Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
com
OXFORD
ILLUSTRATED
ENCYCLOPEDIA
• /.
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ledies of Plautus
ince
schools in Rome
to be closed
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From AD 1 to 1399
Column of Marcus Roman theatre built at Juvenal, Roman poet early lute in China 100-199
Aurelius, Rome Verulanium (St. Albans) Apuleius, Roman novelist Chinese octave divided
Amaravatlstupa, Madras into 60 notes
Coptic art, Egypt, Natyasastra Indian treatise Natyasastra Indian treatise 200-299
flourishes on theatre on music
burlesque and mime, Rome hymn-singing evolves 300-399
Basilica, Sta Maria Kalidasa's courtly drama, Tao Oian, Chinese poet drums and wind 400-499
Maggiore, Rome ^akuntala, India instruments, Peru
Church of Hagia Sophia, itinerant dancers in Europe Imru al-Qays, Arab poet Gregorian church music 500-599
Constantinople gradually appears
porcelain invented m recitative and arias great lyric poetry of Tang plucked instruments
Celtic 600-699
China developed m Chinese dynasty, China develop
building of Mahabalipuram drama Caedmon, Song of Indonesian gamelan
temples, India Creation, England
Umayyad palace, Khirbat Bhavabuti, Indian dramatist Chinese lyric poetry Japanese lute 700-799
al-Mafjar Beowulf epic, England wind organs in Europe
Book of Kells, Ireland choral drama develops in Hildebrandslied, Old High development of ragas in 800-899
The Great Mosque of the West German poem Indian classical music
Cordoba, Spam first Arabic version of A earhest surviving
Mississippi valley culture. Thousand and One Nights (neumatic) notation
North America
Nayin Mosque, Iran Easter play, dialogue of The Exeter Book, English court music flourished in 900-999
Fatimid style m Islamic the Three Maries, poems Japan
architecture performed in church Firdausi, Persian poet beginnings of organum,
Gero Crucifix, Cologne liturgical drama flourishes earhest form of Western
m the West polyphony
Monastery Church, Cluny
Golden Age of Buddhist dengaku dance, Japan Hindi verse romances organ with multiple pipes, 1000-1099
art. Pagan, Burma tournaments and celebrate Rajput chivalry Winchester
St Sophia Cathedral, pageantry develop in Murasaki, The Tale of Bardic music in Ireland
Novgorod, Russia Europe Genji, Japan and Wales
Santiago de Compostela skomorokhi mummurs and Su Dongpo, Chinese poet sight-reading practised
Cathedral, Spain puppeteers, Russia and painter at Pomposa Monastery,
Palace city of Great Ibn Gabirol'spoems m Ravenna
Zimbabwe Hebrew and Arabic solmization in music,
Durham Cathedral begun Yehuda Halevi, Hebrew introduced by d'Arezzo
poet in Spam
second era of Maya earliest recorded English Song of My Cid in Spain troubadour and trouvere 1100-1199
civilization miracle plays first renga poetry in Japan music, France
Yoruba brass and terra- ]eu de St Nicholas play by Le Chanson de Roland, earliest Minnelieder,
cotta sculpture, Nigeria Jehan Bodel, at Arras, France Germany
Angkor Wat, Cambodia France Ars Anfiqua: Notre Dame
Ibn al Farid, Arab poet
Church of St Denis, Paris: polyphony
beginnings of Gothic style
Master of Naumburg jongleurs in France Eschenbach, Parzival 'Carmina Burana' Latin 1200-1299
sculptures, Germany mystery plays in Europe Kokmshu, anthology of
monastic songs, Germany
Palace of the Alhambra, Japanese poetry beginnings of the motet
variety theatre flourishes
Spam in China Roman de la Rose The Summer Canon
Rheims Cathedral, France Adam de la Halle, ']eu de celebrates courtly love ('Sumer is icumen in')
Zhao Mengfu, Chinese Robin et Marion' Icelandic Prose Edda earliest multi-part Passion
painter
Sa'di, Persian poet, 'The (the Gros Livre of the
Ni Zan, Chinese painter The Harrowing of Hell, Dante, Divine Comedy beginnings of Ars Nova 1300-1399
Giotto, frescoes, Padua English miracle play Boccaccio, Decameron music
Doge's Palace, Venice Gao Mmg, The Story of the Petrarch, first sonnets Machaut, Messe de Notre
Lute, China Dame
Charterhouse, London Chaucer, The Canterbury
No drama, Japan Keyboard tablature,
Golden Pavilion, Kyoto Tales
Europe
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OXFORD
ILLUSTRATED
ENCYCLOPEDIA
THE ARTS
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OXFORD
ILLUSTRATED
ENCYCLOPEDIA
of
THE ARTS
Volume Editor
John Julius Norwich
OXFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW YORK MELBOURNE
1990
tRlGHTON
Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford 0x2 6dp
Oxford New York Toronto
Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi
Petaling Jaya Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo
Nairobi Dar es Salaam Cape Town
Melbourne Auckland
and associated companies in
Berlin Ibadan
I . Encyclopedia in English
I. Judge, Harry, igsS- //. Norwich, John Julius, igsg-
032
ISBNo ig^86gi37-8
in remote prehistory when early hunters, in all probability performing a supernatural ritual designed to
bring success to the hunt, painted images of animals on the walls of caves. It was only much later that the
skilled professional artist emerged. Similarly, music and dance were at first inextricably linked with myth;
out of the simple drum beat and reed pipe has developed, over many centuries and in different parts of the
world, a whole spectrum of music of profound rhythmic and melodic intricacy. Along with music came
religious incantationsand the telling of stories and the discovery that, by adopting a heightened rhythmical
language, the words became more powerful and easier to remember. With that discovery, drama and poetry
—
were born. And so slowly, uncertainly, and by fits and starts — early man and woman began to create art.
Since then in every one of the cultures that have been established over the centuries and around the world,
the aesthetic instinct has extended the boundaries of our perception.
It is the myriad forms of its expression
and the principal milestones that have marked its path that form
the subject of this volume. Its compilation has presented at once a huge task and a formidable challenge: to
describe, and where possible, to illustrate the artistic achievement of all the main civilizations of the world
from their first beginnings to the present day, has been no easy task. Much careful planning has gone into
the selection of entries to be covered. For example, a decision had to be made whether more space should
be allocated to creators than performers, and we chose to include only those performers who have been
particularly significant in furthering the development of the art-form, whether music, dance, or drama,
with which they are connected. This has allowed a more detailed and global coverage of the art-forms
themselves and the inclusion of the art and architecture, theatre, dance, music, literature, and applied arts
of other cultures. We were next faced with the contentious issue of the kind of coverage that should be
given to each nation. Our policy has been to reach beyond the English-speaking and European cultures
towards a global view of the arts. Where we believed the literature of a nation to be unfamiliar but
substantial (for instance that of the Chinese), we have included
under an introductory entry
the subject
and schools. Conversely, modern authors
that leads the reader through cross-references to individual authors
writing in English or French are familiar enough to be found under their own names and thus are not
presented in an introductory entry. French titles have been kept in the original; those of other languages
have been translated.
From all that has been said above it will already be clear — even to those who have not yet had an
opportunity to study the following pages in detail — that this volume, like its fellows in the Oxford Illustrated
embraces an extraordinarily wide range of knowledge. To cover it satisfactorily, the
Encyclopedia series,
editors have been obliged to enlist the services of over 120 individual advisers and contributors, all ac-
knowledged experts in their fields. I should like to thank every one of them for the sympathetic understanding
and unfailing good humour with which they have accepted all our requests for the last-minute entries,
expansion, abridgements, clarifications, alterations, and supplementary references that are inseparable from
any editorial work on a project of this scale; and also, on a note more personal but none the less sincere, for
the amount that they have taught me I have had the privilege of being their
over the five years that
collaborator. The work has been an education in itself, and
would not have missed it for the world.
I
Finally, I must record my gratitude to Bridget Hadaway, Christopher Riches, and all those other
members of Oxford University Press, who, more than anyone else, were really responsible for putting this
book together. Without their advice and assistance, to say nothing of their enthusiastic co-operation and
support, I myself should have foundered long ago. It is thanks above all to their dedication and sheer hard
work that we have won through to the end; and it is their names, far more than my own, that should adorn
the title-page.
CONTRIBUTORS
Dr Glenda Abramson Dr Dovid Katz
Dr Janet Adshead Michael Kennedy
Dr Yasemin Aysan Karel Kyncl
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General Preface
The Oxford Illustrated Encyclopedia sets out, in its eight independent but related volumes, to provide a clear
and authoritative account of all the major fields of human knowledge and endeavour. Each volume deals
with one such major field and is devoted to a series of entries arranged alphabetically and furnished with
illustrations. One of the delights of the Encyclopedia is that it serves equally those who wish to dip into a
particular topic (or settle a doubt or argument) and those who seek to acquire a rounded understanding of
a major field of human knowledge.
The first decision taken about the Encyclopedia was that each volume should be dedicated to a clearly
defined theme — whether that be the natural world, or technology, or the arts. This means that each volume
can be enjoyed on its own, but that when all the volumes are taken together they will provide a clear map
of contemporary knowledge. It is not, of course, easy to say where one theme begins and another ends and
so each volume Foreword must attempt to define these boundaries. The work will be completed with a full
index to guide the reader to the correct entry in the right volume for the information being sought.
The organization within each volume is kept as clear and simple as possible. The arrangement is
alphabetical, and there is no division into separate sections. Such an arrangement rescues the reader from
having to hunt through the pages, and makes it unneccessary to provide a separate index for each volume.
We wanted, from the beginning, to provide as large a number as possible of clearly written entries, since
research has shown that readers welcome immediate access to the information they seek rather than being
obliged to search through longer sections. The
which has been consistently applied, must obviously
decision,
determine both the number and nature of the and (in particular) the ways in which certain subjects
entries,
have been divided for ease of reference. Care has been taken to guide the reader through the entries, by
providing cross-references to relevant articles elsewhere in the same volume.
This is an illustrated encyclopedia, and the illustrations have been carefully chosen to expand and
supplement the written text. They add to the pleasure of those who will wish to browse through these varied
volumes as well as to the profit of those who will need to consult them more systematically.
Volumes and 2 of the series deal respectively with the physical world and the natural world. Volumes
i
3 and 4 are concerned with the massive subject of the history of the world from the evolution oi Homo sapiens
to the present day. Volume 5 introduces the reader to the visual arts, music, theatre, film, dance, pho-
tography, and literature, and Volume
6, on technology, both historical and contemporary, provides a guide
illustrated in wider contexts. Volume 7 oflfers a comprehensive guide to the various ways in which people
live throughout the world and so includes many entries on their social, political, and economic organisation.
The series is completed by Volume 8, which places the life of our shared world in the framework of the
universe, and includes entries on the origins of the universe as well as our rapidly advancing understanding
and exploration of it.
I am grateful alike to the editors, advisers, contributors, and illustrators whose common aim has been to
ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT The entries are Vague. In most cases cross-references are provided to
arranged in a simple letter-by-Ietter alphabetical order of indicate this. for reasons of space, many writers or
Again
their headings (ignoring the spaces between words) up to artistscould only be included in major entries (such as
the first comma (thus Scott, Sir Walter comes before Alfonso Sastre under Spanish literature), so that you
Scottish-Gaelic literature). When two entry headings must look for them under the entry for their national
are the same up to the first comma, then the entries are literature or art.
placed in alphabetical order according to what follows
after the comma (thus Rosetti, Christina (Georgina), ILLUSTRATIONS Pictures and diagrams usually
comes before Rosetti, Dante Gabriel). Names be- occur on the same page as the entries to which they relate
ginning with 'St' are placed as though spelt 'Saint', so St or on a facing page. The picture captions supplement the
Denis follows directly after Saint-Exupery. information given in the text and indicate in bold type
the title of the relevant entry. Where a picture shows a
ENTRY HEADINGS Entries are usually placed after work of art of which only one original exists (for example,
the key word surname, for instance, in a
in the title (the a painting, sculpture, drawing, or manuscript), the cap-
group of names, or the title, for example, Palestrina, tion concludes, wherever possible, by locating the work of
Giovanni Pierluigi da; Absurd, Theatre of the). The art. Where multiple copies of an original exist (for
entry heading appears in the singular unless the plural example, printed books, engravings, or woodcuts), no loc-
form is the more common usage. When an entry covers a ation has been given, except sometimes in the case of
family of several related individuals, important names are rare items. The time-charts to be found on the endpapers
highlighted in bold type within an entry. provide easy-to-read information on major artistic de-
velopments from the earliest times to the present.
A
Aalto, Alvar (1898 1976), Finnish architect, designer,
sculptor, and painter. One of the most illustrious architects
life,such as paddles, spear-lhrowers, boomerangs, baskets,
shields, and me.ssage-sticks. From 1970 onwards Ab-
original artists have adapted their ancient designs to
introduced media of acrylic on canvas, print-making,
batik, and pottery. Aboriginal poetry takes the form of
song or chant, rather than spoken verse. Myths are told
in sacred song-cycles and dramatic epics, dense with
esoteric symbolism. Apart from magical and ritual songs,
there is a rich tradition of stories transmitted orally.
of the 20th century, Aalto was also a talented abstract
sculptor and painter and an important furniture designer: Aboriginal music, the music of Australia's indigenous
more than anyone else he is responsible for Finland's high people, who migrated there from South-East Asia some
contemporary reputation in architecture and design. In 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. The music enshrines the
the 1920s and 1930s much of his work was in the sleek Aborigines' centuries-old beliefs and customs, and is one
vein of the *Modern Movement, but after World War of the oldest extant musics in the world. Unusually, it
II his style became more personal, original, and express- has developed in the absence of any scale-producing
ive. He used free plans and undulating walls, working instrument, and in concept is derived almost entirely from
extensively in wood. Brick was also a favourite material the voice. As a consequence there is much variety of
and in the latter part of his career he employed white vocal sound, from hissing and wailing, through rhythmic,
marble for major cultural buildings, such as the Finlandia syllabic chanting, to elaborate melismatic singing (having
Concert Hall in Helsinki (1962-75). As a designer he is many notes to a syllable). Melodies typically descend
renowned as the inventor of bent plywood furniture. from a loud high pitch to a softer lower one; both
microtonal (the division of a semitone into smaller units)
Abbasid art, a term applied to art associated with the and scalic structures are also found. Aboriginal music is
dynasty of caliphs that ruled the Muslim empire from primarily *isorhythmic; however, once overlaid with
750 to 1258. The capitals of Baghdad (founded 762) and syncopations and other asymmetric *rhythms, the effect
Samarra (founded 836) were centres of Arabic learning is extremely complex. The *didjeridu, an instrument
and culture, but little Abbasid art survives in good demanding great virtuosity, provides a *drone and elab-
condition. The outstanding work of Abbasid architecture orate rhythms and timbres below a singer's melody, and
is the Great Mosque at Samarra (begun 848). This was also accompanies dances and other ceremonies.
the largest mosque ever built, and although much of it
has disappeared, the enormous spiral minaret (a winding abstract art, a term that can in its broadest sense be
ramp leads to the top) still Wall paintings ex-
stands. applied to any art that does not represent recognizable
cavated at Samarra, which show Persian hunting and objects, but which is most commonly applied to those
banqueting themes, are the chief remains of pictorial art. forms of *modern art in which the traditional European
Stimulated by Chinese imports, ceramics with lustre and
blue-painted decoration were developed in the 8th and
Aboriginal art is predominantly symbolic, linking man
9th centuries. Paper, introduced after c.750, was used for
with nature. This example is from Arnhern Land, the
Korans, which after the loth century often have painted extreme northern part of Northern Territory mAustralia,
frontispieces. (See also * Islamic art, * Islamic ceramics, Painted on hardboard, it features snakes and emus,
and *Islamic decorative arts.) creatures associated with creation stories, as well as a
human figure.
Abbott, Berenice (1898- photographer. A
), US
student of Man *Ray in Paris, Abbott took revealing
portraits of Ray's fellow artists. After her return to New
York, she became an accomplished photographer of the
American cityscape.
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Adams, Henry (Brooks) (1838- 1918), US historian, •
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Ady, Endre (1877- 191 9), Hungarian poet. He shocked A miniature from a contemporary manuscript shows
readers with Mew Poems, 1906, a mixture of eroticism, Adam de la Halle seated at a writing-desk, with one of
prophecy, Calvinist theology, radical politics, and des- his songs, 'D'amourous cuer' below. Little is ,
perate patriotism that was repeated in subsequent volumes documented of his life, but there are numerous legends
and made him the focus of lasting controversy. He about him. His music, which lay unsung m libraries for
centuries,is now enjoying a revival. (Bibliotheque
combined symbolic imagery and often brutal language
Municipale d'Arras)
with strict form. A lone figure, he heralded modernity in
*Hungarian literature.
aerial perspective, a way of producing a sense of
Aeneid 'Virgil depth in a painting by imitating the atmospheric effect
that makes objects look paler and bluer the further away
aeolian harp, a stringed musical instrument sounded they are from the viewer. The term was invented by
by the wind, invented by Athanasius Kircher in 1650 in Leonardo da Vinci, but the effect was exploited by
Rome, and popular into the 19th century. The commonest painters much earlier —
for example, the mural painters
form is a long rectangular box, with a number of strings of Roman times. Generally, aerial perspective has been
running along it, which is wedged in a partly open most subtly exploited in northern Europe, most notably
window so that the draught, passing across the strings, by Turner; in some of his late paintings the atmosphere
makes them vibrate and sound. Other versions were is virtually the subject of the painting. (See also *per-
designed to hang in trees and other places out of doors. spective.)
Although the strings are all the same length, they differ
in thickness and thus produce different pitches.
Aeschylus (525-456 bc), Greek writer of * tragedies.
Of his many plays only seven survive complete. In his
masterpiece, the Oresteia trilogy {Agamemnon, Choephori,
The anteroom at Syon House, Middlesex (1762-3), left, is Eumenides), he portrays the killing of Agamemnon by his
one of the richest and most splendid of Robert Adam's wife Clytemnestra and the revenge of their son Orestes.
interiors. It was commissioned by Sir Hugh Smithson, Aeschylus' world is dominated by an omnipotent and
later theDuke of Northumberland, to replace the 'ruinous rigorous Zeus, the supreme Greek god; wrongdoing and
and inconvenient' Tudor house built on the site of a
arrogant behaviour bring their own punishment, even
former nunnery. The floor is of polished scagliola
after a long delay, and curses are handed down from
(plasterwork imitating marble) and the columns are of
mottled green marble with gilded capitals. generation to generation. Aeschylus was parodied in
AESOP
*Aristophanes' Frogs for the portentous silences and high- adorned with beads, buttons, or thread, or held in shape
flown language characteristic of his plays, which are with mud and other pastes. Tonsure, or the shaving of
sharply contrasted with the homelier and more argu- heads in various patterns, is often either a sign of mourning
mentative drama of *Euripides. or of adult status after passage through a puberty ritual
(East Africa). Skin modification may be temporary or
Aesop (6th century bc),Greek teller of moral animal permanent. Temporary treatment includes painting with
*fables, reputed to have lived as a slave on the island of vegetable pigments or coating with camwood powder,
Samos. Originally the tales were orally transmitted, but kaolin, or oil. This is done at puberty and during funerals
some were put into verse by Babrius (3rd century ad), or initiation into specific societies and associations; al-
while others were later translated into Latin. They became ternatively, it may simply be a form of premarital aesthetic
known to the West in the Renaissance. Erasmus produced enhancement. Permanent skin marking includes scar-
a Latin edition in 15 13 which was then widely used in ification, made by simple cuts; cicatrization, which pro-
schools. duces raised keloids by cutting, pulling, and sometimes
inserting substances under the skin: and tattooing, made
Aesthetic Movement, an English art movement of the by pricking the skin and adding colour. Tattooing is less
later 19th century, characterized by an exaggerated belief common in Africa than in many areas, perhaps because
in the doctrine of 'art for art's sake' —
the view that art is it does not show up well on dark skin, but scarification
self-sufficient and need have no ulterior purpose, whether and cicatrization are extremely common; they may be
moral, political, or religious. Central figures of the move- done for aesthetic enhancement, erotic stimulation, as a
ment included *Whistler, *Wilde, and Beardsley. It was convention of ethnic identity, for medicinal and healing
frequently ridiculed for its tendency towards precious purposes, or as a mark of special status. The patterns
affectation, most notably in Gilbert and Sullivan's opera —
normally scarred on the head and the torso may have
Patience (1881). Nevertheless, the movement helped to symbolic meaning, as with the Tabwa (Zaire), whose
focus attention on the formal qualities of works of art, motifs reflect profound cosmological concepts. Among
and so contributed to the outlook of critics such as the Tiv (Nigeria) the changing conventions in patterns
Bernard Berenson and Roger Fry. marked different generations, all of whom equate the
degree of pain experienced during the process with the
African architecture. African buildings are made of 'beauty' of the design. Other forms of body modification
stone, mud, brick, timber, bamboo, and grass in a in Africa include the fattening of women in preparation
wide variety of structural combinations. Dwellings are for marriage, elongation of the skull, filing and removal
commonly based either on cylindrical, rectangular, or of teeth, and lip and ear modification and embellishment.
square plans, and are often single-cell units, built by Although many of these body arts are slowly being
the inhabitants themselves to serve specific household abandoned, they remain documented in much of the
functions or to accommodate diflferent family members. figure sculpture.
However, symbolic factors may also be significant, as
among the Dogon (Mali), whose buildings and interior
spaces are disposed with reference to procreation and The mosque at Jenne (or Djenne) m Mah is one of the
cosmology. Most dwellings in a community are single outstanding examples of Islamic influence m African
storey and frequently similar in form; larger than usual architecture. From the 13th century to the 16th century
Jenne was a great trading centre for gold, salt, and
scale or emphasis on the height of the roof are factors
slaves, rivalling the more famous Timbuktu in prosperity.
indicative of prestige, political power, or special purpose. The original elaborately pinnacled mosque, buih of mud,
Granaries of the Dogon are taller than domestic buldings; dated from this period; it was destroyed m about 1830,
meeting houses of the Mangbetu (Zaire) are enormous, but has been rebuilt m similar fashion.
rectangular structures also differentiated in form from
the domestic round houses. Decorative treatment of build-
ings is highly varied (for example, carved, incised, moul-
ded, painted) and indicative not only of status and
political and religious power but also of individual aes-
thetic taste. Chiefs' houses among the Bamileke (Cam-
eroon) have complex figural carvings embellishing
veranda posts and door frames. In the former palace of
Benin (Nigeria), commemorative bronze plaques, de-
picting important events and glorifying the institution of
kingship, were attached to the pillars. At the domestic
level, skill and creativity express personal and community
identity.For example, Ndebele women in southern Africa
take pride in painting the walls of their houses in an
array of geometric patterns, which have become bolder
and more vivid due to the use of commercial paint.
African costume and textiles. Textiles and dress are (Senegal). Protesting against the French policy of as-
significant expressions of secular and ritual life in Africa. similation, they asserted the valuesand dignity of African
Of the raw materials used for textiles, cotton is the most traditions against the soullessness and materialism of
widespread, particularly in West Africa, but also East Western culture. In English, novels by the Nigerians
Africa; silk is also important in West Africa, and raffia Amos Tutuola, Cyprian Ekwensi, and *Achebe in the
in West and Central Africa; bast, made from stems of 1950s began a flourishing of Nigerian literature including
jute and flax, is restricted in use today to pockets of West the drama and poetry of *Soyinka and J. P. Clark, and
Africa; all these materials are found in Madagascar. Both the poetry of Christopher Okigbo and Gabriel Okara;
men and women weave, although men tend to use the the younger writer Buchi Emecheta has been increasingly
more complex technology of a double-heddle loom and admired for her novels since the 1970s. West Africa also
their skill is usually regarded as a specialization, while produced the novelist Ayi Kwei Armah (Ghana) and the
women loom within the sphere of
use the single-heddle poet Lenrie Peters (Gambia), while East African writing
domestic Patterns may be created by stripes in
activities. has been led by *Ngugi (Kenya) and the Ugandan poet
warp and weft, by float weaves, and by the alignment Okot p'Bitek; South African literature includes the novels
and sewing together of separately woven strips. Other of *Schreiner and *Gordimer, the plays of *Fugard, and
methods of creating designs include dyeing with vegetable the poetry of Dennis Brutus. Much African writing has
and mineral products, as with the indigo-dyed adire cloth been concerned with the social and political problems of
of the Yoruba (Nigeria). Among the Bamana in Mali colonialism and post-colonial independence, but it also
cloth is dyed with brown patterns following a lengthy embraces literature on more personal themes.
application of iron-rich mud. Texture, colour, and design
are also enhanced by applique, using not only cloth on African masks and masquerades. Masquerades are
cloth but also materials such as beads, cowrie shells, a form of performance art incorporating masking, dance,
mirrors, and animal substances. Embroidery, especially music, and drama. Their origins are uncertain, but
of men's garments, is prevalent in West Africa among according to some oral traditions women are said to have
peoples influenced by Islam, such as theMossi and Hausa, devised masking practices, which were then taken over
while in Central Africa, among the Kuba, raffia cloth, by men who feared their mystical and social powers.
woven by men, is embroidered by women in an array of Today, except for the Sande society of the Mende (Sierra
named and coded geometric patterns. Wraparound styles Leone), masquerades and mask production is almost
of dress are worn by both men and women. Often the entirely the prerogative of men, although in the public
emphasis is on voluminous cloth display to draw attention arena women's audience participation and aesthetic re-
to parts of the body, such as the hips of a woman, or to sponses are frequently an essential component of per-
project the imposing image of a leader as in the case of formances. Since masking is often used by men's secret
the floor-length, gathered, raflfia skirts of Kuba chiefs societies and cults for such purposes as initiation, invest-
in Central Africa. Wraparound head-dresses, common iture, funerals, and entertainment, different levels of
among women, are worn by men mainly in areas in- secrecy and exposure exist. Moreover, maskers embody
fluenced by Islam. Although styles of dress, textile different degrees of power; they represent male and female
patterns, and gender distinctions in the production process characters and spirit transformations in animal, human,
have been changing through the influence of trade, or conglomerate forms. Frequently maskers mediate be-
Westernization, and inter-ethnic contact, in many areas tween the unrestrained powers of the bush and the
dress is still a major indicator of status and social and organized social sphere of the village, so their visual and
ritual roles, and textile production flourishes. behavioural characteristics may be extraordinary. They
may perform superhuman feats and acrobatic displays,
African literature. In its hundreds of languages, Africa or speak in disguised voices and in esoteric languages.
has long had an oral tradition of poetry and legend, a Masking disguises vary from the naturalistic to the highly
small part of which has recently been recorded. This oral schematic and are multi-media assemblages. The costume
literature is often very rich in *proverbs and riddles, may be made of woven or loose raffia fibres, plant and
while *narrative verse is rare. Its most elaborate poetic animal components, or cloth, with suspended items such
forms are usually those connected with ceremonial chant, as bells, mirrors, or beads. Masks may be either facial
notably *dirges and *panegyrics. Notable among ancient coverings, helmet masks, or head-dresses worn on top of
Egyptian and pre-colonial African literatures are the the head. Wooden facial masks are sometimes also carved
great Aton Hymn, a prayer preserved in several versions with enormous superstructures, as among the Dogon
in the tomb of Akhenaten (Ji. 14th century bc); the epic (Mali), or with inventive figurative sculpture, as among
Sundiata about the 13th-century West African monarch the Yoruba (Nigeria).
Mari Jata; and the 14th-century Ethiopian chronicle
Pillar of ^ion. Other written literature, predominantly African music (south of the Sahara). Despite a con-
religious, survives from the Islamic societies of the North siderable variety of cultures, music throughout Black
and West. The earliest writings in English by Africans Africa shares a number of characteristics, making general
are those of slaves taken to America in the late i8th discussion possible. Traditional African music is a com-
century, notably the poet Phyllis Wheatley and the munity affair, and is primarily a group activity, often
autobiographer Olaudah Equiano. From the 1930s sev- associated with dance. It accompanies many aspects of
eral African authors, often educated abroad, published life,such as the variety of manual labour, hunting, and
significant works in European languages, led by the warfare, and is also part of important social, political, or
French-speaking poets Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo (Ma- religious events. For example, music is used extensively
dagascar) and the co-founder of the negritude movement at ceremonies marking the installation of a new chief,
*Senghor (Senegal) (see also *Cesaire), and later by and songs relate tribal history in the absence of written
the novelists Camara Laye (Guinea) and *Ousmane texts. Political status among the Venda is determined in
AFRICAN MUSICAL Free ebooks
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part by the type of music a chief may command, and in cases. They
are played both with hands and beaten with
West Africa poHtical protests are sung rather than said. sticks,and often played in pairs or in ensembles organized
As an example of music's importance in reUgion, each by size and pitch, for example the entenga drum-chimes
deity in various West African cults is accorded its own of Uganda, which use fifteen tuned drums. Although
distinctive set of *drums and rhythms. Less common is characteristic of many areas of Africa, drums are largely
the concept of music as entertainment, performed by absent in southern Africa. An instrument unique to
itinerant professional musicians. Some trained musicians African and Afro-American cultures is the lamellaphone,
perform ceremonial or religious duties and are subject to which consists of six to thirty thin metal or bamboo
the patronage of kings, and amongst the Hausa of tongues tied to a resonator, which also has metal jingles
northern Nigeria praise singers laud an individual ac- or shells attached to it, giving a buzzing sound. La-
cording to the money offered. The social status of such mellaphones and xylophones vary greatly in size, tuning,
performers is low, however. A significant aspect of African and construction. The largest log xylophones are played
music is its highly intricate *rhythm, which is achieved by up to four musicians. Wind instruments are less
through individual lines of much complexity and through common, but types of trumpet (made of wood, bone,
their combination in ensembles. Individual lines use horn, or ivory) are used for signalling, while *flutes
syncopation (stress at points other than the main beat), (made from cane, wood, or bamboo, with and without
'silent' beats (sometimes bearing the main stress), additive finger-holes) and *shawms are popular in many regions.
rhythms (the unequal subdivision of a larger time-span, Stringed instruments are represented by the musical
especially 12 into 2 + 2 -|- 3-I- 2 -|- 3), and hemiola (the *bow, and more complicated with *harps mostly arched
juxtaposition of 2s and 3s). When combined in ensembles with a curved neck and from five to ten strings; they
these independent rhythmic patterns produce complex are used to accompany song. *Zithers are especially
polyrhythms, the whole being co-ordinated by a 'time- important in Central Africa, while *lutes, harp-lutes
line', a repetitive rhythm providing a reference point, including the *kora, which is played by professional
and over which the master drum improvises rhythmic musicians, and lyres are also found throughout Africa.
patterns. Melodies employ a large variety of *scales, most Among some African peoples, such as the Mandinka,
frequently recognizably diatonic scales, or pentatonic and music is a profession followed only by particular castes;
heptatonic *modes. Vocal melodies reflect closely the among others, such as the pygmies or the Venda, it is a
rhythm and stress of language. Also, since most sub- necessary social accomplishment for everyone.
Saharan languages are tonal (that is, the pitch of a word
affects its meaning), the melodic contour is determined African pottery. Pottery is found in almost all parts of
by the words. This feature is also exploited in * talking Africa where there is a sufficient supply of clay and of
drums. Choral singing is usually homophonic (see *poly- wood to fuel the open fires in which it is hardened. The
phony), in which thirds predominate, with some fourths potter's wheel was unknown before it was introduced by
and fifths. Vocal forms typically alternate solo and chorus, Europeans, and is still unusual, although simpler and
the latter either repeating the solo line or remaining fixed much slower turntable devices are used. Women, rather
while the solo improvises different melodies. Instrumental than men, are usually responsible for making pottery,
polyphony also employs such antiphonal and responsorial using various techniques of moulding clay or coiling strips
techniques, as well as using rounds and the type of of it. Over such a huge area there is naturally great
polyphony derived from the concurrent renditions of variation in types, but common to most African pottery
various independent lines. —
Heterophony the sim- is the fact that decoration consists mainly of incised
ultaneous performance of a single theme by several patterning rather than painting (although there is some-
performers, each introducing slight rhythmic and melodic times a simple overall wash of colour). Glazing is
differences— is also used, for example in the Chopi *xylo- unknown, but shiny finishes can be obtained by rubbing
phone orchestras. Performances generally blur the dis- with various vegetable substances. Typical forms of incised
tinction between creation and improvisation, mixing decoration are zigzags, dotted lines, wavy comb-like
both: it is unusual for a piece to be performed twice in patterns, and string-like ribbing recalling the textures of
the same way. basketry. Pottery has been used not only for domestic
vessels, but also for various other practical and decorative
African musical instruments. A
wide variety of objects, including drums, lamps, and figure sculpture.
instruments is found, their distribution determined by
local terrain and the life-style of tribes (for example African rock art, the painting and incising of rock
hunting groups, such as Central African pygmies, use only surfaces in sub-Saharan Africa. Of the various in-
easily portable instruments,such as whistles). Instruments dependent traditions southern African paintings in the
have four important roles in African society: a purely Apollo II caves in Namibia seem to be the oldest examples
musical one, in the various social, political, and religious of rock art in the world, dating from about 25,000 bc.
contexts described above; as mediator between human These, and the profusion of other southern rock paintings,
and god, a power invested in some instruments such as were done mostly by hunter-gatherers who depicted
the * bull-roarer; transmission of verbal messages; and as trance or medicine dance experiences during which sham-
representatives of power and prestige. Since rhythm is so ans cured the sick and controlled rain and game. Among
highly developed in African music this feature is much the characteristic motifs are representations of medicine
exploited in instruments, there being many *percussion men bending forward with arms extended as if 'flying'.
instruments, such as *rattles (made from gourds or woven Among the animals represented, the eland predominates
baskets with pebbles or seeds inside), wooden and metal because of its supposed magical potency, which medicine
bells (often imbued with religious significance), and the men tried to harness.
many varieties of drums. Drums range from membranes
stretched over simple clay pots to large decorated wooden African sculpture. This encompasses three-dimensional
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AGNON
the leopard in Benin art) or as mediators between the
bush and the village. Pottery heads and figures (some of
them roughly life-size) are particularly associated with
the Nok culture, which flourished in Nigeria from about
500 Bc to about AD 200. The bronze heads from Ife (the
religious centre of the Yoruba in Nigeria) dating from
perhaps as early as the 13th century, are outstanding for
their skill in carving and restrained naturalism, and may
have influenced the later Benin bronzes.
for the Night, 1938), the early settlement in Palestine alabaster, a form of limestone or gypsum. Soft, fine-
{Yesterday and the 1945), and life in modern
Day Before, grained, easy to carve, and taking a good polish, alabaster
Jerusalem. He also described the sense of loss following has been much used for sculpture and the decorative arts,
the breakdown of Jewish orthodox tradition, and ex- though it is a rather fragile material (readily scratched
pressed the of the unconscious in collections of stories
life with the finger-nail) and therefore generally unsuitable
such as The Book of Deeds. Agnon developed a distinctive for large-scale or exterior work. It is usually white, but
linguistic style, a mixture of modern and rabbinic Hebrew. sometimes reddish or yellowish, and when cut in thin
He received the Nobel Prize for Literature (shared with slabs it is translucent (it has sometimes been used in small
the poet Nelly Sachs) in 1966. windows in place of glass). Alabaster can be carved with
a knife or turned on a lathe. It can be made to resemble
Alley, Alvin (i 931 89), US dancer, choreographer, and marble more closely by treating it with heat, and it can
director. trained with Horton and then with *Graham
He also easily be dyed or painted. In the Middle Ages it was
and Holm, going on to form a company in 1958 to popular for small devotional statues, portable altar-pieces,
perform his own works. He blends primitive, *modern, and to a lesser extent for tomb sculpture, but it then went
and *jazz elements of dance with a concern for black out of favour. Its popularity revived in the late i8th
rural America, as in his signature work Revelations (i960). —
century in ornaments such as vases, clock-cases, and so
on, and commercial figurines. Manufacturing of such
air brush, an instrument for spraying paint or varnish
objects continues today, especially in Italy, in particular
in a fine mist by means of compressed air. An air brush
Florence.
looks rather like an outsize fountain pen and is operated
in a similar fashion, the pressure of the forefinger on a Alain-Fournier (Henri- Alban Fournier) (1886- 19 14),
lever regulating the air supply. It can be controlled so as French novelist. His one work, Le Grand Meaulnes (191 3),
to give large areas of flat colour, delicate gradations of a landmark in modern French fiction, evokes with charm
tone, or a fairly fine line. Although it is particularly
and simplicity the adolescence of Augustin Meaulnes. The
associated with commercial art (for example, in re- hero's adventures unfold in an atmosphere of mystical
touching photographs), it is also used by painters who unreality, beyond which, from time to time, the world of
require a very smooth surface. adulthood and of the absolute is tantalizingly perceived.
The book is partly drawn from his own happy childhood
Ajanta, caves, a complex of more than twenty Buddhist
in the small town of Epineuil in central France. Alain-
caves in the north-western Deccan area of India (Maha-
Fournier was killed at the first Battle of the Marne during
rashtra state), famed for their architecture, sculpture and,
World War I.
above all, their wall paintings. The caves are hollowed
out of granite cliffs in a crescent-shaped ravine, and date
Alas y Ureiia, Leopoldo (Clarin) 1852- 190 1), Span-
from between c.200 bc and ad 700. Columned
(
published abroad 1963, Soviet Union 1987) is an elegy (1966) and Seascape (1975) won Pulitzer Prizes.
the Soviet Union in 1981 and became a US citizen. Alberti, LeonBattista (1404-72), Italian architect,
sculptor, and writer. Apart from his artistic
painter,
Akutagawa Ryunosuke ^Japanese literature. talents, he was a playwright, musician, mathematician,
and athlete, embodying the *Renaissance ideal of the
alabaster ornaments, decorative objects made from 'universal man'. Little trace survives of his work as a
11 ALCOTT
painter and sculptor, but he was one of the leading Sailor Ashore (1924),The Lover (1925), and The Last Duke
architects of his period and the most important art theorist of Alha (1925-6) are inspired by traditional songs and
of the Renaissance. His first theoretical book on the folklore. This soon gives way to a poetry of crisis, first
arts, De Pictura (On Painting, 1436), contains the first Tightly Constructed (1926 7), with its dual influence of
description of scientific *perspective. Alberti's other treat- *G6ngora and the *Generation of '27, and then his major
iseson the arts were On Sculpture, probably written in the work Concerning the Angels (1927-8), in which angels
1 and Concerning Architecture, which he worked on
460s, represent different forces in the poet's tortured psyche.
until his death and which became the first printed book On another level, the work is an indictment of modern
on architecture when it was posthumously published in civilization, expressed in distorted syntax and through
1485. In all his writings he turned away from the medieval private images of loss and alienation. In the 1 930s Alberti's
notion of art as the expression of religious ideas, seeing it espousal of communism led him to write politically
instead entirely in human terms and emphasizing its partisan works, inferior in quality to his early, subjective
rational and scientific basis. He showed a deep admiration poetry.
for classical antiquity, and his architectural treatise was
based on that of *Vitruvius. As an architect, too, he Albinoni, Tomaso Giovanni (1671 1751), Italian
stressed the intellectual side of the art, such as theories of composer. Born into a wealthy family, he was able to
*proportion. His two most important buildings are the compose without reference to the dictates of an official
churches of S. Sebastiano (1460) and S. Andrea, both in post. His output was enormous, and includes operas,
Mantua. concertos, sonatas (for between one and six instruments),
sinfonias, and solo cantatas. Though never an innovator,
Alberti, Rafael (1902- ), Spanish poet. His up- he was a skilled craftsman and possessed exceptional
bringing in an impoverished family and his Jesuit edu- melodic gifts, which won him considerable popularity.
cation provided the themes for his major works, and his The work for which he is now most admired, the Adagio
autobiographical The Lost Grove (1959) helps explain in G minor, is in fact by the later hand of Remo Giazotto.
many of the allusions in his poems. His early works, A
Alcott, Louisa May (1832-88), US writer. She wrote
novels but is best known for her children's classic, Little
Alberti's church of San Andrea m
Mantua was designed Women (1868 9), modelled on her own New England
in 1470 and completed after his death. His debt to Roman
childhood. An Old- Fashioned Girl (1870), Little Men (1871),
architecture is particularly clear m
the majestic barrel
and Jo's Boys (1886) are the best known of her many
vauhs over the nave and side chapels. In using such
chapels instead of adhering to the traditional scheme of other works. She remained active throughout her life in
aisles flanking the nave, Alberti created a type of plan such reform movements as temperance and women's
that became immensely influential throughout Europe. suffrage.
ALEATORY MUSIC 12
aleatory music (indeterminacy), the deliberate in- Algardi, Alessandro 1598- 1654), Italian sculptor. He
(
clusion of chance elements as part of a composition or was trained in the Carracci Academy, and in 1625 settled
performance of music. Thus the performers may be given in Rome. There he became a leading sculptor of the day,
several sections of musicand told to decide for themselves second only to *Bernini. His style was more sober and
which order to play them in. They may also be invited classical than that of Bernini, but his portrait busts the —
to 'interpret' unusual forms of *notation, which may or works for which he is now most admired have great —
may not involve actual notes. In such circumstances no vivacity as well as great dignity.
two performances will be alike, and indeterminacy can
be seen as a reaction against the over-organization of allegory, a story or visual image with a second distinct
*serialism. Aleatoric experiments began in the 1940s meaning hidden behind its literal or visible meaning. The
and have involved such composers as *Cage, *Boulez, principal technique of allegory is personification, whereby
*Stockhausen, and *Xenakis. Computers are sometimes abstract qualities are given human shape — as in public
used to generate 'random music'. statues of Liberty or Justice. In literature, allegory in-
volves a continuous correspondence between two levels
alexandrine, a verse line of twelve syllables adopted by of meaning in a story, so that all persons and events
poets since Ronsard as the standard verse-form of French conform to a system of ideas external to the tale: each
poetry, especially dramatic and narrative. The division character and episode in *Bunyan's The Pilgnrns Progress
of the line into two groups of six syllables in the age (1678), for example, fits a pre-existing doctrine of salva-
of Racine was later challenged by Hugo and other tion. As a method of seeking correspondences between
19th-century poets, who preferred three groups of four. spiritual and physical realms, or between the Old Testa-
A rare example of the English alexandrine, an *iambic ment and the New, allegorical thinking permeated the
line with six stresses, is found as the final line in the stanza Middle Ages, flourishing in the *morality plays and in
invented by Spenser in The Faerie Queene (1590 6). the works of Dante and *Langland. Later writers such
as Dryden and Orwell used allegory as a method of
Alfieri, Vittorio, Count (1749-1803), Italian poet and political *satire.
tragedian. Alfieri travelled widely and found in England
the political liberty that was to become his ideal; on his allemande (almain, alman, almayne), originally a Ger-
return he settled in Florence. Considered the herald of man peasant dance which gained popularity in the
the Risorgimento (the movement in the mid- 19th century mid- 6th century. Performed in slow to moderate duple
1
to liberate Italy), he wrote nineteen *tragedies (1775- time, it was a stately and solemn dance consisting of steps
89) expressing his hatred of tyranny. His rugged heroes, and a hop in which the free leg was brought up to make
reflecting his own blunt, vehement, and uncompromising a right angle with the knee. It was danced in processional
nature, caught the Italian imagination. Besides his tra- form with couples behind each other in a line or circle
gedies, he wrote *sonnets, *satires (among them 'The formation. The allemande was often followed immediately
Anti-Gaul' (1793-9), ^^ the excesses of the French re- by quicker, livelier dances such as the *courante. By the
volution), and a notable autobiography. mid- 7th century the allemande had become un-
1
search for a new kind of composition, and he is also an US film actor, director, and writer. Born in New York
outstanding interpreter of other composers' music. City, he is a humorous delineator of the neuroses, sexual
hang-ups, and cultural pretensions of New York in-
tellectuals. He made his directorial debut with Take the
Money and Run ( 969) Since making Love and Death (1975),
1
.
This picture, The Agnew Chnic (1889), is the second of jects). After World War
II, the development of * Abstract
two masterpieces m which Thomas Eakms depicted Expressionism by such as Jackson *Pollock gave US
artists
distinguished surgeons at work. Both pictures aroused art an international prominence it had never previously
much adverse comment because of the uncompromising enjoyed, and in sculpture David *Smith was a figure of
way m which they treated their gory subject-matter, but
they are now regarded as being among the most comparable stature and influence. Subsequent movements
powerful works m the history of American art. Qefferson include *Pop art and *Post-Painterly Abstraction. Am-
Medical College, Philadelphia) erican architecture in the 20th century has been high-
lighted by the work of emigres such as *Mies van der
Rohe as well as of native-born talents, of whom Frank
temple porticoes appearing on houses as well as churches Lloyd *Wright was the most illustrious. The skyscraper
and public buildings. During the 19th century several continues to be a dominant form, a notable example being
US sculptors adopted the *Neoclassical style and enjoyed Chicago's sleek Sears Tower (by *Skidmore, Owings, &
some success in Europe. Many US painters looked to Merrill, completed 1973), the world's tallest building,
Europe for inspiration, but there also arose a native school but other very different strands of development are
of landscape painting — the *Hudson River School. The represented by Eero *Saarinen's Dulles International
best of 19th-century US art, however, is found in the Airport, Washington DC 1958-62), with its hanging roof
(
bold and vivid naturalism of Winslow *Homer (famous suspended from diagonal supports; Buckminster *Fuller's
particularly for his powerful seascapes) and Thomas ingeniously constructed geodesic domes; and Louis
*Eakins. In architecture the period was characterized (as *K.ahn's bold geometrical forms. (See also *North Am-
in Europe) by the revival of historical styles: 'Gothic' was erican Indian art.)
often used for churches and the wealth that patrons now
enjoyed led to ostentation and a stylistic free-for-all in American Ballet Theatre, a ballet company founded
private houses or other buildings designed for personal in 1939 by ex-members of the New York-based Mordkin
or corporate prestige. Towards the end of the century Ballet, renowned for its wide-ranging, eclectic programme
there was a movement towards functional design. Chicago and as a platform for internationally famous dancers.
was the birthplace of the skyscraper and of the steel Originally called simply Ballet Theatre, the company was
skeleton construction that made it possible, and the name co-founded by the dancer Lucia Chase and the designer
*'Chicago School' is given to a group of architects, led Oliver Smith. Ballet Theatre's early history was
by Louis *Sullivan, who made the city the centre of chequered, and Chase reputedly saved the company from
progressive developments. The most important landmark bankruptcy with money from her private fortune. The
in the development of modern art in the USA was the company has never had a clear repertory policy, but its
Armory Show, a huge exhibition of 19th-century and programmes have at different times focused around ballets
contemporary art (European as well as American), which by *Tudor, *Fokine, Agnes *de Mille, the Swedish
was held in New York, Chicago, and Boston in 191 3. choreographer Birgit Cullberg (1908- ), and, recently,
It aroused controversy and hostility, but also created classics such as Swan Lake and Giselle. Since 1980 *Barysh-
a climate more favourable to artistic experimentation. nikov has been the company's Artistic Director.
Various US artists worked in abstract styles, but in the
period between the two World Wars there was also a American Indian music, music of the indigenous
movement, called American Scene Painting, towards tribes of North, South, and Central America. Their
depicting aspects of US life and landscape in a natural- ancestors were Mongoloid peoples who crossed the Bering
istic, descriptive style (following on the slightly earlier Strait between 20,000 and 35,000 years ago, and spread
*Ashcan School, which had favoured urban realist sub- through the continents, reaching the foot of South Amer-
15 AMULET
ica around 6000 BC. By the 15th century, when Europeans (for example, Blackfoot, Flathead, and Sioux), to the
first reached the New World, many different Indian undulating structures of eastern tribes, or the repeated
cultures existed, from the simplest hunting tribes like the sectional nature of melodies of Californian tribes like the
Inuit (Eskimos) to the complex Pueblo, Aztec, and Inca Yuma, one section being repeated at a higher pitch, the
civilizations. South American Indians have now been 'rise'. *Scales are loosely diatonic or pentatonic, though
absorbed into European culture, hence their music betrays tribes of the Pacific north-west coast use microtones
the influence of Iberian art and folk music (see *Latin (intervals smaller than a semitone). Vocal style is gen-
American music). By contrast, the enforced segregation erally tense and hard, the more relaxed timbre employed
by whites of Indians in North America from the mid- 19th by tribes of the Great Basin (the Paiute and Ute) being
century, has prompted a cultural unity or pan-Indianism untypical.
that has resisted the influence of Euro-American society.
The traditional music of all these peoples is mostly American Indian musical instruments. The great-
functional, accompanying social and religious gatherings, est number
of instruments is found in Central and South
with songs for hunting, warfare, healing, and the cel- America, especially in the Andean region of Bolivia and
ebration of the year and life cycles. Generally the cultures Peru. Simple instruments like *slit-drums and *conch
have no professional musicians, but because music and shells(both used for signalling), rattles, * bull-roarers, and
religion are closely connected, songs are in the charge of *stamping tubes are common, but there are also more
priests, medicine men, and shamans: hence music is a sophisticated instruments like the wide variety of flutes,
predominantly male activity. There is no written tradi- made from cane, wood, or bone, some capable of playing
tion,songs being handed down orally. In contrast to three- or four-note chords, and various types of trumpets,
some other traditions (such as European folk music) constructed from clay, bamboo, or bark, some of them
there is little emphasis on individual improvisation and sung through. *Panpipes of one or two rows, some playing
embellishment of the repertoire, and the accurate re- a complete scale, are common in the Andean region, and
production of material is considered very important: are organized into bands in northern Argentina. Many
indeed, Aztec musicians who made mistakes during the Latin American instruments are believed to have magical
performance of some religious ceremonies were tra- or religious significance. Being mostly nomadic, tribes of
ditionally withdrawn for execution. Music is judged by North America have no large or complex instruments,
how effectively it fulfils its function, for example providing using instead easily portable ones like flutes as the main
food and shelter or healing people, and it is closely melody instrument, and simple percussion instruments.
associated with myth. Several distinct musical areas have The Apache violin is a curious hybrid, mixing the musical
been identified for the Indian tribes of North America, *bow and European violin, and consisting of a wooden
though a number of characteristics are shared. Generally tube with a single horsehair string stretched over a bridge
the music comprises a single sung melody accompanied and played with a bow.
by percu.ssion instruments such as *drums and *rattles,
though eastern tribes like the Cherokee and Chippewa Amis, Kingsley (1922- ), British poet and novelist.
employ responsorial singing. Melodic shapes vary from He came to fame with his first novel, Lucky Jim (1954),
the 'descent in steps' patterns of tribes of the Plains region whose hero, a lower-middle-class history lecturer at odds
with conservative social attitudes, was hailed as an * Angry
Young Man; its provincial university setting was in-
Ouechua Indian band playmg side-blown flutes m the dicative of a new realism in fiction which Amis further
Andean regions of Peru. Flutes are the mam melody developed in That Uncertain Feeling (1955) and Take a Girl
instrument m American Indian music. In addition to the
side-blown flutes shown here are the panpipes and Like You i960). He is best known for his satiric comedies,
(
quena-quenas, or vertical flutes. Archaeological remains including One Fat Englishman (1963), Ending Up (1974),
indicate that flutes have been played since as early as Jake's Thing (1978), and The Old Devils (1986: Booker
100 BC m this area. Prize). His Collected Poems ig^^-igyg appeared in 1979.
bear inscriptions. They are particularly associated with wartime stories Night (1945) deal with betrayal, the Jews,
the ancient Egyptians, but they have been used in most Auschwitz; the novel Ashes and Diamonds (1948), describes
parts of the world. The Christian Church condemned the the first confused days of peace. Later works include The
wearing of them in ad 726. Pendants derive from the Inquisitors (1956) and The Gates of Paradise (i960).
practice of wearing amulets, so they often have religious
or superstitious associations. Angelico, Fra (Guido di Pietro) (c. 1400-55), ItaUan
painter of the *Renaissance. He was a Dominican friar
anamorphosis, a picture (or a part of one) executed (his nickname means 'the angelic friar') and painted only
in such a way that it gives a image of the object
distorted religious subjects, his work being famous for an inspired
represented until it is seen from a particular angle or by directness of religious feeling. However, the spiritual
means of a special lens or mirror, when it appears in quality of Angelico's work has sometimes obscured the
lifelike Anamorphosis is first mentioned in the
aspect. fact that he was also a highly professional artist one of —
notes of Leonardo da Vinci, and probably the most the most progressive of his day in his mastery of new
famous example of its use is in Holbein's The Ambassadors Renaissance ideas such as * perspective. His reputation
(1533, National Gallery, London), which features a dis- rests primarily on the series of *frescos he carried out for
torted skull, probably a symbol of the brevity of life. his own friary, San Marco, in Florence. Many of the
Generally, however, the purpose of anamorphosis was to frescos are in the friars' cells and beauty
their radiant
mystify or amuse. was intended as an aid to meditation. Angelico painted
panel pictures as well as frescos, and this aspect of his
Anand, Mulk Raj (1905- ), Indian novelist. He made work is also well represented at San Marco, now a
his name with the powerful protest novel Untouchable museum devoted to his work.
(1935), which was followed by other studies of the Indian
poor in Coolie (1936) and Two Leaves and a Bud (1937). Angelou, Maya (Marguerite Johnson) (1928- ), US
His Lalu Singh trilogy. The Village (1939), Across the Black poet, autobiographer, short-story writer, and dramatist.
Waters (1940), and The Sword and the Sickle (1942), follows She won international acclaim with her powerful auto-
the fortunes of a young Sikh during World War I. The biographical work / Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1970)
best known of his later works is The Private Life of an and its which recount the struggle towards social
sequels,
Indian Prince (1953). and spiritual liberation of black women in the American
South. In All God's Children Need Travelling Shoes (1986)
anandalahari 'plucked drum.
Anglo-Saxon literature *01d English literature. Anglo-Saxon art is now known mamly through
architecture and manuscript illumination, but notable
Angry Young Men, a catch-phrase dating from the pieces of carving also survive. This ivory, dating from
c. 1 150, shows the deposition from the cross. (Victoria and
mid-1950s loosely applied to certain British playwrights
Albert Museum, London)
and novelists who
held radical or anarchic political views.
It is sometimes said to derive from the title of the
autobiography Angry Young Man 1951) by the Irish writer
( the camera stops after each
has been photographed.
Leslie Paul. The phrase gained widespread popularity Though animation was displayed in 1892, before the
first
after the production of John *Osborne's play, Look Back invention by the *Lumiere brothers of moving pictures,
in Anger (1956). The anti-hero of the play, Jimmy Porter, the latter vastly increased its potential. By 1908 the most
is the epitome of the Angry Young Man and the play common form of animation, the film cartoon, had begun
became a mouthpiece for a group of young men from to appear, coming into full flower in 1928 with the advent
working-class backgrounds who had been to university of sound and the work of Walt *Disney. Animation later
and subsequently found themselves not only alienated developed in Europe, especially Poland, Czechoslovakia,
from their own family backgrounds but opposed to the and Yugoslavia, but with the spread of television it has
political and social attitudes of bourgeois society. Other become more common on the small screen (mainly in
writers in the category include Kingsley *Amis, John advertising). Animation can also be achieved by filming
Wain (1925- ), Colin Wilson (1931- ), Alan Sillitoe puppets and silhouettes: Lotte Reiniger (i 899-1 981)
(1928- ), and John Braine (1922- ). adapted the techniques of *shadow plays for this purpose.
animation (on film), photographing of individual draw- Anouilh, Jean (1910-87), French dramatist. Anouilh
ings and replaying them in rapid succession to give the classifies his plays as either light-hearted or serious,
illusion of movement. Each drawing in an animated though a fundamental pessimism underlies them all. His
sequence is minutely different from the one before, and characters struggle for personal integrity, limited by the
ANTHEM li
types: rajaz, a primitive verse-form with short rhyming to rulers or to courtiers. The range of subjects was then
Hnes; the qil'a 'occasional piece', of relatively short length, extended to the semi-factual, often treated for amusement
and the longer and more imposing qasida 'ode', generally rather than edification. The great artist in this field was
sixty to eighty lines long,which probably had its origins al-Jahiz (d. 869), who wrote not only epistles but also
in the piecing together into one poem of a number of much longer works in the same style, such as the Kitdb
qil'a. The qasida and qit'a are composed in lines made al-Hayawdn (Book of Animals). Anecdotal literature of the
up of two hemistichs or half-lines, normally with both kind we find in the * Thousand and One Nights was also
hemistichs rhyming in the first line and thereafter with immensely popular, but none of it achieved literary
the rhyme only at the end of the line. Each poem is status until the work of al-Tanukhl (d. 994). A younger
composed in a single metre. A dozen * metres were current contemporary, al-Hamadhani (d. 1008), devised a new
number increased to sixteen.
in pre-Islamic times; later the genre, the maqdma, of dramatic anecdotes written in
The range of themes which has dominated Arabic poetry rhymed prose, the most popular exponent of which was
until fairly recently is lament, boasting,
well defined: *al-Hariri (d. 1122). The prophet Muhammad did not
praise, satire, war, descriptions of animals and natural approve of poetry, and it fell into disfavour for several
phenomena, revelry, and a general philosophic pessimism decades after his death. Then the ancient traditions were
about life. A special feature of the qasida is the nasTb, an revived, though on a very different social basis, in Syria
elegaic prelude in which the poet recalls his attachment and Iraq by poets such as al-Akhtal (d. c.710). The second
to his erstwhile beloved. The most famous pre-Islamic half of the first Islamic century also saw the rise of two
poems are the seven Mu'allaqat, and the most important forms of amatory poetry: the first, vivid and direct, was
and influential poets were *Imru al-Qays, 'Antara, Labid, developed in Mecca by 'Umar ibn AbT RabT'a (d. c.71 1).
and al-A'sha. Three forms of prose are known to have The second, idealizing hopeless love, was first depicted in
existed in pre-Islamic times: story- telling {qisa) was ex- the poetry ofJamil (d. 701), who made Medina his home.
tremely popular and widespread. There were also sermons Slightly later, wine poetry developed as a separate genre,
[khutba) delivered by religious figures, and rhymed prose itsforemost exponent being *Abu Nuwas (d. ^.814). This
[saf) uttered by soothsayers. All three forms are to be contrasted with the simple, ascetic poetry of Abti'l-'Atahiya
found in the *Koran, revealed ad 610-32, the greatest (d. 826). In general, however, poetry was in decline,
work in Arabic, a book not only of crucial religious due to a growing preoccupation with showy form
significance but also of the highest literary merit. The rather than content. Occasionally there are poets whose
Koran and Islam determined the future course of Arabic genius transcends these preoccupations, most notably
literature. Most authors were scholars writing on didactic *al-Mutanabbi, the blind al-Ma'arrI (d. 1057), and Ibn
subjects: history, law, all aspects of religion, language, al-Farid, the greatest Arab mystic poet (see also *Sufi
and, later, geography, medicine, and sciences, and it is literature). For the most part, Arabic literature in Spain
in such fields that the greatest writers in Arabic are to followed the traditions of the east, as can be seen in the
be found. work of its greatest prose writer, the polymath Ibn Hazm
In the Islamic period imaginative prose developed from (d. 1064) and its leading poet, Ibn Zaydiin (d. 1071).
the story-telling of old, from the new stories and fables However, two stanzaic forms of verse, the muwashshah and
coming from Persia and India in such collections as KalTla the zajal, originated in Spain. The muwashshah is of special
wa-Dimna (see *panchatranta), and from the risdla 'epistle' interest as some fifty poems end with a kharja [envoi or
genre that emerged in the Umayyad period (656-750). final stanza) that is wholly or partly in an early Spanish
The first epistles were on practical subjects such as advice dialect. Classical Arabic literature has no epic and no
drama, though the medieval period saw the rise of
This 9th-century Abbasid Koran is written m *shadow plays. Modern Arabic literature developed as
Kufic script on
vellum. One of the earliest scripts to be developed for the product of this century and
influenced by Western
is
written works of Arabic literature, Kufic has a monumental forms such as the novel, the short story, and drama,
style which reflects the quasi-talismanic religious signific- genres alien to classical tradition, which are now major
ance attached to the written word of God. (Private collection) vehicles of creative expression. Poetry has also acquired
new free verse-forms in addition to the neoclassical. Of
the many successful writers three Egyptians have won
special eminence: the critic, autobiographer, and novelist
Taha Husein (d. 1973), the dramatist Tawfiq al-Hakim
(d. 1987), and the novelist Neguib Mahfouz, winner of
the 1987 Nobel Prize for Literature. (See also * Persian
literature, *Turkish literature.)
The Arch
keystone k_ J
lintel ^r~7 ^
soffit springer
arch construction
materials used to span a gap and support a structure peoples, but they used it mainly for utilitarian purposes
above it; the term is also applied to similar features used such as drains, and the Romans were the first to exploit
decoratively. In a traditional masonry arch the individual it as a major element of architectural design. They used
wedge-shaped blocks are called voussoirs and the central it to cover much wider spans than were possible with the
one is the keystone. The blocks support each other, and simple post and lintel constructional system (two uprights
the downward pressure of the superstructure is partially supporting a flat slab) favoured by the Greeks, and they
converted into outward thrust, which requires substantial made it a key element of the decorative vocabulary of
abutment from a wall or pillar; if this is not strong enough their architecture. The semicircular arch of the Romans
the arch collapses. With modern materials such as steel continued to be dominant in European architecture until
and reinforced concrete, however, the stresses can be so it was superseded in the 12th century by the pointed
distributed that massive supports are not needed, even Gothic arch, which was stronger structurally and more
for very wide spans. The arch was known to many ancient versatile aesthetically.
21 ARMONICA
Archer, Thomas (r. 1668- 1743), English architect. His tian knights' war against the Saracens, but it is trans-
output was small, but his buildings are important in formed into a brilliant satire of the chivalric tradition, as
being the only ones by an English *Baroque architect Ariosto pursues a dozen narrative threads with technical
to show evidence of first-hand study of contemporary mastery.
continental, particularly Italian, architecture. Archer's
architectural training is unknown, but he travelled abroad Aristophanes (c.450 c.385 bc), Greek comic poet. Of
1 69
1
-5 and presumably saw the work of *Bernini and his plays, eleven have survived complete, and there are
*Borromini. His finest works are the north front of titles and fragments of many more. A master of fantasy
Chatsworth, Derbyshire (1704-5), and the London and *satire, he ridicules contemporary figures, including
churches of St Paul, Deptford (1713-30), and St John, philosophers and the protagonists of the Peloponnesian
Smith Square (1713-28), which are vigorous and idio- War. His most notable productions include Acharnians, a
syncratic in style. comedy about the War, and Clouds, where Socrates is
attacked as a teacher of amoral *rhetoric. In Lysistrata
Archipenko, Alexander (1887-1964), Russian-born the women of Greece, by refusing sex to their husbands,
sculptor who became a US citizen in 1928. Archipenko bring about peace, while Frogs portrays the descent of
was one of the most inventive of modern sculptors, the god Dionysus to Hades and his judgement in favour
experimenting with new materials and reviving the prac- of *Aeschylus in a competition with *Euripides for the
tice of painting sculpture. He was one of the first to apply primacy in the art of writing *tragedy. Aristophanes'
the principles of *Cubism to sculpture, analysing the characters speak a fast-moving, colloquial, and often
human figure into geometrical forms and opening parts obscene language; but he is also a master of a varied lyric
of it up with holes and concavities. In moving away from style. (See also *chorus, *comedy.)
a sculpture of solid form towards one of space and light
he influenced the course of modern art. Aristotle *Greek literature.
Arcixnboldo, Giuseppe (1527-93), Italian painter, Arlen, Harold (Arluck, Hyman) *musical.
active in his native city of Milan and also in Prague,
where from 1562 to 1587 he was court painter to the arxnonica *glass harmonica.
Holy Roman Emperors Ferdinand I and Rudolf II. He
specialized in grotesque symbolical compositions of fruits, This woodcut portrait of Ludovico Ariosto is from an
animals, landscapes, or various inanimate objects ar- edition of his Frenzy of Orlando published m
1532. One of
the greatest poems of the Renaissance, Orlando was
ranged into human forms. His paintings, though much
imitated, were generally regarded as curiosities in poor
immensely popular; it went through dozens of editions m
Itahan before the end of the century and was memorably
taste until the * Surrealists revived interest in such 'visual translatedmto English by Sir John Hanngton (1591).
punning'. (British Library, London)
arms and armour, personal weapons and protective Armstrong, Louis ('Satchmo') (1900-71), US *jazz
clothing used in combat or
for ceremonial purposes, being trumpeter and singer. He first played the cornet at 14,
regarded both as objects of beauty as well as of practical while on remand in the Coloured Waifs Home. For a
use. In Europe armourers have invariably been workers time he played in and around New Orleans, before joining
in metal, but in other parts of the world materials such King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in Chicago. He played
as wickerwork, bone, and coconut fibre have been used. second cornet on Oliver's historic recordings of 1923, then
Outside Europe, the richest traditions of arms and armour formed his own 'Hot Five' in 1925. The recordings made
have been in the Japanese and Indo-Persian cultures, in by Armstrong between 1925 and 1928 changed the face
which metal (in the form of both mail and plate) is of jazz, shifting the focus from ensemble playing to the
combined with leather and padded and studded textiles. solo improviser. Armstrong continued to develop as an
European armour reached its highest peak of development artistuntil around 1946; after this he did little new
in the 15th and i6th centuries, when plate armour, which work, though he made many commercial recordings and
had gradually replaced mail, encased the whole body in appeared in over fifty films.
an ingeniously articulated suit. The finest armours were
made in Germany and Milan, and the main English Arne, Thom.as Augustine (1710-78), British com-
centre of production was Greenwich, where Henry VIII poser, violinist,and singing teacher. His gift was es-
established workshops. Henry's own armours, however, sentially melodic and found its natural outlet in the many
were intended more for the tournament than the bat- operatic entertainments he wrote for the London theatres
tlefield, because by the i6th century firearms were be- and pleasure gardens. Such works as 'Rule, Britannia',
coming so effective that armour could not be made proof from the patriotic *masque Alfred (1740), and his settings
against bullets without being excessively heavy. Cavalry of Shakespeare have attained the status of national songs.
continued to wear breast and back plates until the His greatest success was the Italian-style opera Artaxerxes
early i8th century, however. Among weapons, the sword (1762), but the English-style opera Thomas and Sally
occupies pride of place as the symbol of knighthood, ( 760) is more typical of his genius. He also wrote
1
justice, and power. Certain towns —notably Toledo in concertos, sinfonias, and sonatas.
—
Spain in the i6th and 17th centuries have been famous
for their production, and in Japan the blades of the Arnold, Malcolm (Henry) (1921 ), British com-
great swordsmiths are regarded with an almost religious poser and trumpet-player. His skill as a craftsman is as
veneration. evident in his many film scores (including that for The
Bridge on the River K'wai) as in his orchestral output, which
includes seven symphonies and numerous concertos. His
style is basically * tonal and rejoices in lively rhythms,
This armour for man and
horse, made at Landshut m brilliant orchestration, and an unabashed tunefulness.
m
Germany in about 1480, is a style known as Gothic,
so-called because the pointed forms and ripplmg
surfaces resemble those of Gothic architecture. Arms Arnold, Matthew (1822-88), British poet and literary
and armour reached a peak of beauty at this time that critic. He was the eldest son of Thomas Arnold, the
has never been excelled. (Wallace Collection, London) reformist headmaster of Rugby School. For thirty-five
years he was an inspector of schools, and supported the
concept of state-regulated secondary education. His first
volume of poems (1849) contained 'The Forsaken
Merman'. While continuing to publish poetry (including
'Dover Beach', 'The Scholar-Gipsy', 'Tristram and Iseult',
'Sohrab and Rustum', 'Balder Dead', and 'Thyrsis') he
increasingly turned to prose, writing essays on literary,
educational, and social subjects. With such works as
the *Blaue Reiter group, and in 1915 in Zurich he was art direction, design of scenery and costumes for the
one of the founders of the *Dada movement. During the cinema. When the camera was static, perspective scene
1920s, Hving at Meudon near Paris, he was associated painting on theatrical lines was adequate for films. The
with the *SurreaHsts. In the 1930s he turned to sculpture use of mobile cameras from the 1920s required more solid
and produced what are now his best-known and most settings, and the advent of colour further increased the
admired works: sensuous abstract compositions that con- art director's problems. With the growth of outdoor
vey a suggestion of organic forms and growth without *camerawork after World War II, skilled art direction
reproducing actual plant or animal shapes. was needed to 'improve' real locations, which might
otherwise seem inferior to studio ones. The art director
arpeggione, a rare bowed stringed musical instrument works closely with the director and cameraman to create
built and tuned like a guitar, but played like a cello. It the required atmosphere. The term 'production designer',
had six strings on the fingerboard. It was
and frets sometimes used to describe the art director, indicates the
invented in about 1823 by Johann Georg Staufer in scale of his responsibilities.
Vienna. Schubert's superb sonata for the instrument has
ensured its recognition. art history, the study of the history of the fine arts and
of the applied arts. The term can embrace a variety of
Ars Antiqua, Ars Nova, Latin terms meaning 'ancient intellectual approaches, from the cataloguing of museum
art' and 'new music, used by French and Italian
art' in collections, where the primary object is to establish
theorists in the 14th century to distinguish between the a body of information about each object, to
factual
notational systems and composition practices of the 12th philosophical musings on the relationship of art and
and 13th centuries and the technical advances of the 14th society or the nature of beauty. It also includes the process
century. The Ars Antiqua style was based upon *plainsong of attribution: the assignment to an artist of a work of
and *organum, and restricted itself to triple metres. The uncertain authorship, based on stylistic or written evid-
Ars Nova style, as exemplified by such composers as ence (such as letters or dealers' records). As an academic
Machaut, explored a greater variety of rhythm and discipline, art history developed in Germany in the 19th
independent part-writing. A typical musical form is the century, but its origins stretch back much further. Various
*isorhythmic *motet. Greek and Roman writers commented on the history of
the arts, notably * Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedic
Artaud, Antonin (1896-1948), French actor, director, work Natural History (ist century), and the 15th-century
and poet. He was best known for his advocacy of the Florentine sculptor *Ghiberti wrote a manuscript called
Theatre of Cruelty, which was defined in his essays Le Commentaries that includes a survey of ancient art and the
Theatre el son double (1938) and demonstrated in his first artist's autobiography to have survived. The man
direction of his own
play Les Cenci (1935). Using gestures, who put art history on the map, however, was *Vasari,
movement, sound, and rhythm rather than words, it whose Lives of the Artists (1550) inspired many later
depicted behaviour no longer bound by normal restraints, collections of biographies. Vasari said that he aimed at
aiming to shock the audience into realizing the underlying 'investigating the causesand roots of styles and why the
ferocity and ruthlessness of human life and releasing their arts improved or declined', and this idea of art following
own inhibitions. Artaud's ideas were adopted by such an evolutionary pattern of decay and revival proved
playwrights as *Orton and * Genet and were apparent in immensely influential. In the i8th century a new ap-
*Barrault's adaptation of Kafka's The Trial (1947); their proach was initiated by *Winckelmann, who regarded
most commercially successful exposition was the British dir- art as the most noble manifestation of a nation's soul.
ector Peter *Brook's 1964 production of The Persecution and Winckelmann played a major role in establishing Ger-
Assassination of Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Ch- many as the home
of art-historical studies, and it was
arenlon Asylum under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade (known there, during the 19th century, that two contrasting
as the MaratjSade) written by the German dramatist Peter approaches to the subject developed: on the one hand
Weiss (1916-82). Artaud was also interested in surrealist the analysis of the formal qualities of a work of art was
plays, some of which he produced at the Theatre Alfred seen as paramount; on the other, the work was studied
Jarry, which he co-founded. in its historical context, with emphasis on subject-matter.
In the 20th century art history has moved from being a
art deco, a style in the decorative arts which was defined somewhat elitist subject to one that is a popular part of
by the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et the school curriculum. (See also *iconography.)
Industriels held in Paris in 1925. Although applied
principally to the decorative arts and interior design of art nouveau, decorative style flourishing in most of
the 1920s and 1930s the term can be extended to western Europe and the USA from about 1890 to World
analogous styles in architecture and painting. Con- War I. It was a deliberate attempt to create a new style
centrating on stylishness tuned to domestic use and in reaction to the academic 'historicism' of much 19th-
popular consumption, it is characterized by geometric century art, its most characteristic theme being the use
patterning, sharp edges, and flat, bright colours, and of sinuous asymmetrical lines based on plant forms.
often involved the use of enamel, chrome, bronze, and Primarily an art of ornament, its most typical mani-
highly polished stone. The simplicity of the style can be festations occurred in applied art, decoration, and
seen as classicizing in spirit, attested by the Egyptian and illustration, but its influence can also be seen in the work
Greek motifs which were often adopted (for example, the of many painters and sculptors. The style takes its name
schematized Egyptian scarab). Although it led to a from a gallery called L'Art Nouveau opened in Paris in
re-confirmation, in both Europe and the USA, of the role 1895. However, the roots of the style were in Britain,
of the craftsman-designer, popularization of the style often where the *Arts and Crafts Movement had established a
resulted in the mass production of less refined objects. tradition of vitality in the applied arts, and it spread to
www.Ebook777.com
ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT 24
*key, music in which all twelve notes of the chromatic and short-story writer. In eleven poetry collections, in-
*scale are used without reference to a tonal centre. cluding two volumes o{ Selected Poems (1976 and 1986),
Atonality is foreshadowed in the highly chromatic music she has contributed a memorable voice to modern poetry
of mature Wagner (as in Tristan und Isolde), where rapid with her startling imagery and her ironic, elliptical
AUBREY 26
examinations of the individual confronted by a threat- work of comic verse. A disciplined poetic craftsman, he
ening environment, and by the various myths that support shows a tolerant, humane approach to ethics and politics.
us, including that of romantic love. Her tense, abbreviated
style is also evident in her seven novels, in which she Audubon, John James (1785 185 1), US painter and
examines the roots of a woman's relations with others naturalist. The son
of a French sea captain, he received
—
and with the world with a sexist society in her first drawing instruction from David in France. After moving
novel, The Edible Woman (1969), with nature in Surfacing to the USA in 1803 he worked as a naturalist, hunter,
(1972), with a bleak future world in The Handmaid' s Tale and taxidermist, also earning some money as a portraitist
(1985), and with her past in Cat's Eye (1988). and drawing master. His combined interests in art and
ornithology grew into a plan to make a complete pictorial
Aubrey, John (1626 97), English antiquarian and bio- record of all the bird species of North America. His great
grapher. Aubrey's Miscellanies (1696), a collection of work, The Birds of America, was published in Britain in
stories and folklore, was the only work published in his four volumes of hand-tinted *aquatints in 1827-38. It is
lifetime. He is remembered for his Brief Lives
chiefly now one of the most prized of all printed books.
(1898, ed. Andrew Clark) of eminent people, which
are a lively and varied mixture of anecdote, first-hand Augustan Age (English and French), a literary term
observations, folklore, and erudition, giving a valuable applied in Britain to the early and mid- 1 8th century
and entertaining, though at times inaccurate, portrait of when writers such as *Pope, * Addison, * Swift, and
an age. *Steele admired and imitated their Roman counterparts
who flourished under the Emperor Augustus (27BC-
Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh) (1907-73), British poet, who AD14). This period was notable for the perfection of the
took US
citizenship in 1946. The timely sense of menace *heroic couplet, a preference for wit and elegance, and
in his early collections, notably Look, Stranger! (1936), for intellectual rather than emotional satisfaction. The
made him the leading young poet of the 1930s, and his tradition survived in Britain throughout the greater part
mastery of many verse-forms is evident in later collections, of the 8th century, notably in the writings of *Johnson,
1
especially Another Time (1940) and The Shield of Achilles *Sheridan, and *Goldsmith, who wrote in the weekly
(1955). From about 1940 the Marxist inclination of his periodical the Bee an 'Account of the Augustan Age in
early verse (much of which he rewrote) tended to be England' (1759). In French literature the term is applied
replaced by Christian themes, but his democratic re- to the period of *Corneille, *Racine, and *Moliere.
belliousness and his Freudian diagnosis of modern unease
remained. 'Letter to Lord Byron' (1937) is his outstanding Auric, Louis Les *Six.
spiration from their native country with influence from Valley of Mexico during the hegemony of Tenochtitlan
European * modernism. Three of the best known of them and its confederated and allied communities in about the
have done some of their finest work in series based on 15th century ad and up to the Spanish conquest (1521).
AustraHan history or tradition: Albert Tucker, whose The architecture (see *Central American and Mexican
Images of Modern Evil derives partly from his study of architecture) was admired by Spanish invaders for its
Surrealism; Arthur Boyd, noted for his Expressionistic regularity and symmetry, enhanced by the grid-plan
Love, Marriage and Death of a Half-Casle cycle; and Sir settings. Cortes considered Tenochtitlan a finer city than
Sidney *Nolan, famous above all for his pictures of the Seville, yet it was razed and only 'provincial' examples
bushranger Ned Kelly. In architecture, the most famous remain. Early colonial plans and paintings of royal
and original monument is Sydney Opera House (1957- dwellings emphasize the orderly aesthetic. Aztec sculpture
73), designed by the Danish architect Jorn *Utzon and is skilled and expressive; carving in relief was used to
his chief engineer Ove Arup. (See also *Aboriginal art.) depict stories of the gods and historical scenes on slabs
and ritual vessels. Free-standing sculptures, such as the
autobiography, a written account of the author's own statuette of a cross-legged female in Basle and the large
lifewhich concentrates on personal development rather basalt head of a male in a skull-cap in Mexico City possess
than just describing (as in a memoir) people and places realism and evocative power. Sculptors also worked in
encountered. Predominantly a Western form, the auto- a distinctive form: monoliths carved in high relief, often
biography reveals an increasing individualism in Euro- with extrusions suggestive of limbs, favoured for depicting
pean and American culture, to the point at which the network of attributes which each Aztec deity
everybody who is famous is now expected to write one. combined. Survivals of woodwork, goldwork, ceramics,
Autobiographies hardly existed in ancient times, the featherwork, and lapidary art are also fine.
outstanding exception being St Augustine's Confessions
(ad f.400), a remarkable psychological account of religious
crisis and conversion. This pattern of conversion reappears
in several 7th-century works such di%^uny^.n?, Grace Abound-
i
This huge figure of the earth goddess Coatlicue illus-
trates Aztec art at its most brutally powerful. Dating from
ing to the Chief of Sinners (1660) and later in a secular
the late 15th century, it was unearthed m Mexico City m
philosophical form in Wordsworth's poetic masterpiece. 1792. Symbolic of the earth as destroyer as well as creator,
The Prelude 1850), and in J. S. Mill's Autobiography (1873).
{ the goddess has a necklace of human hearts and a skirt
The modern age of autobiography may be dated from of writhing snakes (her name means 'serpent skirt').
Jean-Jaccjues Rousseau's Confessions (1781-8), in which (National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City)
the frankness of self-revelation was unprecedented. Ben-
jamin Franklin had earlier founded a distinctively Am-
erican tradition of success story in his Autobiography 766). ( i
B
Babel, Isaak (Exnxnanuilovich) 894- 94( 1 Russian
1 1 )
,
principal churches. Despite the considerable quantity of
church music arising out of his Hamburg years, he is
important for his many keyboard works, chamber music,
and orchestral
that
sinfonias.
tribution to the development
He made
The early Babylonians were the direct inheritors of the at Eisenach, where he received his early training from
*Sumerian civilization, which inspired the art of their his father (d. 1695) and from his elder brother, Johann
first dynasty. From the 17th century bc. Babylonia Christoph. In 1703 he took up his first important post as
underwent a long period of domination by other powers, organist and choirmaster at Arnstadt, leaving in 1707 for
and from 722 to 626 bc was ruled by *Assyria. Having a similar post at Miihlhausen. In 1708 he became court
helped to bring about Assyria's downfall, Babylon entered organist and chamber musician to Duke Wilhelm Ernst
its period of greatest power and prestige. Nebuchadnezzar of Saxe-Weimar, where he remained until 171 7, when he
H, king from 605 to 562 bc, rebuilt his capital as one of accepted the post of Kapellmeister (musical director) at
the greatest cities of antiquity, and was probably re- the court of Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen. He left
sponsible for the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Cothen (the most congenial of all his posts) in 1723 to
which were laid out on elevated terraces and ingeniously become Kantor (director of music) at St Thomas's School
irrigated by pumps from the River Euphrates. The and Church, Leipzig, where he remained for the rest of
Babylonians were great traders and were renowned for his life. Bach married twice: his cousin Maria Barbara in
their love of luxury. Their buildings were often ambitious 1707 and, after her death in 1720, the 20-year-old Anna
in scale, but because building materials were poor (mainly Magdalena Wilcken, daughter of a court trumpeter. Of
sun-dried brick) very little of them survives above ground. his twenty children, four became outstanding musicians.
An example is the famous ziggurat (tiered temple) of Bach's compositions always reflect the demands of the post
Babylon of which only the foundations survive. The best he occupied: church *cantatas (mostly *chorale-based),
idea of the splendour of Babylonian architecture can be *motets, organ works, and chorales when in service to
gained from Babylon's Ishtar Gate (c.575 bc), a sump- the church; chamber and orchestral works when at
tuous structure of coloured glazed bricks, reconstructed Weimar and Cothen. Chief among his works are the Mass
in the Staatliche Museen, East Berlin. The other Ba- in B minor (1747-9), the Magnificat (1728-31), the St
bylonian arts were much influenced by the Sumerians John and St Matthew Passions (performed in 1724 and
and included terracotta plaques, cylinder seals, ivories, 1727), of which were inspired by his devout Protestant
all
and, where the material was available, stone carvings. In beliefs. Among his other great works are the six Brand-
539 BC Babylonia was conquered by the Persians and was enburg Concertos (completed 1720), the two volumes of
never again an independent force. (See also *Gilgamesh, forty-eight preludes and fugues known as The Well-
epic of) Tempered Clavier (completed 1742), the Goldberg Vari-
ations (1742), and the final demonstrations of his
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel (1714-88), German extraordinary contrapuntal (see *counterpoint) skills: the
composer and harpsichordist. The second and most fam- Musical Offering (1747) and The Art of Fugue (1745-50).
ous surviving son of J. S. *Bach, he was taught by his Admired in his day but soon forgotten, the magnitude of
father, but also undertook extensive law studies and only his genius was not fully appreciated until the 19th century.
settled to music in 738, when he was engaged by the
1 (See also *Baroque music.)
future King Frederick the Great of Prussia as accompanist
to the royal chamber music. By 1768 he was the most Bacon, Francis, ist baron Verulam and Viscount St
famous keyboard-player and teacher in Europe and left Albans (i 561 1626), English politician and philosopher.
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29 BALLAD
Acclaimed in Europe as the pioneer and leader of ex- Baker is an impressive interpreter of Lieder, British and
perimental philosophy, he was of particular influence French song, and oratorio.
during the * Enlightenment. His Essays (1597-1625) and
other writings mark him as a master of English prose. Bakst, Leon (Lev Semuilovich Rosenberg) ( 1866- 1924),
Ru.ssian painter and *set designer. Associated with *Di-
Bacon, Francis (1909 ), British painter. He was aghilev's magazine The World of Art from 1899, ^^ became
an artist and destroyed much of his early
self-taught as one of the most influential members of the Diaghilev
work. In 1945, however, he became overnight the most circle and the Ballets Russes. He designed the decor for
controversial painter in post-war Britain when his Three their productions such as Carnaval, Sheherazade (both 19 10),
(1944) was
Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion Spectre de la rose (191 1), U
Apres-midi d'un faune, Daphnis
exhibited in London. Featuring twisted and distorted and Chloe (both 191 2), and The Sleeping Princess (1921).
figures set against a vivid orange background, this is His stylized set and costume design brought to Europe a
typical of Bacon's work in evoking a nightmarish world riot of oriental colour.
of fear, horror, and revulsion that shocks and disturbs
the spectator with its emotional power. The impact of his Balakirev, Mily *Five, The.
pictures derives not only from their subject-matter
usually single figures in isolation or despair —
but also on balalaika, a Russian folk instrument with three strings
his handling of paint, by means of which he smudges and a triangular body, played like a *banjo. It has a
and twists faces and bodies into ill-defined jumbled long neck with frets on the fingerboard. The belly is flat
protuberances suggestive of formless, slug-like creatures. and the back is made from several flat pieces of wood,
Bacon has built up a reputation as one of the giants of each meeting at an angle. The tuning is usually to the E,
contemporary art, with a style that is uniquely his. E, and A above middle C. In the 19th century a full
family was created, with sizes down to double bass,
Baez, Joan (Chanders) * popular music. and balalaika orchestras became popular in Russia and
elsewhere.
ballads emerged in Scotland and England from the 14th attempted to unite the story-telling function with an
century, and have been imitated since the i8th century increasingly codified vocabulary of mime and movement
by poets outside the folk-song tradition; notably by in amore realistic portrayal of events. *Weaver in London
Coleridge in 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'. and *Noverre in Stuttgart and Vienna were the chief
exponents in a Europe-wide development which cul-
ballade, an Old French con-
lyric verse form, usually minated in Taglioni's Robert le Diable in 1831 and *Bour-
sisting of three 8-line *stanzas with an additional half- nonville's La Sylphide in 1836. Initially the dance
stanza, each ending with the same line as a refrain. In movement was restricted to small steps and graceful
the 14th century, Guillaume de Machaut set many of his gestures of the arms with the emphasis on intricate floor
ballades to music; but the most celebrated examples were patterns and groupings. The steps were formalized by
written in the 15th century by Villon. In music, the term *Blasis in the early i8oos through an analysis of the *five
can refer either to a folk-song {ballade being the German positions of the feet, and the positions for arms, trunk,
word for * ballad) or to a kind of composition for piano and head; these remain the basis of the danse d'ecole (the
in a narrative style, as in some works by Chopin, Brahms, academic school style of classic ballet) and of ballet in
and others. the 20th century. The development of ballet from this
'/"^^
w^
BALLET 32
point might be roughly divided into the mid- 19th-century reached in the Paris Opera productions of the 1830s,
romantic ballets, the Russian classics of the latter part of while Copenhagen developed its own brand of middle-
the 19th century, and the Ballets Russes of *Diaghilev, class ballet romanticism and London actively participated
which act as a bridge to the *modern and *postmodern in the international ballet boom. Russian ballet owes its
ballets of the 20th century. The romantic ballets have origins both to a romantic use of the folk or character
characteristics common to *Romanticism across the arts, dances of the 19th century and to the techniques of ballet.
of the creation of an ethereal, idealized world. Dancing It flourished under Tsarist patronage and, with the arrival
on point and the use of gauzy white floating fabric helped of the *choreographer *Petipa in 1847, the Imperial
to create this illusion. Its highest point was undoubtedly Ballet developed the Classical form to perfection. Ex-
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BALLET DE COUR
The family of the Italian artist Giuseppe Bibiera (1696- ballet companies *dance companies.
1756) dominated European stage design for over a
century. In this mk-and-wash drawing of a ballet de cour
ballet de cour, a form of court entertainment, per-
he shows the beginnings of the diagonal stage set. The
cherubs decorating the fountain and the statues flanking formed exclusively by aristocratic amateurs, which had
the sides would probably have been live children and its greatest flowering between 1580 and 1660. Derived
women. (British Museum, London) from the *intermedii of the Italian Renai.ssance, the ballets
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BALLET RAMBERT 34
the peasantry and the provinces to the aristocratic salons cluding *Millet, Narcisse-Virgile Diaz (1807-76), and
of the capital. Among the most famous are Eugenie Grandet Charles-Francois Daubigny (1817-79), settled in the
(1833), Le Pere Goriot (1834), Les Illusions perdues (1837- 1840S. Influenced by 17th-century Dutch painters and
43), La Cousine Bette (1846), and Le Cousin Pons (1847). by English landscapists such as *Constable, their aim in
In the collected edition of 1842-8 the novels were grouped art was to achieve freedom from academic convention,
together under the title La Comedie humaine, which portrays especially by painting directly from nature, though, unlike
in allover two thousand characters, some of whom, like the later * Impressionists, the Barbizon artists usually
35 BAROQUE ART
painted only studies in the open air, their pictures being Mannerism to create a style of great lucidity and force-
completed in the studio. His key work, the facade of the church of Santa
fulne.ss.
Susanna in Rome, dates from 1603. The major figure in
barcarole, a piece of music that imitates the songs sung the development of Baroc]ue sculpture was Gianlorenzo
by Venetian gondoliers. The accompaniment (in 6/8 or *Bernini, whose first masterpieces in the new style date
12/8 *time) suggests the gentle rocking of" the gondola. from around 1620. Cornaro Chapel (1645-52) in the
The form is found
operas (such as Offenbach's Les
in church of Santa Maria della Vittoria blends painting,
Conies d' Hoffmann) and in purely instrumental works, such sculpture, and architecture in an emotional way that is
as Mendelssohn's Songs without Words. considered c|uintessentially Barocjue. Bernini's greatest
Italian contemporaries, in the period that is sometimes
bard (originally a composer of eulogy or satire), a poet called the High Baroque, were the architect *Borromini
of the ancient Celts whose role it was to celebrate national and the painter and architect Pietro da *Cortona. Slightly
events, especially heroic victories. The bards occupied a later was Andrea Pozzo (1642- 709), whose ceiling paint-
1
separate social status with hereditary privileges which, in ing, Allegory of the Missionary Work of the Jesuits, in the
Wales, were codified into distinct grades in the loth church of Sant' Ignazio in Rome marks the culmination
century. They became extinct in Gaul relatively early but in Italy of the Baroque tendency towards overwhelmingly
continued in Ireland and Scotland until the i8th century grandiose display. In the 17th century Rome was the
and in Wales to the present day, occupying a central artistic capital of the world, attracting artists from all
position in the contest of poetry and music known as the
Eisteddfod (Welsh, 'session', revived in 1822). In modern
Welsh usage a bard is a poet who has taken part in the The celling of the church of II Gesum Rome sums up the
rhetorical splendour, religious fervour, dynamic energy,
Eisteddfod.
and illusionistic skill typical of Baroque art. The central
painting. The Adoration of the Name of Jesus (1674-9), is
Barocci, Federico (r. 1535 161 2), Italian painter. His
by Bernini's protege Gaulli, and the stucco figures that
work, mainly of religious subjects, is characterized by are so brilliantly combined with the painted decoration
great sensitivity of feeling and remarkable beauty of are by Bernini's pupil Raggi,
colouring, subtle pastel tints predominating. With this
extreme delicacy, however, went a splendid vigour of
design and brushwork. Barocci is generally considered
the greatest and most individual painter of his time in
central Italy, the freshness and vigour of his work setting
him apart from the prevailing ^Mannerism and heralding
the *Baroque.
over Europe, and the Baroque style soon spread outwards Renaissance *polyphony, because this was well known to
from it. It underwent modifications in each of the coun- allkeyboard players. A mix of the two traditions fuelled
tries to which it migrated, as it encountered different the later German style and particularly that ofJ. S. Bach,
tastes and outlooks and merged with local traditions. In a man whose organ music and church cantatas remain
some areas it became more extravagant (notably in Spain the most powerful testimony of Baroque music.
and Latin America, where a lavish style of architectural
ornamentation called *Churrigueresque developed), and Barrault, Jean-Louis (19 10- ), French actor,
in others it was toned down to suit more conservative director, and manager. The study of *mime has played
tastes. In Roman Catholic Flanders it had one of its an important role in the development of his technique.
finest flowerings in the work of *Rubens. However, in In 1946 he and his wife, the actress Madeleine Renaud,
neighbouring Holland, a Protestant country, the Baroque formed their own troupe at the Theatre Marigny in Paris.
had less impact, although *Rembrandt, for example, As an actor Barrault, elegant and outwardly nonchalant,
went through a distinctively Baroque phase in his early gives the impression of strong passions firmly controlled
maturity, when his work was often extremely lively by disciplined and physically sustained by
intelligence
and dynamic. In France the Baroque found its greatest the strenuous exercise of mime. As a mime-actor he
expression in the service of the monarchy rather than the is best known through his appearance as Deburau in
church. Louis XIV was a lavish patron and he realized * Game's film Les En/ants du paradis (1945).
the importance of the arts as a propaganda medium in
promoting the idea of his regal glory. His adviser in Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew) (i860- 1937), British
artistic matters was Charles *Lebrun, who led the army dramatist and novelist. His literary career began with a
of artists and decorators who worked on Louis's palace at series of stories and novels in the 'Kailyard' or 'cabbage
Versailles. With its grandiose combination of architecture, patch' tradition which portrayed a romantic image of
sculpture, painting, decoration, and landscaping, Ver- village life in Scotland. His most successful plays are
sailles represents one of the supreme examples of the his sentimental comedy Quality Street (1901), and The
Baroque fusion of the arts to create an overwhelmingly Admirable Crichton (1902), a comedy about a manservant
impressive whole. Baroque art favoured the theatrical cast away on a desert island with his employers. Barrie
effect created by the dramatic use of lighting, false is best remembered for his celebrated children's play Peter
perspective, and trick painting used for stage production. Pan (1904) about a boy who would not grow up.
The Baroque style made little appeal to sober British
taste. In English architecture the Baroque spirit flourished Barry, Sir Charles (1795- 1860), British architect. He
briefly and idiosyncratically in the work of *Vanbrugh was the pioneer and chief exponent of a rich Italianate
and *Hawksmoor in the early i8th century, and some of style,reviving the classicism of the Renaissance palaces
*Wren's later work comes close to this style as dem- of Rome and Florence, that became highly popular in
onstrated by the feeling for large-scale work evident in the Victorian period. The Travellers' Club (1830 2) and
his magnificent designs for St Paul's Cathedral (1675 the Reform Club (1838-41), in Pall Mall, London, are
and the Greenwich Hospital (begun 1696). It was
7 10) his best-known works in this vein. His most famous work
1
soon succeeded by the more sedate style of *Palladianism. isthe Houses of Parliament (1839-52), but while Barry
In all areas the Baroque merged imperceptibly into the was responsible for the overall composition, the * Per-
lighter *Rococo style that followed it. The period of pendicular Style detail is by *Pugin. Two of Barry's sons
transition was particularly fruitful in Central Europe, were architects, and a third, Sir John Wolfe Barry, was
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39 BEAT MOVEMENT
*Mies van der Rohe (director 1930 2), *Kandinsky, and popularity under the management of Brian Epstein
*Klee. The emigration of staff and students caused by (1935 67). Their songs, mostly by Lennon and McCart-
Nazism ensured the international spread of Bauhaus ney, initially blending *rhythm and blues and *rock and
ideas. (See also *functionahsm.) roll, became increasingly .sophisticated, and their novel
dance theatre deaUng with psychological trauma arising Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1920 ). William *Burroughs,
from relationships. They include a version of the Rite of though older and frequently living abroad, had strong
Spring gy^), Bluebeard 977) and Carnations 982)
( I
{ 1
, ( 1 links with the Beats. Their writing first received national
attention with the publication of Ginsberg's booklet Howl
Bax, Sir Arnold (Edward Trevor) (1883- 1953), Brit- and Other Poems (1956) and Kerouac's autobiographical
ish composer. He achieved fame through a series of highly On the Road (1957), which remain the Movement's most
romantic, * Impressionistic tone-poems based on Celtic famous works. Reacting against the middle-class values
folklore:In the Faery Hills (1909), The Garden of Fand of the 'tranquillized they celebrated states of
Fifties',
(1916), and
Tintagel (191 9). Between 1922 and 1939 he ecstasy achieved with theof sex, drugs, jazz, or
aid
wrote seven symphonies as well as three string quartets danger. They were influenced by existentialism, but often
and four piano sonatas. He was knighted in 1937 and had leanings towards oriental mysticism. Rejecting an
appointed Master of the King's Music in 1942. Bax's
music is extremely lyrical and its rich scoring is highly
effective and sumptuous in its harmonies. Allen Ginsberg, a central figure of the Beat Movement,
reached large audiences with readings of his poetry,
Bayeux Tapestry, a celebrated piece of embroidered such as this one at the Albert Hall m
London 1965. By m
the 1960s the ideas and attitudes of the Beatniks, notably
linen fabric (actually not a tapestry; see *embroidery)
their disillusionment with society's materialism and
depicting the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. It militarism, had spread outside the USA and were
is —
about 70 m. (231 ft.) long the last section is lost absorbed into the life-styles of cultural groups such as the
and 50 cm. (19^ in.) wide, and is arranged somewhat in hippies.
the manner of a strip cartoon, with one episode succeeding
another in more than seventy scenes. Perhaps made to
the order of William the Conqueror's half-brother, Bishop
Odo of Bayeux in Normandy, it was displayed for
centuries in the cathedral at Bayeux and is now housed
in the former Bishop's Palace there.
impersonal, academic literature, they returned the per- the latter play, a spokesman for popular resentment at
sonal statement to the centre of the work, and wrote in the injustices of 18th-century society. The plays inspired
a free and hectic vernacular style. Walt *Whitman and two comic operas. The Marriage of Figaro by Mozart
Henry *Miller were predecessors they admired. (1786) and The Barber of Seville by Rossini (181 6).
Beaton, Sir Cecil (1904-80), British photographer, Beaumont, Francis (c.1584 1616) and Fletcher,
Sir
diarist, and designer. In the 1920s, inspired by picture John 1579-
( 625) English dramatists. They collaborated
1 ,
postcards of fashionable actresses, Beaton began pho- from 1605 in about sixteen plays, at first for the Children
tographing his family with a simple camera. Persuading of the Queen's Revels and then mainly for the King's men,
such celebrities as William Walton and Edith Sitwell to then at the Globe and Blackfriars Theatres. Beaumont's
submit to his picturesque fantasies, he soon became superior faculty in the construction of plots is discernible
famous himself During a number of visits to Hollywood, in their joint productions, including Philaster (1609), The
he learned to master studio lighting, and in 1939 was Maids Tragedy (1610), and A King and No King (161 1).
asked to photograph Queen Elizabeth (wife of George The Knight of the Burning Pestle (c. 1607), thought to be
VI). He became virtually the 'Photographer Royal' for Beaumont's alone, is a high-spirited burlesque of knight-
three decades, a 20th-century equivalent of the great state errantry, satirizing middle-class naivete about art. Fletcher
portraitists of the past. After the war (during which he also collaborated with *Massinger, William Rowley
took some memorable propaganda photographs), (<:.i585-i626), *Middleton, *Jonson, and others, in-
Beaton's fashion pictures in particular became simpler cluding *Shakespeare in The Two Noble Kinsmen (1634)
and less mannered. He began to design for the theatre, and in Henry VIII (1613). The major plays of which he
achieving notable success with sets and costumes for the was the sole author are The Faithful Shepherdess {c.i6io),
stage and film versions of Af y Fair Lady. a pastoral with passages of great poetic beauty, The
Humorous Lieutenant (1619), The Wilde Goose Chase (1621),
Beaumarchais, Pierre- Augustin Caron de (1732- The Woman's Prize (1604-17), and Rule a Wife and Have
99), French dramatist. His comedies Le Barbier de Seville a Wife (1624).
(1775) and Le Manage de Figaro (1781, but banned by
Louis XVI until 1784) were among the most successful Beauvoir, Simone de (1908-86), French novelist and
plays of the i8th century. They brought laughter back essayist. From 1929 she was the companion of Jean-Paul
to the theatre after the rather serious bourgeois drama, * Sartre and her writing gives expression to the exis-
derived from the dramatic theories of *Diderot, which tentialist philosophy which they shared. She reached a
had flourished during the preceding decades. The plays wide public with her book on women's rights, Le Deuxieme
constitute two parts of a trilogy in which the most Sexe (1949) and Les Mandarins (1954), a novel describing
important character is the valet Figaro, whose many existentialist circles in post-war Paris. However, her most
adventures incorporate elements taken from Beau- enduring contribution to literature may be her memoirs,
marchais's own life. As the cunning servant who outwits notably the first volume, Memoires d'une jeune fille rangee
his master, Figaro's role has many antecedents in French (1958), which have a warmth and descriptive power
and classical drama, but he had become, particularly in lacking in her fiction.
bebop *jazz.
Behrens, Peter (1868- 1940), German architect and flourishing workshop in Venice with his two sons, but his
designer. A versatile artist who began his career as a major paintings have disappeared and most of those that
painter, he joined the firm of AEG in 1907 and designed survive are fairly simple and traditional representations
everything from factories to stationery. This marks the of the Virgin and Child. His artistic gifts are better
beginning of industrial design as a specialist field, showing seen in two remarkable sketchbooks, one in the British
a desire to humanize technology. As an architect Behrens Museum, and the other in the Louvre. Together they
was a pioneer of the *Modern Movement in Germany; contain more than 200 drawings, which are notable
his most famous work is the AEG Turbine Factory in particularly for their interest in unusual *perspective
Berlin (1908-9), a massive, bold structure of concrete, effects. Gentile Bellini (c. 1429- 1507) took over as head
iron, and glass. Behrens was an influential figure, and his of the studio. Like his father, he was greatly admired in
pupils included *Gropius, *Le Corbusier, and *Mies van his time, but many of his major works have perished.
der Rohe. They included erotic scenes painted for the harem of
Sultan Mehmed II when Gentile worked at the court in
Bejart, Maurice French dancer, choreo-
(1927 ), Constantinople in 1479-81; his portrait of Mehmed,
grapher, and company He trained in Paris and
director. however, survives in the National Gallery in London. His
London, danced with several European companies, and most famous works today are two huge religous canvases
in 1953 started his own company which became the Ballet in the Accademia in Venice, which are remarkable for
of the Twentieth Century in 959. He developed a popular
1 the rich amount of anecdotal detail they contain of
expressionistic form of modern ballet, tackling vast contemporary Venetian life. Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430
themes. His works include Firebird (1970) and Kabuki 1516) was the greatest artist of the family and helped to
(1986). transform Venice from an artistically provincial city to
one that rivalled Florence and Rome in importance. The
bel canto (Italian, 'beautiful song'). A style of singing major influences on his formative years were those of his
favoured by Italian *opera, in particular, in the work of brother-in-law *Mantegna and that of Antonello da
*Bellini and *Donizetti, in the i8th and early 19th Messina, who was in Venice in 1475-6. Like Antonello,
centuries that was fluid and lyrical, beautiful in tone and Bellini was one of the early masters of the technique of
flawless in technique. Now cultivated by singers who wish *oil painting. Relatively few of his works are dated, but
to do justice to the music of this period. the general course of his development is fairly clear, as
he moved from the severe linear style of his early work
Bellini, family of Italian painterswho played a dominant to one of warmth in which colour and light were the
role in Venetian artistic life. Jacopo Bellini (c. 1400- primary means of expression. He was remarkably in-
c.jo), the founder of the family's fortunes, was the father ventive pictorially and one of his innovations was to bring
of Gentile and Giovanni. He was trained by *Gentile da together figures and landscape in perfect harmony, so
Fabriano and by the middle of the century he had a that the landscape is not merely a backdrop but an
essential part in creating the mood of the picture. His
favourite subject was the Virgin and Child, and only
The Agony m
the Garden (c. 1460) is one of Giovanni Raphael has rivalled his subtle variations on the theme.
Bellini's early masterpieces. He already showed an
unrivalled feeling for colour and atmosphere the rosy — He was Painter to the Venetian Republic from 1483 until
his death, and he influenced most of the leading artists
glow of the dawn horizon is a particularly beautiful piece
of observation. The subject is Christ's 'agony' on the of the next generation, including Giorgione and Titian,
night before his crucifixion. (National Gallery, London) who trained in his workshop.
—
43 BENNETT
Bellini, Vincenzo(1801-35), Italian composer. Born flared, or occasionally bulbous, end of the tube of a wind
in Sicily into afamily of musicians, he composed his first musical instrument.
successful opera, The Pirate, in 1827. He wrote eleven
operas, which were enormously successful throughout belly-dancing * Islamic dance.
Europe. Chief among them
are The Sleepwalker (1831),
Norma (1831), and The Puritans (1835). Bellini was the Bely, Andrey (Boris Nikolayevich Bugayev) (1880-
master of soaring, ecstatic melody characteristic of the 1934), Russian writer. With his friend Aleksandr *Blok,
which, when wedded to the *Romantic
*bel canto style Bely was a leader of the younger generation of Russian
plots of the time, can have a most powerful effect. His *Symbolists. He beganwith lyric poetry and musical
pure melodic style greatly influenced Chopin. prose, and transcendental. A note of social
abstract
awareness comes into his work from about 1905, but
Belloc, (Joseph-Pierre) Hilaire 1870- 1953), French- (
aesthetic and religious values remain paramount; Bely
born British poet, essayist, historian, and novelist. A became a committed anthroposophist and follower of
prolific writer and devout Roman Catholic, he wrote Rudolf Steiner in 1914. His masterpiece in prose is
essays, reviews, and books attacking and satirizing Ed- the *modernist novel Petersburg (one-volume publication
wardian society, collaborating with G. K. *Chesterton in 19 16), and in verse, the long poem The First Encounter
writing against socialism. He was elected as a Liberal (192 1 ). He returned to Russia in 1923 after a trial
member of parliament in 1906 but became disillusioned emigration, and continued writing novels and memoirs,
and abandoned politics in 1910. He wrote historical and revising his poetry, until his death.
biographies and numerous travel works, including The
Path to Rome (1902). Today he is best known for his comic Bengali literature, literature in the Bengali language
verse, included in such volumes as The Bad Child's Book spoken Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal.
in
of Beasts (1896) and Cautionary Tales (1907). The Carydpadas, 12th-century Buddhist verses, are the
earliest Bengali texts, followed by Krittibas's 15th-century
Bellotto, Bernardo (1720-80), Itahan painter, the *Rdmdjaria, which is still popular, as is Kashiram Das's
nephew, pupil, and *Canaletto and his most
assistant of 17th-century * Mahdbhdrata. The greatest work of Bengali
skilful follower. In 1747 he left his native Venice and *Bhakti literature was Chandidas's Praise of Lord Krishna
spent the rest of his life working at various European (15th century). The ecstatic devotion preached by the
courts, notably Dresden and Warsaw. He called himself mystic Chaitanya (1485-C.1534) inspired thousands of
Canaletto and this caused confusion (perhaps deliberate) verses to Krishna from the i6th century onwards. Verse
between his work and his uncle's, particularly in views eulogies of Hindu goddesses were an enduring tradition,
of Venice. Bellotto's work, however, is more sombre in such as Mukundaram's Eulogy of the Demon-Slaying Goddess
colour than Canaletto's and his depiction of clouds and (c. 1590), Ketakadas's 17th-century Eulogy of the Snake
shadows brings him closer to Dutch painting. Goddess, and Bharatachandra Ray's popular Eulogy of the
Food-Giving Goddess (1752). Bengali prose developed with
Bellow, Saul 1915 ( ), US novelist, short-story writer, the Baptist missionaries of Serampore and the founding
and dramatist. Born in Canada of Russian parents, his of Fort William College, where Ramram Basu wrote the
early fiction is diverse in approach and subject-matter, first creative Bengali prose-work, the biography 77?^ Deeds
ranging from short works with few characters like Dangling of King Protdpaditya (1801). The first true Bengali novelist
Man (1944), The Victim (1947), and Seize the Day (1956), was Bankimschandra Chattopadhyay (1838-94). The
to the expansive picaresque of The Adventures of Augie poet Michael Madhusudan DuflT (1824-72) introduced
March 1953) and the African fantasy o{ Henderson the Rain
(
blank verse and created the first Bengali epic. The Death
King 1959). Herzog (1964) concerns the intense revelation
( of Meghndd (1861). Modern Bengali drama began with
of the life and experiences of a middle-aged Jewish Ramnarayan Tarkaratna's The Kulin Brahmin all for Pres-
intellectual, who is led through neurosis almost to suicide tige(1854), condemning child-marriage, and Dinabandhu
and emerges 'pretty well satisfied to be, to be just as it is Mitra's The Indigo Mirror (i860) on the plight of indigo-
willed'. The works which follow it Mr Sammler's Planet workers. Rabindranath *Tagore (1861-1941) dominated
(1969), Humboldt's (1975), The Dean's December
Gift Bengali poetry and prose-writing for half a century.
(1982) —
tend also to focus on intellectuals confronting Saratchandra Chattopadhyay championed women's
present-day urban reality. He won the 1976 Nobel Prize rights in novels like Srikdnta (named after its chief char-
for Literature. acter) (1917-33), while Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay
portrayed rural society in Father Pahchali ('Song of the
bells, open-mouthed vessels made of any resonant ma- Road') (1929). Muslim Bengali literature ranges from
terial, whether wood, ceramic, or metal, struck on or the 17th-century Daulat Kazi and Saiyad Alaol to the
near the rim by an internal or external clapper or a 20th-century Kazi Nazrul Islam and Jasimuddin.
separate striker. Bells may be hung from the vertex or
top, as in a church tower, or may rest upon the vertex, Bennett, (Enoch) Arnold 867- 93 ( 1 British novelist,
1 1 )
,
as with the Indian tuned tea-bowls, or have handles fixed dramatist, and critic. At the age of 21 he embarked on
to it as with handbells and African iron bells. Bells are a versatile literary career, publishing stories in Dickens's
used for many purposes, the commonest being rituals, magazine Tit-Bits (1890) and in the Yellow Book (1895).
signalling, and hanging round animals' necks. Sets of Bennett's fame rests on the novels set in Staffordshire in
bells are played as a *carillon or used for change ringing. the Potteries of his youth (since amalgamated to form the
Because church bells are so large and heavy, for orchestral city of Stoke-on-Trent), which he recreated as the 'Five
purposes their sounds are imitated as well as possible by Towns'. They include Anna of the Five Towns (1902) and
instruments such as *tubular bells, bell-plates, or elec- The Old Wives' Tale (1908). All portray with irony and
tronic simulation. The word is also used to describe the affection provincial life in documentary detail. They were
BEOWULF 44
Beowulf, the most important epic in *01d English Berio, Luciano (1925- ), Italian composer. Though
literature and the first major poem in a European his early work was influenced by *Stravinsky, he soon
vernacular language. It survives in a 10th-century manu- began to experiment with *serial and *electronic tech-
script but is generally dated to the 8th century when niques. Later works explore *indeterminacy and the use
45 BERNINI
of spoken texts (entire, or broken into phonetic sounds) Bernanos, Georges (1888- 1948), French novelist. Like
as the basic material for composition. In 1955 he set up *Mauriac in his own generation and *Claudel and
the first Itahan studio for the study of electronic music *Peguy some years earlier, he wrote from a position of
at Milan. Under his guidance this rapidly became an convinced Roman Catholicism. His two major novels,
important centre for artistic experiment. Sous le soleil de Satan (1926) and the Journal d'un cure de
campagne (1936), both revolve around a parish priest who,
Berkeley, Busby (1895- 1976), US director and cho- armed with a childlike simplicity which was of central
reographer. He was known for his flamboyant stagings importance to Bernanos, is able to combat evil and
of dances in Hollywood films, sometimes using the camera despair in the world. Among Bernanos's polemical works
to move among the dancers. He was famous on *Broad- Les Grands Cimetieres sous la lune (1937) is a notable
way in the 1920s and then in the 1930s in *Hollywood exposition of his humanitarian values.
for such films as Gold Diggers of igjj and Lady be Good
national success with the song 'Alexander's Ragtime Band' remarkably precocious and an unrivalled virtuoso of
9 1 1 ) His first complete score. Watch Tour Step, followed in
( 1 .
favour in the Neoclassical period but in the 20th century reproductive medium to a means of creative expression.
his reputation has again risen to the highest level. He is famous above all for his illustrations of animals and
country life, notably in his celebrated books A General
Bernstein, Leonard (1918- ), US composer, pianist, History of Quadrupeds (1790) and A History of British Birds
and conductor. In 1943 a concert with the New York (2 volumes), (1797 and 1804).
Philharmonic launched a spectacular conducting career
that has taken him all over the world. His music, which Bhagavadglta (Sanskrit, 'Song of the Lord'), a Hindu
combines jazz and classical techniques with great effect, philosophical poem inserted into the *Mahdbhdrata. The
includes the ballets Fancy Free 944) and On the Town( 1
poem consists of 700 Sanskrit verses divided into 18
and the musicals Candide (1956) and West Side chapters. It was probably written in the ist or 2nd
(1944),
Story (1957), as well as 'serious' works such as the century ad. The Pandava chief Arjuna, revolted by the
'Jeremiah' Symphony (1943) and Mass (1971). prospect of killing his kinsmen in battle, seeks guidance
from Krishna, disguised as his charioteer. Krishna urges
Bertolucci, Bernardo (1940- ), Italian film director. Arjuna to fulfil his caste duties as a warrior selflessly and,
He made twenty-two, and established
his first film at revealing his divinity, preaches absolute devotion (bhakti)
himself as a major director in 1970 with two brilliant to the all-loving Supreme Being incarnated from age to
films, The Spider's Stratagem and an adaptation of age to save mankind. This is the first clear presentation
Moravia's novel The Conformist. His next film, Last Tango of this doctrine in Hindu texts, moving away from the
in Paris (1972), was attacked as obscene because of its priestly sacrificial cult of the *Vedas to a devotional
brutal and unorthodox treatment of sex. igoo (1976) Hinduism open to all.
followed the fortunes of an Italian family and their
servants through the first seventy years of the 20th Bhakti literature, medieval Indian writing inspired by
devotion {bhakti) to the Hindu god Vishnu, a way of
century. After The Moon 979) about a US opera singer's
(
1
,
problems with her son, and Tragedy of a Ridiculous Man salvation propounded in the * Bhagavadglta. Bhakti
first
BihzcLd, Kaxnal al-Din (<^- 1455- 1535/6), Persian Bildungsroman, a kind of novel which follows the
painter. There is little firm information about his career development of the hero or heroine from childhood or
and few certain works survive, but he is regarded as adolescence into adulthood, through a troubled quest
marking the highpoint of the great tradition of * Islamic for identity. The term ('formation-novel') comes from
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BINARY FORM 48
Germany, where Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship Bizet, Georges (Alexandre Cesar Leopold) (1838-
(1795-6) set the pattern for later Bildungsromane. Many 75), French composer. He completed his first important
outstanding novels of the 19th and early 20th centuries opera, Les Pecheurs de 1863, but his second. La
perles, in
follow this pattern: Dickens's David Copperfield (1849-50) Jolie Fille de Perth enjoyed a greater success.
(1866),
or Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre (1847), for example. A Carmen, the last and finest of his seven completed operas,
sub-category known as the Kilnstlerroman describes the failed when it was first produced in 1875, probably
formation of young artists, as in Joyce's A Portrait of the because its story was considered too improper by the
Artist as a Young Man (1916). audiences of the day. It was the first opera comique (i.e.
with a spoken dialogue) to portray an anti-heroine and
binary form, a term in music to describe a simple to have a tragic ending. Bizet's music is distinguished by
two-part form consisting of two balancing sections of an its unfailing flow of sparkling melody, its sharpness of
AB structure. The first section generally modulates to a characterization, and its brilliant orchestration.
closely related *key, while the balancing section makes
the return journey. This form is found in simple songs Bjorling, Jussi (191 1-60), Swedish tenor singer. After
and in short keyboard works such as Bach's 'Two-part his Stockholm debut in 1930 as the Lamplighter in
Inventions'. Puccini's Manon Lescaut, Bjorling's warm and appealing
voice soon secured him the role of Ottavio in Mozart's
biography, some other person's
a written account of Don Giovanni. Throughout Europe, and as a member of
life and character. The biographers were Greek
earliest the New York Metropolitan company for almost twenty
and Roman historians in the ist and 2nd centuries ad: years, Bjorling sang the Italian, French, and Russian
Tacitus wrote lives of Roman emperors, as did Suetonius opera repertory with excellent taste.
in his fascinatingly gossipy Lives of the Caesars, while
*Plutarch's Parallel Lives of Greek and Roman statesmen Bjdrnson, Bjornstjerne 832 9 o) Norwegian play-
( 1 1 1 ,
was used by Shakespeare for his Roman plays. Sufi Islamic wright, novelist, and poet. His early prose work depicts
literature and European medieval writings abound in Norwegian peasant life with unprecedented realism
accounts of saints' lives (hagiography), but the Italian [Synneve Solbakken, 1857, The Fisher Girl, 1868), and
Renaissance discovered a new kind of subject in *Vasari's he achieved early and lasting success as a dramatist,
Lives (1550) of artists. In Britain, biography developed overshadowing his contemporary Ibsen for much of his
in the hands of *Aubrey and Izaak *Walton in the 17th life. The trilogy Sigurd Slembe (1862) portrays Norwegian
century, and became a significant literary form with history, but later plays deal with contemporary problems
Johnson's Lives of the English Poets 1779-81 ); Johnson's
( {The Editor, 1875, A Glove, 1883, Beyond Our Power I,
own life was recorded by *Boswell in The Life of Samuel 1883). Perhaps his best play is Paul Lange and Tora Parsberg
Johnson (1791), the most celebrated of all biographies. (1898), a tragedy about a man's vain struggle against
The many lengthy biographies written in the 19th century intolerance. Bjornson was a prolific polemicist, and ex-
were often hampered by demands of respectability and tremely influential in Norwegian public life and Scan-
piety, but these inhibitions were lifted by *Strachey, dinavian cultural debate. A poem of his became the
whose witty irreverence in Eminent Victorians (1918) and National Anthem, and he won the Nobel Prize for
Queen Victoria (1921) launched a new period of growing Literature ( 1903).
interest in biographies. Among the highest achievements
in recent years are Richard Ellmann's James Joyce (1959) Blackxnore, R(ichard) D(oddridge) (1825- 1900),
and Oscar Wilde (1987). British novelist. His fame rests largely on his novel Lorna
Doone 1869), set in the 17th century on Exmoor, where an
(
Birtwistle, Sir Harrison (1934- ), British composer. outlawed family, the Doones, terrorize the countryside.
He was a member (1952-60) of the New Manchester His works include volumes of poems, translations from
Group, formed to study and perform advanced types of Theocritus and Virgil, and thirteen other novels. These
contemporary music. Birtwistle's music often has strong pastoral tales are sometimes wordy and ill-constructed;
ritualistic aspects and is sometimes very violent. Such their excellence lies in their descriptions of lovingly
works as The Triumph of Time (1972) and the opera 77?^ observed climate, wildlife, and vegetation.
Mask of Orpheus (1983) have placed him in the forefront
of British 20th-century music. Blake, William (1757- 1827), British poet, painter,
and engraver. Through his personal mythology, Blake
bistre, a transparent brown pigment made by boiling expresses in his poems a mystic sense of energy of the
the soot of burned wood. It was used, particularly in the universe and a protest against hypocrisy and constraint
1 7th century, for pen-and-ink drawings or as a wash for in conventional religion and art. He marks a rejection of
water-colours. Rembrandt and Claude are among the the Age of Englightenment and heralds the dawn of
artists who used it most successfully. The slightly greenish Romanticism. His two best-known books of short poems
tinge of bistre distinguishes it from the more reddish were Songs of Innocence 789) and Songs of Experience
( 1 794; (
1
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'
49 BLOK
movement in Germany before 1914. The name derives of six illustrations (1809) to his ode 'On the Morning of
Christ's Nativity'. It refers to verse xviii, in which 'The old
from the titleof a picture by *Kandinsky; other leading
Dragon under ground [Satan] wroth to see his
. . .
members of the group included Paul *Klee and Franz kingdom fail Swinges the scaly horror of his folded tail.
|
*Marc. Though its members differed widely in artistic (Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester)
outlook, they shared a desire to express spiritual values
in their work. The group disintegrated with the outbreak
of World War I. took US citizenship in 1924, but also worked in Europe.
His first mature works, such as the popular rhapsody for
Bliss, Sir Arthur (Drummond) (i 891 1975), British cello and orchestra, Schelomo (1916), explore the world of
composer. After active service throughout World War I, traditional Jewish music. Later compositions, such as the
Bliss became known as a very 'advanced' composer, much Concerto Grosso No. 2 (1952), adopt a more astringent,
influenced by Stravinsky and Ravel. Such works as A *Neoclassical stance. In the USA he was much admired
Colour Symphony (1922) and the choral symphony Morning as a teacher of composition: he taught amongst others
Heroes (1930) confirmed his importance, as did a series Roger Sessions and Richard Rodgers.
of lively ballets, beginning with Checkmate (1937). Later
works, such as the opera The Olympians (1949), were more Bloemaert, Abraham 1 564 1 65 ) Dutch painter and
( 1
,
romantic in manner. He was appointed *Master of the *engraver. He worked mainly in Utrecht, where he was
Queen's Music in 1953. the leading painter for many years and an outstanding
teacher, training a whole generation of artists. A good
Blixen, Karen
(1885 1962), Danish writer of short learner as well as a good teacher, he rapidly assimilated
and memoirs, who wrote mainly in English,
stories, novels, the new ideas that his pupils (Honthorst and
under the name of Tsak Dinesen'. She managed a coffee Terbrugghen, for example) brought back from Italy. For
plantation in Kenya (1914-32); after it failed she returned a while he adopted the style of *Caravaggio and he also
to Denmark, where she devoted herself to writing. Seven assimilated some of the stylistic features of the *Carracci.
GothicTales (1934), characterized by mystery, fantasy, He is best known for historical subjects, but his most
melodrama, irony, and parody, made her famous over- original works are his landscape drawings.
night. In later stories, her wit and wide range of reference
were tempered by resignation: Winter's Tales (1942), Last Blok, Aleksandr (Aleksandrovich) 880- 92 Rus- ( 1 1 1 )
,
Tales (1957), Anecdotes of Destiny (1958), Ehrengard (1963). sian poet, the most important poet of Russian *Sym-
Her idyllic but ultimately tragic autobiography. Out of bolism. Born into the intellectual ehte of St Petersburg
Africa (1937), was made into a successful film (1985). (now Leningrad), his poetry was suffused with the spirit
of French Symbolism, which was introduced to Russia in
Bloch, Ernest (1880- 1959), Swiss-born US composer. the 890s. His poetry was always a spiritual quest for the
1
He first visited the USA (as a conductor) in 191 6. He ideal, made manifest in a series of powerful female images.
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BLOOMSBURY GROUP 50
Loss of faith in his ideal, disillusionment following the This detail of a portrait of Boccaccio by Andrea del
Russo-Japanese War, and disappointment in the failure Castagno was originally part of a fresco on famous men
of the 1905 revolution are all reflected in Blok's later and women commissioned by the Carducci family 1448 m
verse. The lyric cycles of 1906-16 achieve unprecedented to decorate their villa near Florence. Together with his
heights of passion in a search for the meaning of Russia's friend Petrarch Boccaccio was among the first in the
,
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51 BONNARD
Florence. His most famous work, the Decameron (1348- to Nazi past in his novels The Bread of Those Early
its
58), is a collection of tales supposedly told by a group of Tears (1955) and The Clown (1963). Experimentation with
ten young people fleeing from the pestilence. Boccaccio narrative techniques is most obvious in Billiards at Half-past
isan important figure in the history of narrative fiction Nine (1959), Group Portrait with Lady (1971), and The Lost
and has provided inspiration to major writers in most Honour of Katharina Blum (1974), the last a scathing
periods of literature, including Chaucer, Shakespeare, indictment of journalistic and judicial malpractice. Boll
Dryden, Keats, Longfellow, and Tennyson. won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972.
Boccherini, Luigi (1743 1805), Itahan cellist and Bolshoi Ballet Company, one of the two major
composer. Famous in his teens as a virtuoso cellist, he Russian ballet companies, based at the Bolshoi Theatre
resembled *Haydn in his style of composition. He wrote in Moscow. Ballets were staged at the theatre from 1776,
a large quantity of chamber music (nearly fifty string but the present company developed after the Revolution
trios and over 100 each of string quartets and quintets). (191 7). Until the late 1940s it was secondary to the
His famous minuet (one of the best known pieces of * Kirov, but the dancer Galina Ulanova and cho-
classical music) is from the String Quintet in E major. reographer Leonid Lavrovsky were seconded there and
the Bolshoi school started producing its own great dancers.
Boccioni, Uxnberto (1882-1916), Italian painter, When it appeared in the West in 1956 its acrobatic,
sculptor, and art theorist, the most energetic member of dramatic style caused a sensation. Yuri Grigorovich
the *Futurist group. He advocated a complete break with became director in 1976, bringing ballets like Spartacus
the art of the pastand was concerned with the production (1956) into the Bolshoi's repertoire.
of emotionally expressive works and the representation of
time and movement. He believed that objects have a kind bone carving, the art of carving or incising various
of personality of their own, revealed by 'force lines' with types of animal bone. Bone can be used for some of the
which the object reacts to its environment. His ideas led same kinds of work as *ivory, but allows little more than
him to almost pure abstraction, and his theories on surface treatment because of its large soft core. It is
sculpture were extremely forward-looking, including the associated mainly with prehistoricand primitive peoples,
advocacy of materials such as glass and electric lights. but there are some fine examples of Anglo-Saxon carving
in whalebone and Japanese *netsuke are often carved in
Bodenwieser, Gertrud 1886- 1959), Austrian
( dancer, bone.
and choreographer. She toured Europe with her
teacher,
own dance company and emigrated to Australia in 1938. bone china, a type of *porcelain made with the addition
An exponent of * Ausdrucktanz, the German Expressionist of bone ash (the powdery remains of burnt bones) to the
dance movement, her works range from the dramatic clay. The ash gives bone china a pure white colour that
through the lyrical to mechanical portrayals of early is considered desirable in porcelain and it became popular
* modernist dance concerns. within a short period of the technique being devised. The
first patent was taken out in 1748 by Thomas Frye,
Boiardo, Matteo Maria (t. 1434-94), ItaUan poet. Born co-founder of the Bow porcelain factory, and the process
Count of Scandiano, near Modena, he was in the service was used at the French Sevres factory shortly afterwards.
of the Duke of Este. Inspired to celebrate the glories of It was perfected in about 1800 by Josiah Spode II, son
medieval chivalry, Boiardo embarked on his epic Orlando of the founder of one of the most famous Staffordshire
in Love, which he abandoned shortly before his death. The pottery works. Bone china is still something of an English
poem skilfully weaves together the threads of numerous speciality, and is used particularly for tableware.
legends surrounding Charlemagne and the Paladins.
Though it does not stand comparison with *Ariosto's The bongos, a pair of small drums played with the fingers
Frenzy of Orlando, it remains a work of great inventiveness. and used predominantly in Latin American music. Cy-
lindrical in shape and with a single head or skin (nowadays
Boileau, Nicolas (i 636-1 711), French poet. His early often of plastic), they are fixed together and usually held
reputation rested upon his verse Satires and Epistles, between the knees, or sometimes fixed to a stand. They
notable among which are 'Satire VI' on the in- are normally tuned a fourth apart.The playing technique
conveniences of life in Paris and 'Epistle XIF, which iselaborate in rhythm, pitch, and tone quality, the pitch
shows his sympathy for Jansenist theological doctrine. He being quite widely variable by hand pressure, while tone
is remembered as the codifier of the literary doctrines of variation can be achieved by using rim shots and by
French classicism, supremely in the Art poetique (1674), changing the way in which the fingers strike the skins.
where he advises the would-be poet to cultivate clarity
and reason, virtues introduced into poetry by *Malherbe. Bonington, Richard Parkes (1802-28), British
Boileau became embroiled in the *Quarrel of the Ancients painter, active mainly in France,where his family moved
and Moderns (1687), in which he defended the superiority when he was 15. Although he died young of tuberculosis,
of ancient over modern literature, and in 1693 published his work was highly regarded and influential in France.
an important volume of reflections on his own translation —
Though his range was wide including scenes from me-
of *Longinus' treatise On the Sublime. dieval history and romance —
he is best known for his
landscapes. These show great freshness and spontaneity
Boll, Heinrich (Theodor) (1917-85), German novelist and a beautifully fluid touch, whether he was painting
and short-story writer. In his early works Boll was in oils or watercolour.
concerned to reveal the futility of war. He satirized the
moral and spiritual emptiness of post-war Germany, Bonnard, Pierre (1867- 1947), French painter and
which had embraced materialism and failed to face up graphic artist. In the 1890s Bonnard was a leading
BOOKBINDING 52
member of the Nabis, a group of artists who rejected early as the 4th century, gold, precious stones, ivory
naturahstic depiction and painted in bright non- panels, and enamel plaques were used by monastic
naturahstic colours. After about 1900, however, his work, craftsmen to decorate the heavy wooden boards fitted
while still richly coloured, became more traditional and with clasps that were necessary to keep the vellum sheets,
he is regarded as one of the champions of the ideals of on which manuscripts were written, from buckling. From
the * Impressionists in the 20th century. With his lifelong about the 7th or 8th century, leather became the normal
friend Edouard *Vuillard, he is best known for intimate material for all but the most expensive bindings. Gold
domestic scenes (the term *'Intimisme' is sometimes used tooling became the normal form of decoration in the
to refer to the work of the two men in this vein). later 15th century, and the great 16th-century French
bibliophile Jean Grolier popularized the practice of
bookbinding, decorative, the art of enclosing the pages stamping book covers with names and mottoes as a mark
of a manuscript or printed book in a covering that of ownership. The style of decoration varied greatly from
is ornamental rather than merely protective. The art this time onwards, reflecting trends in the other visual
originated in the monasteries of the Coptic Church in arts, but geometrical, interlace, and floral patterns have
Egypt, perhaps as early as the 2nd century ad, at a time been particularly popular. Before the 19th century it was
when the codex (manuscript book) was taking over from the normal practice for publishers to issue their books in
the roll or scroll, which had been stored in a cylindrical sheets, so that booksellers or their customers could have
container. Leather-covered boards decorated with them bound to their own requirements. From the 1820s,
stamped or patterns were used by the Coptic
incised however, publishers began issuing books in simple cloth
craftsmen, but much more elaborate and expensive ma- covers, known as trade bindings, the start of modern
terials were soon being employed in the West. From as practice. Detachable paper jackets for books became
widespread during the 20th century. These jackets created
a recognizable 'house style' for publishers and in Britain
An illustration from an English edition (1672) of
many distinguished artists (including John Piper and
Comenius's The Visible World m Pictures. Divided into
150 chapters, the book was a landmark in children's book
Graham Sutherland) have worked in this area. Fine
illustration, and was translated into most European binding has continued as an art, particularly in France,
languages as well as Arabic. Turkish, Persian, and which has a rich history of bookbinding.
Mongolian. (Bodleian Library, Oxford)
book illustration, the art of adorning printed books
with pictures and decorative motifs. The earliest printed
books were modelled closely on *illuminated manuscripts,
( 19® y with spaces left blank for illustrations to be added by
xciir. hand, but by the end of the 15th century *woodcut
illustrations — —
particularly in Italy had attained a high
Printing level of mastery. Woodcut is inherently suitable for book
Tyf9grnphU.
illustration, since the impression is taken from the surface
of the block, which can be made the same thickness as
the standard height of type. However, copper *engraving,
though it required a separate printing process, allowed
greater detail, and it became the standard method of
book illustration from about the mid- 6th century to the
1
in a great nombec ma^no numero, illustrated books for children. Early books intended for
diftributos children were for instruction rather than enjoyment, and
pat into Boxes. 5.
per LocHlamenta. 5. the first picture book designed exclusively for children is
SCl>e Compofitor 1, Typetheta i. generally regarded as being Orbis Sensualium Pictus by
tafceti) ttiem ont eximit illos the Moravian-born educational reformer John Amos
ontbieone, ano fingulatira, Comenius (Jan Komensky; 1592- 1670), which was pub-
( accQ;Dine to !
& componit lished in Germany in 1658 and translated into English
tl^e Copy, ( fecundum ExewpUr^ the following year as Comenius's Visible World. Consisting
!
tDl}tcb tie ^at!^ faftcnet) \c\\xo^ Retinaculo 2. of pictures illustrating Latin sentences, with translations
before btni in a prscfixum habet^
libi into the vernacular, this was reprinted and adapted for
two centuries and was the prototype of the modern
j
Viforura 2. ) I Verba.
illustrated school textbook. Pictorial ABC books became
(ompofett) U)oati0
'
popular in the i8th century, but it was not until the 19th
tn
century that children's books began to be conceived as
53 BORROMINI
entertainments, and colour was used extensively. The
classicage of children's book illustration was the late 19th
and early 20th centuries, when artists such as John
Tenniel (who illustrated *Carroirs 'Alice' books), Kate
Greenaway, Beatrix *Potter, and Arthur Rackham flour-
ished. One of the major developments since then has
been the use of a cartoon-like graphic style, which was
introduced in the USA between the two World Wars.
than through sheer grandeur or richness. The two build- of the extraordinary personages he encounters, and by
ings that best represent his style are the churches of S. his idealization of an open air and vagrant life.
Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (begun 1638) and S. Ivo
della Sapienza (1642-60), which display the vibrant, Bosch, Hieronymus (Jerome van Aken) (c. 1450-
undulating rhythms and sense of fantasy typical of his 15 16), Netherlandish painter, named after the town of
work. Most of his other commissions were not carried out 's Hertogenbosch (in French, Bois-le-Duc) in northern
as he intended. His work was enormously influential on Brabant, where he seems to have lived throughout his
the development of Baroque architecture, but it was in life. Bosch, who had a prosperous career, was an orthodox
Central Europe rather than Italy that his ideas were most Roman Catholic, but the paintings for which he is famous
fruitfully developed. He was strongly criticized in some are so bizarre that in the 17 th century he was reputed to
quarters in his lifetime, and with the *Neoclassical re- have been a heretic. None of forty or so paintings is
action against Baroque and *Rococo 'licentiousness' he dated, and it has been difficult to establish a chronology
was enshrined as the chief villain of architectural history for his work. It is generally agreed that the more con-
an anarchist and corrupter of taste. It is only in the 20th ventional pictures are from early in his career; the
century that he has become widely regarded as one of majority of his paintings, however, are completely un-
the greatest architects of all time. conventional and the product of one of the most ex-
traordinarily vivid imaginations in the history of art.
They concentrate on man's cruelty and folly, and Bosch's
Borrow, George (Henry) (1803-81), British writer. greatest works swarm with disturbing fantasy creatures
He travelled widely in Britain, Europe, and Asia and half-human, half-animal. His basic themes are sometimes
produced several works in which he mingles fact with
fiction. The Bible in Spain (1842) gives a vivid account of This is a detail from the right wing, representing Hell, of
his adventures in a country racked by civil war. In Hieronymus Bosch's largest painting, The Garden of
Earthly Dehghts (c. 1500-10). The left wmg represents
Lavengro 1851 ), as in Wild Wales (1862), he meets gypsies,
(
Paradise, and the central panel shows mankind's sinful
tinkers, and murderers, and tells the reader much of
activities.Although Bosch represents such hideous,
his comparative study of languages; he continues these nightmarish monsters, his paintings are remarkable for
adventures in a sequel. The Romany Rye (1857). His works their beautiful glowing colour and superbly fluid
are marked by a *picaresque quality with vivid portraits technique, (Prado, Madrid)
55 BOUCHER
quite simple, but they are heavily embellished with Botticelli, Sandro (1445- 15 10), Italian painter, one of
subsidiary themes and symbols, evoking the power of the most notable artists of the *Renaissance. He was a
temptation, the horrors of evil, and the fearful con- pupil of Filippo *Lippi, whose graceful linear style he
sequences of sin. His work was widely known through raised to new heights. Apart from a visit to Rome in
prints during his lifetime and he had several imitators. 148 2, when he worked on frescos on the walls of the
1
In the 20th century his work has become extremely Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, almost all his career was
popular, and the Surrealists have claimed him as a spent in Florence. Little is known of his life there, but he
forerunner. was patronized by the greatest families in Florence as
well as by the civic authorities and some of the city's
Boswell, James (1740-95), Scottish diarist, lawyer, most prestigious churches. Most of his pictures are of
and biographer. During his travels through Europe he religious subjects, but he also painted portraits, mytho-
met Voltaire and Rousseau; the zeal for the cause of logical scenes, and allegories, and (unusually for the time)
national liberty with which they inspired him resulted in he made drawings intended as finished works of art in
An Account of Corsica (1768). Boswell first met Samuel their own right. His most famous and original works are
*Johnson in 1763; their travels in Scotland in 1773 are his mythological paintings, and he was the first artist
vividly related in Journal of a Tour of the Hebrides (1785). since antiquity to paint mythological subjects on a scale
The remainder of hiswas devoted to the pursuit of a
life and with a dignity hitherto reserved for religious works.
legal and and to producing The Life of
political career Chief among them are two great masterpieces in the
Samuel Johnson (1791), the most felicitous biography in Uffizi in Florence, Primavera (c. 1478) and The Birth
the English language, which gives a vivid and intimate of Venus (c. 1485) — supremely graceful works that have
portrait of Johnson, and an invaluable panorama of the become so famous that they are practically symbols of
age and its personalities. The Private Papers ofJames Boswell the Renaissance. Botticelli's late works are usually more
from Malahide Castle (1928-34) fill eighteen volumes. solemn and intense; in the last decade of his life his style
was considered out of date and he died poor and neglected.
Both, Jan (c. 1618-52), Dutch landscape painter. He It was only in the second half of the 19th century that
lived in Italy from about 1637 to 1641 and became one he was rediscovered and his refined, elegant figures
of the best-known exponents of the type of Italianate became an inspiration for the Pre-Raphaelites and a
landscape painting that was highly popular in his lifetime major source of influence on Art Nouveau.
and (especially with British collectors) in the i8th century.
His pictures often feature peasants driving cattle or Boucher, Francois (1703-70), French painter,
travellers gazing on Roman ruins in the light of the engraver, and designer. He was one of the greatest artists
evening sun, and warm, rosy lighting is one of the of the * Rococo period and his work embodies the frivolity
characteristics of his style. of French court life in the middle of the i8th century.
He accumulated several honours, including the post of
King's Painter (1765). He was also the favourite painter
Botticelli's Primavera (c. 1478) is one of the most puzzling of Louis XV's most famous mistress, Madame de Pom-
as well as one of the most beautiful paintings of the padour, of whom he painted several memorable portraits.
Renaissance. The 16th-century art historian Giorgio
His work ranged in scale from huge decorative schemes
Vasari described the subject as 'Venus as a symbol of
for the royal chateaux at Fontainebleau, Versailles, and
spring [Italian, primavera] being adorned with flowers by
the Graces', but scholars have continued to debate the elsewhere to designs for fans and slippers. Sometimes it
exact meaning of the various figures. (Uffizi, Florence) shows the eflfects of over-production, but his best work
BOUDIN 56
has irresistible charm and great brilhance of execution, fluenced Boullee's many pupils. He wrote a treatise on
quahties he passed on to his most important pupil, architecture, but this was not published until 1953.
Fragonard. Towards the end of Boucher's career French
taste changed towards the severe Neoclassical style and Bournonville, August (1805-79), Danish dancer, cho-
his work was attacked for its artificiality. reographer, and director. He trained at the *Royal
Danish Ballet School and later danced in Paris, partnering
Boudin, Eugene (1824-98), French painter. He was Taglioni, the archetypal Romantic *ballerina. He re-
the son of a sailor and lived mainly near the coast of turned to Copenhagen in 1830 as director, and presented
northern France, his work consisting principally of beach La Sylphide in 1836 in a version that has endured to the
scenes and seascapes. A strong advocate of direct painting present day. He championed the male dancer in
an era
from nature, he is regarded as a link between the of female adulation and brought warmth and humanity
generation of *Corot and the * Impressionists; he was to the exaggeratedly mysterious atmosphere of
often
particularly influential on the young Monet (they met in Romantic *ballet. His
dances are characterized by leaps,
about 1858) and exhibited at the first Impressionist fast footwork, and long continuous phrases of dance steps
exhibition in 1874. within the tradition of Romanticism in dance.
Boulanger, Nadia (1887- 1979), French conductor and bouzouki, a plucked stringed instrument used in Greek
teacher of music. After studying with Faure at the Paris cafe music. During the Ottoman period, the Turks in-
Conservatoire she gained a considerable reputation as a troduced the bozuk into Greece, a medium sized *saz with
conductor and champion of early music (particularly three pairs or courses of strings. It is thus an urban
Monteverdi), finally becoming famous as a teacher of instrument rather than a folk instrument common to the
composition. Much influenced by the ideals of *Faure whole country. Since the late 1940s it has acquired a
and *Stravinsky, her teaching methods concentrated on fourth course of strings and it now resembles a *mandolin
*counterpoint exercises and a close analysis of music of with a very long neck and geared tuning pegs. It has
all periods. Her pupils include Aaron Copland, Virgil become internationally known through tourism, films,
Thomson, Lennox Berkeley, and Jean Fran9aix. Her sister and through occasional use by Greek composers.
Lili Boulanger (1893-1918) was a talented composer.
bow (in music), a band of horsehair attached to both
Boulez, Pierre (1925- French composer, conductor,
) ends of a drawn across strings to make them sound;
stick,
and musical theorist. His music developed rapidly through rosin (distilled oil of turpentine, solidified to a cake)
*atonality and the liberating example of non-Western makes the hair sticky, so that it grips the string. Early
music to the total serialization (see *serialism) of duration, bows in about ad iooo were curved like the archer's and
timbre, and loudness, as well as pitch. His first masterpiece thus held the hair taut. As bows became straighter,
in this manner is the orchestral Le Marteau sans maitre methods of keeping the hair taut and away from the stick
(1955). Later works, such as Pli selon pli (1962) explore changed, culminating in the screw frog, a block between
*aleatory techniques. Work in the theatre led to his the stick and the hair at the handle, tightened with a
development as a conductor, during which time his screw. Francois Tourte perfected the modern bow c. 785, 1
compositional output declined. In 1974 he became dir- with an inward camber or curve that greatly strengthened it.
ector of the Paris *computer music studio, Institut de
Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique-Musique bow, musical, the simplest, perhaps the first, of all
(IRCAM), which experiments in
in turn led to fruitful stringed With mouth bows, altering the
instruments.
the manipulation of new sounds. Boulez has also been a mouth capacity, as on *jews harps, resonates upper
leading propagandist of the post-Webern *serialist move- harmonics of the string selectively for making soft melod-
ment, with books such as Boulez on Music Today (1971). ies. With gourd bows, by more or less closing the opening
remarkable for its dignity and perfect proportioning, and his growing interest in the aesthetic possibilities of the
has a grandeur out of all relation to its size. medium, and a disquieting abstract vision, deriving in
part from his antique wooden Kodak camera and a lens
Brancusi, Constantin (1876- 1957), Romanian sculp- with a very small aperture. By the 1970s he had become
tor who worked mainly in Paris, where he settled in 1904. perhaps Britain's most respected artist-photographer.
In his early years in Paris he was influenced by *Rodin,
but from 1907 he turned from modelling to carving in branle (Italian, 'brando', English, 'brawl'), originally a
stone, and he abandoned a naturalistic approach for one French medieval dance derived from the *carole. It
in which forms were simplified almost to the point of existed in many forms, but was essentially a dance with
abstraction. Brancusi also worked in bronze, and from combinations of steps, interspersed with little hops and
about 19 14 began to make woodcarvings. These are performed by a linked line of dancers travelling sideways.
different in spirit from his other works, having a rugged, The quick or slow sideways stepping and the closing of
fetishistic power that relates them to the tradition of the feet brought about characteristic changes of level,
Romanian folk art. He had an immense influence on and it was these rhythmic patterns which later became
20th-century sculpture, both in inspiring a move towards the basis of many other dances. Branles varied from being
abstraction and in showing how to utilize to the full the slow and grave to energetic and lively and were often
qualities of the materials with which he worked. performed successively as contrasting dances.
Brandt, Bill (1904-83), British photographer, born in Braque, Georges (1882- 1963), French painter, with
Germany. He was one of a number of important pho- *Picasso the joint creator of *Cubism. Initially a house
tographers who studied with Man *Ray in Paris in painter, his father's trade, he took up art seriously in
the late 1920s. In England in the 1930s, he took up 1900. In 1907, having passed through a brief *Fauvist
documentary photography, working for several French phase, he discovered the work of * Cezanne and began
and English magazines, and publishing his first book. The painting in a geometrically analytical manner. In the
English at Home (1936) A foreigner's coldly analytical view
. same year he met Picasso and until the outbreak of World
of the British class structure, it shows how photographs can War I they worked in close collaboration, each being
serve as anthropological evidence. Brandt's famous series regarded as equally important in the development of
of photographs taken in the London Underground during Cubism. After the war, in which he was seriously
the blitz stand comparison with Henry *Moore's equally wounded, Braque's work diverged from that of Picasso.
disturbing Shelter drawings. His subsequent books reveal His style became less angular, making use of graceful
curves. He concentrated mainly on *still-life, using subtle,
muted colours and sometimes mixing sand with the paint
Photographed in 1946, a Lancashire boys' brass band is to produce a textured effect. Braque also did much book
here seen on the march. The Stalybridge Old Band, illustration, and designed stage sets and costumes.
founded in 1814, claims to be the earliest in Britain. In the
USA the Boston Brass Band was founded m 1835, while in brass, memorial, a funerary monument consisting of
German-speaking lands almost every municipality has
an engraved brass sheet mounted on a stone slab. Brasses,
had its Posaunenchor of brass instruments since the
mid- 19th century. which were cheaper than sculptured tombs, were prob-
ably first introduced during the early 13th century, and
had their greatest popularity in England, where more
than seven thousand survive from the late 13th to the
late 1 6th centuries. They have been of importance as a
source of information on the evolution of medieval armour
and costume.
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59 BRICKWORK
brass instruments, in technical usage all the wind Marxist reading of social conflict underlines the comic or
instruments formerly made of that metal though now tragic potential of the characters. Returning to Germany,
sometimes of other metals. The term does not include Brecht founded his own theatre company, the *Berliner
instruments formerly of wood but now sometimes of Ensemble, in East Berlin (1949).
metal (like the flute), nor metal instruments with reed
mouthpieces, like the saxophone. Each instrument has a Breton, Andre (1896- 1966), French poet and literary
cup- or funnel-shaped mouthpiece to be pressed against theorist. He was the leader of the *Surrealists and
the player's lips, which vibrate within it something like published manifestos on surrealism in 1924, 1930, and
the double reed of the *oboe. The shape of the mouthpiece 1934. During the 1930s he rejected the association of
affects the quality of the tone, a deep funnel-shaped Surrealism and communism but remained throughout his
mouthpiece (like the *horn's) giving more smoothness, lifea political radical. His works include JVadja (1928),
and a cup-shaped mouthpiece (like the *trumpet's) giving a semi-autobiographical novel, Les Vases communicants
more brilliance. The shape of the bell at the end of the (1932), a theoretical work on the understanding of
tube also affects the character of the tone, as does the dreams, and an edition of his collected poetry (1948). He
nature of the tube's bore, cylindrical or conical. Brass founded several literary reviews, including Litterature,
instruments sound only the natural * harmonics of their Minotaure, and VVV, which were vehicles for his ideas on
tube-length, and can thus only play melodies in the high literature.
register; in the lower registers they are limited to fanfares,
unless equipped with some device to alter their tube- brickwork, construction using bricks — small rect-
length. The tube may be shortened by opening finger- angular blocks of dried or baked clay bound together
holes (cornett and serpent) or lengthened by a slide with mortar. Bricks have a very long history in building;
(*trombone) or valves. Valves were introduced in the they were used certainly as long ago as 3000 bc and
early 19th century. By depressing or turning the valve possibly much earlier. Primitive bricks were simply dried
the column of air is diverted into auxiliary tubing and in the sun, but brick kilns were being used in the 3rd
lengthened suflficiently to lower the pitch by a musical millennium bc. The Romans were great builders in brick.
interval so that a further harmonic series becomes avail-
able. Brass instruments have been included in the or-
chestra since the earliest days. In the *Classical period A scene from a production of Brecht's Mother Courage
at the Deutsches Theater, Berlm, with his wife Helene
the orchestral brass usually included merely two horns
Weigel m
the title role, Brecht's plays discard the notion
and two trumpets. In later Beethoven we find either two that drama should seek to create the illusion of reality and
or three trombones, and up to four horns. Wagner made call for highly stylized acting.
great use of brass instruments, adding an extra trumpet,
additional horns and trombones, and up to four * tubas,
plus a contrabass tuba.
but after the fall of their empire its use declined until adventurousness of Broadway productions led, after 1952,
about the 13th century. Brickwork has the advantages to the establishment of smaller theatres away from the
over stonework of comparable quality that it requires less area ('off^-Broadway'), where lower overheads enabled
labour and is usually much cheaper whilst being just as risks to be taken with experimental drama. There are
strong and resistant to decay or fire. Although it has often now also 'off'-off-Broadway' theatres which continue to
been covered with a facing of more luxurious material, stage less expensive and more daring productions.
brickwork can also be highly attractive, by reason of its
colour, texture, or patterning. Fine brickwork has often Broch, Hermann (i 886-1951), Austrian novelist and
flourished, particularly in areas where good stone is essayist ofJewish parentage, living in the USA from 1938.
lacking; in northern Germany, for example, many Gothic His novels are permeated by philosophical reflection and
churches were built in a style known as Backsteingotik cultural criticism. The trilogy The Sleepwalkers (1930-2)
('brick Gothic'). In England, Tudor brickwork is par- records the disintegration of values in late 19th- and early
ticularly admired for its mellow beauty. 20th-century Germany from 'romantic' adherence to
outmoded convention, through the 'anarchy' of shattered
Bridges, Robert (Seymour) 844- 930) British poet.
( 1
1
, ethical beliefs, to thetriumph of materialistic 'objectivity'
Apart from several volumes of verse, anthologies, and (in fact unscrupulousness). Political developments after
plays, he wrote two important essays on the study of 191 8 are indirectly reflected in The Guiltless (1950) and
speech rhythms: Milton's Prosody (1893) and John Keats The Tempter (1952). Broch's best-known work is The Death
(1895), as well as the words for musical settings by Parry. of Virgil (1945), which questions the value of a literature
His poetry, noted for its refined simplicity and perfection that satisfies aesthetically but serves neither an ethical
of form, reached its culmination in The Testament of function nor the cause of ultimate truth.
Beauty (1929), setting out his spiritual philosophy in
alexandrines. He was appointed Poet Laureate in 191 3. Brodsky, losif (Aleksandrovich) (1940- ), Russian
poet and essayist. Recognized by Anna Akhmatova
British Film Institute, organization founded in 1933 as outstanding" among a brilliant generation of Lenin-
to foster the development and appreciation of film as an grad poets, but not by official literary circles, he was
art. It operates the National Film Theatre in London, arrested in 1964 as a 'parasite', exiled to the north,
which offers members a daily selection of the world's films released, and emigrated in 1972. He has been a US
on its two screens, and also stages lectures. It publishes citizen since 1977. His poetry is intellectual, formally
a quarterly magazine Sight and Sound, and the Monthly ingenious, and packed with cultural references {A Part of
Film Bulletin. Financed by government subsidy, mem- Speech, 1978). He is an accomplished essayist {Less than
bership fees, sponsorship, commercial activity, and do- One, 1985). Brodsky was awarded the Nobel Prize for
nations, it is also responsible for the National Film Literature in 1987, and late that year his work began to
Archive, the Museum of the Moving Image, and the be published in the Soviet Union.
annual London Film Festival.
Bronte, Charlotte (1816-55), Emily (1818-48), and
Britten, (Edward) Benjamin (1913-76), British com- Anne (1820-49), British novelists and poets. Their Irish-
poser, pianist, and conductor. He won his first in- born father became rector of the parish of Haworth in
ternational success at the 1937 Salzburg Festival with Yorkshire in 1820, where his wife died in 182 1, leaving
Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge. In that year he met him with five daughters and a son, Patrick Branwell.
the tenor Peter Pears, who became his lifelong artistic After a period at a boarding school, when the two eldest
and domestic partner. After a period in the USA (1939- daughters, Maria and Elizabeth, died of consumption,
42) he returned to Britain to face a conscientious objector's the girls were educated largely at home. An isolated
tribunal. The success oi^ Peter Grimes (1945) made him the childhood on the edge of the Yorkshire moors intensified
most important opera composer of his generation. In their imagination. Their experience of the world beyond
1946 he founded the English Opera Group, and in 1948 the rectory was limited, apart from brief spells as gov-
the Aldeburgh Festival. He wrote copiously for both, ernesses and teachers, and a visit to Brussels by Emily and
including chamber opera {Albert Herring, 1947; The Turn Charlotte to study languages and school management. In
of the Screw, 1954) and full-scale operas {Billy Budd, 1951, 1846 a joint publication of their poems appeared under
revised i960; A Midsummer Might's Dream, i960; Death in the names Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell (the pseudonyms
Venice, 1973). The War Requiem, combining the Latin mass respectively of Charlotte, Emily, and Anne). Charlotte is
with war poems by Wilfred *Owen, was written for the remembered for her romantic masterpiece Jane Eyre
consecration (1962) of the rebuilt Coventry Cathedral; it (1847), for Shirley (1849), and Villette (1853). She was the
is probably his masterpiece. Britten was as comfortable most noted of the sisters and her writings have received
writing for children and amateurs {Noye''s Fludde of 1957 widespread praise for their depth of feeling and cour-
is his best work of this kind) as he was for the most ageous realism. Emily is established as the true poetic
sophisticated professional. Basically conservative, he was genius of the three, remembered for her personal visionary
nevertheless able to use the traditional ingredients of poems and for her masterly novel Wuthering Heights 847) ( 1
music in a way that was wholly new and individual. Anne's first novel Agnes Grey (1847), which reflects her
experiences as the governess of two contrasting families,
Broadway, streetrunning north-south of Manhattan was followed by The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848), which
Island, New York, at one time synonymous with US portrays a violent drunkard, to some extent drawn from
theatrical activity, its many famous theatres clustering their brother Branwell, a talented painter whose wildness
round the district. It has flourished since the mid- 19th and intemperance caused much distress to his family. All
century, and in its heyday in the 1920s numbered about the Bronte sisters died young, Charlotte soon after her
eighty theatres. The high cost and consequent un- marriage to her father's curate, Arthur Bell NichoUs.
Free ebooks ==> 61www.Ebook777.com BROOKE
Bronze Age art, the art of the stage of human culture (i955) with Olivier), and A Midsummer Might's Dream
when metals (copper and then bronze) were first used (1970) with circus trappings. His production of Peter
regularly in making tools and weapons. The term is a Weiss's MaratjSade (1964) epitomized *Artaud's Theatre
very general one, as this phase of human development of Cruelty. In 1970 he moved to Paris, founding the
(between the *Stone Age and the *Iron Age) began and International Centre for Theatre Research.
ended at widely differing times in various parts of the
world. In Crete (see *Minoan art) the Bronze Age had Brooke, Rupert (Chawner) ( 1 887- 9 1 5) British poet.
1
,
begun by about 3200 bc, and bronze artefacts seem to He won a scholarship to King's College, Cambridge,
have been made even earlier in Thailand. In some areas where he soon established himself as a literary figure.
the Bronze Age coincided with the development of great Some of his poems appeared in the first two volumes of
civilizations, notably in China, Egypt, the Mediterranean, and his collection, Poems igii, was widely
Georgian Poetry
and the Middle East, and apart from metalwork the arts acclaimed. A
breakdown led him in 19 13 to travel in the
of the time included architecture on a grandiose scale, USA, Canada, and the Pacific, particularly Tahiti where
stone sculpture, and painting. However, in other areas, he wrote several poems. In 191 5, as an officer in the
for example Bronze Age culture was much less
Britain, Royal Navy, he died of blood poisoning on the way to
advanced. Early bronze technology began in Britain the Dardanelles. The ecstatic reception of his five 'War
c. 1800 BC, and may be associated with immigrants named Sonnets' made him the nation's poet of the war, a
the Beaker folk (after the shape of their drinking vessels). reputation further enhanced by the posthumous publi-
The ability to organize society is shown by the addition to
Stonehenge of a circle of bluestone monoliths transported
Donatello's famous statue of David (c. 1440) is one of the
from the Prescelly mountains in south-west Wales. In the
outstanding pieces of Renaissance bronzework and the
Middle East the Bronze Age developed into the Iron Age firstfree-standmg nude statue to be made smce classical
from about 1200 bc; in southern Europe from about 1000 antiquity. (Bargello, Florence)
BC, and in northern Europe from about 500 bc. Bronze
was not used in the New World until about 11 00 ad,
among the Incas. (See also *Mycenean art.)
www.Ebook777.com
BROUWER 62
cation of igi4 and Other Poems (1915) which caught the His most ambitious work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646;
mood of romantic patriotism of the early war years. His commonly known as Vulgar Errors) established him as a
handsome appearance and untimely death contributed man of learning. His Hydriolaphia or Urne-Buriall (1658)
to the popularity of his work among young people in the has been called the first archaeological treatise in English,
interwar period. He is now chiefly valued for his lighter and is particularly noted for the beauty of its sonorous
verse, his sonnets, and his Tahiti poems. prose. He spent most of his life in Norwich, where, in his
capacity as a doctor of medicine, he acted as witness in
Brouwer, Adriaen (c. 1605-38), Flemish painter. He the condemnation of two women as witches (1664).
spent much of his short working life at Haarlem in
Holland (where he was probably a pupil of Frans *Hals) Browning, Elizabeth Barrett (1806-61), British poet.
and was an important link between the Dutch and A semi-invalid from youth, in 1845 she began her cor-
Flemish schools. In both the countries in which he worked respondence with Robert *Browning which culminated
he played a major role in popularizing low-life *genre in their secret marriage and elopement to Italy in the
scenes; his most typical works represent peasants brawling following year. Her Poems (1844) received such acclaim
and drinking. Although his subject-matter was usually that she was widely canvassed as Wordsworth's successor
humorously coarse his technique was delicate and spark- as Poet Laureate, but her progressive social ideas and
ling, and Rembrandt and Rubens were among the audacious metrical experiments were considered un-
admirers of his work. In addition to his peasant scenes conventional. Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850) reflect her
Brouwer painted some outstanding landscapes. developing love for Browning. Her major work, the verse
novel Aurora Leigh (1857), speculates with wit and force
Brown, Ford Madox (1821-93), British painter and on social responsibilities and the position of women, with
designer. He was born at Calais and trained in Antwerp, vivid sketches of the English countryside and luminous
Paris, and Rome before settling in England in 1845. His Italian landscapes. The stridently political Poems before
meticulous and detailed —
if rather overwrought style, — Congress (i860) injured her popularity. Some of her
vivid colouring, passionate sincerity of approach, and best-known lyrics are contained in her posthumously
preference for literary subjects made him a major in- published Last Poems (1862).
fluence on the *Pre-Raphaelites, whom he befriended
(Rossetti was briefly his pupil). In 1861 Brown was a
Browning, Robert (1812-89), British poet whose work
founder member of William * Morris's company, for is marked by a strong psychological interest in human
which he designed stained glass and furniture. emotions and motives. His experiments in form and
content and his technical virtuosity have considerably
Brown, Lancelot (171 6-83) British landscape designer,
,
spaces or based around, for example, climbing equipment, They deal with emotional relationships {George Frideric,
to works built from small gestures repeated in ac- 1969), are sometimes intensely theatrical {Cruel Garden,
cumulating sequence. Latterly her dances use larger but 1977, with Lindsay Kemp), or emphasize social and
always finely articulated movements which flow easily political themes {Ghost Dances, 1981).
Briicke, Die (The Bridge), a group of German Ex- lefta permanent mark on him. He made some marvellous
pressionist artists founded in 1905 by Ernst *Kirchner in drawings of mountain scenery in which he showed the
Dresden. Its members sought to achieve 'freedom of Hfe combination of breadth of vision and loving attention to
and action against established and older forces' (the detail that were later seen in his paintings. Bruegel lived
name, Die Briicke, indicated their faith in the art of the in Antwerp until 1563, when he moved to Brussels, and
future, towards which their own work was to serve as a there his style changed. His early paintings were much
bridge); their aims, however, remained vague. Their most influenced by *Bosch and are full of tiny figures, but he
lasting achievement was the revival of graphic arts, in later made his figures bigger and bolder. His subjects
particular the *woodcut with its characteristically strong included scenes of village life and biblical themes, in both
contrasts of black and white, bold cutting, and simplified of which he displayed his skills in depicting landscape
forms. The group moved to Berlin in 1910 and broke up and the details of everyday existence. Bruegel had a
in 1913. considerable reputation in his lifetime and an enormous
influence on Flemish painting. Today he is recognized as
Bruckner, (Joseph) Anton (1842 96), Austrian com- a profound religious and humanitarian painter. Bruegel
poser and organist. His discovery of *Wagner's music in had two painter sons who were infants when he died.
1863 proved a liberating experience and by 1864 he had Pieter Brueghel (the Younger) (the sons kept the 'h' in
come into his own as a composer with the Mass in D their name) was known as 'Hell Brueghel' because scenes
minor. Despite his growing fame as a composer (con- of hell and fires were among his favourite subjects. He
solidated in 1885 with the performance of his Seventh also reworked many of his father's peasant subjects. Pieter
Symphony), and his reputation as an organ recitalist of the Younger's brother Jan (1568- 1625) was known as
international importance, Bruckner remained tentative 'Velvet Brueghel' because of his skill at depicting rich
—
and uncertain about his gifts often accepting well-meant and delicate textures. He was rated the finest flower
advice, so that his nine symphonies now exist in several painter of his day and also painted lush landscapes. Jan
versions. Though influenced by Wagner, he did not share often collaborated with other artists, notably his friend
that composer's sense of dramatic display. His music Rubens. The children and grandchildren of Jan and
moves instead along leisurely, contemplative lines, achiev- Pieter continued the family tradition, but with di-
ing its effects through the sheer monumentality of its minishing talent.
slowly unfolding *sonata forms.
Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377-1446), ItaHan architect,
Bruegel, Pieter (c.1525-69), the greatest Flemish artist the founder of * Renaissance architecture. He trained as
of the 1 6th century and the founder of a dynasty of a goldsmith in Florence and early in his career worked
painters that extended into the i8th century. Bruegel was as a sculptor. Itis said to have been his defeat by Ghiberti
an outstanding draughtsman as well as a painter, and in in the competition (140 1-2) for the new baptistery doors
his early career he earned his living mainly as a designer for Florence Cathedral that turned him to architecture,
of engravings. In 1551 he became a master in the Antwerp but his first buildings were begun almost two decades
painters' guild and soon afterwards made a journey to after this. They include (all in Florence): the Foundling
Italy. He was unmoved by the wonders of ancient and Hospital (begun 1419); the churches of S. Lorenzo (begun
Renaissance art, but the experience of crossing the Alps c. 1425) and S. Spirito (begun c. 1436); and the Pazzi
Chapel of Sta Croce (begun 1433). These buildings show
Brunelleschi's Foundlmg Hospital in Florence (begun Brunelleschi's mastery of classical detail, partly inspired
1419) is often cited as the first Renaissance building. It
by visits to Rome, but they are not archaeological in
uses the forms of Roman architecture, but Brunelleschi
spirit; rather thay have a lucid, airy harmony that is
has greatly simplified them, giving his building a sense of
graceful lightness rather than massive strength. Brunelleschi's own. His most famous work is the *dome
BRUSSELS TAPESTRIES 64
of Florence Cathedral (1420-36), which shows *Gothic Aspects of the Buddha are conveyed by *mudras (hand
influence in its use of pointed forms, but makes use of positions), indicating specific virtues or incidents in his
Roman constructional techniques to span the huge space life. As well as the Buddha himself, Bodhisattvas were
it covers; it was far and away the greatest engineering frequently represented; these were people who had at-
feat of its time. Brunelleschi was a friend of Donatello and tained enlightenment, but refrained from remaining in a
Masaccio, his greatest contemporaries among sculptors state of Nirvana (absolute blessedness) so as to help others
and painters, and the co-founders of the Renaissance to attainit. There were also many minor 'gods' in
style. Like them he was a pioneer of perspective, but the the Buddhist pantheon, some borrowed from Hindu
two panels on which he is said to have demonstrated his mythology, so Buddhist iconography can be exceedingly
innovations have disappeared. complex, not least when Buddhism mingled with native
religions, as for example in *Tibetan art. There were
Brussels tapestries, * tapestries woven at factories in various schools of Buddhist thought, of which Zen Bud-
Brussels, which, during the i6th and 17th centuries, was dhism was particularly influential in China and Japan.
one of the most important centres in Europe for this art. Zen Buddhism asserts that enlightenment is attained
The industry was well established by the late 15th century, through meditation, self-examination, and intuition, ra-
and the technical excellence of Brussels craftsmen was ther than through studying the scriptures, and its influence
reflected in Pope Leo X's decision to send Raphael's on Oriental art is seen in the idea of the unity of all
cartoons of the Acts of the Apostles there to be woven things, notably in the reverence and awe for the natural
into tapestries for the Sistine Chapel (15 16- 19). This world found in Chinese landscape painting (see *Chinese
marked a turning-point in the history of the art, for painting) and in other works by the great Zen Buddhist
henceforth the designer of the tapestry was accorded monk artist *Muqi.
greater status than its weavers. Rubens provided nu-
merous cartoons for the weavers, and was a major Buddhist literature *Sanskrit literature, *Pali lit-
Buddhist monastic dance (cham), the ritualistic Royal in 1574, returning to his native Hereford as
dance performed in Buddhist monasteries in Central Asia. cathedral organist in 1582. Of his skill as a player there
The dancers wear elaborate masks and costumes and are —
can be no doubt his variations on the Walsingham tune
accompanied by musicians playing horns and drums. represent a peak in the writing of virtuoso virginal music
They perform visual representations of the benign forces —
and test finger dexterity to the full but his skill as a
of religion overcoming the evil powers of demonic spirits. composer is as great. His interest in *counterpoint is
Their steps and body movements are highly stylized and shown in a set of 120 canons, most of them on the
the rhythmic beat of the dance is accented by a measured plainsong Miserere. This skill informs many of his com-
stamp of the foot. positions, especially the great A minor In nomine with its
complex rhythmic proportions. He was also a fine com-
Buddhist music, music of the rituals and festivals poser of linked *pavans and *galliards, which are treated
of Buddhism. This has developed with much variation less as music for dancing than as miniature variation sets;
throughout South, South-East, and East Asia since its similarly, his arrangements of Dowland's Piper's Galliard
origins in 6th-century bc India. From its earliest history glow with a dark passion. His virtuosity is never empty
the choral chanting of sacred texts has been an essential show but is used to express that intellectual melancholy
part of Buddhist liturgy. Chants are learnt by repetition, common to both music and verse in the Jacobean period.
though obscure *notations exist in Japan, Tibet, and
Korea. The two basic forms are sutra, a simple syllabic bull-roarer (thunderstick, whizzer, etc.), an ancient
recitative, and using more elaborate melodies.
gdlhd, musical instrument comprising a flat piece of wood,
—
The main Buddhist instruments the ghantd (handbells), typically about 15-30 cm. (6-12 in.) long, tied, through
sankha (conch trumpet), *vind (arched harp or lute), tdla a hole at one end, to a long piece of string; when whirled
(cymbals), and various types of drums, bells, and gongs above the head it produces a roaring or screaming sound.
developed in importance from the 3rd century bc to the It is still used by various peoples throughout the world
7th century ad, as the religion became richer in ceremony. (see, for example, *African music, European *folk music,
Today stringed instruments are rarely used, and ritual *Papua New Guinean music), and is often used in
assemblies are often dominated by oboes, trumpets, and important rituals.
drums. Instruments chiefly accompany chanting, though
they are also used in Buddhist pageants and processions bumbass, a bowed one-string musical instrument, usu-
marking significant days. Purely instrumental music is ally with an inflated bladder as a resonator, though a
rare. small drum, as with the Polish devil's fiddle, or even a
tin can, as with the Dorset humstrum, were also used.
bugle, a brass musical instrument without valves used The string is usually bowed with a notched stick, oc-
for military signalling. Buglewas the Old French term casionally with a proper bow, and it is not fingered, so
for oxhorn, and large semicircular oxhorns were used in that the sound is a rhythmic drone. The rhythm is
the I 7th century and were copied in metal in semicircular reinforced by beating the instrument on the ground while
shape in the Hanoverian armies of the i8th century. By it is played, and often strengthened by bells or cymbals
the early 19th century an instrument of more modern fixed to the stick.
appearance, with a single coil of tubing, was usual. The
modern instrument, more closely folded twice round, was Bunin, Ivan (Alekseyevich) 870- 953) Russian poet
( 1
1
,
in use by the time of the Crimean War. In 1810 Joseph and novelist. He attained wide recognition after 1900 for
Haliday patented a bugle with five keys, capable of his stories and *novellas, stylistically exquisite,
short
playing any melody, and the key bugle remained popular elegiac,and sensuous, dealing mainly with the provincial
to the end of the century. After valves were invented in gentry {Dry Valley, 191 2), and also reflecting his extensive
181 5, they were applied to the bugle, creating the
foreign travels. The Gentleman from San Francisco (1915) is
flugelhorn, and larger members of the family down to his supreme early achievement. Bunin emigrated in 1920
the bass *tuba. and lived thereafter in France; his creative powers were
undiminished, and reached new heights with the largely
Bulgakov, Mikhail (Afanasyevich) (1891-1940), autobiographical novel The Life of Arsenyev (1927-33) and
Russian dramatist, novelist, and short-story writer. He the novellas of Dark Avenues (1943). He was the first
became a professional writer with the success of his early Russian to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, in 1933.
short stories, some of which are autobiographical [A Young His works began to be published extensively in the Soviet
Doctor's Notes, 1925-6), while others use elements of the Union in the 1960s.
Bull, John (c. 1562 1628), English composer, organist, in Spain, but banned there. His later films (mainly French
and organ-builder. He joined the Children of the *Chapel or French/Italian) continued to attack religion and
BUNRAKU 66
bourgeois morality and included Diary of a Chambermaid began in 1363 when Philip the Bold was created Duke
(1964), Belle de jour (1966), in which an upper-class of Burgundy. Under Philip and his successors. Burgundy
woman becomes a prostitute in the afternoons, The Milky acquired large areas of north-eastern France and the Low
Way ( 1 969) and The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie (1972).
, Countries. Its capital, Dijon, was one of the most thriving
cultural centres in Europe, attracting artists such as the
bunraku *Japanese theatre, *puppetry. great *Netherlandish sculptor Claus Sluter (d. 1406),
almost all of whose surviving work can still be seen there.
Bunyan, John (1628-88), English writer and non- Sluter led the way from the * International Gothic style,
conformist preacher. A man of deep religious convictions, which had one of its Burgundy, to a
finest flowerings in
in 1653 he joined a Nonconformist church in Bedford, more solid, formed the basis of
naturalistic style that
preached there, and came into conflict with the Quakers, much Flemish art in the 15th century. Choir schools
against whom he published his first writings. He was flourished in the major cities, attracting such major
arrested in 1660 for preaching without a licence and composers as *Dufay and Gilles Binchois (c. 1400- 1460).
imprisoned in Bedford until 1672. There he wrote Grace Sophisticated *chansons were composed by the church
Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666), his impassioned musicians, lending their work a characteristically warm
and tormented spiritualautobiography. During a second it from the more intellectual *Ars
style that distinguished
period in prison, in 1676, he probably finished the first Nova.
part of his greatest work. The Pilgrim's Progress (1678-
84), an *allegory of salvation remarkable for the beauty burlesque, a kind of * parody which ridicules some
and the simplicity of its language. serious literary work either by treating its solemn subject
in an undignified style, or by applying its elevated style
Burbage, Richard (>.i 567-1 619), English actor, the to a trivial subject, as in Pope's 'mock epic' The Rape of
greatest of *Elizabethan theatre. He was the leader of the Lock (1712). Often used in the theatre, burlesque
the Chamberlain's (later the King's) Men, the group of appears in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream,
actors for which *Shakespeare wrote most of his plays. mocking theatrical interludes in the Pyramus and Thisbe
They appeared at the first permanent playhouse (The play, while The Beggar's Opera (1728) by Gay burlesques
Theatre) built by Richard's father James in 1576, then Italian opera. In the US a burlesque is a sex-and-
from 1599 at The Globe, which Richard and his brother comedy entertainment originally intended for men only.
Cuthbert built on the south bank of the River Thames. (See also *vaudeville.)
Though short and fat, he created many of Shakespeare's
greatest roles, including Hamlet and Richard HI. He Burlington, Lord (Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Bur-
also played leading roles in plays by Jonson and others. lington) (1694-1753), English architect and patron. He
was the leading figure of *Palladianism, promoting it
Burges, William (1827 81), British architect and de- through his own buildings, his publication of the designs
signer, one of the most original exponents of the *Gothic of *Palladio and Inigo *Jones, and his patronage of
Revival. Like the *Pre-Raphaelite painters, with many artists such as his friend William *Kent. Burlington's
of whom he was friendly, he developed a romantic vision masterpiece is Chiswick House (f. 1723 9), a villa he built
of the Middle Ages, partly inspired by his extensive for himself; although based on Palladio's Villa Rotonda
continental travels. His architecture, furniture, stained and impeccably correct in detail, it is much fresher than
glass, metal-work, and jewellery are all notable for his most Palladian buildings. He was regarded as an arbiter
historicist attention to detail, and are characterized by of taste, and although highly influential, was attacked for
sumptuous decorative effect. Burges inherited wealth from his dogmatism by Hogarth in his satirical engravings.
his fatherand was not a prolific architect. His masterpieces
are the 'restorations' (in fact reconstructions) of Cardiff Burmese art. Burma isbordered by India and China,
Casde (1868 81) and the nearby Castell Coch (1875- but it is cut off from them by formidable mountain
81), undertaken for the immensely wealthy 3rd Marquess ranges, and although there has been influence from both
of Bute, who shared Burges's medievalist vision. countries, Burma has a distinctive cultural and artistic
tradition. *Buddhism (adopted from India in about the
Burgess, Anthony (191 7- (also called Joseph Kell,
)
5th century ad) has been the main religious force, but
b. John Burgess Wilson), British novelist, critic, and there has also been widespread worship of nature-spirits
composer. His years in the colonial service in Malaya and {nats). Several distinct peoples have influenced Burmese
Borneo inspired his first three novels, known collectively as art, notably the Mon of lower Burma, the Pyu of central
the Malayan Trilogy (1956-9). These established him as Burma, and the Burmese (or Burmans) of upper Burma.
a writer of great verbal invention, displaying a flair for The earliest artistic survivals of Burma are extensive
pastiche and satirical social comment. A Clockwork Orange remains of brick architecture near Prome, built by the
(1962; film version by Stanley *Kubrick, 1971) is an Pyu from about the 6th century ad. The central artistic
alarming vision of violence, high technology, and au- impulse came from the Burmans, however. By the 9th
thoritarianism. He
has written critical works, numerous century they controlled the strategic city of Pagan, and
reviews, film and and a biography of
television scripts, in the ith, 12th, and 13th centuries it was the centre of
i
Shakespeare; he has also composed orchestral works. His a great architectural flowering, stimulated by widespread
best-known later novel is Earthly Powers (1980). conversion to Buddhism. Pagan grew rapidly and the
remains of over 5,000 temples can be traced today
Burgundian school, given to artists and
the title scattered over a 41 sq. km. (16 sq. mile) site east of the
musicians of the Burgundy region of eastern France, Irrawaddy River. The temples were richly decorated in
especially during its golden age in the late 14th and early stucco and glazed tiles on the exterior, with mural
15th centuries. Burgundy's period of greatest importance painting on the interiors. Sculpture, although important
,
67 BURNS
as fine goldwork and elaborately carved teak, often was appointed Keeper of the Robes to Queen Charlotte.
lacquered and gilded, and a flamboyant style of wooden In 793 she married the exiled French General D'Arblay
1
architecture. After three Anglo-Burmese wars in the 19th with whom she was interned by Napoleon in France. Her
century, Burma became a province of British India journals and letters give a vivid account of her times and
from 1887 to 1937 and achieved independence in 1948. the distinguished circles in which she moved.
Decorative arts have continued to flourish in the 20th
century. Mandalay and other centres continued to pro- Burns, Robert (1759-96), Scottish poet. In his youth
duce low-fired glazed wares for both domestic and temple he worked as a labourer on his father's Ayrshire farm.
use into modern times. The early experience of poverty and injustice increased
BURROUGHS Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
68
'Address to Edinburgh'. After his unsuccessful return to controversy, many of them directed against Darwinism.
farming life in 788 he became an excise officer in
1
He was pre-eminently a *satirist, who waged war against
Dumfries and published his last major poem, 'Tam the torpor of thought, the suppression of originality, and
79 ( i
1
)
o' Shanter'. Burns wrote with passion, and with equal the hypocrisies and conventions that he saw around him.
facility in the Scots dialect and English, on themes of His largely autobiographical novel, The Way of All Flesh
country life, love, and animals, and with a deep sympathy (1903), is an ironic and witty study of the stultifying
for the oppressed. His popularity with his fellow coun- effects of Victorian family traits and attitudes.
(1961), with the same experimental technique. After brickwork, thereby breaking with the more historicist
years of apparent creative decline he produced a trilogy approach of contemporaries such as *Pugin. All Saints,
composed of Cities of the Red Night ( 1 98 1 ) The Place of , Margaret Street, London (1850-9), and Keble College,
Dead Roads (1984), and The Western Lands (1987). Oxford (1867-83), are his best-known works. His build-
ings continue to arouse strong differences of opinion:
Burton, Robert (1577- 1640), English writer and clergy- admirers think that his work has great originality and
man. Apart from a few minor works in Latin he left conviction, while detractors find it harsh and uncouth.
only one work. Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), which is
structured to resemble a medical work but in effect is an buttress, a structure, usually of stone or brick, projecting
affectionate satire on the ineflficacy of human learning and from or built against a wall to strengthen the wall or
endeavour. Burton finds 'melancholy' to be universally counteract pressure from a vault. At its simplest the
present in mankind and quotes a wide range of authors, buttress is merely a pile of masonry, but in *Gothic
making his book a masterpiece of anecdote and erudition. architecture buttresses were often as aesthetically striking
The work inspired *Keats's narrative poem 'Lamia'. as they were structurally sophisticated. Many French
Gothic cathedrals, in particular, feature a rich array of
Busoni, Ferruccio Dante Michelangiolo Ben- flying buttresses; in this form, an *arch (or segment of
venuto (1866- 924), Italian-born composer and pianist,
1
an arch) of masonry springs from the upper part of a
who settled in Germany. He conducted his own Stabat main wall and leads outward to a vertical buttress rising
Mater, at the age of 14, in 1878. By the time he was 20 against and above the side aisles. Flying buttresses were
he was celebrated as a virtuoso. In 1894 he settled in often enriched with tracery and other decoration.
Berlin,where he gave important concerts of contemporary
music and championed the works of *Liszt. His own Buxtehude, Dietrich (c.1637-1707), Dani.sh-born com-
music was extremely adventurous, coming at times close poser and organist, who settled in Germany. In 1668 he
to *atonality. His operas Turandot (191 7) and Doktor was appointed organist of the Marienkirche in Liibeck
Faustus (produced posthumously, 1925) are much ad- (one of the most important posts in Germany), where he
mired; his editions and transcriptions of Bach less so. remained for nearly forty years. His fame was such that
the young J. S. Bach walked 200 miles to hear him play.
bust, a representation of the head and upper portion of His compositions consist mainly of church music, among
the body. The term most commonly refers to sculptured them about 120 sacred vocal pieces which include canta-
portraits, but it can also be applied to paintings, drawings, tas, oratorios, chorales, and arias. His organ works rep-
or engravings. The Egyptians, convinced of life after resent a perfect fusion of the complex *contrapuntal
death, made vivid polychrome busts of the dead. The North German style and the brilliant French style of
Greeks often combined portraits with herms, that is, Johann Froberger (1616-67). His ability to fuse scholarly
squared pillars with heads on top. The art of the Romans subtlety with virtuoso brilliance greatly influenced other
is particularly rich in portrait busts. composers, Bach in particular.
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69 BYRON
Byrd, William (1543- 1623), England's foremost com- His travels during 1809 11 to Spain, Malta, Albania,
poser during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. A pu- and Greece provided material for Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
pil of Thomas *Tallis, he served as organist and master (1812-18), which presents in the pilgrim the prototype
of the choristers at Lincoln Cathedral (1563-73) and in of the truly 'Byronic Hero', aloof, cynical, and rebellious;
1570 was sworn in as Gentleman of the *Chapel Royal. on publication of the first two cantos (1812) Byron was
He was almost certainly a practising Roman Catholic lionized by aristocratic and literary circles. After a series
throughout his life, evading persecution only on account of much-publicized love affairs he lived with his half-sister
of his acknowledged excellence as a composer. Byrd's Augusta Leigh, whose daughter (born 18 14) was probably
music, which includes outstanding settings for both the his.His marriage to Annabella Milbanke in 181 5 ended
Latin and English liturgy, *motets, polyphonic songs with the same year, after the birth of their daughter Ada.
instrumental accompaniment, *consort music for viols, Amid mounting debts Byron left England in 1816, os-
and many keyboard pieces, represents the high point of tracized and embittered. He lived briefly in Geneva with
English *polyphony. He was an innovator in both form the *Shelleys and Claire Clairmont (who bore Byron a
and technique, and his music has great emotional power. daughter, AUegra, in 181 7), wrote The Prisoner of Chillon
(1816), the poetic drama Manfred (181 7), and finally
Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron (1788- 1824), settled in Italy. In Venice he wrote the satirical poem
British poet and satirist.798 he inherited the barony
In i Beppo (1818), finding in *oUava rima a new ironic colloquial
and an ancestral Nottinghamshire mansion, Newstead style which he fully developed in Don Juan (1819-24), an
Abbey. His first volume of poems. Hours of Idleness 1807),
( epic satire of great wit and irony, much admired by
was attacked in the Edinburgh Review, Byron responded Goethe. He now became deeply attached to Teresa,
with his satire English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809). Countess Guiccioli, and involved with the Italian na-
tionalist cause. A new interest in drama led to several
poetic dramas, including Sardanapalus (1821), and Cain
Ravenna was the mam centre of
In the 6th to 8th centuries
(1821). Byron's poetry, although condemned on moral
Byzantme power and Byzantine art m Italy. It has several
well-preserved buildmgs of the period, notably the grounds, exerted great influence on *Romantic poetry,
church of San Vitale (526-47) shown here, which has music, the novel, opera, and painting in Britain and
some of the most beautiful of all Byzantine mosaics. Europe. He was passionate for the cause of Greek lib-
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70
C
cabaret,
musical,
entertainment, often but not necessarily
provided in restaurants, at night-clubs, and
Empire. Constantinople (on the site of the ancient city at official dinners. Cabaret began in 1881 with the
of Byzantium) was founded in ad 330 by Constantine, establishment of the Chat Noir in Paris, where a series of
and remained Christian (Byzantine) until taken by the amateur actors and musicians satirized the conventions
Ottoman Turks in 1453. Byzantine art extended beyond of bourgeois society. The master of ceremonies played a
the political or geographical boundaries of the empire, central role. Its many imitators toured widely and were
penetrating into the Slav countries; in certain areas, for particularly influential in Germany (especially Berlin),
example Russia, where the Eastern Orthodox Church where the 'Kabarett' developed into leftist political
flourished, its tradition continued long after the collapse centres, reaching their peak in the 1930s. Hitler's dom-
of the empire. In architecture the Byzantines evolved a ination of Europe put an end to cabaret as a serious
new style for churches from two types of * Roman build- art-form. The cabaret was revived in post-World War II
and the domed
ing: the three-aisled, flat-roofed *basilica, France, Germany, Austria, and the USA (where it is
and vaulted buildings such as the pantheon. The By- usually called a night-club), but its popularity has waned.
zantines produced a cruciform plan, and then placed a In Britain and the USA an alternative cabaret circuit
*dome above the central crossing. They completed the has developed on the theatrical fringe, where improvised
transformation by rounding the east end to form either political and social satire flourish.
a single apse or, more often, three apses. Most Byzantine
churches are comparatively small, but the finest of them cabinet-making, the craft of producing fine wooden
all, the great church of Hagia Sophia, in Constantinople, furniture. The term is not usually used with precision,
erected by Justinian in the 6th century, is vast. The since several types of craftsmen could be involved in the
interiors of Byzantine churches were often sumptuous: the production of one piece of furniture — including gilders
lower parts of the walls were panelled with rare marbles, —
and upholsterers but the cabinet-maker was concerned
and the upper parts were covered with * mosaics and particularly with joining and *veneering.
wall-paintings. Apart from churches, the most imposing
works of Byzantine architecture are immense sub- cadence, a harmonic progression in music involving
terranean cisterns and defence works designed to with- two *chords that acts as a method of punctuating the
stand sieges. The cisterns were vaulted and domed, the progress of a composition by marking its end, or the end
roofs supported by great columns surmounted by capitals. of a section or phrase. There are four cadences in common
During a siege Constantinople depended on them for its use: two, the perfect and plagal cadences, have a feeling
water supply. Byzantine religious paintings were governed of finality; the other two, as their names suggest, are less
by clearly defined rules, each scene being allotted its conclusive: the interrupted and imperfect cadences imply
particular place in the decorative scheme. The pose and that more is to follow. In early music, such as plainsong,
gesture, even the colour of the vestments, was also exactly the cadence is a purely melodic formula.
prescribed. The artists, generally monks, were expected
to remain anonymous. Innovation was forbidden, and art- Cage, John (1912- ), US composer. In 1937 he
istic genius was concentrated on the emotional and developed a strong and continuing interest in music for
symbolic as well as the decorative use of colour, and dance, exemplified by his collaboration with the Merce
on the intensity of feeling expressed in the work. The *Cunningham Dance Company. He was responsible for
Byzantines developed the art of religious pictures or developing the 'prepared' piano (1938), changing the
*icons, painted on panels, for either devotional or ritu- sound of the instrument by inserting objects between the
alistic use. The style of these was much the same as in hammers and the strings. Cage has experimented with
the wall paintings, with figures arranged frontally and many compositional methods. A central concern has been
flat. Much fine painting is also to be found in illuminated the use of chance techniques {Music of Changes, 1951), but
manuscripts, sumptuously bound, either in tooled leather, *electronic music, and environmental sounds are also
carved boards, or ivory panels, or in worked metal part of his work. He has been at the centre of the US
ornamented by jewels, *cloisonne enamel, or carved ivory avant-garde for several decades, and has probably had
plaques. Elaborately and finely carved ivory was used for a greater influence on world music than any other
caskets, mounts, and figures. Metal-work varied from 20th-century US composer.
vast metal doors set up in the sanctuaries, to crosses,
reliquaries, ecclesiastical plate, and a great variety of Calder, Alexander (1898- 1976), US sculptor, painter,
secular jewellery. The Byzantines excelled in cloisonne and designer, principally famous as the inventor of the
enamel, outlined by tiny gold wire threads. Their woven 'mobile', a pioneering type of *kinetic art. He trained as
silks and brocades, bearing fiercely vital animals facing an engineer and took up art in his mid-20s. His early
each other in stylized design, intricate geometric patterns, works included wire sculptures and in 1931 he made his
or exuberant floral motifs, rank with the finest in the first abstract moving construction. Originally Calder's
medieval world. The splendid embroideries in gold thread mobiles were moved by hand or a motor, but in 1934 he
and coloured silks, their ceramics and glass, and other began making the unpowered mobiles — responsive to the
minor arts carry the vivid stamp of their genius. faintest air currents— for which he is most widely known.
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71 CALLIMACHUS
profound influence on Latin literature. Only fragments (1878-1914), and Robert Bevan (1865- 1925). Formed in
of his writings remain, though papyrus discoveries since 191 1, it took its name from the drab working-class area
1910 have enlarged modern knowledge of his texts. of London made popular as a subject by *Sickert, their
prime inspiration. Their subjects included street scenes,
Calvino, Italo (1923-85), Italian short-story writer and landscapes, portraits, and still lifes; their use of bold, flat
novelist. He
published his first novel, The Path to the Nest colour showed the influence of * Post-Impressionism. The
of Spiders (1947), an account of the Italian Resistance, at group merged with a number of smaller groups in 191
the age of 23. His short stories include the trilogy Our to form an exhibiting society called the London Group.
Ancestors, written in the 1950s, Difficult Loves (1958), and
If on a Winter's Night a Traveller (1979). While Calvino, cameo, a small carving (often a portrait) cut in relief
especially in his stories, shows himself an acute observer on a gemstone or similar surface. Often a banded or
of intimate human psychology, his novels are steeped in multicoloured stone, such as agate, is used, so as to exploit
fantasy, which he regards as integral to human experience. the different layers of colour —
with, for example, one
colour for the background and another for the carving.
calypso, a type of West Indian popular song, originating The cameo was highly popular among the Greeks and
in Trinidad and Tobago. A form of folk-song whose words Romans, particularly for jewellery; it was revived during
comment on newsworthy topics in a humorous and, if the Renaissance, and again in Victorian times.
necessary, critical way, and whose music is typically
played by *steel bands. Calypso music is syncopated and camerawork (cinema), process by which the camera is
repetitious. It usually has choruses in which everyone manipulated to produce the picture required by the
joins. There is a body of some fifty standard calypso tunes, director. The latter's conceptions can often be enhanced
but the words are improvised afresh as the occasion by the lighting cameraman (or cinematographer), who
demands. More recently a new form, soca, has arisen heads the camera crew; the camera is actually worked
from a meeting of soul and calypso styles. by the camera operator. The camera can pan (move in
a horizontal plane), tilt (in a vertical plane), track (move
Cambodian literature, literature written in the Khmer on a mount to 'track' the action) or zoom (appear to
in Cambodia. A large corpus of the literature
language move towards or away from the scene while remaining
is inscriptional and the earliest Khmer inscription is dated stationary). Camerawork is thus capable of extreme
AD 611. The inscriptions of the great city and temples of precision, and each shot must be assimilated into the style
Angkor, capital of Cambodia from the loth to the of the whole by the cinematographer. The work of
15th century, have been particularly studied. Cambodia an outstanding cinematographer such as Gregg Toland
possesses two great epics, the Poem of Angkor Vat composed (1904-48) on such films as Ford's The Grapes of Wrath
in 1620, and the Ramakerti (based on the Indian *Ra- (1940) and Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) shows how the
mayana), of which the main story dates from the i6th and camera can be used to create emotional involvement.
17th centuries, and the later part from the mid- 8th 1
century. The story of Rama narrated in this epic has Cameron, Charles (c. 1743- 18 12), British *Neo-
pervaded Cambodian art-forms: sculpture, *shadow
all classical architect. Born in Scotland, he was active mainly
plays, and dance-drama. Cambodia also has a large body
of traditional folk stories [rioen bren) and verse fiction, the A 4th-century Roman cameo showing an emperor (either
latter mostly dating from the i8th and 19th centuries. Honorius or Constantme II) with his wife. As is usual with
The verse work The Conch Shell Story is the oldest such cameo portraits, the lighter vein of the stone is used for
the figures and the darker colour for the background.
work, written in 1729. Much of this literature is inspired
The intricate silver mount is probably a later addition to
by *Jataka (stories of the Buddha's previous lives) of
the cameo. (Rothschild Collection, Pans)
which the last ten Jataka and the extra-canonical cycle
of fifty Ja/(2A:a are particularly popular. The Thai Traibhumi
('Three Worlds') cosmological text has also been an
important influence on Cambodian literature. Another
form of literature is cpap, short didactic verse works
learnt by heart as moral texts in Buddhist schools. All
Cambodian writings of the period from the i6th to
the mid- 9th century are generally classified as Khmer
1
73 CANADIAN PAINTING
in Russia, where he settled in about 1778 and remained et Melisande (1898), which she repeated in French
Pelleas
for the rest of his hfe. He was employed by Catherine the in 1904 to Sarah Bernhardt's Pelleas. George Bernard
Great on various projects at the palace of Tsarskoe Selo, Shaw created for her the role of Eliza Doolittle in
near St Petersburg. His style was similar to that of Pygmalion ( 1 9 4)
1
published the drawings he made there as The Baths of the leading painter of the Northern Renaissance, practising in
Romans, a scholarly textbook of classical ornament. the Flemish municipality of Tournai. The Campin/
Flemalle pictures are revolutionary in their sense of
Cameron, Julia Margaret (1815-79), British portrait three-dimensional solidity and their naturalism, placing
photographer. Born in India, Mrs Cameron met the the artist alongside Jan van *Eyck as the founding father
distinguished astronomer-scientist Sir John Herschel in of the Early Netherlandish School of painting. Campin
1837, and it was he who sent her the first photograph was almost certainly the teacher of Rogier van der
she ever saw. The Camerons retired to England, soon Weyden.
settling on the Isle of Wight. Here Julia took up pho-
tography late in 1863 to 'amuse' herself during her Camus, Albert (1916-60), French novelist, dramatist,
husband's visits to his coffee plantations in Ceylon (now and essayist. He
best known for his novelsis Etranger U
Sri Lanka). Her large and intensely dramatic 'close-ups' (1942) and La Peste (1947), which give expression to his
of such eminent Victorians as Carlyle, Darwin, Tennyson, concept of the absurd, the view that the universe and
and Herschel himself are among the most powerful of human existence are intrinsically meaningless. La Peste, a
their time. She also photographed costumed tableaux graphic account of a city shut off from the outside world
illustrating contemporary literature, notably Tennyson's during an outbreak of plague, has also been seen as an
*allegory describing France under the German occu-
Idyllsof the King and Other Poems. Of several surviving
presentation albums of her pictures, that dedicated to pation of 1940-4. In his essay Le My the de Sisyphe Camus
Herschel is the best known. claims that even in an absurd universe happiness becomes
possible once man accepts that life has no meaning other
Caxnoes, Luis de [c. 524-80) Portuguese poet. A major
1 ,
than what he gives to it. In certain respects these views
whose work is characterized by his mastery of
lyric poet, suggest the existentialist philosophy of *Sartre, though
a wide range of verse-forms, he espoused * Renaissance Camus criticized existentialism for itself taking the place
Platonic ideas of absolute love and spiritual and aesthetic of those metaphysical explanations of life which it sought
perfection. His major work is The Lusiads (1572), the to displace. Camus and Sartre also differed politically
Portuguese national epic, describing Vasco da Gama's for, in his essay U Homme revoke 95 Camus maintained (
1 1 )
,
journey round the Cape of Good Hope to India, but that progress towards political and social justice could
essentially a glorification of Portuguese achievements. come about only through a process of gradual revolt, not
Camoes draws on a variety of sources — classical myth- the total revolution advocated by Sartre and the Marxists.
ology, ancient history, chronicles, travellers' tales — as well His confidence in humanity showed itself most clearly in
as his own experience, to give the entire history of his last novel. La Chute (1956). Camus was awarded the
Portugal. The Lusiads is a work of great formal beauty Nobel Prize for Literature in 1957.
Campbell, Colen (1676- 1729), Scottish architect, one *folk art. In the 19th century the Irish-born Paul Kane
of the key figures of *Palladianism. In 17 15 he published (1810-71 and the Dutch-born Cornelius Krieghofr( 18 15-
)
the first volume (two more followed in 171 7 and 1725) 72) painted genre scenes, in the West and in Quebec respec-
of his lavishly illustrated Vitruvius Britannicus; this was tively, that are highly valued today, it was not until 191
ostensibly a review of modern British architecture, but it that a truly Canadian group of like-minded artists
was heavily biased against the 'affected and licentious' appeared, inspired by the northern Ontario landscape,
*Baroque style and in favour of 'antique simplicity'. It which they painted with bold brushwork and in brilliant
was as much a personal advertisement as a manifesto (it colours. They included J. E. H. MacDonald, Lawren Har-
contained several of his own designs), but it became the ris, Tom Thomson, Frank Carmichael, Frank Johnston,
most important pattern-book of Palladianism. It brought Arthur Lismer, A. Y.Jackson, and F. H. Varley. In 1920
him success and he died rich; Lord *Burlington was they formed the Group of Seven (minus Thomson, who
among his Campbell's most important work
patrons. died in 191 7). In 1927 a contact with Harris helped another
was Wanstead House, Essex (c. 1714-20, destroyed), the well-known Canadian painter, Emily Carr (1871-1945),
prototype of the large Palladian country house. His best reach her peak in creating powerful expressionist paintings
surviving building is Mereworth Castle, Kent (1722-5), of the British Columbia forest landscape. Working outside
closely based on *Palladio's Villa Rotonda. the Group was perhaps the most distinguished Canadian
painter,David Milne (1882- 1953), whose glowing water-
Campbell, Mrs Patrick (Beatrice Stella Tanner) colours and oils conveyed an exhilarating technical
(1865- 940), British actress of wit, beauty, and passion.
1
mastery. Since World War II numerous Canadian painters
She reached the front rank after creating two of Arthur have gained international reputations, including Paul-
Pinero's most famous heroines —
Paula in The Second Mrs Emile Borduas 1905-60), Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923-
( ),
Tanqueray (1893) and Agnes in The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith Jack Bush (1909-77), Alex Colville (1920- ), and
(1895). Other roles included Melisande in Maeterlinck's Michael Snow 929- (
1
)
CANALETTO Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
74
Canaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canale) (1697-1768), his adopted country he has established a reputation as
Italian painter, the most famous of all painters of town one of the outstanding exponents of concrete construction
views. He began his career as a scene painter (his father's in the 20th century. His speciality is shell vaulting, in
profession), but he turned to veduta (view) painting in which the concrete reduced to a thin membrane,
is
I 719-20 during a visit to Rome, where this kind of picture enabling large spans to be covered economically. The
was becoming fashionable. In Venice he found a ready buildings on which he has worked include the Church of
market among British visitors, principally young noble- Santa Maria Miraculosa (1954-5) ^rid the Olympic
men on the Grand Tour. When France declared war on Stadium (1968), both in Mexico City.
Britain in 1 744, however, continental tourism ceased;
Canaletto moved to London in 1 746 and remained there Canetti, Elias (1905- ), novelist and dramatist, born
(with a single brief visit to Venice) until 1756. At first he in Bulgaria of Spanish Jewish descent, writing in German.
was highly successful, painting mainly views of London, His novel Aulo-da-Fe (1935, expanded 1963) concentrates
but his popularity waned as his work became rather on the doomed attempt of the aloof, narrow-minded
mechanical. Ne\ertheless his influence in Britain was intellectual to avoid contamination by the material world.
great, as it was in Italy and elsewhere (his nephew Besides three dramatic parables, The Wedding Feast (1932),
Bernard *Bellotto took his style to central Europe). His Comedy of Vanity (1950), and Their Days are Numbered
pictures still form the popular image of Venice, and (1956), an essay on Kafka, and three volumes of auto-
although in the later part of his career his work suffered biography, Canetti's other outstanding work is Crowds and
the effects of overproduction, he never lost his gift for Power (i960), a behavioural study of crowds and dictators,
striking composition. which seeks to synthesize the insights of history, psycho-
logy, anthropology, and mythology. Canetti was awarded
Candela, Felix (1910- ), Spanish-born architect who the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1981.
settled in Mexico 1939 after fighting on the losing
in
Republican side in the Spanish Civil War (1936 9). In Cano, Alonso (1601-67), Spanish sculptor, painter, and
architect. His career was spent mainly in his native
Granada, in Seville, and in Madrid, where he worked
Canaletto's paintings are valued not only as works of art, for Philip IV. His work tends to be serene, and it is best
but also as matchless records of the topography of represented in Granada Cathedral, which has several
Venice. This painting, The Upper Reaches of the Grand
examples of his painting and his superb painted wooden
Canal (c. 1738), preserves a view that has now changed
greatly, most of the buildings on the right-hand side statue of the Immaculate Conception (1655). Cano also
having been demolished to make way for the railway designed the facade of the cathedral, one of the most
station. (National Gallery, London) original works of Spanish *Baroque architecture.
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75 CAO YU
Canova, Antonio (1757- 1822), Italian sculptor, the >v..,s^,^v„ ... ,..,.-:;^.,.^^^5:^^, -.T^,/-,^
Benedicite, but custom allows it to be applied also to the of the first Chinese playwrights to produce Western-
Benedictus, Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis, and Te Deum, as influenced spoken drama rather than traditional opera
well as to certain psalms such as the Venite and Jubilate. and his Thunderstorm (1933) and Sunrise (1935) were
In recent years Benjamin Britten has used the word to popular, particularly in Shanghai. Thunderstorm is the
describe an extended song to a religious text not intended tense story of twenty-four hours in the life of a self-made
for use in church —
such examples as Abraham and Isaac businessman and his family and reflects the conflict
(1952) are virtually miniature operas. between the generations in revolutionary China.
CAPA 76
Capa, Robert (Andor Friedmann) (1913-64), Hun- with his brother Josef, is an allegory satirizing human
garian photo-journalist. Capa's most famous picture shows pretentiousness, greed, and militarism. The trilogy Hor-
a soldier being killed in the Spanish Civil War (often said dubal (1933), The Meteor (1934), and An Ordinary Life
to be staged rather than real). He went on to cover four (1934) explores problems of truth and human personality.
more wars, eventually being killed by a landmine on
assignment in Indo-China. His memorials, apart from his capital, in architecture, the crowning feature of a
pictures, are the photographers' co-operative Magnum column, forming a transition between the shaft of the
(of which he was a co-founder) and New York's Institute column and the member it supports. Capitals are often
of Contemporary Photography, established by his elder more or less elaborately carved with figurative or dec-
brother Cornell. orative elements (and sometimes painted) and in classical
architecture the various types of capitals mark the most
Capek, Karel (1890- 1938), Czech writer. His works obvious distinctions between the different *Orders.
are warnings against man's misuse of science and his
desire to master life. They were much admired by, among Capote, Truman (1924 84), US novelist, short-story
others, Shaw and Chesterton.They include the plays writer, and journalist. His reputation rests largely on his
RUR — Rossum's Universal Robots (1921), from which the early work, which includes two novels set in his native
word 'robot' isderived and which describes the elim- South, Other Voices, Other Rooms (1948), about a homo-
ination of humanity by robots, and The Macropoulos Secret sexually inclined boy painfully groping towards maturity,
(1922), on the discovery of a drug capable of prolonging and The Grass Harp (1951), about innocent people, old
life (turned into an opera byjanacek), as well as the novels and young, escaping social restraint by living in a tree-
Krakatit (1924) about the invention of an all-powerful house. His novella about a New York playgirl, Breakfast
explosive, and War with the Newts (1936), about giant at Tiffany's, was published in 1958. In Cold Blood (1966)
newts at first exploited by men but finally taking over examines a notorious multiple murder: the technique he
the world. The Insect Play (1922), written in collaboration uses here is seen as a seminal combination of document
and fiction.
This paintmg from a family album (c. 1775) shows a group
of musicians rehearsing a cantata. The continue parts are cappella (Italian, 'chapel'), in choral music a cappella
taken by the cellist, harpsichordist, and bassoonist, with means 'in a church style' (that is to say, unaccompanied),
violins, oboes, and horns accompanying the three
and maestro di cappella means 'director of church music'.
singers. A figure before a closed score with the title
'Lobet ihr Knechte des Herrn' (Give praise, ye servants
The German equivalents are Kapelle and Kapellmeister.
of the Lord), has assumed the role of conductor. 'Chapel', as in *Chapel Royal, can also refer to the
(Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg) salaried musicians serving a church or noble household.
)
77 CARDUCCI
Capra, Frank (1897- ), US film director, born in Los Caprichos, issued in 799, illustrate how wide-ranging
1
Sicily.His optimistic films eulogize ordinary people, who the term 'caprice' can be, for they feature savagely
were shown as more decent and honest than the figures satirical attacks on social customs, with strong elements
of authority with whom they came into conflict. He won of the macabre.
Academy Awards for best director for It Happened One
Might (1934), his first big success; Mr Deeds Goes to Town Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da(i57i-i6io),
(1936), about an innocent from the provinces in New the most original and influential Italian painter of the
York; and Tou Can't Take It With Tou (1938). Equally 17th century. His early works were usually small pictures
successful were Lost Horizon (1937), about the incursion of non-dramatic subjects, with half-length figures, a pre-
of some kidnapped aircraft passengers into a Utopian ponderance of *still-life details (which Caravaggio
community, and Mr Smith Goes To Washington (1939), in painted superbly), and a frankly homo-erotic character.
which an honest young senator outfaces government The direction of his career changed completely when he
power. Capra's six post-war films were less successful, was given his first important public commissions in Rome:
though ICs a Wonderful Life (1946), State of the Union three paintings on the life of St Matthew (1599- 1602) in
(1948), and A Hole in the Head (1959) had considerable the Contarelli Chapel of San Luigi dei Francesi, and The
merit. The first of these, in which a real 'guardian angel' Conversion of St Paul and The Crucifixion of St Peter ( 1 600- 1
shows a would-be suicide how much he has to live for, in the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo. These
was very much in his pre-war mould. astonishingly original works show how forcefully Cara-
vaggio broke with the prevailing * Mannerist style, for
capriccio (Italian, 'caprice') in music, a term applied at his figures, emerging from gloomy shadow into bright
random to describe a light, fanciful vocal or instrumental light,convey an intense sense of physical presence. Hence-
piece. It is used of certain 16th-century Italian
also forth Caravaggio devoted himself almost exclusively to
*madrigals and, such keyboard pieces as employ
later, religious works. He was often criticized for his down-
*fugal imitation. In all its usages the term suggests music to-earth approach in showing religious figures as real
that is fantastical and capricious. Richard *Strauss's last people; but this feature of his work, as well as his dramatic
opera (1942) —
a playful study of the relative importance handling of light and shade, was enormously influential,
—
of words and music in opera adopted the term as a very the artists who flocked to Rome from all over Europe at
apt title. this time carrying his ('Caravaggesque') style back to
In art, a term applied to any fantasy subject, but most their own countries. Caravaggio was notoriously violent
commonly used of a type of townscape in which real and in 1606 he fled Rome after killing a man in a brawl.
buildings are combined with imaginary ones or are His final years were spent in Naples, Malta, and Sicily.
shown with their locations rearranged. Such pictures were
particularly popular in the i8th century, Canaletto and Carducci, Giosue (1835- 1907), Italian poet and lit-
Francesco Guardi being noted exponents. Goya's etchings erary critic. Born in Tuscany, he was Professor of Italian
Literature at Bologna from i860 to 1904. In 1906 he was
awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. In addition to
Caravaggio's The Lute Player was painted for Cardinal being an influential literary critic, he was a revolutionary
del Monte, an important patron during the earlier part of poet both in the political content of much of his verse
the painter's career. The play of light and shade, with the
and in his experiments with form, much of which harked
use of a shaft of light to illumine the painting from the left,
is characteristic of his mature work. (Hermitage,
back to *Foscolo's classicism. In Iambs and epodes (1867-9),
Leningrad) Barbarian Odes (1877-89), and Mew Rhymes (186 1-7), his
CARIBBEAN MUSIC Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
78
poetry, when not over-rhetorical, beautifully evokes place are akin to * Latin American dances in their combination
and mood. of Spanish and African elements; early in the 20th century
they were exported to ballrooms in the USA and Europe.
Caribbean music, music of the islands of the Caribbean Street dancing is an important part of the carnival season,
or West Bahamas, the Greater Antilles
Indies, including the which runs from New Year's Day to the first day of Lent.
(Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico), and the The most common carnival music forms are Trinidadian
Lesser Antilles. The Caribbean was first inhabited by *calypso and *steel band music, and Jamaican *reggae.
South American Indians in the first millennium ad;
between 1 5 1 o and 1 834 slaves were imported from the West caricature, a form of art, usually portraiture, in which
African coast. After the abolition of slavery, indentured characteristic features of the subject represented are dis-
labourers were imported from Asia, especially from north- torted or exaggerated for comic effect. Its invention is
ern India (to Trinidad) and southern India (to Martin- usually credited to Annibale *Carracci, who flourished in
ique), with the result that Indian culture and folk music the late i6th and early 17th centuries, although other
is still current in a number of islands. Though peoples of forms of grotesque or ludicrous representation were known
African origin are numerically dominant, the music of the earlier (and are sometimes loosely called caricature) —
islands thus results from nearly five centuries of fusion of famous examples are Leonardo da Vinci's drawings of
peoples and cultures of European, African, and Asian grotesque heads. Several notable 17th-century artists,
descent. The musical genres of different religious cult Bernini for example, were brilliant caricaturists, but only
groups show many striking connections with African mu- as a sideline, and it was not until the i8th century that the
sical systems. * Congolese words are used in the songs of professional caricaturist emerged. Political caricature as
the Jamaican Kumina cult, and Nigerian Yoruba religious we know it today developed decades of
in the last three
practices are combined with Roman Catholic and Baptist the 8th century, *Gillray and *Rowlandson being great
1
beliefs in the Trinidadian Shango cult. Much of the exponents at this time in Britain, and *Daumier in France.
polyrhythmic playing in drum ensembles resembles African George *Cruikshank produced gentler, less satirical ca-
techniques, but there seems to be less emphasis on drums ricatures in the early Victorian period in the UK, while
as melodic instruments. The call and response patterning the weekly Punch cartoon institutionalized political ca-
of much Caribbean music and its pervasive use in ritual, ricature for the middle-classhome. Political caricature still
work, and play, is typical of sub-Saharan Africa; but the flourishes, for example in the work of Gerald Scarfe in
textures of Caribbean polyphony and the roles of individual Punch and Private Eye in the UK, in the satirical magazine
composers and of solo performances seem to be different. Krokodil in the Soviet Union, and the newspaper Le Canard
Amongst contemporary dance forms, limbo dancing is enchaine in France.
said to date from the time of slavery, while the quadrille
was imported into the Caribbean from Europe during the carillon, a chime of *bells so arranged that melodies can
same period. Cuban dances such as the danzon and * rumba be played on it. Originating in the Low Countries but
also popular elsewhere, it is played either by a carillon-
neur using a 'keyboard' of rods struck with the fist, or
Max Beerbohm's caricature here captures some of the *mechanically by a pinned barrel. Recently, electronic
most noteworthy artists and writers of the 1890s. The imitations have been introduced.
artist's witty and whimsical comments on fin de siecle
literary London cunningly exploit his very lack of skill as
a draughtsman.
Carlyle, Thomas (i 795-1881), Scottish historian and
political philosopher. His semi-autobiographical philo-
sophical work. Sartor Resartus (1833-4), shows the influence
of Richter and the German Romantic school. In 1826 he
married Jane Welsh (later famed for her brilliant letters),
and in 1834 they left Scotland for London, where Carlyle
wrote his celebrated History of the French Revolution (1837).
\n On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History (1841)
he outlined his view that great men in the past shaped
destiny through the genius of their spirit. In Chartism
(1840) he attacked the consequences of the Industrial
Revolution; in Past and Present (1843) he exalted the feudal
past and paternalistic government. During his lifetime his
influence as a social prophet and critic was enormous; in
the 20th century his reputation waned, partly because his
ideas were interpreted as foreshadowings of fascism.
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79 CARPETS AND RUGS
Carne, Marcel (1909- ), French film director, whose fix liturgical chant, hitherto a flexible and continuously
best films were made in collaboration with the scriptwriter evolving art, in writing.
and poet Jacques Prevert (1900-77). Their films together
included Quai des brumes (1938), about a doomed love Carpaccio, Vittore (c. 1450-c. 1525), Italian painter, re-
affair, and Le Jour se leve (1939), in which a man who has garded second only to Giovanni *Bellini as the out-
as
murdered ft-om sexual jealousy is besieged all night by the standing Venetian painter of his generation. His fame rests
police. Both films combine contemporary reality with a primarily on two great cycles of paintings: Scenes from the
poetic approach, which in their next two films was applied Life of St Ursula, executed in the 1490s, and Scenes from the
to a historical subject.The first, Les Visiteurs du soir (1942), Lives of St George and St Jerome, painted for the Scuola di
isa kind of fairy-tale set in the 15th century. The second, San Giorgio degli Schiavoni in Venice in 1502 7 and
Les Enfants du paradis (1945), set in the 19th century and still in its original position. They show his characteristic
with a theatrical background, includes an unforgettable gracefulness, sense of fantasy, and sharp eye for anecdotal
performance by *Barrault, and is one of the most haunting detail.
films ever made. Game's partnership with Prevert ended
in 1948; though he made many more films they were not carpets and rugs. The two words are not usually strictly
of the same standard. differentiated, but are vaguely indicative of size, rugs being
smaller than carpets. In the Westit was not until the i8th
Persia as far as China, but the most prized of all carpets work that was the foundation of much Baroque decoration.
are perhaps those made under the *Safavid dynasty (1502- Annibale was an extremely versatile artist: he was the
1 736) in Persia, whose splendour of colour and intricate inventor of *caricature as we know it and of the type of
beauty of design have never been surpassed. Wool is the picture known as 'ideal *landscape'. In 1605 he began to
most common material of carpets, but camel and goat suffer from depression and did little work in his final years.
hair were much used in oriental examples, and silk and In the 17th and i8th centuries the Farnese Ceiling was
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CARYATID
ranked on almost the same level as * Michelangelo's work cartoon, a full-size drawing made for the purpose of
in the SistineChapel and *Raphaers Vatican frescos, but transferring a design to a painting or tapestry. Cartoons
in the iglh century his reputation plummeted. Today he were an essential part of the process of making stained
is judged alongside his great contemporary Caravaggio. glass,and were used in painting by the early 15th century.
Agostino remembered as a teacher and engraver, whose
is The design was transferred either by pressing heavily along
human body were used for instruction in art
studies of the the outlines with a pointed metal implement called a stylus
academies for two centuries. Ludovico ran the academy or by rubbing powdered charcoal through a series of
in Bologna after his cousins went to Rome. He was an pinpricks —
a process called 'pouncing'. In the 19th century
uneven painter, but capable of great emotional depth. All proposed designs for frescos in the Houses of Parliament
three Carracci were brilliant draughtsmen. in London were parodied in the magazine Punch; thereafter
the word came to mean a humorous drawing or parody.
Carroll, Lewis (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) (1832-98),
British writer and photographer. A lecturer in mathematics Caruso, Enrico (1873- 192 1), Italian tenor singer. Caru-
at Christ Church, Oxford, he is remembered as the author so's international fame dates from when he sang
1902,
of the children's classics Alice's Adventures in Wonderland Rodolfo in Puccini's La Boheme with *Melba at Monte
(1865), and Through the Looking-Glass (1871) written for Carlo. Between then and 1920 he sang thirty-six roles,
Alice Liddell, the young daughter of the classicist Henry appearing over 600 times in New York. The first tenor to
George Liddell. Both describe a child's dream adventures, make records, Caruso's voice is resonant and almost
and were first illustrated by Sir John Tenniel. Unlike most baritonal (see * voice), and, though not stylistically im-
*children's literature of that period they were neither peccable, is regarded among the greatest.
moralistic nor instructive. Their fantasy, satire, and sur-
realism make them equally appealing to adults. He also caryatid, a carved female figure clad in long robes and
wrote inspired humorous and *nonsense verse, notably serving as a column. Caryatids were first used in Greek
The Hunting of the Snark (1876). Carroll was a respected architecture, the most famous examples being on the
portrait photographer. At first a typical Victorian 'lion- Erechtheum in Athens (c.42 1-407 bc), and again came
hunter', he sought out celebrities to pose for his camera, into prominence with the Greek Revival of the 19th
but he later concentrated on photographing children, century. The male equivalent of the caryatid is the atlas;
particularly little girls. He them to look
excelled in getting the term 'canephorae' is applied to caryatids with baskets
relaxed: his masterpiece a study of Alice Liddell as a
is on their heads.
'beggar girl'. Carroll gave up photography in 1880 and
his lectureship a year later, presumably to concentrate on
writing, the greatest of his talents.
The Erechtheum m Athens has a porch m which six
caryatids take the place of columns. The name means
Carter, Elliott (Cook) (1908- ), US composer. His
'woman of Caryae' a town m Sparta, and the device may
,
Casals, Pablo (1876-1973), Spanish cellist, conductor, catharsis, the effect of 'purgation' or 'purification'
composer, and pianist. Starting his career in Barcelona achieved by tragic drama, according to Aristotle's ar-
cafes, Casals performed as a soloist throughout Europe gument in his Poetics (4th century bc). Aristotle wrote that
from the late 1890s, and from 1901, when he toured the a * tragedy should succeed 'in arousing pity and fear in
USA, was regarded as the world's greatest cellist. Forming such a way as to accomplish a catharsis of such emotions'.
a notable trio with the pianist Alfred Cortot (1877 1962) There has been much dispute about his meaning, but
and the violinist Jacques Thibaud (1880- 1953), Casals was Aristotle seems to be rejecting * Plato's hostile view of
forced to leave Spain in 1936, and refused to return after poetry as an unhealthy emotional stimulant. His metaphor
the Spanish Civil War. of emotional cleansing has been read as a solution to
the puzzle of the audience's pleasure in witnessing the
Cassatt, Mary 1844- 1926), US painter and print-maker
( disturbing events enacted in tragedies.
who worked mainly in Paris (where she settled in 1866)
in the circle of the * Impressionists, and particularly with Cather, Willa (Sibert) (1873-1947), US novelist and
*Degas. Cassatt is renowned for her delicate depictions of She used her knowledge of the lives of
short-story writer.
everyday life, particularly her paintings of mothers with the immigrant famihes of the Midwest as the basis for a
children, and she was an outstanding print-maker and seriesof novels, beginning with Pioneers! (191 3), The
pastellist. She came from a wealthy family and exercised Song of the Lark (1915), Mj Antonia (1918), and One of Ours
an important influence on US taste by urging her rich (1922). Later novels like Death Comes for the Archbishop
friends to buy Impressionist works. (1927) and Shadows on the Rock (1931) reflect her interest
in history and religion.
castanets, wooden *clappers, a pair for each hand,
characteristic of Spanish music, and of orchestral music Catullus, Gaius Valerius (r. 84-54 ^c), Latin poet.
with a Spanish flavour, where traditionally they are made Born in Verona, he spent much time in Rome. His
of chestnut wood or caslana. The left-hand pair is lower surviving work covers a wide range of topic and metre.
pitched than the right. The two shells of each pair are Most memorable are the twenty-five lyrical poems re-
linked together with cord, tightened round the thumb so flecting a stormy relationship with a woman addressed as
that the shells are sprung apart and can be struck together 'Lesbia', probably the fashionable Clodia. But he writes
with the fingers. In orchestras, one pair of shells is attached with equal directness of the death of his brother, the
to a handle, with a plate between them, which makes the excitement of composing poetry, and the malpractices of
playing technique easier. Very similar instruments were various contemporaries. His minor epic on the wedding of
used in ancient Egypt, and they are related to the *clappers Peleus and Thetis is untypical of an oeuvre that is usually
used in much European *folk music. brief, personal, and passionate. He also translated the work
of *Sappho and *Callimachus. He prepared the way for
Castiglione, Baldassare (1478 1529), ItaHan courtly the development of Roman love *elegy, but his lyric pieces
writer. A Mantuan nobleman and diplomat, he was in had no real heirs till the rise of the Romance languages;
the service of the dukes of Urbino and of the papacy. His he was admired and imitated by Renaissance poets.
four volumes. The Book of the Courtier (1528), which had
widespread influence, take the form of conversations which Cavafy, Constantine (Konstantinos Petrou Kavafis)
set out the necessary attributes of the perfect Renaissance (1863- 1933), Greek poet. A native of Alexandria, he was
courtier and the noble lady. fascinated by the Asian Greek culture from the Hellenistic
period onward. His poems, predominantly on historical
casting, the process of making a mould from a statue or and homosexual erotic themes, are suffused with an ironic
similar object and reproducing the original in a material awareness of the instability of life and the limits of human
such as *bronze or plaster of Paris that can be shaped into knowledge. They also reflect on the nature and power of
the mould. Casting may be used to make a copy of a art, particularly poetry. Cavafy is notable for his laconic
finished work or to create the permanent version of a work but musical style and for his development of the dramatic
that the sculptor has modelled in some fragile material monologue as a poetic form.
such as clay. There are various methods of casting, the
*cire-perdue technique being the best known. The practice Cavalcanti, Guido (c. 1260- 1300), ItaHan poet. Born in
of casting the head and limbs separately releases the bronze Florence, he was a close friend of *Dante, and the leader
sculptor from the constraint of block size faced by the of the dolce stil nuovo ('sweet new style') school of poets,
stone sculptor. characterized by the dominant theme of love, the id-
olization of woman, by a propensity to philosophy, and
castrato, a type of male soprano or contralto *voice by a stylistic grace and directness of diction. The passion
achieved by castration before puberty, in great demand in Cavalcanti's verse anticipates * Petrarch.
in Italy for opera in the 17th and i8th centuries. The voice
had a special brilliance and the singer often became very Cavalier Poets, the name
given to a group of English
wealthy through the adulation accorded him. Castrati poets in the time of Charles noted for their lyrical poetry
I,
parts were written as late as 1824 (Meyerbeer's The Crusader and courtly behaviour. It included Thomas Carew (c. 594- 1
in Egypt) and the voice survived in the Vatican Chapel 1640), Richard *Lovelace, Sir John Suckling (1609 42),
well into the late 19th century. The last castrato was Edmund Waller (1606 87), and Robert *Herrick (who
Alessandro Moreschi (1858- 1922), who in old age made was not a courtier). Their lyrics, similar in tone and style,
a number of recordings. The practice of castration was were distinguished by short lines, fluent and idiomatic
finally banned by the Vatican in 1903. diction, and urbane and graceful wit. Typical themes were
love, honour, the transience of beauty, loyalty to the king,
catch * canon. and gallantry.
Free ebooks ==> 83www.Ebook777.com CELLO
This early 18th-century celadon-glazed bowl, decorated celadon, a rather imprecise term applied to certain
with moulding under the glaze, was made Chma. m Chinese ceramic wares characterized by greyish-green
Celadon wares were prized for their beauty and
glazes and to similar wares produced in Japan and Korea.
resemblance to jade, and
also because, according to
superstition, a celadon dish would shatter or change
— —
The colour somewhat resembling jade is caused by the
colour if poisoned food were put into it.
use of a ferrous oxide glaze. Celadon ware, particularly
southern celadon, which is associated with the Sung
dynasty (960 1279), was widely exported and was highly
prized in the West.
Cavalli, (Pietro) Francesco (1602-76). Italian com-
poser, organist, and singer. An advantageous marriage, celesta, a small upright keyboard instrument invented
and an appointment as one of the organists to St Mark's by Auguste Mustel in Paris in 1886. The hammers strike
(for which he composed a number of motets, settings for metal plates, the sound being amplified by a wooden
masses, duets and trios, and a requiem), encouraged him resonating box behind each plate; there is a sustaining
to attempt *opera, and he soon became one of the most pedal like that of the piano. It appears quite frequently
distingushed operatic composers of his day. Such works as in the orchestra. Perhaps its most famous use, well suited
Ormindo (1644) and Calisto (1652) have figured largely in to the sweet sound, is in 'The Dance of the Sugar Plum
the recent revival of interest in operas of this period. Fairy' in Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker.
cave painting, European, painting executed on cave Cellini, Benvenuto (1500-71), Italian sculptor, gold-
walls and roofs during the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) smith, metalworker, and writer. He was the most re-
period. Almost all the known cave paintings are in south- nowned goldsmith of his day and he also holds a dis-
western France and northern Spain. The paintings are often tinguished place among * Mannerist sculptors, but his fame
deep in the cave systems, away from the areas used as depends less on the quality of his artistic work than on his
dwellings, and may have magical or religious significance, autobiography (first published 1728), a work of gusto in
one theory being that the animals painted there (humans which he boasts of his feats in art, love, and war. Early in
rarely appear) were depicted in connection with hunting his career he worked in Rome, then from 1540 to 1545 he
rites.The best-known cave paintings are at Altamira was in France in the service of King Francis I, for whom
in Spain (discovered 1879) and at Lascaux in France he made a famous gold salt-cellar, the most important
(discovered 1940), dating from about 12,000 bc to 15,000 piece of goldsmith's work to survive from the Italian
BC. They are extremely vivid, conveying the beauty and Renaissance. The remainder of Cellini's career was spent
energy of animals with great force and economy, in a in Florence, where he turned to large-scale sculpture,
narrow range of earthy colours. The paints used were producing in his bronze Perseus (Loggia dei Lanzi, 1545-
ochres and manganese oxides, charcoal and iron carbonate, 54) one of the most famous sights of the city.
as well as soot. The powdered colours were mixed with fat
or other binding mediums and then applied to the walls. cello (violoncello), historically the bass of the * violin
family. Its vast range — in solo works the note C, for
Cecchetti, Enrico (1850- 1928), Italian dancer and example, may be sounded in five different octaves and —
teacher. Famous as a teacher, he worked in St Petersburg its huge expressive powers render the cello the great solo
with Diaghilev, and then independently. He developed a instrument of the family after the violin itself A little over
systematic method of teaching ballet technique em- twice the size of the violin, its great depth of body is
phasizing the use of the shoulders and a lyrical, flowing nearly four times that of a violin, bringing the internal
quality, that is still taught today. air-resonance frequency down to nearly a twelfth lower,
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CELTIC ART 84
century ad) —
endured for nearly a millennium and a
half despite technical innovations and local and regional
variants. The *Maya, for instance, used cemented corbel-
vaults to enclose fairly large spaces, and admired a form
that was almost a cuboid, topped by lofty superstructures;
;
at Tula, the *Toltec built cloister-like colonnaded court- allows for concentration on a single page or for several
yards that seem to have been conceived to create internal pages to be viewed at the same time. Two main types of
volume rather than as external masses, which were the script were used: one was the hieroglyphic script (using
priority of most Mesoamerican architects. Every temple highly stylized symbols which are pictorial in origin) of
contained a ball-court, where a symbolic ball game was the lowland Maya, which also profusely adorns monuments
played, though its exact interpretation is unknown. Though and buildings from the Classic Period (ad c.300-900); the
admired by Renaissance Spaniards, Mesoamerican ar- other is the iconographic script (a simpler form of picture
chitecture exerted little subsequent influence until the 20th writing) shared by the Aztecs and such predecessors of
century. theirs as the Mixtecs of southern Mexico. It is found on
monuments and rock carvings, which may date back to
Central American and Mexican cUt. The term is used 1000 BC or earlier. The core of the Maya books is a
here to cover what scholars call Mesoamerican art of calendrical cycle known as the Count of the Katuns, which
before the Spanish invasion. In Central America few sites covers thirteen lots of twenty Maya years and ingeniously
combines record with forecast, history with prophecy.
have yielded objects of artistic value, apart from the stone
Present in the hieroglyphic books, this cycle also lies at
vases of Ulua and 'Geutar' stone sculptures of Costa Rica
(c.gth to iith centuries), the guardian-spirit statues from
the heart of the alphabetic books written by the Maya of
around Lake Nicaragua (of uncertain date), the rich Yucatan. These were composed in their language up to
this century and are known as the Books of Chilam Balam.
funerary goods of Sitio Conte (ad f. 500 1000), and the
Panamanian goldwork of the 14th and 15th centuries. The iconographic books, of which a far larger sample
survives, fall into two categories: annals and so-called
Little survives from the earliest known Mesoamerican
'ritual' texts. The annals relate the origins and rise to
civilizations, which may have flourished as long ago as the
15th century BC. There were builders of large, flat-topped
prominence of such cities as Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital
(Boturini Codex), and Tilantongo, the headquarters of the
mounds at Ocos. At Xochipala, sculptors in clay perhaps
produced the figurines found at that site, noteworthy for 1 th-century Mixtec hero Eight-Deer. The ritual books
1
Uighur), and the Republic of Mongolia. Apart from the with little success. Two early plays. Life in Algiers and The
Persian-speaking Tajiks of Turkestan, most people speak Siege of Numancia, and the later Eight Comedies and Eight
Interludes (161 5), earned him some recognition as a dram-
the same Turco-Mongol languages. Historically, the area
was a crossroads between West Asian and Chinese civil- atist.The relative failure of his pastoral romance Galatea
izations. From the 6th century onwards, when the Silk (1585) was followed by the acclaim of his parody of the
Road had been established. Central Asian music was chivalric romance in The Adventures of Don Quixote (1605-
imported by the Chinese, especially during the Tang 15). In his works he explores questions concerning the
dynasty (618-907). After the Arab invasions and the relationship between reality and illusion in a brilliant
Islamization of Turkestan in the 8th century, there was variety of literary modes that has made him one of the
two-way traffic in music between West and Central Asia. acknowledged masters of world literature. He also wrote
Urban classical styles reached their peak in Samarkand Exemplary Novels (161 3), a collection of twelve short stories
and Herat under the Timurids (c. 1350- 1500), and a which exhibit the characteristic Cervantine duality of
Persian-Turkic style evolved under the influence of court idealism and realism.
poet-musicians. During the 19th century the Russians
colonized and settled in Central Asia, establishing Euro- Cesaire, Ainie (-Fernand) (1913- ), French poet
pean genres such as opera and compositions based on local and dramatist. Born in the Caribbean colony of Martin-
themes. Today, traditional Central Asian music is taught ique, which he later represented in the French National
in conservatories in Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Alma-Ata Assembly, he initiated (with *Senghor) the black cultural
(Kazakhstan), and elsewhere, together with European self-awareness nigritude movement in the 1930s. The move-
'classical' music, and new works are composed in all genres ment opposed the French policy of assimilation, with its
for orchestral and chamber ensembles as well as for soloists. inherent assumption of European superiority. His col-
Asian instruments, themes, and musical ideas are also lection of poems Cahier d'un retour au pays natal (1939) is a
incorporated into compositions for symphony orchestras. revolutionary landmark in modern black writing, in-
In the past, the nomadic Kazakh, Kirghiz, and Mongols fluenced partly by *Surrealism. His plays, which are
had fewer musical styles and instruments than the sed- polemical and rich in African imagery, include Une saison
entary peoples, especially the Islamized Turkestani agri- au Congo (1967).
87 CHALK
Cezanne, Paul (1839- 1906), French painter, with Gau- sources of imagery: memories of the Jewish life and folklore
guin and van Gogh the greatest of the *Post-Impressionists of his early life in Russia; and the Bible. Some of his odd
and a key figure in the development of 20th-century spatialeffects derive from *Cubism and his prismatic
art. In the 1860s and 1870s he was associated with the colour combinations relate him to *Orphism, but he
* Impressionists, but he never identified himself with them created a highly distinctive style, remarkable for its sense
or adopted their aims and techniques. Working with his of fairy-tale fantasy. This caused the *Surrealists to claim
friend and mentor *Pissarro, he devoted himself to painting him as a precursor of their movement, but Chagall said
landscapes out-of-doors, a technique still considered that however fantastic his pictures seemed he painted only
radical. Rather than trying to capture fleeting impressions direct reminiscences of his early years.
of light, he was interested in the underlying structure of
nature, and his aims are summarized in two of his sayings: Chaliapin, Fyodov (Ivanovich) (1873 1938), Russian
that it was his ambition 'to do Poussin again after nature' bass singer. Leaving the Imperial Opera, St Petersburg in
and that he wanted to make of Impressionism 'something 1896, Chaliapin joined a Moscow company, where his
solid and enduring like the art of the museums'. After the superb vocal and dramatic abilities matured. Renowned
death of his wealthy father in 1886 Cezanne lived mainly as Ivan in Rimsky-Korsakov's Maid of Pskov and especially
at the family estate at Aix-en-Provence, and his financial as Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov, he made his international
security enabled him to survive the indifference to his debut at Milan in 1901. His considerable versatility
work that lasted until the last decade of his fife. After a stretched from baritone to bass roles (see *voice) in Italian,
work in Paris in 1895, he greatly
successful exhibition of his Russian, and French opera.
excited the attention of young artists and by the time of
his death was a much-revered figure. His paintings are chalk, drawing material made from various soft stones or
principally devoted to certain favourite themes — *still life, earths. There are three main types: black chalk (made
portraits of his wife, and above all the landscape of from stones such as carbonaceous shale); red chalk, also
Provence, particularly the Mont Ste-Victoire. In them he called sanguine (made from red ochre or other red earths);
combined the grandeur of the French classical tradition and white chalk (made from various limestones). Unlike
with novel representational methods, suggesting form and *crayons or *pastels, which are manufactured products,
space not through traditional perspective but through chalk needs only to be cut to a suitable size and shape to
extraordinarily subtle modulations of patches of colour. be usable. Chalk drawings are known from prehistoric
His late landscapes, which express simultaneously depth times, but the medium really came into its own in the late
and flat design, were the starting-point for the *Cubist 15th century, notably in the hands of Leonardo da Vinci,
experiments of Braque and Picasso, which came only a who favoured it for drawing.
few years later, and he has had a great influence on other
developments in 20th-century art.
Chagall's White Crucifixion (1938) is not a conventional
Chabrier, (Alexis-) Emmanuel (1841-94), French religious pamtmg but a commentary on contemporary
events. The crucifixion is used as a symbol for the
composer and pianist. Despite early proof of a talent for
suffering of Jews, who at that time were being persecuted
music, Chabrier was side-tracked into the study and by the Nazis. On the left houses are attacked by soldiers
practice of law and did not become a full-time musician and on the right a synagogue is m
flames; elsewhere
until the end of 1880. Though *Wagner's music fired his figures flee or lament. (Art Institute, Chicago)
imagination and ambitions (as in the opera Gwendoline,
1885) Chabrier retained a lighter touch; the opera comique
Le roi malgre lui (1887), the orchestral rhapsody Espana
(1883), and Joyeuse marche (1888) have a sparkle and
brilliance that are wholly French.
chamber music, a term that originally implied per- art of change-ringing is an art of timing and, if the changes
formance in the private salons of the nobility by a small are very long, can also be something of an athletic feat.
group of instrumentalists or singers, but nowadays applies
to music for very small combinations of instrumentalists, chanson (French, 'song'), a musical term mainly used to
regardless of where they are performing. Chamber music describe the *polyphonic settings of a particular type of
implies at least two instruments. The most honoured French verse written during the 14th to i6th centuries.
medium is that of the string quartet (two violins, viola, The chanson was an ancestor of the *madrigal, though
and cello). Other combinations include the string trio simpler in style and with greater emphasis placed upon
(violin, viola, and cello) and string quintet (usually two the upper voice. Later examples, from the end of the 15th
violins, two violas, and cello), together with similar com- century, were no longer dependent on the original poetic
binations that involve an instrument other than strings, form for their structure. The term is also used to describe
such as the piano trio (piano, violin, and cello), the piano almost any kind of verse-repeating solo song of the 1 7th
quintet (piano, two violins, viola, and cello), and so on. to 20th centuries.
Septets, octets and nonets tend to mix woodwind and
strings, though Mendelssohn's Octet (1825) is a double chanson de geste (French, 'song of deeds'), narrative
string quartet. The intimate nature of all these com- poem recounting legendary heroic exploits of the time of
binations, and that of the string quartet in particular, is Charlemagne (742-814). The poems (of which about 100
generally considered to be one of the greatest musical survive) date from the iith to the 14th centuries, and
challenges a composer can face. The terms 'chamber were sung to short musical phrases, probably involving
orchestra' and 'chamber choir' imply groups of not more repetition, by trouveres (see *minstrels). Themes common
than about thirty performers. Chamber concerts began in to them include on feudal society. Christian
reflections
181 3, when the Miiller brothers gave the first public ethics, the status of women, and the heroism of the
performance of a string quartet. Crusaders against the 'Muslim' enemy. The most famous,
La Chanson de Roland (early 12th century), recounts the
Chambers, Sir William (1723-96), British architect. death of Roland, one of Charlemagne's knights, with
He was born Sweden, the son of a Scottish merchant,
in remarkable grandeur and pathos. The chansons de geste were
travelled in India and China for the Swedish East India predecessors of the verse romances written by * Chretien
Company during the 740s, then trained as an architect
1
de Troyes. They strongly influenced Spanish heroic poetry
in Paris and Rome, before settling in England in 1755. as well as Italian and German Renaissance epics.
He was instrumental in the foundation of the Royal
Academy. Although less imaginative than that of Robert Chantrey, Sir Francis (1781-1841), British sculptor.
*Adam, his only serious rival, Chambers's work is always He succeeded *Nollekens as the most successful sculptor
dignified and polished. Throughout his life he remained of portrait busts in England, and his enormous workshop
in touch with French ideas; and he successfully combined also executed statues and church monuments. Once he
French elegance and finesse with the English tradition of had become famous he did little of the actual marble
sober grandeur. His most famous work is Somerset House cutting himself, leaving this to assistants. He became
in London, a huge complex of government offices begun extremely wealthy, and left the bulk of his fortune to the
in 1776 and finished after Chambers's death. Royal Academy for the purchase of works of art.
Champaigne, Philippe de (1602-74), Flemish-born Chapel Royal, the musicians and clergy employed by the
painter who becamea French citizen in 1629. He trained English monarch for religious services and, by extension,
as a landscape painter and did many fine religious works, whatever building these services take place in. Records of
but his greatest fame is as a portrait painter. His early the Chapel Royal go back as far as the first year (1135)
work shows influence from the Baroque style of *Rubens, of King Stephen's reign. The altos, tenors, and basses are
but his style became more sober and classical in line with known as Gentlemen of the Chapel Royal, and the boys
French artistic trends of the middle of the i 7th century. as Children of the Chapel Royal. They are nowadays
He became involved with thejansenists (a Roman Catholic based at St James's Palace, London.
sect) in the early 1640s.His most famous work was painted
to commemorate daughter's miraculous recovery from
his Chaplin, Sir Charles Spencer ('Charlie') (1889- 1977).
paralysis {Ex-Voto de 1662). His nephew Jean-Baptiste de British actor-comedian and film writer, producer, and
Champaigne (i 631 -81) was also a portrait and religious director, one of the most notable comedians of all time
painter. and a great *mime artist. The son of two music-hall
performers, he himself appeared on the stage before he
change-ringing, a way of ringing church * bells peculiar was eight. In the thirty-five *slapstick one-reel films he
to Britain. A bell have been 'chimed' when the
is said to made for Mack *Sennett and the Keystone Company
bell itself remains while the clapper inside it moves.
still during 19 14 he began to establish the character of the
The bell is 'rung' when it is swung round in a circle by splay-footed tramp, with bowler, baggy trousers, and cane,
pulling on a rope. A set of church bells is called a 'ring'. which became universally popular. His first full-length
The number will vary, twelve being the usual maximum. film, The Kid (1920), revealed his pathos and sympathy
The different orders of ringing are called 'changes'. With for the underdog. The Gold Rush (1925), The Circus (1928),
a ring of five bells, 20 changes are possible. With twelve
1 and City Lights (1931) were enormously successful; but
bells the number of changes rises to nearly 480 million. from then on, unhappy with talking pictures, he made
The patterns used in ringing the changes are known by films less frequently. Modern Times (1936) had no dialogue,
traditional names, such as 'Grandsire Triple', 'Oxford and The Great Dictator (1940), which satirized Hitler and
Treble Bob', and so on. The bell itself is linked to a large marked the tramp's last appearance, was his first film with
wheel, around which the bell-rope runs in a groove. The full sound. Thereafter his popularity decUned and he made
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89 CHAUCER
*fixative is used, so it has been much favoured for in 1777, and controversy about their authenticity raged
preparatory work, for example for *cartoons or for out- for decades, while Chatterton's own short, tragic life
lining a design that would be gone over with a more exercised a powerful effect on the * Romantic imagination.
permanent medium. It has also been used for finished
drawings, however, some artists finding its broad, soft- Chaucer, Geoffrey (c. 1343- 1400), English poet. Born
edged effects particularly suitable to their style. in London, he held a number of positions at court and
frequently travelled abroad on diplomatic missions; during
Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon (1699- 1779), French a journey to Italy in 1372-3 he may have met Boccaccio
painter of *still life and *genre, in which fields he was one and Petrarch. His writings develop from an early period
of the greatest masters of all time. He worked during the of French influence (culminating in the Book of the Duchess,
heyday of the elegant, lighthearted *Rococo style, but his an allegorical lament, c. 1370), through his middle period
own paintings are completely different in spirit, having a of both French and Italian influences, which includes the
feeling of deep seriousness in spite of the modest subjects dream poems House of Fame (f. 1374-85), Parliment of Fowls
he depicted. His still-life pictures usually represent objects and Troilus and Cressida (f. 1385), one of the great poems
from the everyday life of the middle classes to which he on love in the English language, to the last period during
belonged and are painted with unerring simplicity and which he produced most of his masterpiece, the Canterbury
directness. His genre scenes are also taken from domestic Tales (begun 1387). This consists of a series of twenty-four
life and usually contain only one or two figures, presented linked tales told by a group of superbly characterized
without sentimentality. Much of the beauty of his work pilgrims (ranging from Knight to Plowman, all introduced
lies in his distinctive technique, subtle textural effects being in the Prologue), who meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark,
captured by the use of richly applied, grainy paint. Late London, before journeying to the shrine of St Thomas a
in life, when his sight was failing, he gave up painting in Becket at Canterbury. In his heroic *couplets, he es-
oils and turned to pastels, producing some penetrating tablished the iambic * pentameter as the standard English
portraits. Chardin's work was popular during his lifetime metre. Chaucer strongly influenced the development of
and he is now one of the most revered artists of the i8th * Middle English, and his work is regarded by many as
Chavin art *South American Indian art. he had learned in his apprenticeship. In the last fifteen
years of the 19th century he brought the Russian short
Cheever, John (1912-82), US short-story writer and story to the high point attained earlier by the novel; among
novelist. His New Yorker stories satirize the affluent in- the supreme achievements is 'The Lady with the Little
habitants of New York's Upper East Side and New Dog' (1899). Simultaneously, Chekhov was experimenting
England suburbia. Five collections were published from with dramatic pieces, mainly short. In the four full-length
1943 onwards, and the Collected Short Stories appeared in mature plays. The Seagull (1896), Uncle Vanya (final version,
1982. His earlier novels, The Wapshot Chronicle (1957), The 1897), Three Sisters (1901), and The Cherry Orchard (1904),
Wapshot Scandal (1964), and Bullet Park (1969), depict the as staged by * Stanislavsky at the Moscow Arts Theatre.
comically raffish lives and eventual decline of a wealthy Chekhov became Russia's greatest dramatist. His plays,
Massachusetts family during the first half of the 20th which centre on frustrated desires and hopes, delicately
century. The prison tale Falconer 1977) is a story of human
( avoid melodrama, using understatement, oblique refer-
redemption, while Oh What A Paradise It Seems (1982) is a ence, and misunderstanding to achieve dramatic tension.
novella about an ageing man and his subsequent re- Chekhov's view of human nature and human relationships
juvenation. is elegiac; as in the mature short stories, there are no
is another material that is associated above all with rificial ceremonies honouring ancestors. Many different
China, being used for ritual objects, ceremonial weapons, types have been classified, including the ding (a tripod),
jewellery, and small sculptures. In architecture, wood is the pan (a basin), and the guang (an oval-shaped vessel
the most important material. Houses are often of only one with a lid). The method of casting involved ceramic
storey and spread over large areas, with gardens and courts piece-moulds, as opposed to the *cire-perdue process used
between the various wings, though palaces, temples, and in the West. There was considerable variation in the
pagodas are higher. Roofs do not cover only the types of composition of the metal, with often a high proportion of
buildings with which they are associated in the West; they lead in the alloy. This variability has contributed to the
are also put over gateways, bridges, walls, and monuments. rich variety of patina (a surface discoloration occurring
Several roofs are often piled one on top of the other and naturally with time or artificially induced) for which
the edges bent up in graceful curves, forming one of the Chinese bronzes are renowned; their multi-coloured,
most distinctive features of Chinese architecture. After a mottled, and cloudy effects are unparalleled elsewhere. It
fairly obscure prehistoric period, the evolution of Chinese is not only their beauty for which these bronzes are so
art can be divided into five long periods, for which, highly regarded; to the Chinese they are also of great
however, there are no very distinct boundary lines. Definite significance because their inscriptions are unique docu-
records date back to the second part of the Shang dynasty ments of their history. Decoration is often extremely
(171 -1066 Bc), the most important surviving works from
1
elaborate and dense and can prove difficult for scholars to
93 CHINESE CERAMICS
elucidate. Frequent motifs are a taotie (a demon or ogre ceramics of the period. Tang
ceramics are noted for the
mask), a dragon, birds, oxen, sheep, and goats, and a dynamic beauty of their shape and for the brightly
background of 'thunder' or styHzed cloud pattern. Apart coloured glazes used in funerary wares. However, the most
from ritual vessels, mirrors are perhaps the field in which important feature of Tang ceramics was the perfection of
Chinese metalwork is richest. One side was polished to the fine pottery known in the West as porcelain in the 7th
reflect an image of the face and the other was decorated or 8th century. The Song dynasty (960-1279) was the
with geometrical, animal, or human-like ornamentation, golden age of Chinese ceramics, with famous kilns in both
sometimes of magical significance. Superb examples were northern and southern China. The simple elegance of form
made from the Han (206 bc-ad 220) to the Ming dynasty and colour in Song porcelains and stoneware contrasts
(1368- 644). Bronze has also been used for religious
1 with the more ornate decorations of the Tang. Jingdezhen,
statues, incense-burners, and other Buddhist cult objects. in south-eastern China, became the most important ce-
ramic centre from the Yuan dynasty 1 279 368) onwards.
( 1
Chinese ceramics, the *pottery and *porcelain of Underglaze cobalt painting started to be used at this time
China. China has the greatest tradition of pottery-making on the porcelain for which this area became famous. The
in the world. The country's acknowledged pre-eminence cobalt blue had already been used on earthenware in
stems not only from the sheer beauty and technical Persia and Mesopotamia and was imported into China by
accomplishment of its products, but also from the enormous Muslim traders, thus acquiring the name 'Mohammedan
influence they have had in both Asia and the West. The blue'. The Chinese improved control of the blue pigment
use of the word 'china' as a general term for any porcelain so that it could be u.sed for detailed brushwork. During
or porcelain-like products shows how closely the country the Ming dynasty (1368- 1644), this 'blue and white' ware
is identified with ceramics. Pottery has been made in reached an unsurpassed level, particularly in the 15th
China from as early as the 3rd millennium bc. Some early century. Overglaze enamel colours were introduced in the
examples are of outstanding quality, with splendid painted 1 6th century, first in combination with underglaze blue
decoration, but it is only from the Han dynasty (206 bc- [doucai or 'contending colours') and later on their own.
ad 220) that a continuous tradition begins, low-fired, During the Qing dynasty 1644- 911) 'famille verte'
(
1
lead-glazed *earthenware being made in large quantities enamels became popular in the reign of Emperor Kangxi
for use in tombs. As well as vessels, tomb models were (1662-1722) and *'famille rose' in the reign of Emperor
made, giving a picture of life at the time, with granaries, Yongzheng (1723-35). The pink used in 'famille rose'
houses, fish ponds, animals, and games reproduced in clay. enamels was derived from colloidal or opaque gold and
High-fired wares were also made, developing into the Yue was probably introduced from the West by Jesuit monks
wares of the Six Dynasties (251-589) and Tang (618-907) at court. The ceramic complex at Jingdezhen was managed
periods. These were *stoneware, fired to a temperature of by able directors during the i8th century and enjoyed
about i,200°C and covered in a green *celadon-type court patronage, notably that of the Emperor Qianlong
*glaze, the result of a small amount of iron oxide in the (1736-95), a great art patron and collector. Technical
glaze and a reducing atmosphere during firing. Foreign quality was extremely high and there were innovations in
motifs, such as the lotus (from Buddhist imagery) and monochrome glazes such as the 'sang de boeuf red, 'tea
lion masks (from Sassanian metalwork) often appear on dust' green, and 'robin's egg' blue. Another important kiln
site was in Dehua, Fujian province. This produced the fine
Under the Mmg dynasty porcelain with blue-and-white white porcelain, left unpainted with a milky glaze, that
under-glaze decoration, such as this bowl, became a came to be known as 'blanc de Chine' in the West and
predominant part of Chinese ceramic production. Much was very popular in Europe in the 1 7th and i8th centuries.
of such porcelain was made for export, and the largest
Chinese porcelain was such a rarity in the West before the
surviving collections are m Iran, Turkey, and Indonesia.
17th century that pieces were mounted in gold, but
The rather intricate decoration was not according to
Chinese taste, and one 14th-century Chinese writer thereafter an enormous export trade grew up. Because of
termed blue-and-white wares 'very vulgar'. its high kaolin (a very fine white clay) content 'blanc de
CHINESE DANCE 94
cast in moulds, creating some of the most beautiful of all The flow of influences between East and West was often
porcelain figures. Chinese ceramics from later than the circular, a prime embodiment of this in the decorative arts
1 8th century have generally been regarded as (at best) being the snuff bottle. Snuff was introduced to China by
slick derivatives of earlier types. Certainly they cannot the Portuguese in the 7th century and soon became highly
i
compete with past glories, but imperial wares of the 19th popular. The
Oriental method of taking it was more
and early 20th century have recently begun to enjoy refined than that prevailing in Europe, a spoon rather
increased favour. than the fingers being used to extract the powder from its
container. In the West snuff was generally kept in boxes,
Chinese dance *East Asian dance. but the Chinese favoured miniature bottles, which were
made in a great variety of materials and often exquisitely
Chinese decorative arts. The Chinese have excelled decorated. Porcelain and glass (first made in China as
in many fields of the decorative arts, but certain of them early as the Eastern Zhou
dynasty, 770-256 Bc) were the
are associated with China above any other country. China most common any substance that
materials, but virtually
— —
was the first and for long the only country in the world could be made into an airtight container and suitably
to produce *silk. Production began there perhaps as early embellished (including a variety of stones) was used by
as 3000 BC and by the Han dynasty (206 bc-ad 220) the ingenious Chinese craftsmen for snuff boxes. They were
material was being exported to Greece and Rome along brought back to Europe in great numbers, mainly to be
the Silk Road across Central Asia. The kesi or 'cut silk' used as ornaments rather than as snuff containers, and
technique of tapestry weaving was introduced in the Tang have continued to be an extremely popular area for
dynasty (618-907) and developed in the Song dynasty collectors of Chinese decorative arts. Many other types of
(960-1279). It was applied to a variety of decorative objects bear witness to the Chinese genius for exquisitely
patterns, featuring floral, bird, and animal subjects. Em- delicate carving on a small scale, notably items for the
broidery was also a field in which the Chinese showed scholar's desk such as figures of popular gods and immor-
great skill. The earliest examples date from the Han tals. Ivory, wood, bamboo, and rhinoceros horn are among
dynasty, and some of the finest are from the Ming dynasty the materials with which Chinese carvers have worked.
(1368- 1 644), when a favourite theme was birds, usually
the phoenix or mandarin duck, amid highly stylized cloud Chinese drama. Traditional Chinese drama, a mixture
and landscape forms. Embroidery sometimes used metal of music, dancing, mime, recitation, and acrobatics, goes
threads. Other decorative arts, rather than being native back many code of symbolic gestures
centuries. It has a
to China, were introduced from the West, for example and intonations that have been refined to
an extreme of
*cloisonne enamels, which began to be made in China in stylization. Early recorded performances took place in the
the Yuan dynasty (1279 1368). Painted 'Canton' enamels Song dynasty (960-1279) capital, Kaifeng. A northern or
were particularly popular in the Qing dynasty (1644- mixed episodic narrative drama {zaju) flourished during
the Yuan dynasty (1279- 1368): its leading writers were
*Guan Hanqing and Wang Shifu, author of The Western
Chamber. Ming (1368- 1644) drama was based on the
Textiles are among the glories of Chinese decorative
southern styles of the Suzhou area and its greatest ex-
art.This is a detail of an emperor's marriage robe, dating
from the 19th century. It shows the imperial dragon ponents were *Tang Xianzu and Kong Shangren (1648-
(representing good fortune). Various other symbolic 17 18), whose The Peach Blossom Fan sets a love story
images include the axe, which indicates the emperor's between a poet and a courtesan during the collapse of the
power to punish. (Victoria and Albert Museum, London) Ming dynasty. By the late i8th century Beijing opera,
based on traditional stories or historical events rather than
original plots, was beginning to supplant these earlier
styles. Western-style spoken drama came to China with
the 'new culture' that followed the 1919 May Fourth
Movement directed towards the emancipation of the
individual,and the rebuilding of a modern national society
and and attracted a certain amount of interest
culture,
among educated people. Tian Han (1898 1968) and *Cao
Yu were among the pioneer playwrights. *Lao She
straddled the divide between pre- and post- 1949 China
and although better known as a novelist and short-story
writer, wrote highly successful plays, including Teahouse
and Dragon Beard Ditch.
by *Pu Songling. A centuries-old popular tradition of Han emperor Wudi (156-87 bc) sought to control this
and by the
story-telHng on street corners, in the teahouses, power by founding a Bureau of Music, which established
river bank just survives today. Fiction, drawing on this the yayue or court ritual music of imperial China. It also
tradition, and written in a language much closer to the maintained the correct *pitch-standards for the 12 lii,
spoken vernacular of its day, was collected during the pitches of legendary origin derived from the fundamental
Ming dynasty, and it was during this period that the great huangzhong and already by the 3rd century bc organized
*Chinese novels such as *Water Margin, with its tales of to produce the Pythagorean *scale, from which the pen-
the daring deeds of an outlaw band, the magical satire tatonic and heptatonic scales characteristic of Chinese
* Monkey, and * Romance of the Three Kingdoms emerged. It music were extracted for practical application. In the
was during the succeeding Qing dynasty 1644- 911) ( 1
early 7th century ad the Sui emperor Wendi (581-
that this fictional tradition saw its most sophisticated 604) established seven orchestras (later nine under Tang
achievements, with * Dream of the Red Chamber and The emperors) specializing in different Chinese and various
Scholars.In the 20th century Chinese writers felt that their foreign musical styles (such as those from Korea, India,
inherited literary tradition had stagnated and needed and other neighbouring cultures): these were the source
radical changes (see *Chinese literature (modern)). of spectacular ceremonial entertainment iyanyue). The Song
CHINESE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 96
period (960 1279) ^^^ ^^^ collection of many ancient Chinese painting. Chinese painting is very different in
Chinese song-texts and the development ofgongche notation, spirit from that of the West, being primarily an expression
which used symbols to indicate pitch and symbols for of a philo.sophical attitude rather than a form of decoration
rhythm. This replaced an earlier 6th-century *tablature or illustration. It was practised mainly by the intellectual
notation, the jianzi pu. Dramatic genres were developed elite, who found painting elevating to the spirit and
widely in the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1911), cleansing to the mind. Subjects tend to be calm and
notably the gaoqiang and kunqu operas, the former based reflective rather than dramatic, and the painter brought
on folk-song, the latter a synthesis of literary drama and to his art a deep knowledge not only of the work of earlier
refined musical composition. Both exploited the close painters but also of philosophy and poetry. Collectors and
correlation between the tonal Chinese language and music admirers (as well as the artists themselves) sometimes
to determine melodic shapes and heighten drama. The added their own poems or comments to the painting or
Ming dynasty is also important for the theoretical works its mount, and these often increased its interest to the
of Prince Zhu Zaiyu, who in the i6th century organized connoisseur. Although there were great individualists and
the twelve lii into an equal-tempered scale some 100 years eccentrics such as *Muqi and *Zhu Da, originality counted
before this was done in the West. In the 19th century same types of subject being treated over and
for little, the
Beijing opera was consolidated. This combined speech, over again. Rather, painters were aware of their position
song, instrumental music, dancing, and acrobatics to enact as part of a great tradition and often worked in the style
myths and historical tales in a heavily stylized ritual where of artists from an earlier generation as a sign of respect.
gesture and symbols were imbued with great significance. Recognizing such stylistic allusions was an essential part
Actors, all male until 1910, were traditionally divided into of the enjoyment of the picture. Individuality was greatly
four types: sheng, male roles; dan, female; jing, warriors or valued, however, in the handling of paint. The artist
statesmen; and chou, the jester. However, many of the above painted with the same type of brush used by the *cal-
traditions have been discarded by modern revolutionary ligrapher, and the brushwork of a master painter was as
China, which has witnessed an increasing Westernization fluent and personal as handwriting. Years of disciplined
of musical culture. practice were required to obtain complete mastery of the
brush, for there could be no overpainting or erasure.
Although murals have played a part in Chinese art,
Chinese musical instruments. Many Chinese in-
painting was most characteristically a private art, pictures
struments are of great antiquity. The large number of
being contemplated by the connoisseur in his home rather
ceremonial gongs, bells, and stone and wooden percussion
than publicly displayed. They were fragile objects on paper
instruments, and also the zheng and guqin (both *zithers;
or silk, and were reverently handled; when not being
see *koto), and sheng (a type of *mouth-organ) date back
viewed they were stored in special cases, often of beautiful
3,000 years. Amongst stringed instruments, the sanxian (a
workmanship. Paintings took various forms: notably the
lute, see *shamisen), yueqin, and jinghu (bowed lute) are
screen (one-panel or folding); the hanging scroll; the
important in operatic genres, while the *pipa, *yangqin
hand-scroll, which was gradually unrolled from right to
(lutes), and erhu (bowed lute) are used in virtuoso solos
left; the album leaf, a single picture mounted on sheets of
and ensembles. The most refined instrumental music is the
stiff paper or bound between brocade covers; and the fan.
solo repertory of the guqin, played by scholars and literati;
The painter worked sitting on a low stool or on the floor
the pieces, some of which are hundreds of years old, are
with his paper or silk laid on a table. Brushes were tipped
*programmatic in content, and exploit a wealth of different
with the hair of deer, goat, or wolf, and ink was made of
sonorities and tonal effects, encoded in an elaborate
soot mixed with resin, dried and moulded into sticks. It
tablature notation. After a period of ideological supression
was crushed on an ink-stone and mixed with water, the
this music, though never widely popular, is once more to
tone of the ink depending on the amount of water used.
be heard in China.
By skilfully manipulating the tip of the brush the painter
could produce a fine or thick line and the ink could also
Chinese novel. Novels appeared in the Ming dynasty be spread out in a wash. Many pictures were virtually
(1368- 644) and many were written in a style close to the
1 monochromatic and can be regarded as drawings as much
vernacular rather than the classical Chinese favoured by as paintings, but the artist also had vegetable and mineral
the scholar elite. The best-known novels of imperial China colours at his disposal. Although fragmentary survivals
are *Dream of the Red Chamber, * Monkey, *Romance of the and literary records show that the beginnings of Chinese
Three Kingdoms, * Water Margin, and The Golden Lotus, a painting go back much earlier, it is only from about the
16th-century chronicle of the conflicts in the life of a 5th century ad that a continuous history can be traced.
merchant's family with unusually frank sexual detail. *Gu Kaizhi is the first painter about whom anything is
Others include The Scholars by Wu
Jingzi (1701-54), a known but the earliest large body of painting to survive
satire on the corruption and shallowness behind the facade comes from a complex of Buddhist cave-shrines at Dun-
of official probity, and The Travels of Lao Can written by huang. This is at the Chinese end of the Silk Road,
Liu E in 1904-7 just before the downfall of the Qing accounting for the foreign influence from Central Asia.
dynasty (1644- 191 1). Modern novelists emerging from the Magnificent paradise scenes depict Buddhas and Bod-
May Fourth Movement included *Lao She and Mao Dun, hisattvas amongst brightly coloured landscapes (see
who chronicled urban social conflict, and Ba Jin, author
of the trilogy Family, Spring, and Autumn. Post- 1949 novels
were constrained by Socialist Realism, but reflect the
Chinese bronzes show superb technical skill and great
*Buddhist art). Figure painting continued to be important Fan Chengda and *Su Dongpo. After the Mongol sup-
during the Tang dynasty (618-907), when scenes of court pression of Chinese culture during the Yuan dynasty
life and historical subjects were much favoured. There was (1279- 1 368), classical Chinese poetry saw little new de-
also a good deal of Buddhist wall painting, but this has velopment. Ming (1368- 1 644) and Qing 1644- 191 1)
(
almost all disappeared, and the Tang period is now poets like Tang Yin ( 1 470- 1523) and Yuan Mei (171 6-97)
regarded as being most important for the rise of landscape lacked the originality and freshness of their predecessors.
painting, a form of art in which China has an unrivalled Modern poetry began after the May Fourth Movement
tradition. The Song dynasty (960-1279) saw the cul- of 1 919 and sought to free Chinese culture from traditional
mination of landscape painting, and under enlightened restraints; it was heavily influenced by Western styles, but
court patronage the imperial academy of painting attained not always successfully. Hu Shi took an interest in *Ima-
equal status with the literary academy. Most remarkable gism (which in turn had been influenced by early Chinese
of imperial patrons was the Emperor Huizong (1082- poetry) and Quo Moruo read much Walt *Whitman.
1135), who had a superb collection of pictures, sponsored Wen Yiduo's (1899- 1946) Red Candle is accessible to
the compilation of a series of artists' biographies, and was Western readers. Poetry since 1949 has not been par-
himself a painter and calligrapher of considerable stature. ticularly distinguished, although Mao Zedong and other
He painted various subjects, but is most renowned for leaders wrote verse following the example of imperial
pictures of birds and flowers. Still life became particularly officials. It is popular, heartfelt, and dramatic, but less
popular at this time, with ink pictures of bamboo being likely to last than the work of Bei Dao, Gu Cheng, and
so favoured that they developed into a recognized branch other young poets of the 1980s.
of painting of their own. Bamboo assumed such great
significance because its pliant but resilient trunk sym-
chinoiserie, the imitation or evocation of Chinese styles
bolized the perfect gentleman, the superior man who in Western art and architecture. The term is applied
adapted himself with the times but remained unchanging particularly to art of the i8th century, when pseudo-
in his inner moral character. In 1260 the Mongols overran
Chinese designs in a whimsical or fantastic vein accorded
China and ruled until 1368. Many scholars, painters, and well with the prevailing lighthearted *Rococo style. By
bureaucrats refused to serve under the foreigners, preferring the middle of the i8th century the enthusiasm for things
to escape into the countryside, and the court ceased to be
Chinese affected virtually all the decorative arts, and there
the hub of art. Imperial patronage was reintroduced in
was also a vogue for Chinese-style buildings in garden
1368 under the Ming dynasty (1368- 1644), but the acad- architecture, one of the most famous examples being Sir
emy never regained its former importance. Professional William *Chambers's pagoda in Kew Gardens (1763).
painters of the Zhe school showed great technical skill, but
The taste for chinoiserie faded during the dominance of
these were overtaken in importance by the scholar-amateur
the *Neoclassical style in the second half of the century,
painters of theWu school based in Suzhou, of which *Wen
but there was a revival in the early 19th century.
Zhengming was perhaps the most illustrious representative.
Several of the emperors of the Qing dynasty (1644- 191 1)
were art enthusiasts and they greatly enriched the imperial
Chippendale, Thomas (1718-79), British *cabinet-
spreading the Lutheran gospel, achieving such popularity [khoreid) and writing
[graphos), and was originally used by
and spiritual authority that they came to be used as the Feuillet to describe his system of *dance notation. Later
basis for extended compositions which were, in effect, in the i8th century the word came to mean the art of
meditations upon their religious significance. Chief among creating dances, the sense in which it is used today. Thus
these compositions was the chorale prelude, in which the choreographing is a Western invention. Many forms of
chorale melody is presented, either whole or in stages, in dance do not recognize choreographers or 'owners' of cer-
an elaborate web of organ * polyphony that is itself derived tain dances, though individual dancers may create or im-
from the chorale. provise variations on traditional movements. Choreo-
graphers almost never write a 'score' as a composer might,
chord, any combination of more than two musical notes rather they create directly on the dancers, only writing
sounded simultaneously. Two notes sounded together are the work down afterwards, if at all. Some choreographers
called an *interval. The use of chords —
their logical begin with a very clear idea of the movements they want
—
progression one to the other forms the basis of *harmony to use: *Petipa constructed tiny models, while *de Valois
and helps to define the * tonality of a piece of music. and * Cunningham plan meticulously on paper. Others
CHORUS 100
like *Ashton might depend a great deal on the plots and by her brisk,unsentimental humour. Her first
dancers for inspiration, and * modern or * postmodern detective novel. The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920),
choreographers may use improvisation to create material, introduced Hercule Poirot, the Belgian detective who
or even in the finished pieces. Music was for hundreds of reappears in many subsequent novels; her other main
years the major inspiration for dance, and such 20th- detective is the elderly spinster Jane Marple. She also wrote
century choreographers as *Balanchine and *Alston still plays, including The Mousetrap (1952), the longest-running
start from a musical score. Many formal choreographic play in theatre history, and published novels under the
devices are analogous to those used in music, such as motif pseudonym Mary Westmacott.
and development, canon, and repetition. Similarly, form
may be derived from narrative or action, as in many Christine de Pisan (1364- 1430), French poet and
*ballet works. In modern and postmodern choreography prose writer. Her poems convey the sadness of her early
a new form may be devised for each individual work. widowhood, and continue a lyrical tradition based on
Cunningham uses chance methods to determine parts of courtly love, written in the new, rigidly determined * ballade
his choreography, and postmodernists like Trisha *Brown form which *Villon was to exemplify. Her prose works
explore the use of accumulation and other rule-based include the Dit dela Rose (1400), which vindicates women
by abundant use of barley-sugar columns and extremely cinema- v6rite, unscripted *documentary style of film-
florid surface ornamentation which sometimes runs riot to making, which aspires to total truthfulness and spontaneity.
such an extent that it completely obscures the underlying Originating in the Soviet Union in the 1920s, it developed
structure. To *Neoclassical taste it was the last word in rapidly in the late 1950s and early 1960s, encouraged by
decadence and it died out completely in the last quarter the increase in location filming, the appetite of television
of the 8th century. The Churrigueresque style found a
1 for factual material, and the availability of lightweight
distinctive flowering in the Spanish New World, par- cameras and sound-recording equipment (which facilitated
ticularly in Mexico. a closer approach to the subject). In France (where it has
been popular with the *Nouvelle Vague), attempts are
Gibber, Colley (1671-1757), English actor, manager, made to coax the subjects into self-revelation; in the USA
and playwright. He excelled in comic roles, both of his (where it is called 'Direct Cinema'), a more self-effacing
own works and in *Restoration Comedy. His plays, of approach is preferred.
which the first was Loves Last Shift (1696), balanced
comedy with sentiment. His heavily adapted version of Cinq, Les The *Five.
Shakespeare's Richard III 700) remained the standard
(
1
theatre text until the late 19th century. He was joint circus, a spectacle in which animal acts and human feats
manager of Drury Lane from 171 1. He wrote an Apology of daring are performed. The modern circus dates from
forthe Life of Mr Colley Gibber, Comedian (1740), after his the late i8th century, when ex-sergeant-major Philip Astley
much-ridiculed appointment as Poet Laureate in 730. i gave horse-riding displays in London in 'Astley's Royal
Amphitheatre of Arts', an arena to which he had added
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 ^c), Roman politician, a stage for singing, dancing, and pantomime. This form
orator, and philosopher. His chequered political career is of entertainment proved so popular that similar shows
reflected in his speeches, many of which survive. Cicero were started elsewhere in Britain and in other countries of
was fascinated by the theory as well as the practice of Europe, some permanent, others as 'tenting' circuses, with
oratory and its branches, such as *rhetoric, and in a series performers (see *clown) and equipment travelling in
of works expounded the principles of the art. No one, caravans and wagons. From the early 19th century they
apart from himself, much admired Cicero's poetry; but his were often combined with the travelling menageries and
letters, especially those to his friend Atticus, which were wild animal performances that had become very popular,
not meant for publication, give an unrivalled view of of which the most celebrated was the combined circus and
contemporary Roman politics and social life, in a style of menagerie owned by the Sangers. The USA was the home
brilliant variety and vigour. No less remarkable is a series of the really big circus. Barnum and his partners opened
of philosophical works, written as a consolation during their first show at Brooklyn in 1871, and combined in
years of political inactivity. They are largely based on 1880 with his great rivals Cooper and Bailey. After losing
Greek sources, but, with their dialogue form (based on its popularity in Britain in the early 20th century, the
* Plato), they bring to life the basic philosophical quarrel circus enjoyed a revival through the large and elaborate
between hedonistic Epicureans and rigorous Stoics. Cicero productions of C. B. Cochran (19 12) and after World
found Latin a language ill-suited to abstract exposition, War I by new circuses such as that of Bertram Mills, but
and it is an important part of his achievement that he circuses are now rare in Britain and the USA. In the Soviet
greatly expanded its vocabulary and developed a fluent Union, however, the state-subsidized circus continues to
and adaptable style that enabled the Christian writers of flourish.
the 4th century to expound and forward the doctrines of
their faith. He has remained an influence on Western cire-perdue (French, 'lost wax'), a term in art used to
thought and literature to this day. describe amethod of hollow metal *casting used by
sculptors. A thin layer of wax corresponding
to the shape
Cimabue (Cenni di Peppi) 1240 1302), Italian
(f. of the final sculpture encased within two layers of
is
painter, his unflattering nickname meaning 'Ox-head'. heat-resistant clay or plaster, melted and drained off^ and
Little is known about his life, but he is said to have been then replaced with molten metal poured into the cavity
the teacher of *Giotto and so stands at the head of the that the 'lost wax' has created. The technique, found
great Florentine, indeed the whole Italian, tradition of in every continent except Australasia, was used by the
painting. Several major works are traditionally (and plaus- Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and is still the main
ibly) attributed to him, including the majestic crucifix in means used for traditional *bronze sculpture.
Santa Croce in Florence, which was badly damaged in
the Florentine flood of 1966. If this and other attributions cittern, a plucked musical instrument which, because it
are correct, Cimabue was indeed the outstanding master has wire strings, a strong construction, and a flat back,
of the generation before Giotto. held its tuning much better than the lute. It could therefore
be picked up and played without lengthy preliminary
Cimarosa, Doxnenico (i 749-1801), Italian composer. tuning and was popular for casual music-making from the
In 1772 his first opera was produced in Naples, and by 15th to 17th centuries. The cittern appeared also in the
the mid- 780s he had become one of the most popular
1
broken (i.e. mixed) consort of Morley and other composers.
composers oi opera buffa (comic opera) in Italy. He worked Its characteristics are a body tapering in side view,
in Russia (1787 91), and Vienna (179 1-3), where his shallower at the base than at the neck, a neck with full
masterpiece The Secret Marriage was performed (1792). In thickness only under the treble strings, and vestigial wings
1799 he was imprisoned for composing a patriotic hymn at the base of the neck.
in favour of the French Revolution. On his release he left
for Venice, where he died while preparing an opera for Clair, Rene (Rene-Lucien Chomette) 1898- 981),( 1
The great American impresario Phineas T. Barnum, one contained an element of fantasy. Most of his best-known
of whose shows (1887) is illustrated here, brought an filmsdatefromearly in hiscareer, including f/wCAfl/)^aM^^/?m7/g
unrivalled sense of spectacle to the circus. His most d'ltalie (1927), based on Labiche's farce, Sous les toils de
sensational coup was buying Jumbo, the biggest elephant
Paris (1930), his first sound film, A nous la liberie (1931),
m the world, from London Zoo, mspite of national outcry
m Britain against the sale. an attack on the machine age, and Le million (1932), a
musical. His ten years abroad (1935 45) produced only
two notable films. The Ghosl Goes Wesl (1935) for *Korda,
In this pamtmg by the 17th-century Dutch painter Gabriel and / Married a Witch (1942) in Hollywood. He returned
Metsu, a woman tunes a cittern (c. 1600). She is plucking to form in such films as La silence est d'or (1947), La beanie
the wire strings with a plectrum, held between thumb
and forefinger, while turning a tuning peg with the other du diable (1950), Les belles de nuit (1952), in which a man
hand. (Uffizi, Florence) dreams about beauties of the past, and Porte des lilas (1957).
also writing pantomimes and melodramas. He is re- lose their material solidity and melt into the magical
membered for his powerful novel For the Term of his Natural atmosphere. Claude was extremely influential, especially
Life (1870-2), about convicts transported to the cruel in Britain —
not only on painters such as Richard *Wilson
penal settlement in Tasmania. and *Turner, but also on landscape gardening, parks being
modelled on his pictures.
Classical music, in popular usage 'serious' as opposed
to 'popular' music; more narrowly, Western art music Claudel, Paul (1868- 1955), French dramadst and poet.
from the Classical period, c. 1750- 1830. This was the age His conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1886 made a
of the *sonata form — the complete expression of those profound impression on his writing. In plays like Parlage
theories of *tonality that had gradually been built up de midi (1906), LOtage (191 1), UAnnonce faite a Marie
during the 17th century. The principles of sonata form are (1912), and Le Soulier de satin (1925-8), he creates a
to be found in instrumental music of every kind, from the half-imaginary universe impregnated by a divine presence
solo sonata to the string quartet, from the solo concerto which draws his characters on to perform deeds of self-
to the symphony. It can be found even in opera, and had sacrifice. His early association with the *Symbolists is
its most accomplished expression in the music of *Haydn, revealed in his use of imagery and the free-verse form in
*Mozart, and *Beethoven. In parallel with the de- which he wrote both plays and poems (for example Cinq
velopment of the sonata principle, ran the development grandes odes, 19 10). He also wrote an oratorio Jeanne d'arc
and stabilization of the *orchestra, which now increasingly (1938) with music by *Honegger.
began to look to the public concert and the paying audience
for its support. *Opera, through Gluck's reforming zeal Claudet, Antoine Franqois Jean (1797- 1867), French
and Mozart's instinctive dramatic genius, shed much of pioneer photographer. Director of a glass-manufacturing
the artificiality it had acquired during the 7th and earlyi company, Claudet established a London warehouse twelve
18th centuries and was now concerned to present human years before photography was first announced. Purchasing
nature in convincing terms. By the end of the i8th century a licence to take daguerreotypes from *Daguerre himself,
the resources of music had reached a point of development he opened a portrait studio in 1841. A prolific inventor,
that was in perfect accord with its capacity to reveal every Claudet reduced the early long exposures by chemical
shade of human
emotion, so that in the art of Beethoven, means, and obtained patents for a darkroom light, a
it was able to reach a pinnacle of achievement that even light-meter, the use of artificial lighting and painted
now seems unassailable. backgrounds in the studio, and several other devices
especially for stereo photography.
Classicism in dance, periods in dance history where
ideas that derive from Ancient Greece are evident. Clas- clavichord, the simplest and one of the most expressive
sicism represents economy and precision in movement, of all keyboard instruments. When a key is depressed, a
order and geometric design, grace and ease in performance, brass rod or blade (the tangent) mounted on its inner end
adherence to recognized rules and the values of symmetry, rises and touches the string, making it sound. When the
proportion, and restraint. The i6th- and 17th-century key is released, the tangent leaves the string and its
CLEF 104
The title of this pamtmg by Claude is Landscape with the clerihew, a form of comic verse named after its inventor,
Marriage of Isaac and Rebekah (1648), but the depiction Edmund Clerihew Bentley (1875 1956). of two ^^ consists
of the scene does not correspond to the biblical metrically awkward and usually presents a
*couplets,
description of the event, and the artist's real concern is
ludicrously uninformative 'biography' of some famous
with the beauty of nature; indeed the picture is often
person whose name appears as one of the rhymed words
known as The Mill, in reference to the building in the
middle distance. (Nahonal Gallery, London) in the first couplet: George the Third Ought never to
|
a blunder.
vibration is stopped by a strip of felt (the listing) wound
over the left-hand end of the strings. Thus the finger is in clocks. The evolution of the style and design of clocks
contact with the string while it sounds, and the sound can can be traced back to the Gothic forms of medieval church
be varied by pressure on the key. The clavichord was architecture. Chamber clocks of the 15th and early i6th
invented c. 1400 and was widely used, especially as a centuries were mostly made of iron, with arches, lancet
practice instrument, into the 19th century. 'windows', pinnacles, and figures in niches, which bore no
The great schools
relationship to their structural needs.
clef *notation. of 16th-century clock-making were centred in southern
Germany, of which a wide range of gilded or polished-
Clexnenti, Muzio (1752 1832), Italian-born British bronze table clocks, iron and steel lantern clocks, ship
composer and pianist. He studied in Rome, where he clocks, and weight-driven wall-clocks survive. In the 7th 1
novelist William *Beckford). On Beckford's Dorset estate took place in France, Holland, and Britain, where the
Clemen ti was able to study (1766-73) and perfect his application of a pendulum to control the motion of the
harpsichord technique. He moved to London in 1774, clock altered its appearance. Among the great clock-makers
soon gaining great success as a composer, performer, of the period was Thomas Tompion of London, who made
teacher, and publisher, both in England and in Europe. the noted 'Mostyn' mantle clock, encased in veneered
He is remembered mainly for his keyboard works, which ebony with silver mounts. Baroque clock cases reflect the
helped to establish a style appropriate to the newly created more classic architectural and sculptural forms, such as in
pianoforte. Some of these keyboard pieces foreshadow later the French 'tete de poupee' clock from a design by A.-C.
*Romantic music. Boulle, with marquetry and gilded bronze mounts, made
7
105 COBURN
and his father (they both used the same nickname, 'Janet', The white-faced clown is said to have been introduced by
which adds to the confusion). the French clowns of the same period. Britain's Joseph
Grimaldi, one of the greatest of his profession, first appeared
Clough, Arthur Hugh (181 9-61), British poet. Aware in a circus in 1805. In the 1860s a comedian under the
of the social and intellectual crisis in 19th-century society, name of Auguste introduced the red nose, exaggerated
he was tormented by religious and personal doubts, which eyebrows, and tufts of hair. The Swiss-born Grock (Charles
led him to resign his Oxford fellowship in 1848. His Adrien Wettach), at the constant mercy of inanimate
best-known work The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich (1848), is objects, was a much-loved star of the British *music-hall.
a narrative poem in *hexameters set in Scotland. His Charlie *Chaplin brought the repertoire of the clown into
lyrics, including, the well-known 'Say not the struggle the cinema, while in the Soviet Union, where the *circus
nought availeth', reflect his spiritual anguish. He died in remains popular, clowns such as Popov (1930- ) achieve
Florence; Matthew *Arnold, his close friend, wrote the national stardom.
poem 'Thyrsis' to commemorate his death.
Cobum, Alvin Langdon (1882- 1966), British pho-
clown, a comic character, who, unlike the traditional tographer born in the USA. First given a camera at the
*fool or the *court fool performs a set routine. In his age of 8, Coburn later attended art school in Massachusetts.
earliest form he is to be found in ancient Greek theatre He studied photogravure in London in 1906, publishing
and again in *Roman satire and *mime, wearing a pointed two books of atmospheric gravures: London (1909) and New
hat and patchwork clothes. Clowning was part of the York (19 10). Men of Mark followed in 191 3, with a
routine of medieval *minstrels, but it was not until the second volume in 1922. He organized the influential 191
late Middle Ages that professional travelling entertainers exhibition of 'Old Masters of Photography' (all British) at
COCHRAN 106
the Albright Gallery, Buffalo, and two years later exhibited types to be directly engraved was the well-known St George
his purely abstract photographs
first
— 'Vorto-graphs' — and the Dragon by Benedetto Pistrucci (181 7). It has been
in London alongside his paintings. used repeatedly on British coins for nearly 150 years
and is an excellent energetic relief. Few mechanically
CochTcin, Sir Charles Blake (1872- 195 1), British the- produced coins are works of art due to the inflexibility
atrical impresario. He was best known for his productions of modern methods of coin production.
at the London Pavilion between 1918 and 1931, where his
'Young Ladies' of the *chorus became famous. He pre- Coleman, Ornette *jazz.
sented many straight plays, including Reinhardt's pro-
duction of Vollmoller's The Miracle at Olympia (191 1; Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772- 1834), British poet
revived 1932); he introduced overseas plays and players and man of letters. His first published poetry was a series
to London; and promoted non-theatrical entertainments of sonnets to eminent radicals, including William Godwin
such as boxing and the *circus. and Joseph Priestley. In 797 Coleridge met *Wordsworth
i
a way as to increase the sense of finality. In Beethoven's document the manners of French society around the turn
symphonies this extension assumes considerable structural of the century. Among her best-known novels are Cheri
importance. (1920), Le Ble en herbe (1923), and La Fin de Cheri (1926).
Three autobiographical works. La Maison de Claudine
Cohan, Robert * London Contemporary Dance Theatre. (1922), La Naissance du jour (1928), and Sido (1929), are
poetic evocations of her childhood in Burgundy and
coins, pieces of metal, usually stamped by an
discs, Provence, revealing her characteristic appreciation of
authority such as a monarch as a guarantee of value and beauty in the natural world.
used as money. Early coins were stamped on only one
side, but in about 560 bc the ruler of Athens, Pisistratus, collage, a pictorial technique in which photographs,
had coins produced with a design on both sides — on one newspaper cuttings, and other suitable objects are pasted
the head of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, and on to a flat surface, often in combination with painted
on the other an owl, the symbol of the city. Since then passages. It first became a serious artistic technique in
almost all coins have been imprinted with a head on one the early 20th century, and the Cubists, Futurists, Dada-
side (at first symbolic images, later actual portraits) and ists, and Surrealists all made use of collage.
a device related to the state for which they were produced
on the other. From an aesthetic point of view the most Collins, (William) Wilkie (1824-89), British novelist.
important aspect of coinage is the design of the reliefs on Noted as a writer of mystery, suspense, and crime, his
the two sides. Until recently these were carved in *intaglio finest work in this genre, the novel of sensation, was The
directly into the face of a metal die by a coin engraver, Woman in White (i860). With The Moonstone (1868),
whose major problem was to produce an artistic and considered the first full-length *detective story in English,
lifelike representation on such a small scale. It is generally he set a mould for the genre. Trained as a lawyer, he
agreed that the coins of the ancient Greeks have never excelled at constructing ingenious and meticulous plots
been surpassed for beauty of design. One of the last coin and experimented in narrative technique; vivid and
107 COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE
sympathetic portraits of physically abnormal individuals comedy, in the Western tradition, a literary compos-
appear in many of his novels. He was a close friend and ition, usually dramatic, written chiefly to amuse its
collaborator of *Dickens, for whose journals he wrote audience. A comedy will normally be closer to everyday
numerous articles and stories. life than a and will explore common human
* tragedy,
unprimed canvas, so that the paint is integral with it speare, Lope de *Vega, and *Jon.son were succeeded
rather than a superimposed layer. The term colour stain —
by *Moliere comedy's supreme exponent and by the —
painting is applied to paintings of this type. ^'Restoration comedy' of *Congreve, Etherege, and
*Wycherley. There are several kinds of comedy, ranging
Coltrane, John (Williaxn) *jazz.
from the idealized love-affairs of Shakespeare's 'romantic
comedy' in A Midsummer Might's Dream (c.1595) to the
*satire in Jonson's Volpone (1606) or Moliere's Tartujfe
A 17th-century Italian pamtmg of the commedia dell' arte ( 1669), and to the sophisticated verbal wit of the 'comedy
showing Capitano Babeo and Cucuba. The captain was
of manners' in *\Vilde's The Importance of Being Earnest
one of the most familiar characters of the commedia, but
his image changed over the years, Originally conceived (1895). Among its minor forms are *burlesque, *slapstick,
—
as a complex character often a sad, unsuccessful lover and *farce.
he became cast as a clown and his role was usurped by
the more sophisticated Scaramouche. (Museo Teatrale commedia dell'arte, the popular improvised Italian
allaScala, Milan) comedy of the i6th to i8th centuries, as opposed to the
COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE 108
commedia erudita, written Italian drama of the time; deWarte name. Major centres of production included Calcutta,
signifies that the actorswere professionals members of — Delhi, Lahore, Lucknow, and Patna. The paintings were
the arte or actors' guild. It was usually performed by done in a water-colour technique (usually on paper, but
companies of twelve to fifteen, who improvised while also on other materials such as ivory) and stylistically
conforming to a pre-arranged skeleton scenario, with combined Indian and European conventions. Subjects
suggestions for acrobatics, singing, and dancing. Apart included landscapes, portraits, animals, plants, and so on.
from the young lovers, all performers wore * masks, each In the 19th century, sets of paintings of subjects such as
retaining his own mask (or character), though perhaps Indian monuments, birds, and
activities, deities, festivals,
changing to an 'older' mask as he grew older. The flowers, became popular; many such sets were sent to
lovers were opposed by the fathers or guardians, notably relatives in Britain in the days before photography.
Pantalone, who became the English Pantaloon. Other
characters included Dottore (Doctor), a pedant, and Compton-Burnett, Dame Ivy (1884- 1969), British
Capitano (Captain), a braggart. The servants [zanni) novelist. Her novels, noted for their lack of plot, centre
were a distinctive feature. Shrewd, opportunistic and on family relationships in large middle-class Edwardian
greedy, they reappeared in various guises in European households, ruled by a tyrannical parent or grandparent.
literature and theatre, providing several characters still In these introverted, semi-isolated households she ex-
familiar today, such as Arlecchino (Harlequin), Pulcinella amines the misuse of power and the violence and misery
(Punch), Colombina (Columbine), and Pedrolino (*Pier- that follow. She lived quietly in London for most of her
rot). The companies travelled abroad — to Spain by the life, establishing her career with Pastors and Masters (1925),
1570S and later to France and perhaps Britain. But by in which she introduced the abrupt, stylized dialogue
the 1 8th century improvisation was dying out in Italy, that characterizes her work. Other outstanding works are
to be replaced by written material. The tradition survived Brothers and Sisters (1929), Manservant and Maidservant
in *puppetry, the *harlequinade, and *pantomime. (See (1947), and A God and His Gifts (1963).
also *mime.)
computer music, which computers are used
music in
community architecture, an approach to architec- either to work out the whatever
details arising out of
tural design in which stress is laid on the architect's program is fed into them, or to produce *electronic sound.
responsibilities towards the users of his or her buildings, Thus the computer might calculate the frequency and
particularly housing. The idea of community architecture distribution of a series of events within the structure of a
developed in the 1970s and became a recognizable move- composition and then, in association with a *synthesizer,
ment in the ig8os, the Prince of Wales and his ar- simulate the required sounds. Effective computer pro-
chitectural adviser Rod Hackney being among the gramming depends upon the creative imagination as
champions of the cause. It marked a reaction against the fundamentally as any ordinary method of composition.
doctrinaire and dehumanizing attitude towards mass Computers are also beginning to find a place in publishing
housing that had characterized much 20th-century build- in the production of scores and instrumental parts, the
ing, encouraging instead consultation with the commun- *notation having first been translated into a suitable
ity, and the consideration of all relevant social conditions. code. (See also *aleatory music, *20th-century music.)
community dance, developed from North American conceit, an unusually far-fetched or elaborate *meta-
and French work, this aims to promote dance enjoyment, phor or *simile presenting a surprising parallel between
to increase participation opportunities, and to draw the two apparently dissimilar things or feelings: 'Griefe is a
artist, the education system, and the wider community puddle, and reflects not cleare Your beauties rayes' (T.
|
together. Projects are led by an 'animateur' or community Carew). Under Petrarch's influence, European poetry of
dance worker. Schemes are funded jointly by local au- the Renaissance cultivated the conceit to a high degree
thorities, and/or local business. Some
arts associations, of ingenuity, either as the basis for whole poems (notably
are based in arts centres, others are peripatetic, covering Donne's 'The Flea') or as an ornamental device. Poetic
large rural areas. Dance artists in education projects, conceits are prominent in Elizabethan *sonnets (Sidney's
linking professional dance to the education system, are and Shakespeare's especially), in *metaphysical poetry,
also part of the wider community dance concept. and in the dramatic verse of Corneille and Racine.
community theatre, a 20th-century movement in conceptual art, a term applied to various forms of art
drama which seeks to involve the community. It began in which the ideafor a work is considered more important
to flourish in Britain in the early 1970s and is closely allied than the finished product, if any. The notion goes back
to *political theatre, usually with a socialist commitment to Marcel *Duchamp, but it was not until the 1960s that
whichmay also embrace feminism and gay liberation. Conceptual art became a major international phe-
Community theatre groups, which usually perform in nomenon. Its manifestations have been diverse; most
such non-theatrical places as working-men's clubs, public Conceptual artists deliberately render their productions
houses, village halls, streets, and open spaces, seek to visually uninteresting in order to divert attention to the
relate their activities to a locality by presenting material 'idea' they express. Exponents of Conceptual art see it as
of local interest and by creating a closer rapport with posing questions about the nature of art and provocatively
their audiences than is possible in a conventional theatre. expanding its boundaries.
company painting, a term applied to paintings pro- concertina, a small *free-reed musical instrument held
duced by Indian artists in the i8th and 19th centuries in the hands. The hexagonal or square end-plates, one for
for colonial (mainly British) clients; these clients were each hand, are separated by the bellows and carry several
often connected with the East India Company, hence the rows of buttons, whose function and number vary from
109 CONCRETE POETRY
model to model. The German, American, and Anglo- presence in at least .some cases distinguished the concerto
German concertinas produce two notes from each button, grosso from the dance suite, from which the overall
one when closing the bellows and the other on opening pattern of contrasted movements was derived. The great
them. The English concertina produces a different note on masters of the concerto grosso include Corelli, J. S. Bach,
each button, the same note on push and on pull. The Duet Vivaldi, and Handel. From those examples where the
concertina is similar to the English with a larger bass range. concertino group was reduced to a single instrument
The concertina was an enormously popular instrument came the solo *concerto of the late i8th century.
from its invention in the early igth century until it was
gradually superseded by the piano *accordian following conch, a shell used as a trumpet, made in parts of
World War I. Since this time the instrument has again Oceania and in East Africa by making a hole in the side,
returned to fa\our, particularh with folk musicians. The and elsewhere by removing the tip. In many areas it is
Anglo-German concertina is much loved by English folk a ritual instrument, for example in Fiji (where some have
musicians for its rhythmic capabilities and raucous cheer- a finger-hole), India (where heroes of Hindu epics each
fulness, and it was from such an instrument that Cecil have their own conch). Central and South America
Sharp noted down morris dances. (where pottery copies are used), and Europe (where
conches were used to avert thunderstorms: *Vivaldi wrote
concerto, originally a very general term in music used a concerto imitating this use) It is also a signal instrument,
.
to describe the act of 'playing together'; towards the end particularly for fishermen.
of the 17th century it became attached to a distinctive
form, the *concerto grosso. During the second half of the concrete painting, a general term applied to those
18th century the concerto grosso developed into the styles of modern painting which repudiate all figurative
concerto as we now know it, a work for soloist and reference to an object and construct the composition from
orchestra, usually in three movements. Of these three elementary pictorial elements such as the rectangle or
movements only the first acquired a distinctive form, the square. The term has been applied to many distinct
second and third being usually a lyrical slow movement movements in abstract art including *Constructivism,
(virtually an *aria) and a brisk, cheerful finale (often in *Suprematism, and *Neo-plasticism. The work of Ben
*rondo form) in which the material is shared fairly *Nicholson, with its use of abstract shapes, can also be
evenly between soloist and orchestra. The first movement, described as concrete.
however, combined the 'ritornello principle' of the con-
certo grosso with *sonata form. Instead of a single concrete poetry * pattern poetry.
conductor, in music, the person who directs the per- and the Mencius, by a disciple of
Scripture of Filial Piety,
formance of an orchestra or choir. The idea of a 'con- Confucius, were added to the canon. Four Confucian
ductor' who
not only indicates the basic beat, but also the works, the Analects, the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the
way in which the music
is interpreted, is of comparatively Mean, and the Mencius, were selected for special use by
recent date. It arose as a necessity alongside the de- Song dynasty (960 1279) educationists in 1190; they were
velopment of the *orchestra and the appearance of music known as the Four Books.
that sought ever more subtle ways of being expressive
and meaningful. The early orchestra could be directed Congreve, William (1670- 1729), British dramatist.
from the keyboard by the *continuo-player. Direction After leaving Trinity College, Dublin, he began to study
later passed to the first violin (still called the 'leader' in law, but abandoned this for literature. By 1693 he had
Britain and the 'concert master' in the USy\), who would achieved fame with his comedy, The Old Bachelor. He con-
indicate with his bow, or by a mere inclination of the tinued his success with other comedies, including The
head, all that was needed. But by the 19th century Double Dealer (1693), Love for Love (1695), ^^i^ The Way
orchestras had grown larger, the music was more express- of the World (1700). With these plays he showed himself a
ive, and the art of orchestration had become an integral master of *Restoration comedy, reflecting the fashionably
part of composition. The sound pro-
relative weight of artificial manners of the day, enlivened by brilliant
duced by the different instruments now had to be 'ba- dialogue and a gallery of humorous characters. His only
lanced' if the music was to make its proper effect. Someone tragedy is The Mourning Bride (1697).
therefore had to take charge. Conducting with a baton
began in Germany in the early part of the 19th century. Conrad, Joseph (Josef Teodor Konrad Walecz Kor-
The baton is mainly used to indicate the beat by a series zeniowski) (1857- 1924), Polish-born British novelist. In
of universally recognized movements. It can also be used 1874 he began his career as a sailor, which was to provide
to cue in instruments; to suggest (by amplitude of gesture) much material for his writing. He became a British subject
the required dynamics; and, by quality of gesture, to in 1886 and retired from the sea to write, beginning with
indicate the style of interpretation. The conductor's free Almayer' s Folly (1895). Nostromo (1904), set in an imaginary
hand can be used for additional or complementary South American republic, explores one of his main themes:
and need not mirror the baton gestures.
indications man's vulnerability and corruptibility. The Secret Agent
The German composer and violinist Louis Spohr 784- ( i (1907), and Under Western Eyes (191 1) show Conrad's
1859), one of the best of the early 'modern' conductors ironic scepticism about politics. The sea is the setting for
employing a baton, probably used only a piano reduction The Nigger of the Narcissus (1897), Typhoon (1902), and
of the score to conduct from, while *Berlioz was one of The Shadow-Line (191 7). Marlow, the narrator of some of
the first to conduct from a full score, which showed his works, provides a pessimistic commentary on the
all the different instrumental parts in the orchestra. action, notably in Lord Jim (1900) and the celebrated
* Mendelssohn was an excellent and versatile conductor, novella Heart of Darkness (1902). Conrad was a leading
but perhaps, the first virtuoso was *Wagner. From him influence on *Modernist fiction.
stems the tradition of interpretive conducting, whereby
the conductor is responsible for projecting his own un- consort, inmusic, an ensemble of voices and/or in-
derstanding of the composer's intentions into the per- struments. By extension the term also means the music
formance. Hans von Biilow (1830-94) and Hans Richter played by such a group, and its performance in public.
(1843 1916), followed by *Mahler and Richard *Strauss In Britain the term applies to chamber music from the
dominated the European conducting scene until the arrival early i6th to the early i8th century, and most frequently
of the brilliantly spontaneous VVilhelm Furtwangler 1886- (
to the 'consort of viols'. A whole consort was one in which
all the instruments were of the same family (all strings,
1954), the epic interpretations of Otto Klemperer (1885
all wind, all brass). A mixed group of instruments was
1973), and the tyrannic and brilliant Arturo Toscanini
(1867 1957). The first English conductors to win wide ac- known as a broken consort.
ceptance: Henry Wood (1869- 1944), responsible for the
London Promenade concerts, and
significance of the the Constable, John (1776- 1837), British *landscape
idiosyncratic Thomas Beecham (1879 196 1), were fol-
painter. Unlike his great contemporary *Turner, Con-
stable was slow to achieve recognition: it was not until
lowed by Adrian Boult (1889- 1983), who studied with
Strauss's contemporary Artur Nikisch (1855- 1922) and 1829 that he was grudgingly elected, by a majority of
learned from him his unpretentious style. In more recent
only one vote, a full member of the Royal Academy. In
his early years he worked in the tradition of *Gainsbor-
years, the unrestrained conducting of Leopold Stokowski
(1882- 1977) and the colourful style and catholic taste of ough and 17th-century Dutch painting, but he soon
Leonard Bernstein (1918- ), have contrasted with the developed an original style based on direct study of
nature, representing in paint the changing effects of light
polished perfectionism of Herbert von Karajan 908-89) ( 1
and atmosphere. To capture the shifting flicker of the
Confucian literature, the body of Chinese literature weather he abandoned the traditional polished finish of
founded in the 6th century bc and accepted as the basis for landscape painters, catching the sunlight in blobs of pure
Confucian philosophical thought. The first acknowledged white or yellow and the drama of the storm in vigorous
Confucian works were the Five Scriptures: the divination brush-strokes. He worked extensively in the open air,
manual Book of Changes or Tijing (/ Ching), the Book of drawing or making sketches in oils, but his large finished
Documents, which provided the ideological basis for Zhou pictures were painted in the studio. His finest works are
dynasty rule to 256 bc, the Book of Odes or *Shijing, a of the places he knew best: Suffolk and also Hampstead,
manual of Ritual, and the Spring and Autumn Annals, a where he lived from 1821; but in his lifetime his genius
chronicle of one of the early feudal states. In the Later Han was more appreciated in France than in Britain. His most
dynasty (ad 25-220) the Analects, sayings of Confucius, the famous picture, The Hay Wain (1821), was exhibited at
Ill CONTRAPPOSTO
Salisbury Cathedral was one of Constable's favourite regime. They and other exiles had considerable influence
subjects. This vigorous sketch, which may well have throughout Europe and the USA.
been painted in the open air, was probably done m1820
during a lengthy visit he paid to his close friend
contact improvisation *Paxton, Steve.
Archdeacon John Fisher. (National Gallery, London)
continuo, short for 'basso continuo', a musical term mean-
the 1824 Paris *Salon; he was a major influence on ing 'continuous bass'. In the 17th and i8th centuries in-
*Romantic painters such as *Delacroix, on the painters strumental music was provided with a 'figured bass' part:
of the *Barbizon School, and ultimately on the *Im- the lowest line of the music, complete with figures that
pressionists. indicated the chords to be supplied above. This was in-
terpreted by such instruments as could play chords harp-
Constant, Benjamin (1767- 1830), Franco-Swiss poli- sichords, organs, lutes, and so on —
which usually worked
tician and novelist. He is best remembered for his novel with an instrument, such as the cello or bassoon, that could
Adolphe (18 6), a forerunner of the modern psychological
1 reinforce the bass line. The continuo group thus supplied a
novel, which narrates the growth and decline of a pas- complete harmony at a time when orchestras and in-
sionate relationship which in many ways parallels his strumental groups could not be relied upon to provide all
turbulent liaison with Mme de *Stael. The unresolved the necessary parts. The expression 'to play the continuo'
inner agony of the hero, who is unable to free himself simply means 'to interpret the continuo part'.
from the woman he no longer loves, foreshadows the
spiritual malaise that informs the work of *Chateaubriand continuous representation (or continuous narrative),
and *Lamartine. a pictorial convention whereby two or more successive
incidents from a story are combined in the same image.
Constructivism, a Russian movement in sculptural art In a painting of the martyrdom of a saint, for example,
founded in about 19 13 by Vladimir *Tatlin. He was later the saint may also be seen in the background performing
joined by the brothers Antoine * Pevsner and Naum miracles or shown in other important events from his life.
*Gabo, who rejected the idea that art must serve a Continuous representation is most common in medieval
socially useful purpose and conceived a purely abstract art, but occasionally occurs later.
art-form that explored the aesthetic use of modern ma-
chinery and technology and used industrial materials contrapposto I talian, 'set against'
( a term in art applied
)
,
such as plastic or glass. Tatlin was among those who to poses inwhich one part of a figure twists or turns away
applied Constructivist principles to architecture and from another part. During the Renaissance, it was used
design. Pevsner and Gabo left Russia in 1922 after to describe a relaxed asymmetrical pose characteristic of
Constructivism had been condemned by the Soviet much classical sculpture in which the body's weight is
CONVERSATION PIECE 112
borne mainly on one leg, so that the hip of that leg rises Copley, John Singleton (1738- 18 15), the greatest
relative to the other. The term is now also applied to paint- North American painter of the i8th century. By his early
ings. Michelangelo was the acknowledged master of con- twenties he was painting portraits that in their sense
trapposto, and some of his Mannerist followers devised of life and character completely outstripped anything
poses of wilful complexity to demonstrate their virtuosity. previously produced by colonial portraitists. He became
extremely successful and in 1775 settled in London,
conversation piece (painting), a portrait group in a
encouraged by the praises of *Reynolds and Benjamin
domestic or landscape setting in which two or more sitters *West. The portraits he painted in Britain were more
are engaged in conversation or other polite social activity. than a match for those of most of his contemporaries, but
Conversation pieces are usually fairly small in scale. They in adopting a more fashionable style he lost something of
were especially popular in Britain during the 8th century, 1
the vigour of his colonial work. He turned to *history
but the use of the term is not confined to British painting painting, taking up West's innovation of using modern
or to this period. Notable practitioners included Arthur dress and showing a gift for composing multi-figure groups
Devis, Zoffany, and the young Gainsborough. that none of his British contemporaries could approach.
His success in this field was short-lived, however, and he
Cooper, James Feniinore (i 789-1851), US novelist.
spent his final years ill and in debt.
A pioneer of American fiction, his prolific output falls
roughly into four categories: sea stories like The Pilot copperwork, a general term for artefacts and decorative
(1823); miscellaneous historical romances, such as The work made from copper. It was one of the first metals to
Spy (182 ); the 1840s studies of New York society known
1
be used by man, perhaps as early as the 5th millennium
as the Littlepage Manuscripts; and, most importantly, BC. As well as being attractive in colour, it is easy to
the five 'Leather-Stocking Tales' of frontier life. The last
hammer into shape, and its excellent conductivity of heat
group consists of The Pioneers (1823), The Last of the
makes a particularly useful material for cooking utensils.
it
Mohicans (1826), The Prairie (1827), The Pathfinder (1840), It can be cast as well as beaten, and has been used in
and The Deerslayer (1841). All show white civilization
this way for statuary (for example, in ancient Egypt),
pushing into the wilderness, opposed by the Red Indian, although it has proved more suitable for this purpose
and feature the veteran frontiersman Natty Bumppo, when alloyed with tin to form bronze. Other uses to
who, as Cooper's alter ego, articulates his dismay at which copper has been put in the arts include jewellery
the destruction of the American wilderness. He is an and architectural decoration.
archetypal figure in American literature.
Coptic art, the art of the native Christians of Egypt
Cooper, Samuel (1609-72), the greatest English *mini- (Copts), particularly in the period between the 3rd and
aturist of the 17th century. He was patronized by Oliver 8th centuries. Coptic art, which represents one of the
Cromwell and Charles H
and had a European reputation. earliest Christian artistic traditions, developed in the Nile
His sitters are presented with force and individuality and Valley and combined traits from the *Hellenistic art of
his *Baroque sense of design marks a complete break with Alexandria with elements deriving from ancient * Egyp-
the tradition of *Hilliard. Cooper's brother Alexander tian art. Coptic painting includes murals, manuscript
(c. 1609-60) was also a miniaturist, working mainly in illuminations, and tomb portraits buried with the dead.
Europe. The portraits are often highly realistic, but in other Coptic
painting, such as church murals and icons, there is often
Copeau, Jacques (1879 1949), French actor and dir-
ector. In an towards realism
effort to reverse the trend heavy stylization, with forms simplified and flattened out
in the theatre he took over the Theatre du Vieux-
and strong, bold colours. Similarly in sculpture, the
Colombier in 1 9 3, presenting mainly Moliere and Shake- prevailing style was somewhat crude, but vigorous, with
1
characteristically rounded figures. Coptic art seems to
speare and eventually designing his theatre as a
reconstruction of the Elizabethan apron stage, by re- have been remarkably democratic, intended for rich and
moving the proscenium arch and introducing simplified poor alike, and the sincerity of the religious message was
scenery. In 1936 he became a director of the Comedie-
more important than technical finesse. The applied arts
Fran^ai.se.He edited two Cahiers du Vieux-Colombier (1920, included pottery and work in bronze for church fur-
which expressed his theatrical concepts based on nishings such as incense burners, and the Copts attained
1 921),
great distinction in textile manufacture. The Arab conquest
a closer relationship between actor and audience. (See
of Egypt in 640 brought to an end the most important
also * theatre building.)
period of Coptic art. Coptic control of the Ethiopian church
Copland, Aaron (1900- ), US composer, pianist, and until the 20th century produced some distinctive forms of
teacher. develop a truly 'American' style, he
Wishing to architecture and painting in that country, among them the
introduced *jazz and *Latin American elements into his ancient rectangular church of Debre Damo at Aksum and
music. A series of dance pieces on American subjects, the Lalibela rock-hewn churches of the 12th and 13th cen-
quoting folk-song and exploring a harmonic vocabulary turies. Ethiopian Coptic churches were characteristically
that has a very characteristic 'open-air' quality, brought round, consisting of three concentric circles.
his name before a wide and appreciative audience. These
works {Billy the Kid, 1938; Rodeo, 1942; Appalachian Spring, coral work, a general term for objects made from coral,
1944) have remained popular. His Piano Quartet (1950) a stony substance formed of the skeletons of certain marine
showed a return to a more astringent style, incorporating creatures. Coral is found in various colours, can be filed
certain aspects of *serialism. Copland's work has em- and carved to shape, and takes a brilliant polish. It has
braced forms and includes three symphonies (1924,
all been used since prehistoric times, mainly for jewellery,
1933, 1946) and an opera, The Tender Land (1954). He but also, for example, for statuettes, for religious objects
has also written perceptively on musical subjects. such as rosaries, and for chessmen. The great age of coral-
113 CORREGGIO
carving in the West was the 7th and early i8th centuries,
i
(2 ft.) long with finger-holes, the great virtuoso wind
—
notably in Italy In China many fine coral-carvings were instrument of the Renaissance. It also played the treble
made during the 19th century, and Tibet and Nepal were line in support of choirs and the upper parts in Turmmusik
centres of quite distinctive carving. A coral branch is one or 'tower music', music played from a church, balcony,
of the Seven Legendary Treasures of Nippon and it is or town hall tower (a common practice in i6th- to
perhaps in Japan that the best work is still being done. 18th-century Germany).
cor anglais (English horn), a musical instrument, a Corot, Jean-Baptiste Caxnille (1796- 1875), French
tenor *oboe built a fifth lower, with a bulbous bell. The painter, one of the greatest figures in the history of
name is a mystery, for it is neither a horn nor English. *landscape painting. In his lifetime he was most successful
It has been suggested that anglais should be angle (i.e. with fairly traditional works evoking an idealized rustic
angled), but the earliest examples were curved, not past and painted in a misty, soft-edged style, but he is
angled. The constricted *bell opening gives the tone a now most highly regarded for his more directly topo-
hollow sound. It is the only survivor of the various types graphical work, which displays a luminous clarity and
of tenor oboe of the Baroque period; it was little used in an unaffected naturalness. His directness of vision was
the Classical period, but became popular with the rise of much admired by the major landscape painters of the late
Romanticism, and is available in every orchestra, played 19th century, and almost all of them were influenced by
by one of the oboists. him at some stage in their careers. Late in life he turned to
figure painting, and did some exquisite female nudes.
Corelli, Arcangelo (1653- 17 13), Italian composer and
violinist,based in Rome for most of his working life. Correggio (Antonio Allegri) (c.1489-1534), Italian
Though he wrote relatively little, Corelli's music gained painter, named after the small town in Emilia where he
enormous currency and was influential in establishing the was born. He was one of the boldest and most inventive
form and manner of the trio sonata and *concerto grosso. artists of the High *Renaissance, working mainly in
He published four collections of twelve trio sonatas (1681, Parma, where he painted two famous dome frescos, in
1685, 1689, 1694), a collection of twelve solo sonatas the church of San Giovanni Evangelista (1520 i) and
700) and the extremely popular twelve concerti grossi
( I the cathedral (1526 30). In these two brilliant works he
(1714), which include the famous 'Christmas' Concerto, raised to new heights the illusionistic conception used by
written for the midnight mass. Corelli was one of the first
composers to vary the keys in a * binary movement in a
meaningful way, and his use of dissonance remains a Correggio was a versatile painter, his output ranging
highly attractive ingredient of his music. from ceiling frescos to intimate boudoir pictures such as
The Madonna of the Basket (c. 1525) showing the artist at
Corneille, Pierre (1606 French dramatist, one of his most charming. (National Gallery, London)
84),
the principal writers of the 17th century. His output
included *comedies and * tragedies written during the
period from 1629 to 1674, though he is chiefly admired
for the tragedies first performed between 1637 and 1651,
including Le Cid (1637), Horace (1640), Cinna (1640),
Polyeucte (<;.i640-i). La Mori de Pompee (1642-3), Rodogune
(1644-5), ^''^^ Nicomede (1650-1). Corneille inaugurated
a type of drama concerned rather with the inner struggles
of the protagonists than with external action. His plays
are commonly based on the conflict between the opposing
claims of duty and love and are written in verse whose
heroic grandeur parallels the moral elevation of the
subject. In later years this formula found less success with
a public whose demand for a more unbridled presentation
of passion was being satisfied by the young *Racine.
combined painting with elaborate *stucco work in a ported by crinolines and later by bustles.The real break with
way that proved highly influential. His masterpiece of the past came after World War I when men's clothes became
architecture is the church of SS. Martina e Luca in Rome less formal and women began to wear loose-fitting shifts
(1635 50), the first Baroque church designed and built shortened to the knee. This style has, with seasonal and re-
as a complete unity. gional variations, been generally adopted, and the mass pro-
duction of synthetic fibres has brought fashionable clothes
Cosxnati work, a type of coloured decorative inlay
within reach of most. Western-style clothing, often mass-
work of stone and glass that flourished mainly in Rome
produced locally, has increasingly led to its adoption for ready
from about 100 to about 1300. Small pieces of coloured
1
wide range of colours could be printed. developed a style closer to that of *popular music.
Country music now has a world-wide audience, and new
counterpoint (from the Latin punclus contra punctus, performers from outside the USA have adopted the style
'point against point', i.e. 'note against note'). In music, so successfully as to compete with US artists.
counterpoint is the art of combining two or more in-
dependent melodic lines. These may diflfer in rhythm and Couperin, Franqois (1668- 1733), French composer,
outline, yet in combination they make perfect sense. harpsichordist, and organist. Commonly called 'le Grand',
Music conceived contrapuntally requires the listener to he was the most important member of a musical dynasty
take in the shape of each melody —to listen 'horizontally'. that included his uncle Louis (c. 1626-61), a composer,
As the melodies pass one another they produce a vertical violinist, and skilled keyboard-player, and father Charles
harmony. Until almost the end of the 19th century the (1638-79), an organist. In 1693 Francois was appointed
degree of dissonance permitted in the resultant harmonies organist to Louis XIV, during whose reign he established
was strictly controlled. In 20th-century counterpoint the himself as the leading French composer, harpsichordist,
movement of parts is usually free of harmonic inhibitions. and keyboard teacher of his day. His very considerable
An important aspect of counterpoint is imitation or output includes sacred and secular vocal music, organ
—
*canon the repetition by one voice of a phrase that music, motets, instrumental chamber music and, most
another voice has just stated. That repetition may be important, four books of harpsichord pieces (254 in all),
strict (exact) or free (similar, but not exact), and the arranged as dance suites, each movement bearing a
overall effect is to bind the diflferent strands of a complex fanciful, poetic title. Couperin's work attempted to re-
texture together. The combination of independent parts, concile French melodic restraint with Italian harmonic
with or without imitation, is known as *polyphony. intensity, and was largely successful.
country music, with its roots in the rural South couplet, a pair of rhyming verse lines, usually of the
of the USA, derived from traditional oral music brought same length. Chaucer established the use of couplets in
from Europe. The music was first recorded in the 1920s, English, notably in the Canterbury Tales, using rhymed
when it was known as 'hillbilly music'. Initially there iambic *pentameters later known as 'heroic couplets': a
were many regional styles, but the nationwide spread of form perfected in the 17th and i8th centuries by Dryden
the music through records and the radio helped to forge and Pope. Couplets of *alexandrines were the standard
a recognizable mainstream style. However, in the 1930s verse-form of French drama in the age of Racine. A
regional variations continued outside the mainstream: couplet may also stand alone as an *epigram, or form
examples include cajun music (from French-speaking part of a larger *stanza, or (as in Shakespeare) round off
rural Louisiana), Western swing (a blend of hillbilly a *sonnet or a dramatic scene.
music with early jazz), honky tonk (an urban sound from
Texas), and bluegrass (from the Appalachian mountains). courante, a dance of French origin, popular in the 17th
Meanwhile, mainstream country and western continued century. was quick and in triple time, and was often
It
to develop; in the 1950s and 1960s artists such as Jim used as a lively contrast to the *allemande. The courante
Reeves, Johnny Cash, and Patsy Cline spread its appeal appears in Italian sources as the corrente and in England
to (mainly white) urban communities. More recently as the coranto. It is one of the basic movements of the
artists such as Glen Campbell and Dolly Parton have dance *suite.
COURBET, GUSTAVE 116
Courbet, Gustave (1819-77), French painter, the out- followed successful comedies {Hay Fever, 1925), dramas
standing figure of the *ReaHst movement. He established [The Vortex, 1924), revues [This Tear of Grace, 1928), and
his reputation at the 1850 Paris *Salon, where he ex- operettas [Bitter Sweet, 1929). Two comedies, Private Lives
hibited three large paintings that treated scenes fi^om (1930) and Blithe Spirit (1942), are outstanding. His
everyday Hfe on an epic scale normally associated with music, inextricably linked to his own brilliant lyrics,
grandiose religious or historical subjects. The most famous ranges from the delicately sentimental to the satirical.
of the three, The Burial at Ornans, showing an interment
at a cemetery on a hill outside his home town, was Cowley, Abraham (1618-67), English *metaphysical
attacked by some critics for its alleged crudity and poet and essayist. During the English Civil War he
deliberate ugliness, but it was also hailed for its powerful contributed to the Royalist cause with a satire, The Puritan
naturalism. His most famous painting. The Painter's Studio, and the Papist (1643). His other works include The Mistress
is an elaborate allegory of his own life and also contains (1647), love poems, 'Miscellanies' in Poems (1656), which
subtle political allusions attacking Napoleon HI. After contains the scriptural epic 'Davideis', and 'Pindarique
the deposition of Napoleon in 1871 Courbet was active Odes,' which employ the irregular Pindaric *ode that
in the short-lived Commune (the insurrectionary gov- was to influence later poets. His prose works, which
ernment in Paris). He was imprisoned and then fled to combine grace and simplicity with bright rhythmic dis-
Switzerland, where he remained for the rest of his life. course, include A Proposition for the Advancement of Learning
His work was influential because of his rejection of the (1661) and 'Essays' (1668).
traditional notions of idealization in art.
Cowper, William 73 ( 1 800) British poet and hymn-
1 - 1 ,
known as the king's jester, not to be confused with the insanity, and for consolation turned increasingly to evan-
humbler *fool of the folk festivals. His origin has been gelical Christianity. With John Newton, an evangelical
variously traced to the court of Haroun-al-Raschid, to curate, he wrote Olney Hymns [ 1 779) These were followed
.
the classical dwarf-buffoon, and to the inspired madman by several satires and poems, and by his comic ballad
of Celtic and Teutonic legend. At some point in his career John Gilpin (1785). His sympathetic feelings for nature
he adopted the parti-coloured costume of his rival, which presage *Romanticism. His best-known long poem, The
led to confusion between the two types, but the court fool Task (1785), stresses the delights of rural life and the
has nothing else in common with the folk tradition, whose poet's own search for peace. Man's isolation, storms, and
fool is nearer to the *clown. Shakespeare's fools derive shipwrecks recur in his works as images of the mysterious
from the court fool, already a tradition in his time. In ways of God. His letters are considered among the most
dramatic use they serve as vehicles for social *satire. brilliant in the language.
courtly love, a modern term for the literary cult of Cox, David (1783- 1859), British *landscape painter,
heterosexual love which emerged among the French one of the best-known water-colourists of his period. In
aristocracy from the late ith century, with a profound
i
spite of a certain anecdotal homeliness, his style was
effect upon subsequent Western attitudes to love. The broad and vigorous, and in 1836 he began to paint on a
troubadours (*minstrels) of southern France, followed by rough wrapping paper that was particularly suited to it.
French and German *romance writers and by *Dante, A similar paper was subsequently marketed as 'Cox
* Petrarch, and other Italian poets, converted sexual Paper'. He wrote several treatises on landscape painting
desire from a degrading necessity of physical life into a in water-colour, and frequently in oils.
despite celebrating adultery (as in stories of Lancelot and director of the French Academy there, which explains
Guinevere) rather than the then merely economic relation the strong Italian element in his style. This is particularly
of marriage. *Chaucer treated the cult sceptically, but evident in his finest work, the ceiling of the chapel at
its influence is strong in 16th-century English *lyrics.
Versailles (1708), which is convincingly *Baroque and
much more successful than many other of his ambitious
Covent Garden Theatre, the London theatre devoted works, which tend to combine bombast with pedantry.
since the mid- 19th century to opera, now known as the His half-brother Noel-Nicholas (1690- 1734) painted
Royal Opera House. opened in 1732 as the Theatre
It charming mythological subjects, but his rather timid
Royal, sharing with *Drury Lane a monopoly of le- personality prevented him from achieving the worldly
gitimate theatre in London until 1843. In 1773 it pre- success of his relatives.
sented the first performance of Goldsmith's She Stoops to
Conquer. Its dramatic heyday was the early 19th century, Cozens, Alexander (1717-86), British *landscape
under the managements of *Kemble and *Macready. It draughtsman, the first major British artist to devote
was rebuilt twice after fires in 1808 and 1856. himself entirely to landscape. In 1 785 or 1 786 he published
his famous treatise A Mevu Method of Assisting the Invention
Coward, Sir Noel (1899- 1973), British composer, in Drawing Original Compositions of Landscape, in which he
author, actor, producer. His acting career began in 191 1, explains his method of using accidental blots on the
his first effective song, 'Forbidden Fruit', dates from 1916, drawing paper to stimulate the imagination by suggesting
and his first play, /'// Leave it to Ton, from 1920. There landscape forms that could be developed into a finished
117 CRASHAW
work. He worked almost exclusively in monochrome, and reputation for the company's theatrical and athletic new
both his 'blot drawings' and his more formal compositions works. His own choreography is notable chiefly for
use intense lights and darks with masterly effect. His son, full-length dramatic works such as Onegin (1965) and
John Robert Cozens 752-97), was also an outstanding
( i Carmen (1971).
landscape painter in water-colour. He did not compose
wholly from imagination like his father, but he often craquelure (French, 'crackling', 'crazing'), the network
rearranged natural features in the interests of the com- of small cracks that appears on the surface of a painting
position. His finest works have an exquisite sense of poetic when the *pigment or *varnish has become brittle with
melancholy, and his work was admired and copied by age. Craquelure is apparent to some extent in all old
artists of the stature of Constable and Turner. paintings, but its appearance and obtrusiveness varies
with such factors as the materials used, the age of the
Crabbe, George (1754- 1832), British poet. In The picture, and the skill of the artist. When the cracks are
Village 783) and in other works he paints precise, closely
( I circular in form, as in Reynolds's Mrs Siddons as the Tragic
observed portraits of the cruel realities of country life, Muse (British Museum, London), it is known as 'rivelling'.
making and writing
plain his revulsion from the *pastoral,
mainly in the *heroic couplets of the *Augustan age. Crashaw, Richard (c. 161 2 49), English poet. He con-
The Borough (1810) describes the life, characters, and verted to Roman Catholicism in about 1645, at the time
surroundings of his birthplace, Aldeburgh in Suffolk, of Puritan rule in England, and spent the rest of his life
where he was curate; two of the Tales, 'Ellen Orford' and in exile in France and Italy. His principal work. Steps to
'Peter Grimes' were combined in Britten's opera Peter the Temple (1646) is a collection of religious poems in-
Grimes (1945). fluenced by *Marino and the Spanish *mystics; to this
was attached the secular Delights of the Muses, containing
Craig, Edward Gordon (1872- 1966), British stage
designer and theorist. Originally an actor, he became an The Judgement of Pans was one of Cranach's favourite
innovatory designer. His theory on acting, which involved subjects, allowing him to display his skill m
pamtmg the
the actor becoming the director's puppet, and on scenery female nude. Paris (7e/0, is asked to judge which of the
(including movable screens), are collated in On the Art of three goddesses, Hera, Athene, or Aphrodite, is the most
the Theatre (191 1), and had great influence in Europe and
Cranach shows the scene in contemporary
beautiful.
costume: Pans is a knight m armour rather than a
the USA.
shepherd and the three contestants are girlish coquettes,
not remote divinities. (Staatliche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe)
Cranach, Lucas (the Elder) (1472- 1553), German
painter. He was court painter to Frederick HI (the Wise),
Elector of Saxony, and lived in Wittenberg until 1550,
when he followed the Elector John Frederick (the Un-
fortunate) into exile. His career was extremely successful
and he became one of Wittenberg's wealthiest and most
respected citizens. His paintings were eagerly sought by
collectors his busy studio often produced numerous
and
replicas of popular designs, particularly those in which
he showed his skill at depicting female beauty. He excelled
at erotic nudes and pictures of coquettish women wearing
large hats, sometimes shown as the biblical heroine Judith
or the goddesses in The Judgement of Paris. Cranach was
also a fine portraitist, and in his early works particularly
he showed a poetic feeling for landscape. His son, Lucas
(the Younger) (1515-86), was his pupil and skilful assist-
ant, imitating his father's style so successfully that it is
Crome, John (i 768-1821), British *landscape painter crown jewels. Among the earliest examples of crowns
and etcher, was with *Cotman the major artist of the are those of ancient Egypt, which range from geometric
*Norwich School. He spent his life in Norwich, and his designs to gold coronets of floral wreaths, and silver, gem-
paintings show a keen appreciation of local characteristics. set crowns embossed with busts and plumes of the goddess
Largely self-taught, he was influenced particularly by the Isis. Early European examples are the mid-7th century
great Dutch landscape painters such as *Ruisdael and votive crowns found at Toledo. Known as the 'Guarrazar'
*Hobbema, and also by *Gainsborough and Richard treasures, they are studded with pearls and precious stones
*Wilson. He is sometimes known as 'Old Crome' to set in gold. They carry pendants of jewels or cut-out letters
1842), who was also a painter, but of lesser talent. from a ceiling for ceremonial use. Two of the most notable
crowns of the early Middle Ages are the Wenceslaus crown
crooning, a singing style adopted by US singers of in Prague and the so-called Charlemagne crown, now in
*popular music from about 1930. It was soft and sen- the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The latter bears
timental and relied upon microphones to build up the the insignia of the Holy Roman Emperor with depictions
tone. The technique was introduced by such artists as of religious subjects in enamel, surrounded by a border of
Rudy Vallee and 'Whispering' Jack Smith and perfected filigree encrusted with pearls and precious stones. In the
by Bing Crosby, Perry Como, and Frank Sinatra. 13th and 14th centuries a great number of royal crowns
119 CUMMINGS
were made. Among the finest is the crown of Princess moment and place. They represented subjects from a
Blanche, daughter of King Henry IV of England, worn at multiplicity of angles, rather than showing them from a
her wedding at the age of lo in 1402. It demonstrates single, fixed viewpoint, so that many different aspects of
the Gothic style at its most refined, with a garland of the same object could be seen simultaneously. Influenced
long-stemmed fleur-de-lis springing up from narrow circ- by *African sculpture and the later paintings of *Cezanne,
lets of gold and precious stones. The present English col- Cubist work up to 191 2 is called 'Analytical' Cubism:
lection of crown jewels kept in the Tower of London was forms were analysed into predominantly geometrical
made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661. It includes structures and colour was extremely subdued. In a second
the sword of state, the royal sceptre (containing the Star of phase, known as 'Synthetic' Cubism, colour became much
Africa, cut from the Cullinan diamond), the ampulla (the stronger and shapes more decorative, and elements such
container for the holy oil used in anointing), the orb, and as stencilled lettering and pieces of newspaper were
the anointing spoon. introduced into paintings and made into *collages. Juan
*Gris was as important as Braque or Picasso in this phase
Cruelty, Theatre of *Artaud, Antonin. of the movement. World War I brought an end to the
collaboration of Braque and Picasso, but their work was
Cruikshank, George (1792- 1878), British painter, a major influence on other movements, among them
illustrator, and *caricaturist. He was the son of a ca- *Futurism, *Orphism, *Purism, and *Vorticism. Certain
ricaturist, Isaac Cruikshank (c. 1756-c. 181 1), and was forms of modern poetry, prose, and music have been
precociously gifted, quickly establishing himself as called Cubist because of their multi-image structure.
*Gillray's successor as a political cartoonist. The private
life of the Prince Regent was one of his first targets. In cueca, a lively dance from Chile, which alternates
the 1820S he began to turn to book illustration, in which between 3/4 and 6/8 tempo in eight-syllable *quatrains,
field his output was immense, including many of the novels interspersed with improvised dialogues. It is danced by
of Dickens. Later he took up the cause of temperance, a couple to the accompaniment of tonic and dominant
producing moral narratives in woodcut. chords on guitars, punctuated by hand claps of the singers,
and dancers. The song 'America' from *Bernstein's West
cruxnhorn, a reed musical instrument with a hook- Side Story is in the style of a cueca.
shaped lower end used between about 1480 and about
1640 and now revived. It has a cylindrical bore and is Cui, Cesar The *Five.
played with a double reed inside a cap with a hole in the
top to blow into. The sound is low-pitched and buzzing. cuxnxnings, e. e. (Edward EstHn) (1894-1962), US
The main members of the family were the descant in C, poet. His published poetry was written in a relatively
first
the alto in G, the tenor in C, and the bass in F (this last conventional style, but in &
(1925) and is ^ (1926) he
often being extended to low C). The name comes from started to adopt the techniques he is best known for:
the upcurved end (German, krumm, 'crooked'). vernacular language, tricks of typography and spelling
(including lower case for his own name), hybrid verse-
crwth, a bowed stringed musical instrument played like forms, and word plays. His verse, collected in Complete
a *fiddle, with the two upright arms and yoke of a *lyre
used in Wales until the early 19th century. The bowed
lyre was widely used in the early Middle Ages, but was Georges Braque's Bottle and Fishes (c. 1809-12) shows
replaced in the 12th century by the *harp. It reappeared
how far Cubism had moved along the road to
abstraction.The objects are still recognizable, but their
as the crowd before 1400, always with a fingerboard and
forms have been radically fragmented. Braque seems to
with two *drone strings, either plucked with the left have worked on the picture, which is exceptionally
thumb or bowed. The crwth was the final form of this heavily painted, over a number of years. (Tate Gallery,
instrument, with a finger board, and three pairs of strings. London)
Poems (1968), celebrates individual vision and experience bered principally for L" Autre Monde, published post-
in a modern age of mass culture and uniformity. humously in 1656,an extravagant account of an imaginary
visit to the moon which is in reality a satire of contemporary
Cunningham, Merce (19 19 ), US
dancer, cho- France. Some of Cyrano's views, such as his conception of a
reographer, teacher, and director. He danced with the materialistic universeand his criticism oforthodox religious
*Graham company 1939^45) and, after a period as a solo
( practices, which were considered subversive in the 17th
dancer, started his own company in 1952. He is one of the century, anticipate *Diderot and the *Enlightenment. He
major figures in *modern dance who pursued the question is the hero of Edmond Rostand's play Cyrano de Bergerac
of form through chance and indeterminacy. His use of (1897), in which he is portrayed as a gallant lover of grot-
isolated body parts is combined with intricate fast (balletic) esque appearance.
footwork and twisted and tilted trunk articulations. He
fashioned this vocabulary into an alternative modern Czech literature, the literature of the Czech-speaking
dance technique to that of Graham. He is noted for his part of Czechoslovakia. The beginning of vernacular
collaborations with the composer *Cage and painters such writing dates to the 9th century, when the greater part
as *Rauschenberg and *Warhol, in which each art pursues of the Bible was translated into literary Slavonic (now
its independent course. Among his many works are How to known as Old Church Slavonic). The Legends that recount
Pass, Kick, Fall and Run (1965), VValkaround Time (1968), the life of St Wenceslas (loth century) are written partly
and Duels (1980). Excerpts from his works are sometimes in Czech. Until the late 14th century Czech literature
compiled into Events. consisted mainly of Latin chronicles such as the History
of Bohemia by Cosmas of Prague, and Czech hymns,
Currier, Nathaniel (181388) and Ives, James M. courtly literature such as the Alexandreis, and verse satire.
834-95) U'S print publishers who went into partnership
( 1 '
A political allegory, The New Council, was written by Smil
in 1857 and produced a vast number of 'Colored En- Flaska of Pardubice as a defence of the Bohemian nobility
gravings for the People' representing almost every aspect against the crown. The best and most original works of
of contemporary America. A number of artists were the reformer Jan Hus were written in the
religious
retained by the firm to draw the *lithographs in black vernacular, laying the foundation for a new uniformity
and white, and the prints were coloured by hand on a in Czech orthography and grammar. The defeat of the
production-line system. The business was carried on until Czech nobility in the Thirty Years War (161 8-48) resulted
1907 by the sons of the founders. Currier and Ives in a suppression of the Czech language, while its literature
prints have all the virtues of good popular art, being survived mainly in ballads and folk tales. The radical
unpretentious, vigorous, and colourful. Protestant and egalitarian ideas of Peter Chelcicky
((". 390-(;m46o) inspired scholars to translate the Kralice
I
Cuyp, family of Dutch painters, three members of which Bible (1579-93), whose language became the model for
gained distinction. Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp ( 65 1
1 594 c. 1
cla.ssical Czech.
In the 17th century the educational
excelled as a portraitist, his depictions of children being
reformer and religious thinker Comenius published, while
particularly charming. His half-brother Benjamin Ger- in exile, one of the supreme achievements of Czech prose
ritsz. Cuyp (1612-52) is noted for and genre
his biblical literature, the Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the
scenes, which use light and shadow effects in a manner Heart 1631), as well as the first illustrated children's book
(
akin to the early work of *Rembrandt. The most illustrious in any language, The Visible World in Pictures (1658). In
member of the family is Aelbert Cuyp (1620 91), the the 8th century the scholar Josef Dobrovsky led a revival
1
son and probably the pupil of Benjamin Gerritsz. Aelbert of older Czech literature and codified the language. In
painted many subjects, but he is now remembered as one the 19th century Slavophilism, also expressed in *Slovak
of the greatest Dutch landscape painters. His finest literature, inspired the work of the greatest poet of Czech
works — typically river scenes and landscapes with placid, *Romanticism *Macha. A reaction against this were the
dignified-looking cows — show great serenity and masterly satirical writings of Karel Havlicek (1821-56) and the
handling of glowing light. realist novels of Bozena Nemcova (1820-62). After in-
dependence in 1918 the plays and novels of *Capek
cymbals, bronze plates, either clashed together in pairs,
achieved world renown, as did *Hasek's satire on war,
or used singly and struck with a drumstick. Small cymbals
The Good Soldier Schweik. After the Communist take-over
were used world (the origin of the orchestral
in the ancient
in 1948, *Socialist Realism prevailed, but this was su-
'antique' cymbals), sometimes on the ends of tongs;
perseded by the introspective plays of writers such as
they were also used in the Middle Ages. Medium-sized
*Havel and *Hrabal who chose to remain in their country
instruments came into military bands in the late i8th
after the 'Prague Spring' of 1968, and the novels of others
century with Turkish music, and were occasionally used
such as Milan *Kundera and Arnost Lustig, who chose
orchestrally. Larger instruments were used from the
exile after 1968. After 1969 the works of many play-
mid- 1 9th century. Cymbals are graded in tone for various
wrights, poets, and novelists were banned and were
uses: military, orchestral, suspended, ride (for popular
published instead by the underground press in the form
music), crash, etc. Many different styles of cymbal are
of 'self-published' or samizdat editions, circulated in type-
used throughout Asia. Large Tibetan cymbals have deep
written and hand-bound form. An alternative culture
domes, whereas the Chinese cymbals have small, high
was thus created, which proved to be culturally more
centres and upturned rims. Small, thick cymbals are used
influential than the oflficial one. After the political up-
in Tibet and elsewhere. Cymbals are used throughout the
heaval of 1989 censorship restrictions on samizdat and
Islamic world and in India, especially by dancers.
were removed, and their work fused once
exiled writers
more into the mainstream of Czech culture.
Cyrano de Bergerac, Savinien (1619-55), French
writer of fantastic and burlesque romances. He is remem-
— a
121 DANCE
D
dactyl, a metrical unit (foot) of verse, having one stressed
syllable followed by two unstressed syllables, as in the
feeling that he
1930s.
produced
—
word 'barbarous'; or (in Greek and Latin verse) one long masterpiece of serialism and a powerful expression of his
syllable and two short ones. Dactylic *hexameters were hatred of fascism. Later works, such as the Songs of Freedom
used in Greek and Latin *epic poetry. for chorus and orchestra (1955), the ballet Marsia (1943),
and the operas Job (1950) and Ulisse (1968), were
Dada (French, 'hobby-horse'), a movement in European influenced by *Webern and consequently are leaner
and US art characterized' by violent revolt against tra- in texture. Despite his adherence to serial techniques,
ditional values. It was founded in Zurich in 1915, arising Dallapiccola's music is essentially lyrical.
from the mood of disillusionment engendered by World
War L Emphasis was given to the illogical and the damascening, the technique of ornamenting a metal
absurd, and the importance of chance in artistic creation (often steel or brass) by inlaying
it with a design in
was exaggerated. According to the most popular of several another metal or metals (usually gold or silver). The
accounts of how the name originated, it was chosen by technique was often used on arms and armour. The word
inserting a penknife at random in the pages of a dictionary, derives from the city of Damascus, which was long famous
thus symbolizing the anti-rational stance of the move- for its sword blades. Originally the term referred to the
ment. Dada artists did not cultivate a particular style, process of imparting a 'watered' (ripple) pattern to the
but went to extremes in the use of buffoonery and surface of the blade.
provocative behaviour to disrupt public complacency.
*Montage, *collage, and the ready-made were among Dance, George (i 741 -1825), British architect. He stud-
was the nonsense poem
the typical forms of expression, as ied architecture in Italy (1758-64), where he absorbed
Dada spread quickly (notably
in the field of literature.
to NewYork, where Marcel *Duchamp was the leader
Magazines such as this played an important role in
of the movement), but it did not survive long as an
spreadmg the ideas of Dada (and later of Surrealism).
organized movement. Its influence, however, was pro- They are also of great value m recordmg the appearance
found, notably on *Surrealism (particularly in its tend- of Dada works, many of which were produced m
ency towards absurdity and whimsicality), * Abstract unconventional media and have not survived.
Expressionism, and * Conceptual art.
Diraklion r. hauimann
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande (1787 185 1), Sttglitz zimmermann
French inventor of photography. In 1829 Daguerre slrasse 34
theatrical scenery painter and joint owner of the Paris
—
Diorama became the partner of Joseph Nicephore
Niepce, who had taken the world's earliest photograph
'from nature' (the 'heliograph') three years before. In
1839 Daguerre at last published a development of Niepce's 50Pfg.
process. Niepce had died in 1833, so it was Daguerre who
reaped honours and riches, and his name was attached
"iB'D
to the first practical photograph, the daguerreotype, a
'one-off direct positive with no negative. o
10"
the spirit of *Neoclassicism. In 1768 he succeeded his the Ballets Russes, *Balanchine. He established the School
father as Clerk of the City Works, and much of his work of American Ballet in 1934, and in 1948 he and writer
involved public and mercantile buildings in the City of Lincoln Kirstein founded *New York City Ballet explicitly
London; he was an innovative town-planner, but few of to perform Balanchine's work. The company's reputation
his schemes were fully realized. His masterpiece was is based on its definitive interpretations of Balanchine's
Newgate Prison (1770-80, demolished 1902), the massive, choreography and its associated neoclassical technique.
severe forms of which perfectly expressed its forbidding * American Ballet Theatre, founded in 1939, developed
function. The austerity and nobility of his style are an eclectic transatlantic artistic policy with a wide rep-
reflected in the work of his most important pupil, Sir ertoire of works. Another ex-member of Diaghilev's Ballets
John *Soane. Russes was dancer Serge Lifar. In 1929 he became
ballet-master of the Paris Opera Ballet, beginning the
dance companies. The tradition of groups of dancers revival of French dance. *Nureyev is currently artistic
training and performing together originated in the Re- director of the Paris Opera Ballet; with the strengthening
naissance courts of France and Italy. Louis XIV sought of its classical repertoire and the formation of an ex-
to improve standards of the * ballet de com by the es- perimental modern group, the company is again of
tablishment of the first dance academy in 1661, which international standing. In Germany the pre-eminent
led to the distinction between the amateur dancing of ballet company is the Stuttgart Ballet. Modern ballets
the aristocracy and professional dancers. The Academic were responsible for the revival of the Stuttgart Ballet, in
Royale de Musique was also founded by Louis XIV, and a city where ballets de cour were first performed in the
later spawned the Paris Opera Ballet. A distinguished early 1600s. Under the directorship of *Cranko between
succession of ballet-masters and dancers, including the 196 and 1973 the company achieved international status
1
composer *Lully, the Taglionis, Saint Leon, and *Petipa with a broadly based repertoire in which expressionistic
ensured its reputation, despite periods of mediocrity both works by *MacMillan and Cranko's own dramatic cho-
before and after the Romantic period. By 1740 an reography contrasted with that of Balanchine. *Modern
Imperial School of Ballet had been established at the dance companies are often formed by one choreographer
Winter Palace in St Petersburg, and Russian soloists to present their work exclusively. The modern dance
danced in a fully established company. The Moscow pioneers *Wigman, *Graham, and *Humphrey all
Ballet Company (later to become the *Bolshoi Ballet) formed their own companies, while such artists as *Bausch
was opened while Russian nobles created their
in 1825, and * Cunningham continue the practice. But broader-
own companies composed of their serfs and drawing on based modern companies have developed, particularly in
native Russian dance-forms. The Russian Imperial Ballet Europe. One of the earliest was Netherlands Dance
at St Petersburg became the Maryinsky and then the Theatre, formed in 1959, which has become an important
*Kirov Ballet in 1935, continuing Petipa's emphasis on platform for the work of such choreographers as Anna
classical purity of line and elegance, in contrast to the Sokolow, Glen Tetley, Hans Van Manen, and Jiri Kylian.
Bolshoi's vivid dramatic, athletic style. Dancers from the In Britain the *London Contemporary Dance Theatre
Maryinsky and Moscow Ballets formed the backbone of was the first dance company in Europe to be based on
a troupe of Russian dancers, known as the Ballets Russes, Martha Graham's work. Recently a new generation of
organized by *Diaghilev to present a season in Paris in choreographers such as Alston and *Davies has emerged
1909. The Ballets Russes company existed for twenty from the company. * Postmodern dance companies are
years and was famous for generating new work and for typically 'pick-up' companies with informal arrangements
collaborations between composers, choreographers, and and a sequence of changing dancers. In the USA the
painters. The dispersal of Diaghilev's dancers and cho- Trisha *Brown company is an exception to this, but most
reographers after his death in 1929 encouraged a wide- US and British postmodern companies are distinguished
spread revival of ballet, particularly in Britain and the by a total commitment to the creation and presentation
USA, where the seeds of new national dance forms were of new work. Two British modern dance companies
sown. In London in 1930 the Marie Rambert Dancers which have established themselves, albeit with a changing
were formed, and later renamed Ballet Rambert. During company membership, are Second Stride (founded by
the 1960s Rambert changed to become a small modern Siobhan Davies and Australian choreographer Ian Spink)
company, presenting works by new choreographers like and the Rosemary *Butcher Dance Company.
*Bruce and * Alston. In 1986 Alston became director of
the company, renaming it *Rambert Dance Company.
Another major British company founded around the same dance, medieval, dance Europe from r.700 to
in
time was the *Royal Ballet (orginally the Vic-Wells c. 1500. As well as the *folk dance forms
traditional
Ballet), set up by Ninette *de Valois, which gave its first associated with fertility rites (for example, the maypole
performances in 1931. She also established the Royal dance), and warrior and demoniacal rituals, dancing took
Ballet Schools and ensured a theatre base for the company place in churches to the accompaniment of music, to
at the Royal Opera House. The English National Ballet celebrate religious ceremonials. In time the dances became
(formerly London Festival Ballet) emerged in the 1950s secularized and developed into social dance or theatrical
from the partnership of the first British *ballerina, *Mar- spectacle performed by travelling comedians. A form of
kova, and Anton Dolin. The company has always pursued ecstatic mass dance, the St Vitus's or St John's dance
a policy of combining the classics with the works of evolved in the iith and 12th centuries; a wild, leaping
modern choreographers and, through its director Peter dance, its protagonists sang and danced themselves into
Schaufuss, has developed links with another strong Euro- exhaustion. By the 12th century a form of courtly, paired
pean tradition, the *Royal Danish Ballet. The catalyst dance had evolved in Provence to the accompaniment of
for the development of American dance was the arrival musical instruments and singing by spectators. Until
in New York of the former principal choreographer of banned by the Ecumenical Council of Basle in 1445 the
123 DANCE NOTATION
A medieval dance is seen here performed at court to the of notation (which he called choreographie) was credited to
accompaniment of bagpipes and shawm. The long, Raoul Feuillet in 1700 and depicted the paths traced by
pointed shoes (left and centre) worn by both men and the dancers, adding signs for turns, beats, and other
women at this time were known as crackowes after the
Pohsh city of Krakow. The shaping of garments to the detailed footwork. This technique was inadequate, as it
body had begun at the end of the 13th century, facilitating assumed a general knowledge of the dances of the period,
the graceful, slow movements of the dance. (Biblioteca but it remains the only system to have reached the
Casanatense, Rome) non-specialist, with theatre-goers reading the notation of
the dances as they were performed, rather as concert-goers
pre-Christian winter saturnalia or Feast of Fools offered, refer to musical scores. *Choreographers in the 19th
as did similar feast days, an opportunity for men and century often resorted to small stick figures (as well as
women to dance in leaping and skipping steps, carrying memory) to preserve their work until Vladimir Stepanov's
bells and sometimes wearing masks. The dancers linked method (1892), analogous to musical notation, allowed
hands and danced in a circular, clockwise pattern, often for more detailed recording of ballets. Fully workable
around a focal figure such as a hobby-horse or a green systems did not evolve until the 20th century. *Laban's
man. In the late 15th century the dance of the 'Seven kinetography (1928), now called Labanotation, tends to
Virtues and Seven Sins' was presented by priests and be used for modern dance. It gives sophisticated in-
their choristers as part of the Corpus Christi festival in dications of the direction, spatial dimensions, duration,
Madrid, out of which later allegorical dance-dramas were and quality (hard/soft) of the movement. The Benesh
to evolve. system (1956), also called choreology, is used by most
ballet companies. The positions of all the parts of the
dance notation, the recording of movement in words, body are indicated on a five-line musical stave, with signs
drawings, or symbols. In the late 1 5th century well-known to indicate duration and the missing third dimension.
steps were recorded by single letter abbreviations (such Another, less common, form of notation is the Eshkol-
as R for reverence), and during the i6th and 17th Wachmann system, developed in Israel in 1958. Modern
centuries dancing masters published manuals describing notation systems, usually in combination with video, can
how steps should be performed. The first developed form provide complete permanent records of dances. A recent
DANCE OF DEATH 124
^J.
^i«
y-
SiW^iiB
"Bou r'c
la Boiirec cIAchillc
v<
50
Al iilL lilL
i1^ r /
Y^ ^X
v<
y
y
N, Cl \, C2 \ \, C4
Two examples of dance notation. The Feuillet system, courage during World War I. His opus is vast and uneven,
right, shows the
floor plan for two dancers, while the its tenor is generally pagan, evoking the Nietzschean,
Laban system, left, shows the choreography for five
superman-hero, and setting the tone for Mussolini's fascist
dancers, mdicated by the double vertical paths marked
B, CI, C2, C3, and C4. A
diagonal line indicates that regime. Among his best work are the autobiographical
dancer C3, for example, performs the same movements novel The Child of Pleasure (1898) and his collection of
as dancer CI m
the first two bars. The three lower poetry In Praise of Sky, Sea, Earth, and Heroes (1899).
diagrams indicate the positions and movements of the D'Annunzio ruled the Dalmatian port of Fiume as dic-
dancers on stage. tator from 1919 to 92 1.
1
innovation that promises to extend the use of notation is Dante Alighieri (i 265-1 321), Italian poet, prose writer,
the development of computer software to facilitate the literary theorist,moral philosopher, and political thinker.
writing and learning of notation. Born in Florence he spent the first half of his life there
until political upheaval forced him into exile, seeking
dance of death (danse macabre), a theme in art in which refuge in one princely court after another. His Florentine
living people are led to their graves by a personification years were marked by his passion for Beatrice Portinari,
of death, typically a skeleton. The human figures are who died in 1290 aged barely 20, and who remained the
usually arranged in order of social precedence, the idea inspiration of his poetry and of his Christian devotion for
being to show, in allegorical form, the inevitability of the remainder of his life. This tragic love occasioned the
death and the equality of all men in the face of it. The beautiful lyric poems in The New Life (c. 1293). In exile
idea of death as a dancer or a fiddler is very ancient; a he wrote two Latin treatises. Eloquence in the Vernacular
dance of skeletons has been found on an Etruscan tomb. Tongue, of major importance in establishing the Italian
The theme was highly popular in Europe in the 15th and vernacular in place of Latin as the literary language, and
16th centuries in virtually all forms of the pictorial arts On World Government, which supported the Holy Roman
(for example, the famous woodcuts Totentanz designed by Emperor against the claims of the Pope. The Banquet
Holbein and first published in 1538). Mimed rep- (c 1304-7) is an unfinished philosophical work. The Divine
resentations of this symbolic dance were carried out in Comedy he began c. 1308, but did not complete until late
Germany, Flanders, France, and elsewhere. Saint-Saens's in life. A poem in and
three parts, Inferno, Purgatory,
symphonic poem Danse macabre (1874) is based on a poem Paradise, it describes Dante's journey to God, accompanied
by Henri Cazalis, and in the 20th century ballets have by *Virgil (symbolizing human reason) to the point
been composed on the theme. where Beatrice (divine grace) must guide him. On his
journey he stops to talk to all manner of people, both
D'Annunzio, Gabriele (1863-1938), Itafian poet, contemporaries and figures of antiquity and mythology.
dramatist, novelist, short-story writer, and military leader. As he descends through the nine circles of Hell to Satan,
He led an active life, which included acts of heroic trapped in ice at the earth's core, and ascends the
125 DAVID
seven-storey mountain of Purgatory, he gradually be- the French *Symbolist poetry, but by the time he was to
comes purged of his sinfulness and ready to be led through publish his masterpiece, Songs of Life and Hope (1905), he
a series of celestial spheres to the Empyrean, where God had changed direction and was writing modern, socially
dwells. The Divine Comedy is a completecosmography of committed poetry. His work continues to influence Latin
medieval lore, and a profound recapitulation of the American literature today.
Christian doctrine of Fall and Redemption, couched in
verse which ranges from the majestic to the sublimely Daudet, Alphonse (1840-97), French novelist. He is
beautiful — especially in its imagery. It represents the chiefly remembered for his Lettres de mon moulin (1866),
pinnacle of Italian poetry. humorous sketches of life in Provence, and the three
comic Tartarin stories, especially the first, Tarlarin de
Danube School, a term applied to a number of painters Tarascon (1872). Daudet is often linked with *Naturalism,
working in the Danube valley in the early i6th century the extreme form of *Realism associated with Zola and
who were among the pioneers of depicting *landscape *Maupassant, though he writes with more warmth and
for its own sake. *Altdorfer and *Cranach the Elder (in humour than is typical of that school. He also wrote short
his earlywork) are the best-known artists covered by the stories, including Les Contes du lundi (1873), ^^^ ^ P'^Y'
term. These two and other landscape pioneers such as L'Arlesienne (1877), with incidental music by Bizet.
Wolfgang Huber worked independently of one another;
the term is thus one of convenience rather than an Daumier, Honore (1808-79), French *caricaturist,
indication of any formal group. painter, and sculptor. He began his career as a political
cartoonist in 1830 after learning the process of *litho-
danzon * rumba. graphy, and his attacks on King Louis-Philippe in the
left-wing press were so effective that he was sentenced to
Dario, Ruben (Felix Ruben Garcia Sarmiento) (1867 six months' imprisonment in 1832. When political satire
igi6), Nicaraguan poet, journalist, and diplomat. An was suppressed in 1835 he turned to social satire, return-
innovator in poetic imagery, metre, and rhythm, he led ing to political themes after the 1848 Revolution. He is
the literary movement of *modernism both in Latin regarded as the greatest caricaturist of the 19th century,
America and Spain. He published his first major work, with a remarkable power to interpret mental folly in
Blue (1888), in Chile, a collection of verse and prose terms of physical absurdity. His painting and sculpture
which broke with the complex literary idiom of the past were less well known in his lifetime, but are now highly
in favour of a simpler, more direct language. His Profane regarded. He never made a commercial success of his art,
Hymns and Other Poems (1896) was heavily influenced by and in the last years of his life he was saved from
destitution by the generosity of Corot.
career working in a *Rococo manner, but during the constitute the basisfor extended improvisation), and
1 770s his style changed radically, particularly after he making the first commercially successful jazz-rock record.
had lived in Rome (1775-80). Under the influence of the Bitches Brew, in 1969.
art of ancient Rome his style became heroic and severe,
and on his return to France he soon found himself the Deburau *mime.
leader of the reaction from the frivolity of the Rococo
towards an art more in tune with the soberer social and Debussy, (Achille-) Claude (1862 918), French
1
moral values that then dominated French life. His themes composer. Initially trained for a career as a pianist, he
gave expression to the new cult of the civic virtues turned to composition, winning the Prix de Rome (1884)
of stoical self-sacrifice, devotion to duty, honesty, and with the cantata T
Enfant prodigue. Debussy's work came
austerity. The painting that made
reputation was The
his to the notice of the public in 1893 ^ith the performance
Oath of The Horatii ( 1 784), which depicts a Roman legend of the cantata La Damoiselle Hue and the String Quartet
of three brothers who fight for Rome against three enemy in G minor. These were quickly followed (1894) by an
champions. David was in sympathy with the ideals of the orchestral masterpiece that was revolutionary in style:
French Revolution and took an active part in it. Napoleon Prelude a Papres-midi d'un faune. Later works include his
appointed him his chief painter in 1804 and David opera based on * Maeterlinck's Symbolist play Pelleas et
glorified his life in a series of pictures that show a move Melisande (1895, performed in 1902); the orchestral suites
away from the severity of Neoclassicism to a more Nocturnes (1899), La Mer (1905), and Images (191 2); and
*Romantic ardour. After Napoleon's defeat in 1 8 1 5 David two important collections of piano Preludes (1910, 191 3).
went into exile in Brussels. His work weakened as the Debussy was of prime significance in helping to free
possibility of exerting a moral and social influence 20th-century music from the restrictions of classical form
declined, although he remained a superb portraitist. He and orthodox harmonic progression. His explorations
had many pupils, the most important of whom was were influenced by Indonesian *gamelan music and
*Ingres. His influence on European painting was enorm- Afro-American *ragtime, and it was through him that
ous. the West began to recognize the virtues of such music.
His melodic lines are fluid, and often based on unusual
Davies, Sir Peter Maxwell (1934- ), British com-
poser. He has combined an interest in *medieval musi-
Woman Combing her Hair (c. 1885) shows a favourite
cal techniques with the influence of *Stravinsky and Degas theme: at the Impressionist exhibition m 1886 he
*Schoenberg to produce a very distinctive, often violent, sent m ten pictures under the general title 'series of
style —as expressed in the operas Taverner (1968) and The nudes of women bathing, washing, drying, toweUmg,
Lighthouse (1979). His music includes three symphonies combing their hair'. He wrote of such works: 'It is the
human animal preoccupied with itself, like a cat licking
(1976, 1980, 1984), a violin concerto (1985), and several
Itself. Hitherto the nude has always been shown m poses
theatre pieces written for the Pierrot Players (later The
which take an audience for granted,' (Musee d'Orsay,
Fires of London), which he founded in 1967. In 1970 he Pans)
settled on the island of Orkney, where he founded (1977)
the St Magnus Festival.
scale patterns; *harmonies are used for the sake of their life and manners, for its sympathy with the poor and the
colour and without regard to their status in the traditional oppressed, and for its bright wit. Many of his plays were
hierarchy of concords and discords; his forms are es- written in collaboration with other playwrights, including
sentially rhapsodic. Equally subtle is his colouristic treat- *VVebster, *Massinger, and *Middleton. His domestic
ment of the orchestra. Debussy's avoidance of the clear-cut comedy The Shoemaker's Holiday (1599), was followed by
definitions of Classical procedures gives his music a many others, including Satiromastix (1602; probably with
dream-like quality that equates very closely with the John Marston (c. 1575 1634)), which was a response to
achievements of the great *Impressionist painters. *Jonson's ridicule of Dekker in The Poetaster. He also
wrote pageants, tracts, pamphlets, and The Guls Horne-
Decorated style, the second of the three phases into booke (1609), a satirical book on manners, which gives a
which English *Gothic architecture is conventionally valuable account of the London theatres of the day.
divided, covering the period f. 1250 r. 1375, between
*Early English and * Perpendicular. This classification de Kooning, Willexn (1904- ), Dutch-born US
was devised (by the architect Thomas Rickman in 181 7) painter (and occasional sculptor). He
emigrated to the
mainly in terms of window design; in Decorated churches USA in 1926 and became prominent in the * Abstract
the simple Early English lancets were replaced by wider
Expressionist movement. After his first one-man show in
windows with bar * tracery that developed from simple 1948 he was generally recognized as sharing with Jackson
* Pollock the unofficial leadership of the Abstract Ex-
geometric designs to fanciful flowing patterns. (The terms
pressionist group. Unlike Pollock, de Kooning usually
'Geometrical' and 'Curvilinear' are often used to char-
retained figurative elements in his painting, which is often
acterize this evolution.) Increased ornamentation was
characterized by frenzied brushwork. His wife, Elaine
seen in other aspects of the Decorated style, in the growing
complexity of vault patterns for example, and the period
de Kooning 1920- ), is a painter and writer on art.
(
literature, and he alsohad a taste for the exotic, stemming than on obvious melody. Such works as the opera A
partly from a visit to Morocco in 1832. His other subjects Village Romeo and Juliet (1901) and the choral Sea-Drift
included portraits, noted for their spiritual intensity, (1904) show him at his most poetically evocative, while
and from the 1830s he undertook several great mural the North Country Sketches (191 4) reveal a sterner side of
decorations in public buildings in Paris. His style is his genius.
characterized by great energy, emotional fervour, and
scintillating colour. His use of colour influenced such Delorxne, Philibert (or de I'Orme) (c. 1510-70), the
diverse figures as Renoir, Seurat, and van Gogh. A dandy, outstanding French architect of the i6th century. He was
wit, and dashing society figure, Delacroix was also a fine an artist of great distinction and originality, but almost
writer, his Journal being a marvellously rich source of all his buildings have been destroyed. In 1533 6 he
information and opinion on his life and times. studied in Rome and he introduced a sophisticated
classicism into French architecture. His style, however,
de la Mare, Walter
(1873- 1956), British poet and was not a mere imitation of Italian motifs; rather he
novelist.His themes of childhood and dreams are invested adapted the classical language of architecture to French
with mystery, fantasy, and occasional melancholy. His traditions and materials, and he showed great in-
volumes of verse for adults include The Burning Glass ventiveness in structure and decoration. The most im-
(1945), two visionary poems, 'The Traveller' (1946), and portant of his surviving works are fragments of the chateau
'The Winged Chariot' (1951), and various Collected Poems; of Anet (c. 1550), built for Henry II's mistress Diane de
and for children the popular Peacock Pie 1913). His prose
( Poitiers. Delorme wrote two influential treatises, Nouvelles
works include 77?^ Memoirs of a Midget (1921) and the Invention^ (1561) and Architecture (1567), in which he
children's story The Three Mulla-Mulgars (1910). He also reveals himself as a learned man, a skilful engineer, and
produced short stories, anthologies, and critical works. a pragmatic businessman who stressed the need for
thorough consultation with the client.
Delaunay, Robert (1885 941), French painter. For
1
ism to the style in which he painted. His radiantly photographer. After his marriage to a rich American,
beautiful paintings were extremely influential, notably on Demachy was enabled to devote his life to practising and
the German *Expressionists and the Italian *Futurists. writing about photography. Influenced by *Impressionist
The period of Delaunay's greatest achievements was, painting, he manipulated his prints with gums, oils, and
however, fairly short-lived and after World War I his work chemicals in order to 'interpret' what was on the negative.
became rather repetitive. His wife was the Russian-born
painter and textile-designer Sonia Delaunay-Terk deMille, Agnes (1909- ), US dancer and cho-
(1885- 979), who settled with him in Paris in 19 10. She reographer. Her choreographic style incorporates Am-
1
worked with him on the development of Orphism, and erican folk idiom in popular narrative fusions of *ballet
most of her subsequent work also involved the use of and *modern dance as in Rodeo (1942) and Fall River
bright colour and abstract forms. Legend (1948). In Broadway *musicals her choreography
was pre-eminent in the integration of dance, song, and
delftware *maiolica. action, as in Oklahoma (1943), and Carousel (1945).
Delibes (Clement Philibert) Leo (1836-91), French deMille, Cecil B(lount) (i 881 -1959), US producer-
composer. Although he began his career as a church director, who played a major role in the development of
organist, he later found more congenial work in the Paris *Hollywood. He was renowned for his pseudo-biblical
theatres, first as accompanist and chorus-master of the and historical spectacles, among the most notable of
Theatre-Lyrique, and then as chorus-master at the Paris which was The Ten Commandments (1923, remade 1956).
Opera. The first of a long series of operettas appeared in There followed The King of Kings (1927), The Sign of the
1856, but it is with the ballets Coppelia (1870), based on Cross (1932), Cleopatra (1934), The Crusades (1935), and
a story by E. T. A. Hoffmann, and Sylvia (1876) that he Samson and Delilah (1949). He also made spectacular films
achieved lasting success. His masterpiece, the opera Lakme with other backgrounds, including such *Westerns as The
(1883), ^s set in the Orient: it shares the same melodic Plainsman (1937) and Union Pacific 1939), and The Greatest
(
elegance as the ballets, but on a deeper level. Show on Earth (1952), about a circus.
Delius, Frederick (Theodore Albert) (1862- 1934), De Morgan, William (1839- 191 7), British pottery
British composer. In 1897 he settled in Grez-sur-Loing designer and writer, a leading figure of the *Arts and
(near Paris) with the painter Jelka Rosen, whom he Crafts Movement. Like his friend William * Morris, he
married in 1903. From 1922 on he was virtually paralysed, reacted against the Victorian taste for detailed naturalistic
and from 1928 could compose only with the help of an decoration and was a master of bold, flat pattern. His
amanuensis (a musical assistant who wrote the manu- work drew on a variety of influences, notably the lush
scripts), Eric Fenby. Delius's music is essentially rhaps- foliage patterns and rich colours of * Islamic ceramics,
odic, depending more on its impressionist *harmonies but it has a distinct individuality. Tiles were his speciality,
129 DEVIS
and he also made vases and decorative plates, some design, the lines, shapes, or layout of any product,
employing the technique of *lustre, which he revived. whether for use or show. Most fields of design have been
influenced by the struggle between practical and artistic
Demosthenes *Greek literature. consideration. The theory of *functionalism, which was
popular in the early 20th century, maintained that the
Denis, Maurice (1870- 1943), French painter, designer, requirements of use and economy, rather than aesthetic
and art theorist. Early in his career he was a member of consideration, should determine optimum design an —
the Nabis (a group of artists who disliked naturalism and
idea that was particularly influential on *industrial
were interested in colour and linear distortion), and a design, but also had an impact on the design of such
leading exponent of ^Symbolism; later he devoted himself things as *typography. The term 'design' is now used in
to trying to revive religious art. He made a statement in
such phrases as *interior design or *set design, where it
1890, 'Remember that a picture —
before being a war implies a special regard for the requirement of appearance
horse or a nude woman or an anecdote —
is essentially a
and improvement of marketability by imparting an at-
flat surface covered with colours assembled in a certain
tractive appearance or one in line with current fashions,
order', that has often been regarded as the key to
within the margins of variation imposed by the re-
contemporary aesthetics of painting and the justification quirements of use and economy. The importance of
for *abstract art.
consumer appeal in design is shown by the recent ex-
pansion in the field of graphic design (see *graphic art).
De Quincey, Thomas (1785- 1859), British essayist
and critic.His best-known work. Confessions of an English detective story, which an amateur or pro-
a tale in
Opium-Eater (1822), written in hauntingly sonorous prose, fessional detective solves a puzzling criminal mystery,
was a study of his addiction to opium from the euphoric usually a murder, by investigation and deduction. The
early experience of addiction to the appalling nightmares elements of a detective story (the eccentric genius faced
of the later stages. In 'Suspiria de Profundis' (1845) with an 'impossible' case) were first combined in *Poe's
and 'The English Mail Coach' (1849) he describes how tale 'The Murders in the Rue Morgue'
(1841), and the
childhood experiences can be crystallized in dreams which earliest full-length detective novelswere Emile Gaboriau's
may also give birth to impassioned literature. Most of his V Affaire Lerouge (1866) and Wilkie *Collins's The Moon-
work, produced under pressure to support his large family, stone 1868). The appearance of *Doyle's Sherlock Holmes
(
was journalism; it is more remarkable for occasional stories, beginning with A Study in Scarlet (1887), created
tours de force than for sustained coherence. Among his
a huge following for detective stories, leading to a 'golden
autobiographical writings, his Recollections of the Lake Poets age' in the first half of the 20th century: new heroes like
(1834 9) deeply offended Wordsworth and the other Hercule Poirot (Agatha *Christie), Maigret (*Simenon),
Lake District poets. and Lord Peter Wimsey (Dorothy L. Sayers) appeared,
while American authors, led by Hammett and Chandler,
Derain, Andre (1880- 1954), French painter, sculptor, challenged the snobbish English amateurs with 'hard-
and graphic artist. One of the creators of *Fauvism and boiled' detectives, and with more realistic 'police pro-
an early adherent of *Cubism, he was near the heart of cedural' stories. Although partly eclipsed by the rise of
the most exciting developments in art in Paris in the first
spy stories, detective fiction still thrives in the works of
two decades of the 20th century, but his work does not
Ruth Rendell and P. D. James.
approach in quality that of his great contemporaries such
as Matisse and Picasso. He also produced numerous book deus ex machina (Latin, 'god from the machinery'),
illustrations and designs for the stage. device in *Greek theatre whereby problems were resolved
at the end of a play by the intervention of a god who
dervish dance * Islamic dance.
was apparently brought down from Olympus. In fact he
was moved by 'machinery' (a crane). The term is now
Derzhavin, Gavriil (Romanovich) (1743 1816),
applied to any contrived interposition in a novel, play,
Russian poet. His work deals with both civic themes
or film, and in general to any external, unexpected,
and intimate emotions. His rough, powerful, explicitly
last-minute resolution of a diflficulty.
personal manner consistently went against stylistic de-
corum; his Ode to the Deity 784) was translated into
(
1
delicate detail of his settings. Most of his clients were much of his fiction, notably David Copperfield (1849-50),
from the newly prosperous middle class; his work is thus in whichhis father appears as Micawber. He worked as
of considerable interest to social historians. a court stenographer, became a parliamentary reporter,
and began contributing to periodicals: the articles were
De Wint, Peter 784-1849), British *landscape painter
( 1 subsequently published in Sketches by Boz (1836). These
of Dutch extraction. Although he was a fine painter in led to the creadon of Mr Pickwick and the publication
oils, he is best remembered as one of the outstanding of The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club (1836-7). In
water-colourists of his generation and is particularly 1850 he started the periodical Household Words, which
associated with views of the countryside around Lincoln. published much of his later work. A Christmas Carol (1843)
His broad washes of colour and bold compositions are in and The Cricket on the Hearth (1846) were among his series
the tradition of *Cotman and *Girtin. De Wint was a of Christmas books. His other novels, most of which
popular and influential teacher. appeared first in monthly instalments, are Oliver Twist
poems condense into surprising imagery an ecstatic and character Mickey Mouse, who was soon joined by other
paradoxical response to religion, the puzzle of death, and famous characters such as Minnie Mouse and Donald
the revolving seasons. Duck. In 1929 the 'Silly Symphonies' began, a series of
over seventy cartoons whose characters included the
Diderot, Denis (1713-84), French encyclopedist, nov- Three Little Pigs. The first cartoon in colour appeared in
elist, and dramatist. He was substantially responsible for 1933. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Disney's
the production of the Encyclopedie (1751-72), whose aim first feature-length cartoon, was followed by others such
was the application of reason to all matters of human as Pinocchio (1940), Fantasia (1940), illustrating classical
interest. He wrote two plays, Le Fils naturel (1757) and music. Dumbo (1941), Bambi (1942), Lady and the Tramp
Le Pere de famille (1758), illustrating his concept of a new (1955), and loi Dalmatians (1961). He also made several
theatrical genre called *drame bourgeois or serious comedy. nature *documentaries and in 1950, with Treasure Island,
These have little artistic merit, though his theories exer- began to produce 'live' films for the family market, the
cised some influence on other writers, including *Beau- most successful of which was the musical Mary Poppins
marchais. Diderot wrote two prose tales. La Religieuse and (1964). Disney developed a vast worldwide organization,
Jacques le and an imaginary dialogue entitled Le
falaliste, marketing numerous spin-offs as well as films, and in
Meveu de Rameau, which were published posthumously. He 1955 opened the first Disneyland amusement park, in
derived his ideas from natural science: he became an California.
atheist, advocated a materialist philosophy, and at-
tempted to found morality on reason. Like *Rousseau, Disraeli, Benjamin, ist Earl of Beaconsfield (1804-
he held that man, born good, was corrupted by society. 81), British statesman and novelist. Of Jewish descent, he
was Conservative Prime Minister in 1868 and 1874 80.
didjeridu, the only melodic instrument of the Australian The first success of his literary career was the novel Vivian
aborigines. It is a trumpet, sometimes of bamboo, more Grey (published anonymously, 1826), which together with
often a wooden tube hollowed by termites, and today Alroy (1833) and the autobiographical Contarini Fleming
sometimes metal or plastic piping. Playing techniques (1832) formed his first trilogy; the second was composed
can be extremely elaborate, with continuous breathing o{ Coningsby; or The Mew Generation (1844), Sybil; or The
combined with speech syllables, spat overtones, and Two Nations (1845), ^^^ Tancred (1847). A fascination
hummed *drones. The didjeridu is sometimes used with and amused contempt for high society, together with
singing and is accompanied by a pair of *clappers or by a genuine sympathy for the poor and the oppressed
the player tapping on the instrument. characterized his novels.
diptych, a picture consisting of two parts facing one divertimento, a musical term coined in the i8th century
another like the pages of a book and usually hinged. Most to describe a suite of movements intended purely to
popular in the 15th century, the two parts might show divert. This was usually written for a small group of
two related religious scenes, or, for example, a portrait players, and often designed for performance out of doors.
of the person who commissioned the work on one part The terms *serenade and cassation imply much the same
facing a picture of the Virgin and Child on the other. kind of work. In the 19th century the term was sometimes
The outside surfaces of a diptych were also often painted applied to a selection of 'hit' tunes from an opera. The
or decorated, although generally less elaborately than the French word divertissement has the same meaning, but it
inner surfaces. can also mean an entertainment of songs and dances
inserted into a larger work, such as an opera or ballet.
Direct Cinema *cinema-verite.
Dix, Otto (189 1 1969), German painter and print-
Directoire style, style of decoration and design pre- maker. In the ig20s he was, with George Grosz, the
vailing in France between the *Louis XVI and *Empire outstanding artist of the Neue Sachlichkeil ('New Objec-
takes its name from the Directoire (1795-9), the
styles. It tivity') movement, his work conveying his disgust at the
period (immediately before Napoleon came to power) horrors of war and the depravities of a decadent society.
when France was governed by an executive of five He was also a brilliantly incisive portraitist. His anti-
but the style flourished roughly between 793
directeurs, 1
military stance drew the wrath of the Nazi regime, and
and 1804. Decoration was simpler and more consciously his work was branded as 'Degenerate Art'. In 1939 he
classical than in the Louis XVI style, the simplicity being was gaoled, but was soon released. After the war his work
partly the result of the havoc that revolution and war was based on religious mysticism and lost much of its
had wrought. As a result of Napoleon's campaigns in strength.
1798-9, there was also a fashion for Egyptian-inspired
ornament in this period. The latter part of the Directoire Dixieland, the popular name for the Southern states of
period (1799-1804) is sometimes distinguished as the the USA. The name was adopted at the beginning of the
'Consulat' style, named after the period when Napoleon 20th century by New Orleans white musicians who
ruled as Consul (he became emperor in 1804). imitated black *jazz styles. Groups like Nick La Rocca's
Original Dixieland Jazz Band (who first appeared in
dirge, a song of lamentation in mourning for someone's New York in 191 7) played a bowdlerized form of jazz,
death; or a poem in the form of such a song. A famous borrowing colouristic and novelty effects from black jazz.
example is Ariel's song 'Full fathom five thy father lies' But as later white musicians began to gain a fuller
in Shakespeare's The Tempest (161 1). understanding of jazz it became less necessary to dis-
tinguish the New Orleans and Dixieland styles. Since the
Disney, Walt (i 901 66), US animator, the best-known 1940s there has been an international revival of this type
name in film *animation. In 1928 he created the cartoon of music.
DOCUMENTARY FILM 132
documentary film, film dealing with real people and Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri) (1581-1641), Ital-
events. The documentary is the newsreel,
oldest type of ian painter, the favourite pupil of Annibale *Carracci,
the first regular series of which began in 1907, and which whom he assisted with his *frescos in the Farnese Palace
was developed in the ig20s by the Russian Dziga Vertov in Rome. Domenichino continued the classical style of
(1896 1954). The American Robert J. Flaherty (1884- Annibale, and established himself as Rome's leading
1951) pioneered the aesthetic use of documentary with painter. In the 1620s his style became more *Baroque,
Nanook of the North (1922) and other films about isolated but he always remained true to the ideal of clear, firm
communities. Documentary was used for a social purpose draughtsmanship that he had learned in the Carracci
in Britain in the 1930s in such films as Coal Face and academy in Bologna. Domenichino was important as an
Might Mail (both 1936), made by the predecessors of the exponent of ideal *landscape painting, forming a link
Crown Film Unit, which during World War II produced between Annibale Carracci and *Claude. He was a fine
such documentaries as Fires Were Started (1943). In the portraitist and a superb draughtsman. In the i8th century
USA The March of Time (1935-51) was a monthly current his reputation stood extremely high, but was eclipsed in
affairs series; the US Film Service was founded by the 19th century under the attacks of John Ruskin.
Roosevelt in 1938. Two remarkable pro-Nazi docu-
mentaries —
Triumph of the Will (1934) and Olympia Domenico Veneziano (d. 1461), Italian painter, active
(1938) about the 1936 Olympics —
were made by Leni mainly in Florence.Very little work by him survives, but
Riefenstahl (1902- ). After the war new techniques such his masterpiece, the St Lucy Altarpiece (c. 1445), is one
as *cinema-verite and *Free Cinema extended the bounds of the finest Italian paintings of its time; the central panel
of the documentary. *Disney made notable full-length is in the Uffizi, Florence. Its delicate beauty of colouring,
nature films such as The Living Desert (1953). Television, mastery of light, and airy lucidity of spatial construction
however, was increasingly the home of documentary films, are reflected in the work of Domenico's assistant *Piero
and few are now made with the cinema in mind. della Francesca.
documentary theatre, theatre based, usually for pro- Domingo, Placido (1941- ), Spanish tenor singer.
paganda purposes, on fact, as documented in material After major roles in Mexico, the USA, and with the
such as recordings, films, newspapers, official reports, and Israel National Opera (1962-5), Domingo remained in
transcripts of trials. An alternative term (especially in the world-wide demand. A fine Walther, in Wagner's The
USA) is the Theater of Fact. Examples of documentary Mastersingers, Domingoalso excels in the heroic roles of
theatre were seen in post-revolutionary Russia, and in Italian notably outstanding as Verdi's Otello.
opera,
the work of *Piscator in Germany in the 1920s. In the Since *Bjorling's death, Domingo has been the leading
1930s the government-sponsored Living Newspaper in lyric-dramatic tenor.
the USA was responsible for six documentary productions
on contemporary themes, including One-Third of a Nation Donatello (Donato di Niccolo) (1386- 1466), Itahan
(1938), a play about the need for cheap housing. Other
sculptor. He was the greatest European sculptor of the
examples are *Theatre Workshop's production by Joan
Littlewood of OA, What a Lovely War! (1963), about World
War I, and the Royal Shakespeare Company's production The Teast of Herod' (c.l425) is a bronze panel on the
o^ US (1966), about the US Vietnam involvement. baptismal font of Siena Cathedral, a project on which
Donatello worked with three other sculptors, including
his former teacher Ghiberti. Donatello was a master at
doggerel, monotonously rhymed, rhythmically awk- conveying intense emotion and has here shown the
ward, and shallow verse. The unscanned verses of William varied reactions at the shocking moment when the head
McGonagall (c. 1830- 1902) are doggerel. Some poets, like of John the Baptist is presented to King Herod.
Skelton, have deliberately imitated doggerel for comic
effect.
133 DOSTOYEVSKY
employed more than forty block-cutters to make thistime he suffered periods of great physical and mental
the printing blocks from his drawings. His style is pain, and recurring bouts of epilepsy. Out of this ex-
characterized by a highly spirited love of the grotesque, perience came the harrowing The House of the Dead ( 1 862 )
but he could also produce more sober work, as with his His mature work is characterized by an obsession with
striking studies of the poor quarters of London, done morbid psychology, a tendency to view human beings as
between 1869 and In the 1870s he took up
1871. absurd posturing manikins, a cruel sense of humour, and
painting and sculpture, with less success. at the same time a tormenting awareness of the most
DOUBLE BASS 134
profound religious, metaphysical, and moral problems. realistic examinations of individual dilemmas faced by
In terms of technique, the novels have a heightened educated women. The Ice Age (1977) is a more ambitious
dramatic quality, achieved through extensive use of dia- attempt to depict the moral condition of contemporary
logue and techniques of suspense, and a masterful ability Britain. She has also edited The Oxford Companion to English
to set scenes of confrontation. Notes from Underground Literature ( 1985).
(1864) is a record of personality disintegration. Crime and
Punishment (1866) explores the problem of the moral dramatic monologue, a kind of poem in which a
prerogatives of the exceptional individual, and is also a single fictional or historical character other than the poet
brilliant exercise in murder and suspense. In The Idiot speaks to a silent 'audience' of one or more persons. Such
(1868) Dostoyevsky created his most enigmatic hero, the poems reveal not the poet's own thoughts but the mind of
other-worldly and infirm Prince Myshkin, and sur- the impersonated character, whose personality is revealed
rounded him with a gallery of male villains and rogues, unwittingly; this distinguishes a dramatic monologue
and female and sinners. The Devils (also published
saints from a *lyric, while the implied presence of an auditor
as The 187 1-2) is his cruellest work, a savage
Possessed, distinguishes it from a *soliloquy. Major examples of
mocking of positivist thought, conspiratorial socialism, this form in English are Tennyson's 'Ulysses' (1842),
80) his unsurpassed ability to clothe ideas in flesh reached 'The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock' (191 7).
its apogee.
drame bourgeois, a term coined in the i8th century
double bass, the largest of the violin family. To make to describe plays about middle-class domestic problems
notes easier to reach, basses are tuned in fourths, normally designed for the new middle-class audiences. Their themes
E'-A'-D'-G' Music for the instrument is notated an
. avoided the classical extremes of * tragedy and *comedy
octave higher than the actual pitch. Three-string basses and, while serious, they usually ended happily. The drame
were used in the 19th century, but four strings are normal was rooted in the comedie larmoyante ('tearful comedy') of
today, with sometimes a fifth string tuned to low B" or La Chaussee (1692- 1754), but of somewhat higher qual-
C, or the fourth string extended to that note by mech- ity, though it was sentimental and priggish. The novels
anism. To avoid carving away so much wood, the backs of Samuel *Richardson were an influence, and *Diderot
of basses are often flat, not curved, but they are never- himself, who invented the term, wrote plays in this genre.
theless large violins, not viols.
Dravidian literature, the literature of southern India
Dowland, John (1563- 1626), one of the most notable and Sri Lanka, comprising besides *Tamil literature
English composers and lutenists of his day. Little is known the three younger literatures of Kannada, Telugu, and
of his early years, but he spent time in France (where he Malayalam. All three were influenced by *Sanskrit lit-
converted to Roman Catholicism). From 1594, after erature in their early development, and Malayalam by
failing to obtain the post of Queen's Lutenist (possibly Tamil also. Besides Kavirdjamdrga (c.850), a treatise on
on religious grounds), he worked in Germany and Italy, poetics, the oldest Kannada texts are *Jain hagiographies
eventually becoming lutenist to the court of Christian IV and the reworked by Pampa, Ponna, and
* Aiahdbhdrata
of Denmark (1598- 1606) and to the English court in Ranna (loth century). The earliest Telugu work is also
161 2. Dowland's music, often imbued with a quality of a Mahdbhdrata with versions by Nannaya (i ith century)
heavy sadness, consists of solo and *part-songs with and Tikkana (13th century), while Malayalam begins
lute accompaniment, lute dances and *fantasias, psalm with the 13th-century Rdmacharitam, retelling the *Rd-
harmonizations, sacred songs, and several works for lute mdyaria. The Lingayat sect (12th century) inspired Kan-
—
and viols including the famous Lachrimae or Seaven Teares nada and Telugu hymns to Shiva by authors such as the
(1604). He also composed a collection of *pavans, *gal- sect's founder Basava and the poetess Akkamahadevi. All
liards (his favourite form), and *allemandes for five-part three languages have a rich *Bhakti literature, notably
string *consort. His three Bookes of Songes or Ayres (1597, Telugu's Potana (f. 1400-75), whose Mahdbhdgavatamu
1600, 1603) mark him out as an outstandingly sensitive ('The Great Bhagavata') retold Krishna's boyhood, Kan-
and imaginative interpreter of the English language. nada's Purandaradasa (1494- 1564), and Malayalam's
Tuncattu Eruttacchan (17th century), who wrote a Ma-
Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan 1859- 1930), British novelist
( hdbhdrata and Rdmdyaria. Under the patronage of the
and writer of detective stories. He is remembered as the Vijayanagar kings (i4th-i6th centuries) and later Hindu
creator of the amateur detective Sherlock Holmes (and and Muslim dynasties, Telugu and Kannada poets hke
his colleague Dr Watson), whose ingenious solutions to a Allasani Peddana (c. 1510-75) and Lakshmisha (17th
wide variety of crimes began in A Study in Scarlet (1887) century) widely imitated Sanskrit literary forms. Ma-
and continued in many tales collected in The Adventures layalam writers such Kottyatu Tampuran (17th cen-
as
of Sherlock Holmes 1892), as well as in his novel The Hound
( tury) provided texts for the famous Kerala *kathakali
of the Baskervilles (1902), and in other works. He wrote a dance-drama tradition. Although a Dravidian tradition
—
long series of historical novels including The Exploits of
Brigadier Gerard (1896, the first of the 'Gerard' tales) and
The Lost World (19 12) — books on public themes, and a A detail,right, from the central front panel of Duccio's
history of spiritualism (1926). (See also *detective story.) masterpiece, the Maesta altar-piece painted for Siena
Cathedral. It shows St Agnes, one of ten saints and a
company of angels who adore the Virgin and Child.
D'Oyly Carte *Sullivan, Sir Arthur.
When It was completed m 1311 the great altar-piece was
carried m a solemn procession from the painter's
Drcibble, Margaret (1939- ), British novelist. Her workshop to the cathedral. (Museo dell' Opera del
early novels, including The Millstone (1963), are mostly Duomo, Siena)
DREAM OF THE RED CHAMBER 136
of mixed verse-and-prose writing (campu) existed, true Ethiopia and Burma. The Burmese hsaing-waing is a
prose developed with the spread of Western education in circular bamboo framewith twenty-one small kettle-
the 19th century. Modern Telugu literature dates from drums, covering over three octaves in range, suspended
Viresalingam (i 847-1919); his Life of Rajasekhara (1878) round the inner circumference; the player sits in the
and Harischandra (named after its hero) are among the centre of the ring. The Ethiopian drums appear in many
and plays. The first true
earhest original Telugu novels religious paintings, usually showing the drum chime, with
Malayalam novel was Appu Netungati's The Jasmine a number of drummers, above a layer of clouds.
Creeper (1887), while M. S. Puttana
is regarded as the
lyricist Kumaran Asan. The first modern Kannada poet the Theatre Royal. It shared with *Covent Garden a
was B. M. Srikanthayya, followed by Kuvempu. In the monopoly of legitimate theatre in London until 1843.
1920s and 1930s Telugu poets like Duvurri Rami Reddi *Dryden was briefly its resident playwright, but its great
(1895- 1 949) were influenced by *Romanticism, while period was the second half of the i8th century, under the
the Malayalam poet Vallathol (1879- 1958) was inspired managements of *Garrick, *Sheridan, and *Kemble.
by Indian nationalism. The most acclaimed modern Sheridan's The School for Scandal opened there in 1777.
novelists are Malayalam's Takazi Sivasankara Pillai and Sarah *Siddons established her fame there, as did *Kean
Kannada's Sivarama Karanta. The outstanding modern in the early 19th century. The theatre was noted from the
Telugu writer is the poet, playwright, novelist, and essayist 1880s for its spectacular *melodramas and ^pantomimes,
Visvanatha Satyanarayana. and from the ig20s for musical comedies.
Dream of the Red Chamber, Chinese novel of the Dryden, John (1631-1700), English poet, critic, and
mid-Qing 1644- 191
( dynasty. Hongloumeng or the Dream
1
) dramatist. His mastery of the *heroic couplet is dem-
of the Red Chamber^ which has also been translated as the onstrated in Heroique Stanzas (1658), commemorating the
Story of the Stone, was written in the vernacular by Cao death of Cromwell, and in Aslraea Redux celebrating the
Xueqin in about 1760, and is considered by some critics restoration of Charles II. He wrote several comedies, but
as one of the world's finest novels. The central theme is he was at his best with tragi-comedies, often discussing
the story of frustrated love between two cousins who live political and philosophical questions, notably Marriage a
in an enclosed and protected world, but it is also a la Mode (1672). In the prologue of his heroic masterpiece,
semi-autobiographical account of the decline and fall of Aureng-^ebe (1675), he denounced rhyme in serious drama
an influential family. and his next play. All for Love (1678), based on the story
of Antony and Cleopatra, was in *blank verse. His
Dreiser, Theodore (Herman Albert) (i 871 -1945), celebrated verse *satires include Absalom and Achitophel
US novelist. He
succeeded Frank Norris as the foremost (1681), The Medall (1682), Religio Laid (1682), a defence
representative of *naturalism in American fiction with of Anglicanism, and MacFlecknoe (1682). On the accession
working girls, Sister Carrie (1900) and Jennie
his studies of of James II, Dryden became a Roman Catholic and his
Gerhardt (191 1), and the first two parts of a trilogy poem The Hind and the Panther (1687) defends his new
featuring a businessman. The Financier (19 12) and The faith. He developed his critical principles in Essay of
Titan (191 4). His best novel, An American Tragedy (1925), Dramatick Poesie (1668) and in many fluent prologues,
is the story of a youth of unstable character trapped by epilogues, and poems addressed to his fellow writers. His
circumstances that lead to his execution for murder. translations include a version of Virgil's Georgics and
Fables Ancient and Modern (1700). Both in his verse and
drone, a continuous note of fixed pitch that acts as a his prose he displayed lucidity and great zest for his
permanent bass in some instruments. The best-known subject. He was made *Poet Laureate in 1668.
example is perhaps the *bagpipe, which has one or more
reed-pipes tuned to the tonic or the tonic and dominant drypoint, a method of *engraving on copper, dating
of the *key of the instrument. These sound throughout from the r5th century, in which the design is scratched
the melody and are heard as the player first inflates the directly into the plate with a sharp tool that is held like
bag. Drones are also characteristic of much Indian music a pen. A distinctive feature of drypoint is the 'burr' or
and folk music. The French traditional carol Tl est ne le rough, upturned edge of the furrow made by the cutting
divin enfant', for example, opens with a typical open-fifth tool. This produces a soft, rich quality in the print, but
drone accompaniment, entirely appropriate to the words because it soon wears down only a limited number of
'ressonez musettes' (resound bagpipes). good impressions can be taken. Drypoint has often been
used in combination with other processes; Rembrandt,
drum, musical instrument with a membrane,
strictly a for example, often touched up his etchings in drypoint.
traditionally of animal skin but now frequently plastic,
which is struck, or through which passes a stick or cord Du Bellay, Joachim (1522-60), French poet. He was,
which is rubbed. Various other instruments, although with *Ronsard, a member of the group of poets called
without membrane, are also called 'drum', for example, the Pleiade who, inspired by the literature of classical
*slit drum.(See also *frame drum, *friction drum, renew French poetry. Four years in
antiquity, set out to
*kettledrum, *talking drum, and *waisted drum.) Rome produced in him a nostalgia for the city's vanished
pastand a yearning for France which crystallized in his
drum chime, a musical instrument, usually a set of two major collections of poems Les Antiquites de Rome and
*kettledrums, each tuned to a different pitch, and usually Les Regrets (1558). Les Regrets in particular strike a note
played as though they formed one instrument. Drum of elegy and emotional sincerity which is regarded as
chimes are found in many areas, the best known being anticipating the *Romantic poetry of the 19th century.
137 DU FU
Dubuffet, Jean (i 901 85), French artist, one of the earned his fame less by innovation than by the perfect
chief figures in the modern movement to reject traditional control he exercised over the accepted elements of com-
techniques and to place untrained spontaneity above position: the beauty of his melodic lines and the skilful
professional skill. His pictures often incorporate materials use he made of *canon and imitation.
such as sand and plaster, and he also produced sculptural
works made from junk materials. He made a large Du Fu (ad 712-70), generally considered the greatest
collection of what he called 'Art Brut' (raw art) the — poet of China. He lived during the Tang dynasty (618-
products of children, illiterates, the insane, and indeed 907) and was born into a high-ranking family near the
anything uninhibited and without pretensions of which — capital Chang'an. As a poet he excelled in all verse-forms,
his own work is aggressively reminiscent. He initially and his writings are characterized by rich and varied
caused outrage, but has since been influential. language, by a superb command of the rules of prosody,
and by a deeply felt humanity. His early poetry celebrates
Duccio di Buoninsegna [fl.
1278- 13 18), Italian the beauties of the natural world, and regrets the passage
painter, themost illustrious artist of the *Sienese of time. An impassioned critic of injustice and of warfare,
School. He is famous as the painter of one of the most he himself experienced extreme personal hardship. After
celebrated works in the history of Italian art: the
altar-piece of the Maesta (the Virgin and Child
enthroned in heavenly glory) painted for Siena Cath-
Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2
edral in 308- 1. The panels are remarkable for
1
1
(1912) was the first of the works in which he showed his
their exquisite colouring, supple drawing, and superb talent for outraging the public and often his fellow artists.
standard of craftsmanship; and although Duccio's work It was the most notorious exhibit at the Armory Show m
is much less solid and three-dimensional than that of 1913 (America's first wholesale introduction to modern
his Florentine contemporary *Giotto, it has, like art), wherewas described by one critic as 'an
it
the An Lushan rebellion he joined the exiled court (757), Dukas, Paul (1865- 1935), French composer. He began
but later served a local warlord and acquired some land. composing when he was about 13 and he wrote his first
important work, the overture Polyeucte, in 1892. There
Dufy, Raoul (1877 1953), French painter, graphic followed, most notably, the Piano Sonata (1901), his
artist, and textile designer. After passing through *Im- Symphony in C (1895-6), a symphonic scherzo UApprenti
pressionist and *Fauvist phases, and a period when he was sorcier (1897), an opera Ariane et Barbe-Bleue (1906), and a
influenced by the art of *Cezanne, he developed the high- ballet La Peri 1 9 1 2 All of these works made a considerable
( ) .
ly distinctive style for which he is famous in the 1920s. It is impression, but Dukas was both eccentric and hypercritical,
characterized by rapidly drawn figures on backgrounds of destroying or failing to complete the few works he wrote after
bright, thinly applied colours and was well suited to the 1912.
glittering scenes of luxury and pleasure he favoured. The
accessibility a.nd joie de vivre of his work helped to popularize dulcimer, a musical instrument with a flat, usually
modern art. Dufy was also commercially successful in trapeze-shaped, soundbox and numerous wirestringsstruck
producing textiles, pottery, and tapestries. with a pair of light hammers. It seems to have derived from
the *psaltery in Europe in the late 5th century, and is still a
1
www.Ebook777.com
.
139 DURRENMATT
E
Eakins, Thomas (1844-1916), US painter, regarded
Tatsumi Hijkata and Kazuo Ono, which combines the
* Expressionist dance works of *Wigman with concepts
eclogue,
*plainsong.
important part of Kabuki and No theatre (see *Japanese and precision. This palette shows in essence all the
drama). The traditional dancer in China, Korea, and characteristic features of subsequent Egyptian art. At this
Japan moves in relatively slow and often geometric time, Egyptian drawing had not discovered perspective,
patterns, scarcely raising his or her feet in the air. A and throughout the rest of its history it was so bound by
performance of East Asian traditional dance, blended the authority of the conventions used by the earliest artists
with drama, mine, and music, extends over eight to that there was little attempt to represent depth and space.
twelve hours. A recent Japanese development is Buto During the 3rd Dynasty (about 2800 bc), permanent
EICHENDORFF 142
-'
\mik-M^b,k!Lm
This scene, 'Fowling in the Marshes', is from the Tomb of awareness of the sinister aspects of life. His poems, using
Nakht at Thebes, c. 1320 bc (XVIIIth Dynasty), The tomb traditional nature symbols and simple rhythms, appear
pamtmg of this period m Egyptian art reflects the pantheistic, for he believed that the poet praised God by
luxuriousway of life of the ruling classes. Hunting and conveying with immediacy, reverence, and metaphysical
banqueting scenes are common, and beautiful young
women are represented abundantly. (British Museum, longing the wonders of nature. Many of his lyrics were
London) set to music by Schumann and Wolf
man novelist and lyric poet, one of the great exponents elegy, an elaborately formal *lyric poem lamenting the
of the *Lied. Typical of Eichendorff is the notion of the death of a friend or public figure. In Greek and Latin
wanderer, for instance the simple optimist hero of his verse, the term referred to the *metre (alternating hexa-
novella Memoirs of a Good-for-nothing (1826), who is pre- meters and *pentameters known as elegiacs) of a poem,
sented as the opposite of the materialistic philistine. The not to its content: love poems were often included. But
short story The Marble Statue (1819) reveals EichendorfTs since Milton's 'Lycidas' (1637), the term in English has
143 ELIOT
usually denoted laments, although Milton called his poem strings (1905), the Firstand Second Symphonies (1908,
a 'monody'. Two
important English elegies which follow 191 1), symphonic study Falslaff (1913), and the
the
Milton in using *pastoral conventions are Shelley's concertos for violin (1910) and cello (191 9). With the
'Adonais' (1821) on the death of Keats, and Arnold's death of his wife, Alice Roberts, in 1920 he virtually
'Thyrsis' (1867), which mourns Clough. Tennyson's In ceased composing. His hymn 'Land of Hope and Glory'
Memoriam: A. H. H. (1850) is a long series of elegiac verses to the words of Arthur Benson's poem, was adapted from
(in the modern sense) on his friend Arthur Hallam, while the trio of the Pomp and Circumstance March No. in D i
Whitman's 'When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd' in 1902. This, together with further compositions of
(1865) commemorates a public figure (Abraham Lincoln) patriotic marches, has earned him a popular place in the
rather than a friend, as does Auden's 'In Memory of heritage of British ceremonial music. His work marks a
W. B. Yeats' (1939). In a broader sense, an elegy may reawakening of British musical genius, largely dormant
be a poem of melancholy reflection upon life's transience since the death of Purcell. Traditional in manner, his
or its sorrows, as in Gray's 'Elegy Written in a Country music has all the opulence of late *Romanticism and is
Churchyard' (1751), Rilke's Duino Elegies (1912-22), and imbued with a powerful personal melancholy.
many poems by Leopardi.
Eliot, George (Mary Ann,
later Marian, Evans) 1819 (
Elephanta caves, a group of rock-cut caves dedicated 80), British novelist.She renounced her early evangelical
to the Hindu god Shiva on the island of Elephanta in Christian faith, but remained strongly influenced by
Bombay harbour. They date from the 8th or 9th century religious concepts of love and duty. She became assistant
AD. The temple proper is a large hall with rows of columns editor on the Westminster Review and in 1851 began her
'supporting' the cave roof It contains a series of huge notorious relationship with the writer G. H. Lewes 181 7- (
and spectacular carvings illustrating the legend of Shiva, 78), a married man with whom she lived until his death.
the most magnificent portraying the god three-headed in The three stories Scenes of Clerical Life (1858) attracted
his benevolent, serene, and terrifying aspects. The carving, praise for their domestic realism, pathos, and humanity,
although much damaged, is remarkable throughout for as well as speculation aboutof 'George the identity
its sensitivity as well as its monumentality. A statue of an Eliot'. After the publication of (1859) she Adam Bede
elephant, which gives the island its English name, has was recognized as a major novelist and sustained this
been removed to Victoria Gardens, Bombay; the Indian reputation with further novels, including The Mill on the
name for the island is Gharapuri. Floss 860) Silas Marner 1 86 1
{ 1 , Romola 1 863) and Felix
( )
,
{
,
The 'Odessa steps' massacre m Eisenstein's Battleship Eliot, 1888- 1965), US poet. Born
T(homas) S(tearns) (
Potemkm is probably the most quoted scene m cinema in Missouri, he became a major figure in English literature
history. Eisenstem's high reputation is based on from the 1920s onwards. Having settled in the in UK
comparatively few completed films, Much time was
1915, his first volumes of poems, Prufrock and other Ob-
wasted on projects such as the uncompleted Que viva
servations (191 7) and Poems (1919), struck a new chord in
Mexico! (1931-2), shot m Mexico, parts of which were
extracted by others to make separate films, and Bezhm English poetry. Uaving founded a quarterly, the Criterion,
Meadow (1935-7). he published in the first issue The Waste Land (1922), a
^mkx
ELIZABETHAN THEATRE 144
Empire style, a style of furniture and interior dec- prepared surface, usually of metal. Though easily frac-
oration in France in the first quarter of the 19th century tured, like glass, enamel is extremely durable and gives
and associated with the personal taste of Napoleon Bon- great brilliance of colour, especially when used in trans-
aparte (emperor 1804 14). It was largely the creation lucent form against a ground of precious material. The
of the architects Charles Percier and Pierre-Francois colour can come from the use of coloured glass or from
Fontaine, who decorated Napoleon's state apartments in the application of colour to plain enamel. Enamelling is
various residences. Essentially the style was *Neoclassical, thought to be of western Asiatic origin; the Egyptians,
with an attempt to copy what was known of ancient Greeks, and Romans made extensive use of it in jewellery.
furniture and decorative motifs (Napoleon's campaigns —
In the Middle Ages in both Byzantium and western
There was
inspired an interest in Egyptian decoration). Europe — different enamelling techniques (including *cloi-
also a lavish use of draperies. The Empire style was sonne) were much used for the decoration of various types
influential in other European countries and also in the of ecclesiastical art, including book covers, reliquaries,
USA. The term 'Second Empire' is applied to French and crucifixes. Enamelwork was sometimes executed on
architecture and decoration under Napoleon III (usually a large scale, as in Nicolas of Verdun's pulpit frontal for
known as Louis-Napoleon), the nephew of Napoleon the abbey church at Klosterneuburg, near Vienna (the
Bonaparte and emperor from 1852 to 1870. There was 'Klosterneuburg Altar', completed 1181), which features
no dominant style during this period, but rather a enamel plaques in an elaborate iconographical
forty-five
tendency to revive various styles of the past in an programme. Nicolas came from the Mosan region (the
uninhibitedly ostentatious way. The most famous work area around the River Meuse in present-day Belgium),
of Second Empire architecture is Charles *Garnier's which in his time was the centre of the highest quality
magnificent Paris Opera (1861-74). enamelwork. Later in the Middle Ages the French city
of Limoges became the best-known centre of production,
Eznpson, Sir William (1906-84), British poet and catering for the mass market and making secular objects
In his poetry he made use of complex analytical
critic. such as caskets and rings, as well as objects for religious
argument and imagery drawn from modern physics and use. The great days of enamel were over by the end of
mathematics. His volumes of verse. Poems (1935), The the 6th century, although it continued to be used for
1
Gathering Storm (1940), Collected Poems (1955) show a jewellery and decorative work.
technical virtuosity combining metaphysical *conceits
with metrical complexities. His major critical work. Seven enanga, a Ugandan musical instrument: a trough
Types of Ambiguity (1930), is a study of the meaning of *zither made of a board with one face hollowed. The
poetry and a classic of modern *literary criticism. single string runs to and fro across the hollow, hitched
round protuberances at either end of the trough at each
enamelwork, artefacts or decorative work enamel,
in crossing. A Ugandan *bow harp is spelt ennanga.
a smooth, glossy material made by fusing glass to a
encaustic painting, a technique of painting with
*pigments mixed with hot wax. It is said to have been
A 16th-century Limoges enamelwork plaque with a perfected in the 4th century BC. The finest surviving
design closely based on Raphael's fresco of The Triumph examples from ancient times are the mummy portraits
of Galatea m the Farnesma, Rome. In classical mythology
from the Faiyum area of Egypt. Methods of encaustic
Galatea was a sea-nymph of great beauty; here she is
shown being pulled by dolphins m her chariot (an enor- painting varied, but the essence of the technique was to
mous cockle-shell), surrounded by sea-creatures, while fuse the colours to the painting surface through heat. It
cherubs sport m the sky. (Wallace Collection, London) fell into disuse around the 8th century ad, probably
engraving, a term applied in its broadest sense to the reproduction in the 19th century it was the principal
various processes of cutting a design into a plate or block method of reproductive printing.
of metal or wood, and to the *prints taken from these
plates or blocks. However, the word usually applies to Enlightenment (or 'Age of Reason'), a term used to
one of these processes, that of line engraving. The design describe the philosophical, scientific, and rational atti-
is cut into a smooth metal (usually copper) plate with a tudes, the freedom from superstition, and the belief in
tool called a burin, and prints are taken by inking the religious tolerance of much of 18th-century Europe.
plate and pressing it (usually mechanically)
against a In Germany Aufkldrung ('Enlightenment'), which
the
sheet of paper. Line engraving produces hard, clear lines, extended from the middle of the 17th century to the
and has been employed chiefly to reproduce works of beginning of the 19th century, was a literary and philo-
art. Until the invention of photographic methods of sophical movement that included *Lessing, *Goethe,
*Schiller, and Emanuel Kant. The *Yiddish literature of
Eastern Europe experienced a new dynamism, while a
This type of encaustic funerary portrait was found similarly invigorating freedom of ideas affected writers as
throughout Egypt, but it is particularly associated with
far apart as Sweden, Russia, and Britain. In France the
the Faiyum area, south of Cairo. Produced from about
the 1st to the 4th century BC, the portraits were painted Enlightenment was associated with the philosophes, the
on canvas or wood and enclosed m
the wrapping literary men, scientists, and thinkers who were united in
around the corpse's face. They are among the most their belief in the supremacy of reason and their desire
vivid and naturalistic portraits from the ancient world, to see practical change to combat inequality and injustice.
suggesting that the work was done while the subject The movement against established beliefs and institutions
was still alive. (British Museum, London, on loan from
National Gallery)
gained momentum throughout the i8th century under
*Voltaire, *Rousseau, and others. Through the pub-
lication of the Encyclopedie (1751-76) their attacks on the
government, the church, and the judiciary provided the
intellectual basis for the French Revolution. In Scotland
an intellectual movement flourished in Edinburgh be-
tween 1750 and 1800; its outstanding philosophers were
Hume and Adam Smith. The Encyclopaedia Brilannica
began in 1768 71 as a dictionary of the arts and sciences
issued by a 'Society of gentlemen in Scotland'. In liter-
ature, some have seen a connection between the philo-
sophy of the Enlightenment, the growth of literary
*realism, and the rise of the *novel. It influenced the
*Romantic movement in the arts, partly by releasing the
more individualist attitudes in which this movement was
based, and partly as the Romantics themselves reacted
against the coldly scientific intellectualism which for them
the Enlightenment represented.
called 'secondary' epics in imitation of the earlier 'pri- epithalamion (or epithalamium), a song or poem
mary' epics of Homer, whose Iliad and Odyssey (c.8th celebrating a wedding, and traditionally intended to be
century bc) evolved from an oral tradition of recitation. sung outside the bridal chamber on the wedding night.
The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf (8th century ad) is a Some epithalamia survive from ancient literature, notably
primary epic, as is the oldest surviving epic poem, the by Catullus, but the form flourished in the Renaissance.
Babylonian Gilgamesh (<:.3000 bc). In the Renaissance, 'Epithalamion' (1595) is the most admired
Spenser's
epic poetry (also known as 'heroic poetry') was regarded English model, but others were written by Sidney, Donne,
as the highest form of literature, and was attempted by Jonson, Marvell, and Dryden. Later examples are those
Ariosto in The Frenzy of Orlando (1532), Tasso in Jerusalem by Shelley and Auden.
Delivered ^y^), and Camoes in The Lusiads (1572). Other
{
I
important national epics are the Indian Mahdbhdrata (3rd epithet, an adjective or adjectival phrase used to define
or 4th century ad) and the German * JVibelungenlied a characteristic quality or attribute of some person or
(c. 1200). The action of epics takes place on a grand scale, Common in historical titles (Catherine the Great,
thing.
and in this sense the term has been transferred to long, Ethelred the Unready), 'stock' epithets have been used in
ambitious novels like those of Tolstoy, and to some poetry since Homer. The 'Homeric epithet' is a compound
large-scale film productions. adjective repeatedly used for the same thing or person:
'the wine-dark sea' is a famous example.
epic theatre, a form of drama developed in the 1920s
by the German dramatists *Piscator and *Brecht, who Epstein, Sir Jacob ( 1880 1959), US-born sculptor who
rejectedtraditional dramatic structure in favour of a settled in 1905. He was one of the most
Britain in
detached narrative (hence 'epic') presentation in a suc- controversial artists of his time, his work often arousing
cession of loosely related episodes interspersed with songs violent abuse because of its modernism or on the grounds
and commentary by a narrator. Epic theatre aims to of alleged obscenity. He studied in Paris (1902-5), where
encourage an attitude of critical reflection in the audience, he knew such artists as *Brancusi, *Modigliani, and
rather than emotional identification with the action. *Pica.sso, who all helped to inspire the expressive sim-
Brecht's major plays Mother Courage (1941) and The Good work and to make him aware of ancient
plifications of his
Woman of Selzuan (1943) are fine examples. and primitive sculpture, which powerfully influenced his
style. One of his most original works is the tomb of
epigram, a short poem with a witty turn of thought; or Oscar Wilde (19 12) in Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris,
a wittily condensed expression in prose. First found in featuring a magnificently bold hovering angel inspired by
early Greek monumental inscriptions, the epigram was Assyrian sculpture. His public sculptures were regularly
developed into a literary form by Martial, whose Epigrams attacked, their expressive use of distortion being offensive
(ad 86 102) were often obscenely insulting. This epigram to conservative critics, but his portrait busts, to which he
by Herrick is adapted from Martial: Lulls swears he is devoted himself increasingly from the 1920s, were well
all heart, but you'll suppose By his proboscis that he is
|
received and many of the great figures of the time sat for
all nose. In English, epigrams have been written by many him. (See also *vorticism.)
poets since Donne, and are found in the prose of Wilde
and Dorothy Parker. Erasmus, Desiderius (1467- 1536), Dutch scholar,
writing in Latin. He produced a new edition of the Greek
epilogue, a concluding section of any written work. At New Testament and several important translations, but
epitaph, a form of words in prose or verse suited for Escher, M(aurits) C(orneille) (1898- 1972), Dutch
inscription upon a tomb, although many facetious verses graphic artist. He is well known for prints making
composed as epitaphs have not actually been inflicted on sophisticated use of visual illusion, exploiting, for example,
their victims' graves. Epitaphs may take the form of the ambiguity between flat pattern and apparent three-
appeals from the dead to passers-by, or of descriptions of dimensional recession. From the 1940s his work took on
the dead person's merits. Many ancient Greek epitaphs a *Surrealist flavour as he made brilliant play with
survive in the Greek Anthology (ad c.920), and both Johnson optical illusion to represent, for example, staircases that
and Wordsworth wrote essays on the epitaph. appear to lead both up and down in the same direction.
www.Ebook777.com
149 ETRUSCAN ART
Etruscan art, the art and architecture of the Etruscans, their models towestern Asia, for Greece had not as yet
an ancient people of unknown origin living in central Italy much to offer them.; during the second (C.600-C.400 bc)
(Etruria corresponds roughly with present-day Tuscany). they fell under the influence of *Greek art; during the
Etruscan art may be divided into three periods: during third (f.450-(". 100 bc) their art gradually declined until
the first (C.750-C.600 Bc), the Etruscans looked chiefly for finally it was swallowed up in *Roman art. The chief
products of the first period were bronze pails, jugs, and
jars, which were engraved and often decorated with
Etching is the most personal of the techniques for figures of men and animals which had been made sep-
producmg prmts from a metal plate, for the artist can arately and then fastened on; gold jewellery in the
scratch through the waxy covering of the plate almost as form of ear-rings, clasps, and necklaces, decorated with
easily as if he were drawing on paper. It thus encourages
granulation (minute dots of gold); and a characteristic
spontaneity and atmospheric effects. Samuel Palmer,
whose Opening the Fold is shown here, was one of the grey-black pottery called 'bucchero'. Vast numbers of
outstanding etchers of the 19th century, using the Greek vases from Corinth, Athens, and elsewhere have
technique to create some of the most poetic landscapes m been discovered in tombs of the second period, and it
British art. (British Museum, London) seems likely that Greek artists came to Etruria to work.
EUPHONIUM 150
In addition to the products of the previous period, the new art of *rhetoric and helped to cast doubt on tra-
Etruscans made statues and statuettes of bronze and also ditional beliefs: his plays regularly aim to disconcert,
of clay. At this time no good stone was known to them, by bringing discredit on the gods of mythology,
especially
and in general they used bronze and clay where the and are marked by strong arguments between opposed
Greeks used marble. They executed a certain amount of characters. The criticism found in the satirical play Frogs
sculpture, however, in coarse stone. Their temples were by *Aristophanes that Euripides degraded tragedy by
much like the Greek temples, but instead of having a bringing it nearer to the level of ordinary life points to
surrounding colonnade, they had only a deep porch in one of his strengths, while Aristophanes' complaint of his
front and plain walls at the sides and back. They were misogyny is a conscious misunderstanding of a playwright
made of wood and faced with clay. Clay was also fascinated by and sympathetic to strong emotion in
used for making ornamental coffins. Important families women. Euripides' characters speak a less elevated lan-
frequently had elaborate tombs, the usual form being a guage than those of * Aeschylus or even *Sophocles, while
communal burial-chamber covered by a large mound. his *choruses, however lyrical and musically innovative,
The walls were decorated with paintings, which showed are less integral to the plot of many of his plays. The
the influence of Greek art. Numerous arts, among them tragedies are extremely varied in theme and tone: Medea,
painting, metalwork, and the cutting of seal stones, portraying a passionate woman who kills her children to
flourished in the third period. spite her errant husband; Hippolytus, where Phaedra dies
for love of her stepson and brings about his death; and
euphonium, a wide-bore, low-pitched, valved *brass Bacchae, a striking portrayal of the arrival of the cult of
instrument related to the tuba, pitched in g-foot B[7, a Dionysus in Greece, are among the most admired.
principal melody instrument in the *brass band. In
Britain there is a firm distinction between the narrow-bore Evelyn, John (1620- 1706), English diarist and man of
baritone, the lowest of the cornet family, and the wide- letters. He was
with Robert Boyle a founder-member of
bore euphonium, but elsewhere, especially in the USA, the Royal Society (1662) and a man of wide interests
the two terms are almost interchangeable. Orchestrally which extended from landscape gardening to numis-
the euphonium is sometimes indicated as the tenor *tuba, matics, art, and architecture. He is principally celebrated
and it makes a good substitute for the small French tuba for his Memoirs or Diary, first published in 1818, which
in C, and also for the 19th-century *ophicleide, for both gives an invaluable account of the social, political, and
of which a bass tuba has too heavy a sound. Like the religious life of 17th-century England.
tuba, it is ultimately descended from the *bugle.
exegesis, the interpretation or explanation of a text.
Euripides Greek writer of *tragedies.
{c./\.8^~c.^o6 bc), The term is usually applied of
to the interpretation
He wrote plays from 455 bc onwards, producing eighty religious scriptures (or oracles and
but has been visions),
or ninety in all; nineteen are preserved more or less borrowed by *literary criticism for the analysis of any
complete, together with numerous fragments. He was poetry or prose. Literary scholars have likewise inherited
influenced by the sophists of his time, who taught the some of the procedures of biblical exegesis, for instance
the decoding of *allegories.
A scene from a lost tragedy by Euripides is shown on Expressionism, term used to denote the use of
a
thisGreek vase (350-325 bc). Alcemene, centre, is distortion and exaggeration
for emotional effect, chiefly
shown being sacrificed on the pyre by her jealous associated with the visual arts. In its broadest sense it can
husband Amphitryon. His plays have provided a rich
ore for later writers, among them Dryden, Moliere, and, be used of any art that raises subjective feeling above
m this century, Giraudoux. (British Museum, London) mind of the
objective observation, reflecting the state of
artistrather than images that conform to what we see in
the external world. The paintings of the 16th-century
artists *Grunewald andEl *Greco, who conveyed intense
religious emotion through distorted, unnaturalistic forms,
are outstanding examples of expressionism in this sense
(when used in this way the word is usually spelt with a
small 'e'). In a narrower sense, the word Expressionism
is applied to a broad trend in modern European art that
traces its origin to van *Gogh, who used colour and line
emotionally 'to express man's terrible passions'.
. . .
F
Faberge, Peter Carl (1846- 1920), Russian goldsmith
and jeweller of Huguenot descent. Under his management
the family business became the most fashionable jewellery
house in Europe, a position it held until World War I.
Faberge specialized in precious and semi-precious ma-
terials such as gold, silver, lapis lazuli, malachite, jade,
and gems which he rendered into masterpieces of flower
arrangement, figure groups, animals, and above all the
celebrated Easter eggs, opening up to reveal a further
present inside, that the emperors Alexander III and
Nicholas II gave annually to royal relatives. After the
Russian Revolution of 191 7 the company was nation-
alized, and Faberge died in exile in Switzerland.
in fiction. In drama, Expressionism was a movement Greek fables; he was followed by Gay in England and Ivan
that began in Germany in about 1910, and is best typified Krylov (1768- 1844) in Russia. More recent examples are
in the theatre by the plays of Georg *Kaiser and Ernst Kipling's Just So Stories (1902), Thurber's Fables of Our
*Toller. The Expressionist theatre was a theatre of protest, Time (1940), and Orwell's Animal Farm (1945).
mainly against the contemporary social order. Most of
itsdramatists were poets who used the theatre to further Fabritius, Carel (1622-54), Dutch painter. He was
their ideas.One of the few dramatists outside Germany *Rembrandt's most gifted pupil and a painter of out-
to be influenced by Expressionist drama was Eugene standing originality and distinction, but he died tragically
*0'Neill, particularly in The Emperor Jones (1920) and young and only about a dozen works by him are known.
The Hairy Ape (1922). His early works were strongly influenced by Rembrandt,
but he created his own style marked by cool colour
Eyck, Jan Van (d. 1441), *Flemish painter. He was harmonies, which influenced *Vermeer, the greatest of
long credited with being the inventor of *oil painting, Delft painters. His brother Barent Fabritius (1624-73)
and although this idea has been discarded, he did bring was also a painter, but of much lesser quality.
the technique to a sudden peak of mastery, and ranks as
one of the most influential figures in European art. Jan facet-cutting *jewellery.
was court painter to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy,
from 1425 until his death, and travelled on secret dip- Fachang *Muqi (Fachang).
lomatic missions to Spain and Portugal for his master.
Jan's contribution to the central masterpiece of early faience *maiolica.
Netherlandish painting, the great altarpiece of The Ad-
oration of the Lamb (completed 1432) in Ghent Cathedral,
Falla (y Matheu), Manuel de (1876- 1946), Spanish
is uncertain. An inscription on the frame says it was composer who migrated to Argentina in 1939. Until he
begun by Hubert van Eyck and completed by Jan, but came under the influence of the composer and musical
Jan's brother Hubert (d. c. 1426) is such an obscure scholar Felipe Pedrell in 1902, he was largely self-taught
figure that some scholars have denied that he ever as a composer. Pedrell's enthusiasm for Spanish folksong
existed. The same glowing effects of colour and jewel-like and masterpieces from the past liberated Falla's own
perfection of detail that displays are, however, also seen
it
individuality, which soon expressed itself in an opera, The
in the paintings that areundoubtedly entirely from Jan's Short Life (1905). A
period in Paris (1907-15) brought
hand, such as the celebrated double portrait Giovanni the influence of *Debussy's * Impressionism, evident in
Arnolfini and his Wife (1434). Jan's technique became the the suite for piano and orchestra. Mights in the Gardens of
accepted model in the Netherlands and rapidly spread Spain (191 5), and the ballets he wrote for *Diaghilev
elsewhere; within a short time of his death he was famous {Love, the Magician, 1915, and The Three-Cornered Hat,
in Italy as well as in northern Europe. 191 9). Later works, such as the chamber opera Master
Peter's Puppet Show (1922) adopted a leaner, *Neoclassical
style.
FAMILLE ROSE 152
famille rose, faxnille verte (French, 'pink family', farce, a kind of *comedy which inspires hilarity in its
'green family'), terms applied to *porcelain manufactured audience through an increasingly rapid and improbable
in China during the 17th and i8th centuries and dec- series of ludicrous confusions, physical disasters, and
orated in tin-glazed *enamel. Both types influenced sexual innuendoes among its stereotyped characters. Far-
European ceramic manufacture. In famille verte a trans- cical episodes of buffoonery can be found in European
lucent green enamel dominates, while the colours of drama of all periods since Aristophanes; but as a distinct
famille rose are softer, more varied, and often mixed with form of full-length comedy, farce dates from the igth
white. The
terms famille jaune 3.nd famille noire are applied century, with the works of Eugene Labiche in the 1850s,
to the less common wares of the same type in which and of Pinero and Feydeau in the 1880s and 1890s.
yellow and black predominate respectively. Famille noire Brandon Thomas's Charley s Aunt (1892) is recognized as
was probably a later igth-century) type than the others.
( a classic of the genre. The 'bedroom farce', involving
All of them were made mainly for export to Europe. The bungled adultery in rooms with too many doors, has
designs are usually made up of floral or animal motifs. had prolonged commercial success in London's theatres;
(See also *Chinese ceramics, *glaze.) Orton used its conventions to create a disturbing kind of
*satire in What the Butler Saw (1969).
fan, a hand-held device for producing a current of cooling
air. Fans have been used since ancient times in many Farnaby, Giles (c. 1563- 1640), English composer. He
parts of the world, and have sometimes acquired a published his Canzonets to Fowre Voyces in 1598. His
cultural role, in religious ceremonies for example, or as canzonets are pleasing to sing, and include one remarkable
adjuncts to the dance. Ancient fans were sometimes experiment in chromatic writing in the famous puzzle-
mounted on poles carried by slaves, but the best-known *madrigal 'Construe my meaning'. His vocal music is
type of fan is the small folding kind, which was developed most attractive, as are his many keyboard pieces which —
in Japan (perhaps as early as the 7th century ad) and include *fantasias, *variations, and several 'character
introduced to Europe by Portuguese traders in about sketches', such as 'Tower Hill' and 'Giles Farnaby's Rest'.
1500. In the West, it reached its peak of artistry in
18th-century France; the 'sticks' were made of materials Farquhar, George (c. 1678- 1707), English dramatist,
such as ivory or silver, and the 'mounts' or 'leaves' were born in Ireland. A major *Rcstoration dramatist, Far-
sometimes painted by distinguished artists. The fan went quhar began as an actor but after accidentally wounding
out of fashion after about igoo. a fellow player he turned to writing comedies. The greatest
of these. The Constant Couple (1699), The Recruiting Officer
fantasia, in the i6th and 17th centuries the instrumental (I 706),and The Beaux' Stratagem 707), are still regularly
( 1
musical equivalent of the *motet. In Britain the term staged. They are filled with good humour and mark a
'fancy' was used to describe adaptations of madrigals, transition between the licentiousness and mannerism of
popular tunes, and dances to instrumental music. In the Restoration drama and the high tone of the i8th century.
18th century it was a composition with the characteristics
of an improvisation, while in the 19th century it was a Fatixnid art, the art and architecture associated with
short, descriptive mood-piece (as, for example, Schu- the Muslim Fatimid dynasty that ruled over parts of
mann's Fantasy Pieces), or a selection of operatic tunes. In North Africa, Egypt, and Syria from 909 to 1171; the
the early 20th century the term was revived as 'phantasy', name derives from the fact that the caliphs claimed
to describe a loosely structured *chamber work, usually descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter. Their cap-
in one movement. In all these usages there is the im- ital was Cairo, which they founded in 969, and most of
plication of freedom from strict form. their major buildings are there, notably the Al Azhar
Mosque (begun 970), which became the Muslim world's
Fantin-Latour, Henri (1836- 1904), French painter principal seat of learning, and the Al Hakim Mosque
and *lithographer. He is best remembered as one of the (990-1013), now ruined. Forms were generally tradi-
outstanding flower painters of his period, but he was also tional, but the wealth of the Fatimids meant they could
a successful portraitist. Although he was friendly with afford the most lavish decoration: the famous painted
several of the leading progressive artists of the day, wooden roof of the Cappella Palatina in Palermo in Sicily
including Manet and Whistler, whom he depicted in (<:.I
143), with its fantastic array of stalactites, is probably
group portraits, Fantin-Latour was himself thoroughly Fatimid work. Little remains of Fatimid wall-painting or
traditional in outlook and technique. In his later career illustrated books, but they were renowned workers in
his admiration for Richard Wagner led him towards glass and crystal and in many other crafts.
imaginative compositions illustrating his music and that
of other Romantic composers. Faulkner, William (Harrison) (originally Falkner)
(1897- 1962), US and short-story writer. His first
novelist
farandole, a popular dance of the Middle Ages in which novel. Soldiers' Pay (1926), was followed first by Mosquitoes
the basic circle of the *carole was developed into various (1927) and Sartoris (1929), and then by the sequence of
floor patterns. The line of linked dancers moved forward, works for which he is best known: The Sound and the Fury
travelling sideways or facing forwards. The leader de- (1929), As I Lay Dying (1930), Sanctuary (1931), Light in
termined the patterns, taking the line through streets and August (1932), and Absalom, Absalom! (1936). Frequently
round houses, interspersing the travelling with special involving technical experiments such as the use of
figures such as leading the line into a tight spiral and multiple, confusing narrators, these novels constitute a
reversing the direction to unwind, and going through one myth of a doomed South, evoked in an ornate and copious
or more arches made by the raised arms of the dancers. style. Later works of note are Go Down, Moses (1942),
Many *folk dance forms involve similar linked lines of which includes the hunting tale 'The Bear', and the
dancers. trilogy about the rise to power of the depraved Snopes
153 FERRABOSCO
lished * Romantic tradition. He is properly regarded as 1715), French theologian and man of letters. He was
one of the greatest of French song-writers, and is much appointed Archbishop of Cambrai and tutor to the
admired for his chamber and piano music. He wrote an grandson of Louis XIV in 1689. He fell from favour in
opera, Penelope (191 3), a Requiem (1877) of exceptional 1699 when he came under the influence of the unorthodox
beauty, and several attractive orchestral works, including theological doctrine of Quietism (the condemnation of all
the Ballade for piano and orchestra (1881) and the suite human effort) and, in the same year, published a prose
Masques et bergamasques (1919). romance called Telemaque. The book, written in an elegant,
poetic style, recounts the imaginary adventures of Tele-
Fauvisxn, based on the use of intensely
style of painting machus, son of Ulysses, and contains passages of implied
vivid non-naturalistic colours, the first of the major avant- criticism of Louis XIV.
garde developments that changed the face of European
art between the turn of the century and World War I. Fenton, Roger *war photography.
The name 'Fauves' (French, 'wild beasts') was given to
the artists who painted in the style because of their Ferrabosco, Alfonso, father (1543-88), and son
uninhibited use of colour freed from its traditional de- 1578-1628), Italian-born composers who spent much
(c.
scriptive role. Fauvism reached its peak in 1905-6, and of their working lives in England. A highly competent
with most of the group of artists involved, including composer, both of Latin church music and of Italian
*Derain and * Vlaminck, the style was a temporary phase; madrigals, Alfonso the father revealed a sound knowledge
only the most important of them, *Matisse, continued to of *counterpoint and an appreciation of chromaticism.
FERRIER 154
His son served the English court throughout his career, he used the story of a young wife's love for her inconstant
becoming composer to King Charles I in 1626. He was husband to expose numerous social evils of his day. A
admired as a composer of church music, but his finest writer of considerable originality, Fielding devised what
work is found in his music for viols, especially the he described as 'comic epics in prose', which are in effect
imaginative fantasias and In nomine settings in which each the first modern *novels in English. He also wrote several
performer was expected to show his skill in fast-moving influential legal enquiries and pamphlets, including a
scale passages, broken chords, and the like. With Ben proposal for the abolition of hanging, and helped to
Jonson and Inigo Jones he created lavish court *masques. establish the Bow Street Runners (predecessors of the
London police).
Ferrier, Kathleen (Mary) (1912-53), English con-
tralto singer. After her 1943 London debut in Messiah, figure of speech, an expression which departs from the
Ferrier rose rapidly to a leading position among British accepted literal sense or from the usual order of words,
concert singers. Whilst Lucretia in Britten's The Rape of or in which an uncommon emphasis is made through
Lucretia and the title role in Gluck's Orfeo were her only sound. Figurative language is a major characteristic of
operatic roles, the part of the Angel in Elgar's Gerontius *poetry, and is ever-present (although usually unnoticed)
was perfectly suited to the warmth and expressiveness of in all other kinds of speech or writing. The ancient theory
her voice. of * rhetoric named and categorized dozens of such figures,
drawing a rough distinction between those (known as
Feydeau, Georges (i 862-1921), French dramatist. 'tropes') which extend the meaning of words, and those
He wrote uproariously funny *vaudevilles and *farces, which merely affect their order or their impact upon an
among them Occupe-toi d'Amelie (1908) and Feu la mere audience. The most important trope is *metaphor, in
de Madame (1908), which were revived in France some which the name of one thing is used to indicate something
twenty years after his death and are now popular through- else resembling it; in *simile, this resemblance is drawn
out the world. explicitly. Another trope, metonymy, refers to one thing
by naming another thing associated with it (like 'the
fiddle, any bowed stringed musical instrument, but more bench' for the judiciary); one of its forms, synecdoche,
frequently used of folk instruments. The medieval fiddle names a part to mean a whole ('per head', meaning per
was large, held either on the shoulder or downwards, person) or a whole to mean a part ('Liverpool', meaning
often with five strings running over the fingerboard plus one of its football teams). Other important tropes are
two *drone strings to one side. To the trouveres (see *irony, overstatement (*'hyperbole'), understatement
*minstrel) of the 13th century it was their most important ('litotes'), and euphemism or circumlocution ('peri-
musical instrument. Fiddles vary widely over the world, phrasis'). The minor can
varieties or 'rhetorical figures'
the simplest (a 'spike-fiddle') having a gourd or bamboo emphasize a point by placing words in contrast with one
tube resonator (today often a tin or plastic container), another ('antithesis'), or by repeating words in various
spiked through with a neck, to each end of which one or patterns, changing the order of words ('hyperbaton'),
more strings are attached. An example of this is the missing out conjunctions ('asyndeton'), or breaking off^in
Chinese huqin. Equally strongly constructed fiddles, such mid-sentence ('aposiopesis'); or they can stress the sounds
as the *sarangl, are carved from a single block of wood. of words, as in *alliteration and punning.
A one-stringed fiddle of Yugoslavia is known as the gusle.
The more fragile construction of a resonator to which a filigree, openwork decoration made of very fine wires
neck is attached, like the *violin, presupposes a more and tiny balls of metal soldered into a design. The metal
advanced technology. is usually gold or silver, but bronze and other metals
have also been used. Filigree has been used in jewellery
Field, John(1782- 1837), Irish composer and piano since Greek and Roman times and has also been employed
virtuoso, remembered
as the inventor of the piano *noc- in a wide variety of small decorative objects.
turne, of which he published nineteen between 181 2 and
1836. After travelling in Europe with *Clementi, he film. Motion pictures as a form of dramatic art began
settled (1803) as a fashionable pianist and teacher in St as sideshows at fairgrounds or as items in music-hall
Petersburg, and later (1821) in Moscow. Field invented programmes. They were all short and silent, and included
a refined, smooth style of playing, as evidenced in his slapstick comedy, trick pictures, short romances, and
seven piano concertos and numerous piano pieces, in five-minute dramas. Between 1900 and 1914 the length
which he dispensed with the supporting string quartets. of a performance increased from a few minutes to two
His work greatly influenced later composers such as hours, and after. World War I * Hollywood in California
*Chopin. became the chief centre of production. Sound films
evolved in the late 1920s and Technicolor in the 1930s.
Fielding, Henry (1707-54), British novelist and dram- Among the pioneering geniuses of film-making are *Eis-
atist. He
wrote mainly *satire and *farce, including Tom ensteinand the Germans von *Sternberg, *Lang, and
Thumb (1730), a *burlesque ridiculing the grandiose *Murnau, whose development of ^Expressionism in the
tragedies of the day, and a fierce political satire, The cinema paralleled its evolution in art and drama. In
which resulted in the
Historical Register for ly^G (1737), France the films of Jean Vigo (1905-34) introduced a
introduction of censorship on the stage and the end of form of *surrealist lyricism. In the USA *Welles created
Fielding's career in the theatre. In the preface to his new heights of cinematic drama with Citizen Kane (1941),
first novel, Joseph Andrews (1742), he mocked his rival while *Kazan directed some of the great classics of the
* Richardson's sentimental novel Pamela. His greatest cinema. In France the *Nouvelle Vague directors evolved
novel, Tom Jones (1749), traced the adventures of its an intimate and influential cinema style in the 1960s,
high-spirited hero. In Fielding's last novel, Amelia (1751), while the technical innovations of the *cinema verite
7
155 FISCHER-DIESKAU
allowed inexpensive but notable film productions to be Finzi, Gerald (Raphael) (1901-56), British composer.
made. In Britain the *Free Cinema group were concerned His Dies natalis for tenor and strings (1939) attracted
to bring realism to the feature film. Among internationally attention, as did the collections of songs that emerged
acclaimed post-war directors are *Kurosawa, whose thereafter — particularly the of the poetry of
settings
works often draw on elements of the Kabuki and samurai Thomas Hardy. His ear for the music of words was so
traditions, *Bergman, *Buiiuel, *Hitchcock, *Tarkovsky, acute that he was able, at his best, to create within the
*Truffaut, *Rossellini, *Herzog, and Rainer Werner orbit of pure melody and musical inflexion, a result akin
Fassbinder (1946-82). to stylized reading aloud. His few larger works include a
clarinet (1949) and a cello (1956) concerto.
film xnusic, music that plays a legitimate part in the
action of a film, mainly used as a means of supplying Firdausi, Abu al-Qasim (C.940-C.1020), Persian poet.
additional emotional or physical atmosphere. In the days His most noted work is his *epic poem the Shdhndmah or
of silent films, performances were accompanied by the Book of Kings. Basing himself on earlier accounts of
piano, the music being improvised on the spot or selected Persian history, Firdausi worked for thirty-five years to
in advance from a library of suitable pieces. Larger describe in poetry the whole sweep of Iranian history. A
cinemas employed orchestras, and the more elaborate poem of nearly 60,000 *couplets, it was completed in
films came with an appropriate score selected by the film loio and was presented to the celebrated sultan Mahmiad
company. Although Saint-Saens wrote special music for of Ghazna, who gave Firdausi a pittance for his work.
the film U
Assassinal du Due de Guise in 1908, the practice One episode from this epic inspired the poem of Matthew
of commissioning film scores arose in the mid- 1920s and Arnold, 'Sohrab and Rustum' (1853).
soon attracted the skills and attention of major composers.
Among the many important composers who have written Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich (1925- ), German bari-
major film scores are Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Vaughan tone singer. Although his career is rich and varied, from
Williams, Walton, Korngold, Bernstein, and Copland. his concert and operatic debuts in the late 1940s, at
Bayreuth (1954 6), and involvement in first performances is and symbolic interpretation of themes of
a sensitive
of works by Henze and Britten, he is an outstanding contemporary life related with irony and pathos to the
interpreter of *Lieder. His huge repertoire (including the legend of the American dream. An extended period
complete songs of Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf), and abroad with his wife Zelda (1899- 1948), herself a minor
vocal control and balance are exemplary. writer, resulted in Tender is the Night (1934), a novel
seeking to analyse the psychological and spiritual malaise
Fischer von Erlach, Johann Bernhard ( 1 656 1723), of modern life. His troubled final years were spent in
the greatest Austrian architect of his period. He worked Hollywood, where he was employed as a screenwriter.
mainly in Vienna, where he settled in 1685 after spending The Last Tycoon (1941), a novel portraying a movie mogul
about 15 years in Italy. Fischer's work inaugurated the and his industry, was left unfinished at his death.
Austrian *Baroque style. He was much influenced by
*Borromini and other Italian Baroque architects, but his Five, the, a group of 19th-century Russian composers,
work has an aristocratic, intellectual quality that is his who shared the common ideal of creating a distinctively
own. His most famous building is the Karlskirche in nationalist school of composition.The mentor of the
Vienna (begun in 17 16), an extraordinarily original group was Mily Balakirev (i 837-1910), who was deeply
design with a facade featuring a pair of giant replicas of influenced by Russian folk-song, which he combined with
Trajan's Column in Rome. He had scholarly inclinations, the romantic idiom of his European contemporaries.
and in 1721 published the first illustrated history of The other members of the group were *Borodin, Cesar
architecture. Outline of Historical Architecture. Cui (1835- 9 18), *Musorgsky, and *Rimsky-Korsakov,
1
The Fall of Icarus (c. 1550) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, the the *Goncourt brothers. His aim was rather to achieve
greatest figure m m
Flemish art the 16th century. Icarus detachment characteristic of his major novels
the stylistic
was a character in Greek mythology who flew with and the tales included in Trois Contes (1877), and to this
artificial wmgs made by his father, the inventor Daedalus.
end he set himself very high standards, working painfully
The sun melted the wax on his wmgs when he soared too
slowly. Nevertheless his passion, his contempt for the
high and he fell into the sea and drowned. Icarus is only a
tmy detail m this picture, which illustrates the Flemish stupidity of the bourgeoisie, as well as the love of the
proverb 'Not a plough stands still when a man dies'. exotic found in two of his other novels, Salammbo (1862)
(Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels) and La Tentation de Saint Antoine (1874), are continuing
signs of a fundamentally Romantic temperament.
tures — fafades, towers, etc. Secular buildings were be-
coming more important at this time, however, and the Flaxman, John ( 1 755 1826), British sculptor, draughts-
Flamboyant style can also be seen in civic buildings. man, and designer, one of the leading figures of the
*Neoclassical movement. His sculpture includes some
flamenco, a dance indigenous to southern Spain. It large groups with standing figures, but his best work is
originates from the classic Moorish dance (itself influenced found in simpler and smaller church monuments, some-
by dance from northern India) and from the dance and times cut in low relief
music of Spanish gypsies. These probably combined in
the 15th century, when both Moors and gypsies took Flemish art, a term applied to the art of the area of
refuge from the Christians, and produced a dance of Europe corresponding with present-day Belgium and at
forceful rhythmic footwork and sinuous arm movements. times to certain other adjoining regions. In the period
During the igth century it became a recognized art, with before the northern Netherlands (present-day Holland)
the dance inextricably connected to handclapping, song, separated from the southern Netherlands (Flanders or
and guitar-playing. Improvisation is stressed and there Belgium) the north was culturally a satellite of the south,
are two main styles, the serious jondo, and the light, so in the field of 15th- and 16th-century art the terms
sometimes humorous chico. Flemish and Netherlandish are often used inter-
changeably. Earlier, Flanders had been ruled by Bur-
Flaubert, Gustave (1821-80), French novelist. His first gundy, so there is also an overlap between the terms
major novel, Madame Bovary (1857), is a portrait of a 'Flemish art' and *'Burgundian art'. The history of
young woman who cannot come to terms with the Flemish art is dominated by painting, which arose from
limitations of provincial life. Following publication, Flau- a 14th-century tradition of manuscript illumination. The
bert was prosecuted for offences against public morality, founding figure of the school of painting, Jan van *Eyck,
but acquitted. U
Education sentimentale (1869) is an account combined the delicately detailed technique of the mini-
of a platonic relationship between a young man and an aturist with a new, searching naturalism; he was the most
older woman which mirrors his own relationship with important pioneer of *oil painting as we now understand
Mme Schlesinger. Flaubert rejected the *Romanticism it, achieving unprecedented richness of colour and texture,
by which he had been influenced in his early years, and his technique became a model for Flemish painters
believing that it distorted reality by an excessive lyricism. into the next century. His successors included Rogier van
He sought instead a more exact portrayal of reality der *Weyden, who worked mainly in Brussels, and Hans
and took great pains in establishing the documentary *Memlinc, who worked mainly in Bruges. Standing
background to his novels. However, although his novels somewhat apart from the main tradition was Hieronymus
are often seen as examples of * realism, he was unwilling *Bosch, the greatest Flemish painter at the turn of the
to associate himself closely with the literary doctrines of 1 6th century. In general the Flemish painters of the
FLETCHER 158
16th century did not match the achievements of their the great works they commissioned are still everywhere to
15th-century predecessors, but the great genius of the be seen in the city. Florence was founded in Roman
period, Pieter *Bruegel the Elder, influenced his coun- times, however, and has important works from earlier
trymen well into the 17th century with his brilliantly times, notably the baptistery of the cathedral (of uncertain
observed scenes of everyday life. The 1 7th century saw date, but perhaps as early as the 5th century) and the
Flemish art invigorated by the genius of Rubens, who 11 th- 12th-century *Romanesque church of San Miniato
had wide influence. Other outstanding painters of the al Monte, famous for its geometrically patterned marble
period were van *Dyck, Jacob *Jordaens, Jan *Brueghel, facade. Although Florentine art is highly varied, it is
and David *Teniers the Younger. After the 17th century associated particularly with certain qualities, notably
Flemish art played a fairly minor role in a European clarity of form and intellectual rigour. These were ex-
context, but there have been isolated modern artists pressed through an emphasis on the importance of
of importance, for example James *Ensor and Rene draughtsmanship and a scientific concern with the prob-
*Magritte. lems of representing three dimensions on a two-
dimensional surface. The first great figure in Florentine
Fletcher, John *Beaumont, Sir Francis. painting was *Giotto, regarded as the founder of the
central tradition of European painting. A century later,
Floating World (Japanese, ukryo-e), Japanese term to in the early 15th century, his innovations were refined
describe the art and literature produced under the in- by *Masaccio, the first painter to master *perspective.
fluence of the pleasure quarters of cities in Japan during This had been devised by his friend *Brunelleschi, famous
the Tokugawa or Edo period (1603 1867). A rapidly above all as the architect of the dome of Florence
expanding commercial economy enabled rich townsmen Cathedral. With another friend, the sculptor *Donatello,
to pursue transient sensual pleasure and short-lived fash- Masaccio and Brunelleschi formed an unrivalled grouping
ion where Confucian morality did not intrude. The period of artistic genius, and this set the tone for the rest of the
is best known for the bright woodblock prints of actors
15th century, during which Florence produced many
and courtesans, *ukiyo-e, but also produced writers like great artists, including some of the most illustrious names
*Ihara Saikaku and *Matsuo Basho. in the history of art —
Era *Angelico, *Botticelli, *Leon-
ardo da Vinci, * Michelangelo. Great artists from else-
Florentine art. In the period from the early 14th to where in Italy, notably *Raphael, also spent significant
the early i6th century, Florence was artistically the most parts of their careers in the city. By the early i6th century,
important and innovative centre in Europe. This period however, Florence was being rivalled in importance as
coincided with the time of Florence's greatest prosperity an artistic centre by Rome and Venice. Great and
(based mainly on banking and the textile trade), and of influential artists continued to work there (for example
its greatest pride as an independent city-state. For much *Giambologna, the leading sculptor in Europe in the late
of this period the Medici family was a dominant force, and 1 6th century), but it never again achieved unquestioned
Fo, Dario (1926- ), Italian playwright, director, and In this engraving after a drawmg by Titian m the second
actor. Fo and his wife, the actress Franca Rame, founded half of the 16th century a trio plays on three flutes,
apparently all at the same pitch. The Renaissance flute
the Campagnia Dario Fo-Franca Rame in 1959 to
perform their left-wing, anti-establishment theatre, which
was cylindrical in bore, with six finger-holes and no key.
The player with his back to us is playing left-handed; the
has its roots in the *commedia deWarte. In 1970 Fo and others play right-handed, as all players do today.
Rame set up the Collettivo Teatrale La Commune which (Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt)
toured factories and other public places. Particularly well
known among Fo's plays are Accidental Death of an Anarchist
(1974) and We can't pay? We won't pay! (1974). some extent cut oflT from the artistic mainstream. The
term embraces articles of daily use as well as those made
Fogazzaro, Antonio (1842- 191 1), Italian novelist. His for special such as weddings and funerals.
occasions,
works explore conflicts between reason and faith in the Decorative woodcarving, embroidery, lace, basketwork,
light of a liberal Catholicism. His finest novel. The Little mural painting, and earthenware pottery are among the
World of the Past (1896), the first of a tetralogy, describes typical products of folk art. Its methods are handed
the fortunes of a young couple caught up in the struggle down in the home from generation to generation, and
by Italian patriots to free northern Italy from Austrian traditional patterns and designs persist with little alter-
domination. It has considerable elements in common with ation. Although it may involve considerable manual skill,
*Manzoni's The Betrothed, both in the conflicts described folk art is generally unsophisticated or even rough-hewn,
and in the delicate portrayal of every character. often with bold colours. The qualities of freshness, spon-
taneity, and sincerity that the best folk art possesses have
Fokine, Michel (1880- 1942), Russian dancer and cho- caused it be admired and imitated by sophisticated
to
reographer. He trained at the Imperial school, St Peters- artists (just as folk music has influenced art music), but
burg, and danced with the Maryinsky Company. He attempts to revive or artificially reproduce folk art in the
started choreographing in 1905 and made his first work context of modern urban life are rarely successful.
for *Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in 1909 [Les Sylphides).
This represents his romantic concerns, while Petrushka folk dance, ceremonial, country, and step dances, dis-
(191 1 ) reveals his Russian sense of drama and char- tributed world-wide. Folk forms all over the world fre-
acterization. Sheherazade (191 1) shows exotic, spectacular quently have their roots in older fertility rites or work
form. His theories for modern ballet are enshrined in a dances, and many of the sophisticated * Indian and
letter to The Times, 6 July 19 14, arguing for a new form *South-East Asian dance forms have emerged from reli-
of movement for each work, the relationship of dance gious ceremony. Among ceremonial dances the sword
and mime to the dramatic situation, the use of the whole dance is common in Europe and also appears in India,
body, the expressiveness of the group, and the relationship Borneo, and other areas. Country dances and step dances
of dance to the other arts as an equal. Fokine's influence such as the Irish and Scots jigs and reels were performed
on the development of ballet is seminal. for social reasons. The intricate patterns woven with
swords were adopted by trade guilds, who substituted
folk art, term describing objects and decorations made their own implements for the weapons. Ritual dances such
in a traditional fashion by craftsmen who have had no as the English Morris dance are widespread throughout
formal training and belong to a cultural group that is to Europe and extend to India, parts of Central and South
FOLK FESTIVALS 160
were primarily social and performed by many, interaction no written tradition. As a consequence variations are
with the aristocracy provided a two-way exchange of continually introduced, either through imperfect learning
dance forms. Similarly an interesting relationship emerges or through the adaptation of material to the changing
characteristics of the community, and it is this element
between igth-century step dances performed in clogs,
of constant reshaping through variation that distinguishes
early 20th-century *music hall clog dances, and the later
a thriving folk culture. This fluidity makes it impossible
parody in *ballet, for example in *Ashton's La Fille mal
to speak of an 'authentic' folk tune, but one speaks rather
gardee. This overlapping of styles, contexts, and forms is
of tune families, which might contain dozens of closely
a recurrent feature of folk dance.
related tunes. These usually exist within the folk music of
folk festivals (Western), seasonal celebrations con- a certain group, but occasionally two or more nations
nected with the activities of the agricultural year, par- share tune families, the specific details of which have
ticularly seed-time and harvest. They appear to have become adapted to the local tradition. The link between
arisen spontaneously from the time of the first organized folk-songand language is particularly strong. Both music
communities and vary considerably in form. Some consist and words tend to come into existence at the same time,
merely of a processional dance, as in the Morris dance so that the melody follows the natural rhythm and
(see The New Year's Eve Archetringle at
*folk dance). inflection of the language. Folk-songs therefore have
Laupen Switzerland contains a mock combat between
in indelible national characteristics. Rapid urbanization in
two bands of masked men, one side wearing ribbons century has both threatened the traditional en-
this
and bells reminiscent of Morris dancers; there is more vironment of folk music and opened it up to a new
horseplay among the Bavarian Wild Men, who appear audience and many new influences, so that we find singers
on St Nicholas's Day. A rudimentary form of drama is of popular urban cultures, like Bob Dylan, composing
found in the Mascarade of the Soule region of south-west songs in the folk style, and the growth of mixed genres
161 FONTANE
like bluegrass and folk rock (see *country music and and *Kodaly in Hungary and other parts of eastern
*rock and roll). At the same time traditional folk music Europe. A direct result of theirwork was the conscious
this century is sometimes used to symbolize the ethnic integration of folk music within art music by composers
identity of a minority or oppressed group, or is ma- like *Vaughan Williams, *Grieg, and Bartok, who used
nipulated for political ends. While traditional folk music their national folk-songs to create a national style capable
displays a profusion of styles, certain characteristics are of shaking o^
the hegemony of Germanic music. The
shared. Folk music celebrates the calendrical cycle and result may
overlay the original material with undue
the key events in an individual's life. There are songs to sophistication, but it is evidence of the power and strength
accompany religious events or work, to lull children to of folk music that it can inspire and influence art music
sleep, or to narrate stories in ballad or epic form. There while still existing in a more traditional environment,
is also an extensive body of *traditional dance music, where it has evolved for hundreds of years.
usually accompanied by instruments (but see *mouth
music). Songs are usually strophic (that is, the same folly French /o/?>, 'madness' or 'eccentricity'), an orna-
(
His novels are characterized by their unprogrammatic Russia in about 1905 by *Meyerhold, which survived
reaHsm, their rejection of romantic solutions, their ironic The antithesis of the naturalism of the
until the 1930s.
observation and good-humoured criticism, their skilful Moscow Art Theatre (see *Stanislavsky), it entailed
dialogue, and their preference for understatement. treating the actor like a puppet whose inner feelings must
be suppressed in the interests of symbolism. It was not
fool, the licensed buffoon of the medieval feast of fools, inappropriate in the climate of experimentation after the
later an important member of the societes joyeuses of Revolution of 19 17, though its abstractness and lack of
medieval France, not to be confused with the *court fool. emotional warmth alienated its audience. With the rise
The traditional costume of the fool, who is associated of *Socialist Realism, however, which demanded a type
with such *folk festivals as the Morris dance (see *folk of presentation that the workers could understand, Form-
dance) and the *mummers' play (especially the wooing alism fell into disrepute.
ceremony), is a hood with horns or ass's ears, and
sometimes bells, covering the head and shoulders; a Forster, E(dward) M(organ) (1879- 1970), British
parti-coloured jacket and trousers, usually tight-fitting; novelist, essayist, and critic, connected with the *Blooms-
and sometimes a tail. He carries a marotte or bauble, bury Group. He attended King's College, Cambridge,
either a replica of a fool's head on a stick, or a dried and where the atmosphere of free intellectual discussion and
distended bladder filled with dried peas, and he sometimes the emphasis on personal relationships profoundly in-
has a wooden sword or 'dagger of lath', like the 'Old fluenced his work, notably, The Longest Journey (1907).
Vice' in the mystery plays. Impeccably stylish, Forster's fiction is in the English
tradition of the novel of manners, and takes the difficulties
Ford, Ford Madox (Ford HermannHueffer) (1873- of forming human relations as its theme. Travels in Italy
1939), British novelist, editor, and He collaborated
critic. and Greece provided material for Where Angels Fear To
with Conrad on The Inheritors (1901) and other works Tread (1905) and A Room with A View (1908). Howard's
and published over eighty books of fiction and non-fiction. End (1910) contrasts the conflicting social and cultural
His masterpiece. The Good Soldier (1915), is a finely values of two English families. A Passage to India (1924)
constructed and complex tale of the relationship of two is a picture of society in India under the British Raj and
married couples. As founder and editor of the English an exploration of the nature of external and internal
Review (1908- 11), and later as editor of the Paris-based reality. His own homosexuality nurtured a deep sensitivity
Transatlantic Review (1924), his appreciation of originality to the conventional hypocrisies of the day; homosexual
and quality in the works of *Joyce, *Pound, *cummings, themes dominate Maurice (begun 191 3, published post-
and others, did much to shape the course of 20th-century humously in 971), and some of his short stories.
1
(1634), a historical play. His plays are mainly concerned Of Sepulchres (1807), works of lyric beauty and haunting
with human dignity, courage, and endurance in suffering; melancholy which reflect his restless, passionate nature.
melancholy, torture, incest, and delusion are explored Foscolo, a classicist in the purity of his style, was one of
with sincerity in very individual rhythmic *blank verse. the most significant voices heralding the Risorgimento,
the movement to unite and liberate Italy.
Ford, John (Sean Aloysius O'Feeney) (1895- 1973), US
film director, renowned maker of *Westerns. His first Foster Associates, British architectural partnership
film, in 191 7, was a short Western and he directed such established 1967 by Norman Foster (1935-
in ) in
classics of the genre as Stagecoach (1939), My
Darling collaboration with Buckminster Fuller. With Richard
Clementine (1946), She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949), The *Rogers (his partner 1963-7) Foster is one of the leading
Searchers (1956), and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance exponents of a 'high-tech' style exulting in modern ma-
(1
962 ) which combined a feeling for American landscapes
,
chinery and technology. His best-known buildings include
with a concern for their inhabitants. Yet he made out- the aircraft-hangar-like Sainsbury Centre for the Visual
standing films in other genres, including The Lost Patrol Arts at the University of East Anglia (1975-8) and the
(1934), a war film; The Informer (1935), one of the best skyscraper headquarters of the Hong Kong and Shanghai
films ever made about the problems of Ireland; Young Mr Banking Corporation in Hong Kong (1979), which re-
Lincoln (1939); The Grapes of Wrath (1940) based on John nounces the smoothness of the *Mies van der Rohe
*Steinbeck's novel about a poor family's trek to California tradition for a mechanistic irregularity.
during the Depression; and The Fugitive (1947), based on
Graham Greene's novel The Power and the Glory. He won Fouquet, Jean (c. i420-<:. 1481), French painter and
Academy Awards for direction of The Informer, The Grapes manuscript illuminator, the outstanding French painter
of Wrath, How Green Was My Valley (also Best Film) of the 15th century. In the mid- 1440s he visited Rome,
at the French court. Whether he worked on *miniatures the Violin Sonata (1886), and the Symphony in D minor
or on a larger scale in panel paintings, Fouquet's art had (1888).
the same characteristics: clear and powerful draughts-
manship and an impressive sense of gravity and poise. Fredro, Aleksander (1793- 1876), Polish dramatist. A
nobleman, he fought under Napoleon and late in life
Fowles, John (Robert) (1926- ), British novelist. His wrote about his experiences. In his many mainly verse
novels explore the theme of freedom by inventively comedies, such as Maiden's Vows (1833) and Revenge
adapting popular fictional forms: the thriller in The (1834), he created a collection of witty caricatures,
Collector (1963), the mystery story in The Magus (1966), using rapid dialogue to poke fun at human foibles and
and the historical romance in The French Lieutenant's contemporary social customs.
Woman (1969). These works, like the novella The Ebony
Tower (1974), have been adapted for the cinema. Others Free Cinema, movement founded in Britain in 1956
include the 18th-century mystery A Maggot (1985). which aimed cinema towards subjects
to steer the British
relevant to its audiences. Three well-known British dir-
Fox Talbot, William Henry *Talbot, William ectors helped to found the movement and contributed
Henry Fox. short films in furtherance of its aims: Lindsay Anderson
(1923- ), Dreamland (1953), and Every Day Except
Fragonard, Jean-Honore (1732- 1806), French painter Christmas (1957); Karel Reisz (1926- ), We Are the
whose works embody the *Rococo spirit. He was a pupil Lambeth Boys (1959), and co-director of Momma Don't
of *Chardin and of *Boucher before living in Italy from Allow (1955), with Tony Richardson (1928- ). Though
1756 to 1 76 1 as a prize-winning student. After his return the movement lasted only three years, it paved the way
to Paris he soon abandoned his attempts to paint grand for several feature films, including Anderson's This Sporting
historical works and turned to the delicately erotic subjects Life (1963), Reisz's Saturday Night and Sunday Morning
for which he is famous. Almost all his work was done for (i960), and Richardson's A Taste of Honey (1961).
private patrons, among them Madame du Barry, Louis
XV's most beautiful mistress. Fragonard's delicate col- free-reed instrument, a musical instrument in which
ouring, witty characterization, and spontaneous brush- free reeds vibrate freely to and fro in a closely fitting
work give his work an irresistible verve and joyfulness, frame. Instruments with large free reeds are plucked
ensuring that even his most erotic subjects are never (*Jew's harps), while those with small ones are blown:
vulgar. Taste, however, turned decisively against him (*mouth organs, *harmonicas, *harmoniums, and reed
when the Neoclassical style came to the fore and he was organs). In South-East Asia, where this type of reed may
ruined by the Revolution, dying in poverty. well have originated, they are also used on pipes with
finger-holes, like any other *reed instrument.
frame drum, a drum with a shallower than the
shell
diameter of the head and usually a single head. Frame free verse, a kind of poetry which does not conform to
drums are used by many peoples, especially those in the any regular pattern of *metre. The length of its lines is
Arctic, where it is often a cult instrument. In North Africa irregular, as is its use of *rhyme (if any). Free verse uses
and the Middle East it is often a woman's instrument, as flexiblepatterns of rhythmic repetition, and is now
it was in biblical times. Frame drums often have rattling the predominant verse-form in English. It has some
elements, such as *tambourine jingles or the internal precedents in translations of the biblical Psalms and in
and the double-headed
snares of the North African bendir the poems of Blake, but the pioneers of free verse in
Portuguese and the suspended
adufe, * rattles of the Si- English were Whitman, Lawrence, and the poets of
berian shaman's drum. *modernism: T. S. Eliot, Pound, and William Carlos
Williams.
France, Anatole (Anatole-Fran^ois Thibault) (1844-
1924), French novelist and critic. He stands in the french horn, a *brass musical instrument used orches-
rationalist tradition ofFrench literature inherited from trally since the mid- 17th century as the corno da caccia
*Voltaire in the i8th century and Renan in the 19th. In (Italian, 'hunting horn'), played with the *bell upwards.
his early career he wrote poetry in the style of the Around 750 players discovered that moving the hand
1
* Parnassians, but achieved greatest success as a novelist. in the bell produced notes other than natural harmonics;
His characteristic mode is elegantly polished social satire, this 'hand horn' for which Mozart wrote his horn con-
as for example in U lie des pingouins (1908), Les Dieux ont certos, was used until the mid- 19th century. Valves were
soif {igi 2), and La Revoke des anges (1914). He also wrote invented in 18 15, but tone quality was at first poor due
several volumes of childhood reminiscences, including Le to constricted tubing. Improvements were rapid and
Livre de mon ami (1885), and essays of literary criticism. valve horns became predominant. Because of the long,
He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1921. narrow air column, with a range high in the harmonic
series, horn playing is notorious for its difficulty.
Franck, Cesar- (Auguste-Jean-Guillaum.e-Hubert)
(1822-90), French composer and organist of Belgian fresco (Italian, 'fresh'), a method of wall-painting in
birth. His music was much influenced by the chromaticism which powdered pigments mixed in water are applied to
(see *harmony) of *Liszt and *Wagner and he was one wet plaster freshly laid on the wall. The paint fuses with
of the earliest French composers to write *symphonic the plaster, making the picture an integral part of the
poems, such as Les Eolides (1876) and Le Chasseur maudit wall. Fresco is an ancient technique, going back to
(1882). His real genius, however, lay in his non- classical times, and it is also found in China and India.
*programmatic works, such as the Piano Quintet (1879), It had its finest flowering in Italian painting from the
the Variations symphoniques for piano and orchestra (1886), time of Giotto up to the 17th century, and in the i8th
FRESCOBALDI 164
The Mexican artist Diego Rivera was a rare modern sixty years later, and which were to exercise considerable
exponent of the art of fresco, and with his brightly influence on other organ composers such as Buxtehude.
coloured murals covered more wall space than any other
artist. This detail of his fresco, La Civilisation Zapotheque
fret, a narrow strip of wood or metal built into the
(1942), forms part of a series on the Pre-Columbian
fingerboard of certain stringed musical instruments, such
history of Mexico he painted for the Palacio Nacional in
Mexico City. It shows Zapotec craftsmen engaged m the as the guitar and banjo (but not the violin family). A
arts for which their civilization was famed. fret raises the string clear of the fingerboard just as
the open string is raised, minimizing the damping and
allowing the note to ring clearly after being plucked.
century in Tiepolo. It has been memorably revived by
the Mexican painter Rivera in the 20th century. Freud, Lucian (1922 ), German-born painter (a
grandson of Sigmund Freud) who came to Britain in
Frescobaldi, Girolazno (1583- 1643), one of the great- 193 and acquired British nationality in 1939. Since the
1
est Italian keyboard composers and organists of his time. 1950s he has built up a formidable reputation as one of
In 1608 he became organist at St Peter's in Rome, and the most powerful of contemporary figurative painters,
in the same year he published his first volume of keyboard portraits and nudes being his speciality. They are often
music, containing fantasias that show a remarkable grasp seen in arresting close-up and his work has great emotional
of *counterpoint. A volume of *toccatas and *partitas intensity. Early in his career he painted highly meticu-
(1612) demonstrates his gifts as an improviser using lously, but later his brushwork became much broader,
unusual harmonies. The *capriccios of 1624 and the bringing to his flesh painting a quality of palpability.
magnificent toccatas of 1627 show a considerable stylistic
advance. In 1635 he published his most famous volume, friction drum, a musical instrument played usually by
the Fiori musicali, a collection of music for use in the Mass, rubbing a rosined string or stick fixed in or through the
which the young J. S. Bach was to copy and study some drum head. Some, for example the string lion-roar, are
165 FUGARD
occasionally used orchestrally; most, like the Flemish stick anecdote-packed scenes of Victorian life, and the three
rommelpot, are folk instruments. Indian plucked drums, most famous of them still rank among the most familiar
with the string through the drum head as a resonator, images of their age: Derby Day, Ramsgale Sands, and The
are sometimes confused with friction drums. Really they Railway Station. Such pictures were so popular in their
are string instruments, for the sound is produced by the day that they sometimes had to be railed off^ from their
string whose pitch depends on its tension. This is varied, masses of admirers at the *Royal Academy exhibition.
either by pulling a small drum on the other end, as with Frith wrote two volumes of autobiography (1887 and
the dnandalahan and similar instruments, or by squeezing 1888) containing much interesting art-world go.ssip.
the arms of the instrument, as with the gopTyanlra.
Froding, Gustaf (i860 191 1), Swedish poet. Born into
Friedrich, Caspar David (1774- 1840), landscape a gifted family with a history of mental illness, he became
painter, one of the greatest German *Romantic artists. the most influential Scandinavian poet of his day. In
He studied at the Copenhagen Academy from 794 to 1 Guitar and Concertina (1891) he demonstrated a lyric
1798, then settled permanently in Dresden, where he led virtuosity that unites colloquial language with rhyme and
a quiet life. He was introspective and often melancholic rhythm; particularly brilliant are the descriptions of his
and pursued with great single-mindedness his vision into native Varmland and its people. In Mew Poems 1894) and (
the spiritual significance of landscape, discovering solitary Splashes and Patches ( 1896), the humour is overshadowed by
aspects of nature: an infinite stretch of sea or mountains; a personal melancholy, social compassion, and search for
snow-covered or fog-bound plains seen in the strange a personal philosophy which, because of his final mental
light of sunrise, dusk, or moonlight. He seldom used breakdown, could never be resolved.
obvious religious imagery, but his landscapes convey a
sense of haunting spirituality. In 1835 Friedrich suffered Froissart, Jean (r. 1337 c. 1410), Flemish poet and court
a severe stroke and thereafter had to confine himself to historian. His Chroniques are a record of events from 1325
the small sepia drawings with which he had started his to 1400, principally concerned with the Hundred Years
career. Forgotten at the time of his death, his greatness War. He travelled in England and France to collect the
began to be recognized at the end of the igth century. material for his narrative, which is unparalleled in its
depiction of 4th-century life. His style has great vividness,
1
Frisch consistently exposes the dangers of absolutism. included such favourites as the *blank-verse poems
Influenced by *Brecht and the Theatre of the *Absurd, 'Mending Wall', 'The Wood-Pile', and the dramatic
he calls his play 77?^ Fireraisers (1958) a '*parable without dialogue in blank verse 'Home Burial'. He confirmed his
a moral' because the audience to which it is addressed is reputation with Mountain Interval (1916), New Hampshire
deaf to its message. This play and Andorra (1961) are (1923), and several subsequent volumes. His poetry is
harshly critical of the supineness of the bourgeoisie and characterized by a mixture of technical skill, Yankee
echo recent European history to challenge the complacent humour and understatement, rustic wisdom, and an acute
Swiss assumption that 'it couldn't happen here'. ear for the speech of his country neighbours.
Frith, William Powell (1819-1909), British painter. Fugard, Athol (Harold Lanigan) (1932- ), South
He achieved great commercial success with his crowded. African playwright, actor, and director of black theatre
FUGUE 166
groups. He explores the racial policy tensions and in- many designers, but has also resulted in much arid
equalities of South Africa in plays that defy apartheid work.
policy. His works include The Blood Knot (ig6i), Boesman
and Lena (1968), and Master Harold and the Boys (1982). furniture. Furniture has been made of a wide variety
of materials (wood, metal, textiles, glass, plastics) and
fugue, a type of contrapuntal, musical composition (see decorated in many ways, including painting, gilding,
*counterpoint) in which the voices (parts) enter one by carving, and inlay with semi-precious materials. The most
one with the same short theme, referred to as the subject. common material for furniture, however, has been wood,
Fugues can be for any number of voices, four being the and because this material is easily subject to decay, little
most frequent. When all the voices have entered, the ex- furniture survives from early times. For knowledge of
position (statement of material) is complete and the furniture in the ancient world we are mainly dependent on
composition proceeds through an exploratory middle representations in art and literary descriptions, although
section (the middle entries) to a final statement of the there were some remarkable finds of Egyptian furniture
thematic material (the final entries). In the exposition, in Tutankhamun's tomb and examples of bronze and
as soon as one voice has stated the subject and the marble furniture survive from Roman times. It is only
second voice takes over, the first voice continues with a from about 1400 that furniture survives in sufficient
counter-subject, which then passes to the second voice as quantity to be able to trace a continuous history. From
the third takes over the subject. It is the interplay between the 6th century pattern-books of various kinds helped
1
subject and counter-subject that forms the chief point of the international spread of styles and motifs. Dozens of
interest in the fugue. Subject and counter-subject are different kinds of wood have been used in furniture-
inevitably related (since they have to combine with each making, but certain varieties have dominated at par-
other), so that the fugue, in essence, involves a complex ticular times. Oak was the characteristic wood of the
discussion of one fundamental musical idea. Middle Ages, but later finer, more decorative varieties
came to be preferred, especially after the introduction of
Fuller, Loie (1862— 1928), US
dancer and cho- veneering in the 17th century. Mahogany, which began
reographer. A forerunner of modern dance in America, to be imported to Europe from the West Indies in the
she explored the possibilities of fabric, electric light, and 1720s, is the classic wood of the i8th century. The
sculptural extensions to the human body in creating Industrial Revolution brought with it the general com-
movement pre-figuring the use of modern technology. mercial production of furniture. With the foundation of
the Century Guild in Britain in 1882 there began a
Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster (1895- 1983), US revival of craftsmanship through the *Arts and Crafts
engineer, architect, philosopher, and writer. He was a Movement. In the 20th century the leaders in modern
brilliant inventor who believed that technology should design have been Scandinavia and Germany, while the
be used to solve social problems and benefit mankind. *Bauhaus furniture, based on mechanized production
His inventions include an electric car and the factory- and the use of new materials, set a standard of creative
assembled Dymaxion (dynamic plus maximum efficiency) design in Europe and the USA. Modern furniture ranges
House, but he is probably best known for his geodesic from bent tubular steel to moulded plywood, soft and
*domes. These are lightweight structures of standardized hard plastics, and refined sculptural forms in wood.
interlocking polygonal units (usually of metal or plastic)
forming an effectively spherical shape. They enabled large Fuseli, Henry (Johann Heinrich Fiissli) (i 741 -1825),
—
spaces to be enclosed with great efficiency in line with Swiss-born painter, draughtsman, and writer on art, one
Fuller's ideals of using the world's resources with max- of the outstanding figures of the *Romantic movement.
imum purpose and least waste. His book Operating Manual He settled in London in 1779. His work was inspired by
for Spaceship Earth (1969) was influential on the environ- literary themes (notably from Shakespeare and Milton)
mentalist movement in the 1970s. and he displayed an extremely vivid imagination, tending
towards the horrifying and the fantastic. Although in-
functionalism, a doctrine (applied particularly in archi- fluential in his lifetime, work was neglected after
his
tecture) that the design of an object should be deter- his death until the * Expressionists and the *Surrealists
mined solely by its function, rather than by decorative rediscovered him.
considerations, and that anything
perfectly designed for
its purpose be inherently beautiful. Although aspects
will Futurism, Italian art movement founded
in 1909 by
of the idea of functionalism can be traced back to Greek the poet Filippo Tommaso was originally a
Marinetti. It
antiquity, it was not until the 20th century that it literary movement, but the dominant figures were painters
became an aesthetic creed, expressed, for example, in *Le and it also embraced sculpture, architecture, music, the
Corbusier's dictum that 'a house is a machine for living cinema, and photography. The aim of the movement,
in'. In building, form has always followed function to a which was outlined in various manifestos, was to break
great extent, but in the context of modern architecture, with the past and to celebrate modern technology,
the term 'functionalism' implies particularly that con- dynamism, and power. The rendering of movement was
structional elements should not be disguised and that one of the key concerns of Futurist painters, and their
ornament should be eschewed. The many different styles work at times approached abstraction. As an organized
of architecture that might claim to be functionalist from — movement Futurism did not last much beyond the death
the organic romanticism of Frank Lloyd *Wright to the of *Boccioni and the end of World War I, but it had
cool elegance of *Mies van der Rohe —
show that the wide influence, notably in Ru.ssia, where there was a
term can be interpreted in different ways. Functionalism Russian Futurist movement, and also in Britain, on
exerted great influence on *industrial design, particularly *Vorticism. The *Dadaists also owed something to
at the *Bauhaus. It has been a stimulating influence on it, particularly in their noisy publicity techniques.
167 FURNITURE
Portuguese Gothic c. 1470 English carved wood c. 1550 Enghsh back-stool 17th century Louis XIV 17th century
English wing-chair c. 1740 Enghsh Windsor chair French gUtc. 1768 Enghsh Regency chair c. 1810
mid- 18th century
Enghsh papier-mache chair Bentwood fireside armchair Mies van der Rohe Modem version of
C.1850 1860s 'Bcurcelona' chair 1929 19th century Italian
Chiavari chair
GABO Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
G
Gabo, Nauxn (Naum Neemia Pevsner) (1890-1977),
Russian-born sculptor who became a US citizen in 1952,
the most influential exponent of * Constructivism. The
brother of the sculptor Antoine *Pevsner, he began using
the name Gabo in 1915, at the time when he began to
make geometrical constructions. In his later years he was
much honoured and had many prestigious commissions.
He was one of the earliest artists to experiment with
*kinetic sculpture and to make serious use of semi-
transparent materials.
use of instruments, made the contrasts of sound and he sums up his work, which could be both grotesque and
texture more acute, and increased the use of dissonance. tenderly personal.
Many of his works (vocal and instrumental) exploit the
idea of groups of performers arranged antiphonally, the Galle, Exnile (1846- 1904), French glass-maker and
spatial effect of sounds coming from different directions. (from the 88os) furniture designer, one of the outstanding
1
The contrasts that his compositions created between loud exponents of the *art nouveau style. He opposed the
and soft, voice and instrument, contributed significantly revival of historical styles, but he did not subscribe to
to the evolution of the *concerto grosso. functionalist theories or the social doctrines of the *Arts
and Crafts Movement; rather he sought novel decorative
Gaelic literature *Scottish-Gaelic literature, * Irish- patterns from the organic forms of nature. In glass-making
language literature. he experimented with opaque and semi-translucent glass
and won international fame for his vases decorated with
Gainsborough, Thomas (1727-88), British portrait plant forms and floral motifs. In furniture he inaugurated
and *landscape painter, one of the most outstanding a revival of *marquetry.
figures in British art. He was born in Suffolk, and spent
most of his early career in East Anglia, painting local galliard, a lively dance of Italian origin, first appearing
merchants and squires. In 760 he moved to Bath, where
1 in print around 1529-30 but presumably dating from
his sitters were drawn from higher levels of society and earlier times. Usually in triple time and featuring a
his style became correspondingly more elegant, inspired five-step pattern, it was a very energetic dance which,
particularly by van *Dyck. In 1774 he settled per- although performed by a couple, was virtually a solo
manently in London, where he became a favourite painter performance for the man. The dance was composed
of the royal family and the chief rival of *Reynolds. mainly of leaps, jumps, and turns and was a vehicle for
Gainsborough always maintained that while portraiture a display of masculine virtuosity, skill, and stamina. It is
was his profession, landscape painting was his pleasure, often paired and contrasted with the slower *pavan. A
and he often created imaginative compositions from studio variant of the galliard, the volta, was danced at the court
arrangements of twigs and pebbles. He also produced of Elizabeth I.
www.Ebook777.com
169 garcIa mArquez
(1922), a triangle drama involving father and son. of '27, and ranks among the greatest of 20th-century
poets. He was an excellent painter, a precocious composer,
Gandhara sculpture, a school of Buddhist sculpture and an accomplished pianist: his musicality is reflected
associated with the region of this name, formerly part of in the colour, tonality, and rhythm of his poetry. Much
India and now in north-western Pakistan and eastern of his early work concentrated on his native Andalusia
Afghanistan. It flourished particularly in the ist to 4th [Impressions and Landscapes, 19 18), the music and folklore
centuries ad. Situated astride the Indus River, with of that region {Poems of the Cante Jondo, 1921-2), and its
Peshawar and Taxila as its main cities, the region was a gypsies {Gypsy Ballads, 1928). In 1929-30 he visited North
cultural crossroads; it marked the eastern limit of Alex- America and Cuba and conveyed his horror at the
ander the Great's campaigns, and Gandhara sculpture brutality of mechanized civilization in the jarring images
was influenced by *Hellenistic and *Roman art, especially oi Poet in New York (published 1940). On his return to
in the portrayal of drapery, hair, and the human body. Spain in 1931 he started a travelling theatre company
Possibly this humanistic tradition was one of the reasons sponsored by the new Republic, which brought drama
why Gandhara witnessed some of the first depictions of the to peasant and worker audiences and brought him in-
Buddha in human rather than symbolic form. However, valuable theatrical experience. As a playwright, Lorca
a similar though unrelated development occurred con- attempted historical drama and *farce before achieving
temporaneously in *Mathura. Gandhara sculpture has success with *tragedy. The three rural tragedies with
mostly been recovered from *stupas and monastery Andalusian settings. Blood Wedding (1933), Yerma (1934),
chapels. It includes single figures and narrative scenes. and The House of Bernarda Alba (1936), have assured
Early work was mainly in grey-blue schist, but *stucco Lorca's place as a major playwright. At the outbreak of
was extensively used from the 3rd century ad. Invasion the Spanish Civil War Lorca went to Granada, where he
by the Huns in the 5th century brought the great period was executed without trial by the Nationalists.
of Gandhara sculpture to an end. (See also *Buddhist
art.) Garcia M^quez, Gabriel (
1
928 )
, Colombian novel-
ist and short-story writer. A journalist by profession, he
Gandon, James (1743 1823), British architect, active is a central figure in the 'magical realism' movement in
mainly where he was the leading architect of
in Ireland, Latin American literature. His first short stories led to
his period. The most distinguished pupil of *Chambers, his best-known novel One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967).
his style is similar to his master's in its dignity, its learning, Written in a dense, convoluted style and using trance-like
and its French air (Gandon was in fact of French
slightly imagery, it relates the history of a fictional Colombian
descent). His two most famous works are among Dublin's village, Macondo, and of the family who founded the
main landmarks, commandingly sited on the River Liffey: settlement and are destroyed with it. It can be read on
GARCILASO DE LA VEGA 170
murdered by the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil England, there was a move towards informality, led by
War. His work is rooted in the culture of the southern 'Capability' *Brown. His successor, Humphry *Repton,
Spanish region of Andalusia, with its mixture of gypsy
coined the phrase 'landscape gardening', and the term is
and Arab influences. His early death and his lyrical,
romantic style have secured Lorca's lasting popularity. sometimes confined to the art of laying out parkland so
that it imitates natural scenery; however, it is often used
for any decorative cultivation on a large scale. The
many levels: as the history of a nation (Colombia) or as similarly imprecise term 'landscape architect' was first
the reflection of human experience. Subsequent novels used slightly later, and professional associations of land-
include a *satire on Latin American military dictators, scape architects were established in the USA and Britain
The Autumn of the Patriarch (1975) and tale of a murder in 1899 and 1929 respectively. Modern garden design is
for honour, Chronicle of a Death Foretold (1981). Marquez extremely varied, one of the leading exponents being the
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1982. Brazilian artist Roberto Burle Marx (1909 ), whose
in Paris, this has a rhetorical splendour in keeping radically simplified. In England, *Epstein alone was
with its purpose and a self-confident swagger perfectly producing sculpture as stylistically advanced at this time.
expressing the official taste of the time and the vigour In his lifetime Gaudier-Brzeska was appreciated by only
with which the capital was being rebuilt. The style is a small circle, but since his death he has become widely
neo-*Baroque, with a lavish display of luxurious materials recognized as one of the outstanding sculptors of his
and sculpture. Garnier also designed the Casino at Monte generation. He also did some splendid animal drawings.
Carlo (1878-9), which was influential on similar buildings
for expensive pleasure resorts. Gauguin, Paul (1848- 1903), French painter, sculptor,
and print-maker, with *Cezanne and van *Gogh the
Garrick, David (1717-79), British actor and theatrical most important of * Post-Impressionist artists. In the early
manager. Of Huguenot descent, he was a small man with 1870S he took up painting in his spare time, and after
great mobility of expression. He was unsurpassed in his meeting *Pissarro in 1874 ^^ began making a collection
playing of tragic heroes, and excelled equally well in of *Impressionist pictures. He exhibited with the Im-
comedy. As an actor, Garrick was opposed to the de- pressionists from 1880 and in 1883 became a full-time
clamatory and elaborate style fashionable at the time, artist. His work failed to sell and, leading a restless and
and developed a more natural way of speaking. As a poverty-stricken life, he abandoned his family. From 1886
manager, he introduced concealed stage lighting and until 1890 he spent much of his time at Pont-Aven in
naturalistically painted backdrops, and also stopped the Brittany, where he was the major figure of an artists'
practice of admitting audiences to the stage. He wrote colony, but he also visited Panama in 1887-8 and in 1888
many plays, including Aiiss in her Teens (1747). spent a short time at Aries with van Gogh, a visit ending
in a disastrous quarrel when van Gogh suffered one of
Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (b. Stevenson) (1810- his first attacks of madness. Having had a taste for
65), British novelist. Both her father and her husband, colourful, exotic places since his childhood in Peru (his
William Gaskell, were Unitarian ministers. Her first mother's native country), and regarding civilization as a
novel, Mary Barton (1848), with its cast of working-class 'disease', he longed to 'become one with nature', and in
characters reflecting the poverty of the unemployed in 189 left France for Tahiti. Apart from a period (1893-
1
the industrial towns of early Victorian Lancashire, at- 5) when he was forced back to France by poverty and ill
tracted the attention of *Dickens, who subsequently health, he remained in the tropics for the rest of his life,
published much
of her work in his periodical Household
Words. Her other major
novels include Cranford (1853);
Ruth 1853), which shocked many readers by its sympathy
( Stourhead Park m Wiltshire is one of the finest examples
for 'fallen women'; Morth and South (1855), contrasting the of 18th-century garden art, a field m which England
values and habits of rural southern England and the excelled at this time. The grounds were laid out from
1741 by the banker Henry Hoare II, who inherited the
industrial north; and her masterpiece Wives and Daughters
estate from his father, and include a chain of lakes, a
(1866), which observes the habits, loyalties, prejudices, grotto, and temples. In 1762 Horace Walpole called
and petty snobberies of a rural hierarchy. In her works Stourhead 'one of the most picturesque scenes in the
she displays her concern for social reconciliation and world'.
tolerance. She also wrote short stories and a biography
of her friend Charlotte *Bronte (1857).
Where Do We Come From? What Are We^ Where Are and became one of the optional movements in the Baroque
We Going To?Gauguin's largest picture and one of
is dance *suite. Its steady, lively rhythm allowed the de-
the central works of his career. He painted it m Tahiti m velopment of intricate steps and gestures of the arms.
1897, when he was ill, impoverished, and devastated by
the news of his daughter's death, intending it as his final
testimony to the world before committing suicide (he
Gawain and the Green Knight, Sir, one of four
took poison, but survived). It is an allegory of human life *alliterative poems by an unknown author dating from
and destiny, reading from the right (the baby) to the left the second half of the 14th century. It is one of the most
(the old woman brooding on death). (Museum of Fine admired poems in *Middle English, for the richness of
Arts, Boston) itslanguage, its graceful descriptions, and its entertaining
and mysterious story, which tells the Arthurian legend of
the knight Gawain. The poem is closely linked in style
from 1895 to 901 in Tahiti again and from 1901 in
1
and dialect to the *elegy 'Pearl', in which an *allegorical
the Marquesas Islands, where he died. Despite illness, vision of great beauty reconciles the poet to his daughter's
poverty, and depression that led him to attempt suicide, death and place in paradise.
Gauguin painted his finest works in the South Seas. He
wove native myths into profound visions of the human Gay, John (1685- 1732), British poet and dramatist. His
condition and abandoned the naturalism of the Im- early works were in imitation of *Pope. He found his
pressionists to use colour in flat, contrasting areas, em- own voice in The Shepherd'' s Week (
1 714), a series of poems
phasizing its decorative or emotional effect. His reputation in mock-classical style, which introduced real rustics into
was established when 227 of his works were exhibited in a pastoral setting. Success came with The Beggar's Opera
Paris in 1906; his influence on 20th-century art has been (1728) a *ballad opera, in which political *satire is
enormous. eclipsed by the glamour of Captain Macheath and the
realistic scenes of the underworld; this and its sequel Polly
Gautier, Theophile (181 1-72), French poet, novelist, (1729) contain some of his best-known ballads. His Poems
and journalist. As a young man he was an ardent appeared in 720 and Fables in 727. He wrote the libretti
1 1
supporter of *Hugo and the *Romantics, but soon aban- of Handel's operas Acis and Galatea and Achilles. His
doned the eff^usive emotion and overt humanitarianism Beggar's Opera was later adapted by Bertolt *Brecht and
of that movement in favour of a doctrine of 'art for art's Kurt Weill as The Threepenny Opera (1928).
which placed the highest value on beauty, achieved
sake',
through the perfection of form and expression. These Geminiani, Francesco (Xaverio) (1687- 1762), Ital-
views, expressed in the preface to his novel Ma-
first ian composer and violinist. After studying in Milan, and
demoiselle de Maupin (1835), were shared in some measure in Rome with *Corelli, he worked in theatre orchestras
by *Baudelaire and *Flaubert and make Gautier a in Lucca and Naples, becoming accepted as a virtuoso of
precursor of the * Parnassians. His poetic masterpiece, exceptional ability before settling in London (1714-47).
Emaux et Camees (1852), is a collection of finely chiselled His last years were spent mainly in Dublin. Geminiani's
short poems, often borrowing themes from the fine arts, music (violin sonatas and concerti grossi) is notable for
which capture fleeting impressions and momentary ob- the expressive qualities of its melodies and the brilliance
servations. Notable pieces from this collection are 'Sym- of its virtuoso figuration. His example helped to establish
phonic en blanc majeur' and 'L'Art' (first included in the Baroque violin as a legitimate solo instrument.
the edition of 1858), a statement of his artistic doctrine.
Gautier also wrote articles of literary and art criticism, Generation of '98, a term given to a group of writers
and accounts of his travels, including Voyage en Espagne in early20th-century Spain. It derives its name from the
(1845). moral and cultural rebirth that was to rise out of Spain's
defeat by the USA in 1898. A broad list of its members
gavotte, a French dance in duple *time, beginning on would include Angel Ganivet (1865-98) (precursor),
the third beat. Originally a folk dance, it was absorbed Unamuno, Manuel Machado (1874- 1947), Pio Baroja
into the repertory of * ballet de cours in the i6th century. (1872-1956), Martinez Ruiz (Azorin) (1874-1967), who
173 GEORGE
popularized the term, Ramiro de Maeztu (1875- 1936), Gentileschi, Orazio (1563- 1639), Italian painter. He
*Ortega y Gasset, Jacinto Benavente (1866- 1954), and settled in Rome in about 1576 and became one of the
Ramon del Valle-Inclan 1869- 1935), with Ramon Perez
( closest and most gifted of *Caravaggio's followers. His
de Ayala (1880- 1962) as a related writer. Initially, work lacks the power and depth of his master, but is
regeneration was sought both through the adaptation of distinguished by its stateliness and grace. In 162 1-3
ideas from abroad and through the quest for the 'soul of Gentileschi worked in Genoa, then after a period in Paris
Spain' in its people, history, culture, and landscape, he settled in England in 1626 and became a court painter
especially that of Castile as in Machado's Fields ofCaslille, to Charles I. He helped to spread the Caravaggesque
(1912) and in essays such as Azorin's The Route of Don style, but by the end of his career he had long abandoned
Quixote, (1905). At the same time, these writers sought the strong *chiaroscuro associated with it and was paint-
their own identity, and the search became one for au- ing in light colours. His daughter Artemisia Gen-
thentic values. This philosophical dimension is apparent tileschi (1593 C.I 652) was one of the greatest of
in the fiction of the period, which deviates from traditional Caravaggesque painters. Precociously gifted, she built up
*realist narrative in that the focus is on the crisis of the a European reputation and lived a life of independence
single protagonist who invariably fails in his existential rare for a woman
of the time. Artemisia's powerful style
quest, as in Baroja's The Tree of Knowledge (191 1). In is seen at its in paintings of Judith and
most typical
their insistence on the individual crisis and in their search Holofernes: her depiction of a woman violently decapitating
for a national character, these writers ignored social and a man has been seen as pictorial 'revenge' for her own
economic questions and, despite their undoubted literary suff^erings.
achievements, made little impact on Spain's underlying
problems. George, Stefan (1868- 1933), German lyric poet. The
greatest formative influences on his work were *Mallarme
Generation of '27, a group of Spanish writers, prin-
and the French *Symbolists. His conception of Tart bour
cipally poets, in the inter-war years. The title
prominent
Fartsaw the beauty of poetry in the sensual, especially
aural, presentation of a selective vocabulary in disciplined
refers to when several members of the group
1927,
organization. The themes of his poems are chiefly land-
(Gerardo Diego, Damaso Alonso, and Jose Maria de
scape, friendship, and art. Consciously writing for an
Cossio), published works to celebrate the tercentenary of
he published in 1895 his collection of verse, the Book
elite,
the death of the poet *G6ngora. Among other writers
of Shepherds. The Seventh Ring (1907) celebrates his
the
associated with the group are *Jimenez, *Garcia Lorca,
encounter with Maxim, a 15-year-old boy whom George
and *Alberti. The school introduced new subjects, new
saw as an incarnation of the godhead and who was to
words, and had scant respect for traditional *rhyme
epitomize for him the renewal of civilization. The tone of
and *metre. Its writings were both anti-*realist and
anti-*Romantic, serving pure aestheticism. his laterpoetry passes to the prophetic, apocalyptic, and
monumental in his volume The New Kingdom (1928). His
work, which evokes the vision of a new Germany, was
Genet, Jean (1910-86), French dramatist and novelist.
exploited after 1933 by the Nazis, but George rejected
His life of crime led him to prison where, in 1942, he
any association with them and died in self-imposed exile
began to write novels exalting his own immoral values
in Switzerland.
and subsequently dramas on more positive, existentialist
themes. It was his plays, Les Bonnes (1947), Le Balcon
(1956), Les Negres (1959), and Les Paravents (1961) that A study forGericault's painting The Raft of the Medusa.
brought him to prominence. These reject the western The disaster of the shipwreck was caused, many thought,
by government incompetence and Gericault's pamtmg
tradition of realism and imitate the stylized conventions
caused a political sensation. One of Gericault's most ori-
of eastern drama. ginal traits was his predilection for investing contem-
porary incident with epic massiveness. (Louvre, Pans)
genre, the French term for a 'type' or recognizable
category within any form of art: the Western in cinema,
or the ode in poetry, are examples of genres, which have
certain predictable features peculiar to them. The term
may be used for the broadest categories (in literature:
poetry, drama, fiction) or for the most specialized (sonnet,
farce, ghost story). In painting, the term has a different
meaning: a kind of picture representing a scene of every-
day life, often domestic, as in much of the finest Dutch
art of the 17th century.
Georgian architecture, a general term for British enbach, and the lyric poet *Walther von der Vogelweide.
architecture from the accession of George I (1714) to the Although Germany produced a number of Renaissance
death of George IV (1830). This period encompassed a and humanist authors, their influence remained limited:
wide range of styles and taste in architecture, with labels the literature of the Middle Ages in all its variety remained
such as *Palladianism, *Neoclassicism, *Gothic Revival, popular up to the i6th century, until the controversies
*Chinoiserie, and *Regency. However, the term 'Geor- of the Reformation and the influence of Martin Luther
gian' is most commonly used to characterize the restrained (1483- 546), whose idiomatic prose style marks the be-
1
good taste typical of the period, which developed from ginning of a new age in the history of the German
the *Queen Anne style. It is applied most readily to the language and its literature. The 17th and i8th centuries
simple red-brick house with regularly spaced windows, are marked by critical attempts to improve and refine
white paintwork, and a pedimented doorway so common German literature. This resulted initially in a literature
in the period, and also to the somewhat grander terraces influenced by French practice and combined with Ba-
and crescents laid out in cities such as Bath and the New roque rhetorical virtuosity. The most readable author of
Town of Edinburgh. The word 'Georgian' is applied to the period is *Grimmelshausen. Through the work of
architecture in the USA as well as in Britain, and also to *Lessing, *Klopstock, and *Wieland, German literature
furniture, decoration, and so on. finally found its own voice, culminating in the plays of
the *Sturm und Drang movement and then in the mature
Georgian poetry, a term applied to the poetry of classicism of *Goethe and *Schiller, whose genius in-
during the reign of George V (1910-36),
British writers fluenced many authors throughout the 19th century.
usually of a *pastoral nature and largely traditional. Reaction to these models came firstly from *Romantics,
Though drawing inspiration from *Wordsworth, it lacked who built partly on impulses from Sturm und Drang,
his visionary depth. Georgian Poetry, a series of five * an- concentrating on the irrational, fantastic and even sub-
thologies, was published between 191 2 and 1922; the conscious: the *Schlegel brothers, Ludwig Tieck (1773-
early volumes brought a fresh vision to the tired poetry 1853), Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder (1773-98), *No-
of the time and were widely successful. The first volume valis, and *Hoff"mann; and secondly from Junges Deut-
included Rupert *Brooke, John *Masefield, D. H. *Law-
rence, Walter *de la Mare, and John Drinkwater (1882-
1937). Later volumes included Edmund Blunden (1896- The first-edition cover of the song 'Bess you is my Woman'
1974), Siegfried *Sassoon, Robert *Graves, and Isaac from George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess. A love story
Rosenberg 890- 9 8) The quality of poetry in the later
( 1 1 .
poverty of the black tenement section of
set in the sleazy
1
schland, a multifarious grouping of writers including gesso (Italian, 'chalk'), a brilliant white preparation of
Heinrich *Heine, with more radical political interests. The *chalk (or a similar substance) mixed with glue, much
19th century produced notable prose-writers, including used in the Middle Ages and Renaissance to coat *panels
Gottfried *K.eller, Wilhelm Raabe (1831-1910), Adalbert or *canvas and prepare them for painting upon. In the
Stifter (1805-68), and Theodor Storm (1817-88), whose 20th century the term 'gesso' has come to be loosely used
realism was developed further and given a sharp critical of similar substances to that described, and in reference
edge by Gerhart *Hauptmann and Hermann Sudermann to sculpture it often refers to plaster of Paris.
(1857- 1 928). The lyric poet Stefan *George was chiefly
responsible for the revival of German poetry at the close Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa (c.1561-1613),
of the 19th century. Of the literary groups critical of the Italian composer and Gesualdo lived most of his
lutenist.
moral emptiness and hypocrisy of bourgeois society in the life in Naples. His *madrigals and *motets were highly
early 20th century, most significant were the *Ex- individual, for he used dissonance for dramatic effect,
pressionists, Georg Heym (1887-1912), Georg *Kaiser, introduced notes outside the basic scale for emotional
August Stramm (1874-1915), Georg Trakl (1887-1914), intensity, and indulged in sudden changes of tempo. His
and *Wedekind. Reaching its height during World War work marks a transition from * Renaissance style to the
I, the movement declined in the 1920s, suffering an dramatic expression of the *Baroque era.
abrupt end in 1933 when the Nazis drove into exile
or silenced within Germany almost every author of
Ghiberti, Lorenzo (1378- 1455), Italian sculptor, gold-
significance. In Rainer Maria *Rilke Austria produced
smith, designer, architect, and writer. He came to prom-
one of the great poets of the 20th century. The post-World
inence in 1 40 when he won a commission to make a
1
War II development of German literature was com- pair of bronze doors for the baptistery of Florence
plicated by the addition of ideology to the pol-
Cathedral. The doors were completed in 1424, and in
itical divisions that existed in the German-speaking
1425 he was asked to make a second pair for the same
world. In the German Federal Republic (West Germany)
building, which occupied him until 1452. These two great
the initial post-war restorative tendencies gave way to
works, the earlier featuring twenty-eight scenes from the
criticism of German complacency of the 'economic mira-
life of Christ and various saints, the later consisting often
cle' and the reluctance to face the Nazi past. This was
large panels ofOld Testament subjects, were made in a
led by the dramatists Wolfgang Borchert (1921-47), Rolf
large workshop in which many illustrious artists, notably
Hochhuth (193 1- ), and the novelists Alfred Andersch
*Donatello and *Uccello, had at least part of their
(1914- ), Siegfried Lenz (1926- ), Giinter *Grass, and
training. The refinement of Ghiberti's work places him
Heinrich *Boll. In the 1960s the sense of crisis which
in the *International Gothic tradition, but in his interest
dominated the literary scene, encouraging a political
in *perspective and classical sculpture he also represents
social and artistic radicalization of literature, was ex-
a transition to *Renaissance ideals. He also made statues,
pressed in the documentary literature of Giinter Wallraff"
designed stained glass windows for Florence Cathedral,
(1947- ), the novels of Nicolas Born (1937-79), Max
and was involved in the building of its dome. He left a
von der Griin (1926- ), and in the plays of Tancred
large, incomplete manuscript Commentaries, which is a
Dorst(i925- ) and the Austrian Peter Handke( 1942- ).
major source of information on 14th-century Italian art
The literary scene in the German Democratic Republic
and contains his autobiography.
(East Germany) was, rapprochement be-
until the political
tween the two republics in 1989, affected by phases of
cultural repression and relaxation. A dominant theme of Ghirlandaio, Doznenico (1449-94), Italian painter.
East German literature,whether critical of the regime or His style was solid, prosaic, and rather old-fashioned, but
not, has been the position of the individual in a socialist
he was an excellent craftsman and had one of the most
society and her attitudes to the capitalist society
his or
prosperous workshops in Florence, which he ran in
beyond the Berlin Wall. This manifested itself in the collaboration with his two younger brothers, Benedetto
writings of Christa Wolf (1929 ), Hermann Kant (1458 97) and Davide (1452-1525). Ghirlandaio worked
(1926- ), and Ulrich Plenzdorf (1934- ). A number
on frescos in Pisa, San Gimignano, and Rome (in the
of writers were banished or sought exile in the West: SistineChapel) as well as in Florence, and his studio
produced numerous altar-pieces. His frescos are note-
Sarah Kirsch (1935- ), Botho Strauss (1944- ), and
recits, including L Immoraliste ( 1902), La Porte etroite (1909), steals it, and the spirit of Enkidu returns to describe the
and La Symphonie pastorale 1919), ( in which Gide combines afflictions that await man in the underworld. (See also
economy of presentation with a sophisticated (often *Babylonian art.)
ironic) use of first-person narrative, and a single novel,
Les Faux-Monnayeurs (1926), which explores themes such Gill, Eric (1882 1940), British sculptor, engraver, typo-
as authenticity and which in some ways anticipates the grapher, and writer. A convert to Roman Catholicism,
highly self-conscious manner of the *Nouveau reman. His Gill tried to revive a religious attitude towards art and
other works include an account of his early years, Si le craftsmanship, and was an advocate of a romanticized
grain ne meurt ( 1926), travel writing, and literary criticism, medievalism. In sculpture he was a leader in the move-
all marked by the characteristic elegance of his style. ment for the revival of direct carving (as opposed to
modelling), and his work usually has an impressive
Gielgud, Sir (Arthur) John (1904- ), British actor simplicity of conception. He illustrated many books and
and director, the leading classical actor of his day. In also designed typefaces, including 'Gill Sans-serif, that
1929 he joined the Old Vic Company to play Hamlet, are among the classics of 20th-century *typography.
his greatest role. Other famous roles included John
Worthing in Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest 1930, (
Gillespie, Dizzy *jazz.
played in lively triple or duple *time, with rhythms that was varied in subject-matter, although he was primarily
were predominantly dotted. The Italian version {giga)
tended to be much quicker. The gigue was the customary
closing movement of the Baroque dance *suite. The chalice of Abbot Suger of St Denis (c. 1 140), worked
m gold, silver gilding, and sardonyx, and studded with
Gilbert, Sir Alfred (1854- 1934), British sculptor and precious gems and pearls. The richness of the chalice
reflects Abbot Suger's importance as adviser to King
metal-worker, famous for his Shaftesbury Memorial Foun-
Louis VI of France. Powerful and fair-minded, Suger
tain in Piccadilly Circus (1887 93) surmounted by the
presided over administrative reforms and inspired the
figure of Eros. He moved into self-imposed exile in Bruges rebuilding of his abbey church in the new Gothic style.
in 1909, after going bankrupt, but returned to Britain in (National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
1926 at the request of George V to complete the tomb
of the Duke of Clarence in St George's Chapel, Windsor
Castle, which he had begun in 1892, now regarded as
one of the most important examples of the *art nouveau
style. Gilbert's reputation suffered after his death, but
interest in him has recently revived.
Sleeping Venus is one of only a handful of paintings that history of art, is regarded as the founder of the central
are accepted as original works by Giorgione; according Western painting because his work broke
tradition of
to a reliable contemporary source it was left unfinished at
away from the flat conventions of *Byzantine art and
his death and completed by Titian (who was probably
introduced a new and convincing sense of pictorial space.
responsible for the landscape). It has been an
exceptionally influential design, the precursor of No surviving painting is strictly documented as being by
reclining nudes by some of the most illustrious names in him, but it is agreed that the fresco cycle in the Arena
European painting. (Gemaldegalerie, Dresden) Chapel in Padua ((7.1305-6) is by Giotto, and this alone
secures his fame as one of the greatest painters of all time.
Most of the frescos represent scenes from the life of the
a religious and mythological painter, and he absorbed a Virgin Mary and events from the Passion of Christ. The
host of influences, reputedly being able to imitate other figures are about half life-size, but their three-
artists' styles with ease. He worked mainly in Naples, but dimensionality and physical presence give them majestic
also in Florence, Venice, and Spain. His work was highly power. They possess an energy and vitality that the flat,
influential in Italy, and his open, airy compositions and linear style of Byzantine art never could have achieved.
light, luminous colours presage painters such as *Tiepolo. The other major fresco cycle associated with Giotto's
name is that on the Life of St Francis in the Upper
Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli or Giorgio da Castel- Church of San Francesco at Assisi, but whether or not
franco) 1476-1510), Italian painter. Almost nothing is
(c. he painted this is one of the most controversial issues in
known of his life and only a handful of paintings can be the history of art. There are some frescos attributed to
confidently attributed to him, but he holds a significant him in Santa Croce in Florence, but they are in poor
place in the history of art. He achieved almost legendary condition. Among the panel paintings attributed to him
status soon after his early death from plague, and ever the most important is the large and majestic Ognissanti
since he has captured the imagination in a way that few Madonna in the Uffizi in Florence. Due to of his great
other artists can match. His fame is explained by the fact fame as was appointed architect to
a painter, Giotto
that he initiated a new conception of painting. He was Florence Cathedral in 1334; he began the campanile (bell
one of the earliest artists to specialize in small pictures tower), but the design was altered after his death. His
for private collectors rather than public works for civic influence on * Florentine painting was enormous.
or ecclesiastical patrons, and he was the first painter who
subordinated subject-matter to the evocation of mood: Giraudoux, Jean (1882-1944), French dramatist and
even well-informed contemporaries sometimes did not novelist. His early success came as a novelist, but he was
know what was represented in his pictures, and they have encouraged to write for the theatre by the actor-producer
continued to pose intriguing puzzles for modern scholars. Louis Jouvet, whose theatre is the setting for Giraudoux's
He was probably a pupil of Giovanni Bellini and he play L' Impromptu de Paris (1937). Some of his plays, for
developed his soft and mellow style in the direction of a example Amphitryon j8 (1929) or Intermezzo (1933), are
dreamy romanticism, which in turn cast a spell over built around plots of little substance, which are sustained
many of his contemporaries, including his friend *Titian, by his stylistic virtuosity. Others, like Siegfried (1928),
who after Giorgione's death completed some pictures he adapted from Giraudoux's own novel, or La Guerre de
had left unfinished. In the generation after his death Troie n'aura pas lieu (1935), are serious discussions of
Giorgione's work was widely imitated, an additional ethical issues. Although they appear to be literary rather
source of confusion for scholars. than dramatic these plays are, in fact, successful on stage.
Giraudoux's use of mythical or half-imaginary settings
Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267- 1337), Itahan painter and reveals his link with the *Symbolists, though his blend of
architect. Giotto, one of the most illustrious names in the elegance, irony, and verbal dexterity recalls *La Fontaine.
A
179 GLASSWARE
Girtin,Thomas (1775- 1802), British landscape painter (1892), and the partially autobiographic Private Papers of
in*water-colours. In his short life he revolutionized Henry Ryecroft (1903), the imaginary journal of a recluse.
water-colour technique; before him water-colours were
essentially tinted drawings, but Girtin used strong colour Giulio Romano (<r. 1499- 1546), painter and
Italian
in broad washes. He was influenced to some extent by architect. He was *Raphaers and assistant in
chief pupil
J. R. *Cozens, but went beyond him in the grandeur Rome and one of the major figures of *Mannerism. In
with which he created effects of space, the power with 1524 he moved from Rome to Mantua and remained
which he suggested mood, and the boldness of his com- there for the rest of his life, dominating artistic affairs
positions. *Turner acknowledged his friend's greatness at the court of the ruling Gonzaga family. The great
with the words 'If Tom Girtin had lived, I should have monument to his genius is the Palazzo del Te, begun in
starved.' 1526 for Federigo Gonzaga. This was one of the first
Noted for the realism and documentary portrayal of the Glass, Philip (1937- ), US composer. An interest in
sufferings of the Victorian middle-class poor, he explores Indian music led him to develop a type of *minimal
the themes of failure and the blighting effects of poverty music in which small rhythmic figures are repeated and
on creative endeavour. His best-known novel. New Grub made over a long period with powerful hypnotic
to evolve
(1891) (see *Grub Street), describes the jealousies
Street effect. The melodic
figures are themselves simple, as are
and intrigues of the contemporary literary world. Other the harmonic structures through which they move. His
works include The Nether World (i88q). Born in Exile work is at its most effective in such operas as Einstein on
the Beach (1976) and Satyagraha (1980).
ceramic, hard plastic, or brass. Keyboard glockenspiels the Nativity known as the Portinari Altarpiece (Uffizi,
have been used but are inefficient and poor in tone Florence, 1474-6), commissioned for a church in Flor-
c.
quality; works written for them such as Paul Dukas's ence. It shows remarkable skill in the way it reconciles
UApprenti sorcier are now played on normal instruments. grandeur of conception with loving observation of detail,
Marching glockenspiels for military bands are fitted to a and it exercised a strong influence on Italian painters
lyre-shaped frame on a pole. Various names have been with its masterly handling of the oil technique.
used for the instrument, including harmonica, in Saint-
Saens's Carnival des animaux, and in the USA, bells. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (
1 749-1832), German
poet, novelist, dramatist, and natural philosopher. A
Gluck, Christoph Willibrand von (i 714 87), Ger- writer of the first rank, Goethe's oeuvre ranges from
man composer. He made his debut as an opera composer *Slurm und Drang subjectivism to the conscious harmony
in Milan in 1741. After eight successful Italian operas he of classicism. It includes *lyric, *epic, and *ballad poetry,
worked, less successfully, in London, and later settled in drama, novels, shorter tales, and autobiographical works.
Vienna in 1752. In 1762, in collaboration
with the poet His literary reputation was established with the pub-
Raniero Calzabigi (1714-95), he produced the first of his lication o{ Gotzfrom Berlichingen (177 1-3), a play in the
'reform' *operas, Orpheus and Eurydice. Shorn of vocal Shakespearian tradition portraying a manly, autonomous
excess and courtly conventions, it aimed at 'simplicity, hero worn down by a degenerate age. This was followed
truth, and naturalness'. Further operas followed: Alceste by The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774), the sensationally
(1767) and Paris and Helen (1770) for Vienna, Iphigenie en successful novel of the hypersensitive outsider for whom
Aulide (1774), Armide (1777), and Iphigenie en Tauride the world has no place. Between his move to Weimar
(1779) for Paris. Gluck's contribution to opera lay in his (1775) and his first visit to Italy (1786-8) Goethe de-
ability to weld together arias, chorus, and pantomime veloped a greater stability and moderation and an ap-
with each detail contributing to the total effect. preciation of Mediterranean openness and classical values,
seen in the erotic poetry of the Roman Elegies (1788-90).
glyphs, the name given by Mesoamericanists to signs In his verse play Iphigenia on Tauris 779 86) the tortured
(
1
used to convey meaning in Pre-Columbian manuscripts mind of Orestes is healed, and the exemplary honesty of
and in some murals and carvings. Examples recorded can the heroine conquers violence and deceit, while in Torquato
be classed in two groups: Mixtec, the conventions of Tasso 780 9) the subjectivity and sensitivity of the
(
1
alienated hero find release in poetic expression and are of * Post-Impressionist artists. During his lifetime he sold
counterbalanced by the tolerant nobility of the Princess. only one picture and waged a grim battle against poverty,
Friendship with *Schiller in the 790s led to the verse
1
alcoholism, and insanity. Although his career lasted only
*idyll Hermann and Dorothea (1796-8) and the completion ten years, his output was prodigious (about 800 paintings).
of the novel Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1795-6), His early works deal mainly with the life of peasants and
which presents a confident view of the possibility of are sombre in colour and mood. After he moved to Paris
personal development towards social responsibility and in 1886, however, he was influenced by * Impressionism
became the model of the German *Bildungsroman. The and Japanese woodcuts (see *ukiyo-e) and his work became
symbolic novel Elective Affinities (1809), however, reveals lighter and featured a broader range of subjects, including
a greater sense of tragic vulnerability, as the elemental landscapes, portraits, and still lifes. While the Im-
force of love threatens the ordered world of marriage and pressionists were interested in colour as a means of
is barely controlled by sacrificial renunciation. Goethe's reproducing the appearance of the natural world, van
masterpiece, the two-part drama Faust, occupied him Gogh used it for symbolic or expressive purposes, and
intermittently from the 1770s until 183 1. It reflects the painted with vigorous swirling brush-strokes. In 1888 he
developing vision of a lifetime, with its comedy and settled at Aries,where he produced an enormous amount
tragedy, pathos, wit, and satire. The hero's ceaseless of work but suffered recurrent nervous crises, with bouts
striving to experience all aspects of life, his thirst for of hallucination and depression. He was joined by
knowledge, and his presumptuous challenge to the powers Gauguin, but they quarrelled, precipitating the episode
of evil, conspire in his downfall, yet serve a divine purpose, in which van Gogh cut off" part of his own ear. In the
complementing the power of love to lead to ultimate last seventy days of his life he painted seventy pictures
salvation. Best known as a man of letters, Goethe also before shooting himself. His fame grew rapidly after his
had a distinct talent for drawing, and became a successful death, and the emotional intensity of his work has had
theatre director. His knowledge of art and of science was an immense influence on 20th-century art from *Fauvism
comprehensive and profound. He is sometimes referred and * Expressionism onwards. Van Gogh's brother Theo,
to as the last universal man. a picture-dealer, was a loyal support to him, and their
correspondence provides valuable information about
Gogh, Vincent van (1853-90), Dutch painter and his life.
.ih'^m^MR^ ''.',
-}M
183 GOMBROWICZ
in which supernatural forces play an even more menacing
role thanamong rural people, enters his work in the later
stories, among them the masterpieces 'The Nose' (1835)
and 'The Overcoat' (1842). He became an important
dramatist with his satirical comedy The Government Inspector
(1836), exposing corruption and pretentiousness in a
provincial town. His greatest work is the novel Dead Souls
(Part I, 1842). Again using a provincial setting, he
presents a series of grotesque caricatures, whose spiritual
emptiness is exposed by an even emptier hero, the
confidence trickster Chichikov. Gogol was increasingly
troubled by the dark, perhaps even satanic, view of
human nature that came through in his literary works.
He restlessly sought spiritual comfort, but eventually he
burned the rest o^ Dead Souls, and died deranged.
describing the guilt-filled reflections of a man wrecked ease with which it can be worked. Its softness means that
after his ship is torpedoed. The Spire (1964) reiterates it is often alloyed with other metals, such as copper and
Golding's vision of man as a creature that 'produces evil silver. Gold has been regarded as a symbol both of
as a bee produces honey'. His Rites of Passage (1980) won divinity and of royalty. Many religious objects, such as
the Booker Prize, and in 1983 he was awarded the Nobel medieval crosses and reliquaries, were made from gold,
Prize for Literature. while in ancient Egypt all gold was the property of the
pharaoh. In Egypt gold was used in the funerary arts to
Goldoni, Carlo (1707-93), Italian comic dramatist. He cover mummies or tomb objects, resulting in such famous
was a lawyer until 1748, when demand for his plays artefacts as the gold mask of Tutankhamun. The Cretans
enabled him to become a full-time writer. Enormously used gold for drinking cups adorned with scenes in relief,
productive (149 *comedies) he moved to Paris in 1762 and the Greeks covered their statues in gold and precious
to work as dramatist and tutor to Louis XV's princesses, stones. Many of the Pre-Columbian civilizations of South
though his best plays are those written in Venetian dialect. America were famed for their goldwork, particularly the
He died a pauper in Paris, a victim of the French Mixtecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru, who paid
Revolution. Goldoni revolutionized the Italian theatre, religious tribute in the form of worked gold, treated as a
weaning the public away from the stock characters and gift to the sun god. By the i6th century goldsmiths were
situations, improvisation, and buffoonery of the *commedia working to supply the rich with elaborately designed
delParte, to provide a genuine comedy of character, ob- domestic objects such as the famous golden salt-cellar
served from life, in the manner of *Congreve and *Gold- made by *Cellini for King Francis I of France. Styles in
smith. goldwork reflected the current fashions in design, such as
the heavy and ornate Baroque work of the 17th century,
Goldsmith, Oliver (c. 1730-74), Anglo-Irish poet, which in turn was replaced by simpler more classical
dramatist, and novelist. He is best known today for his styles as tastes changed.
*comedy She Stoops to Conquer (1773), which plays on the
confusions arising from a private house being mistaken Gombrowicz, Witold (1904-69), Polish novelist and
for an most famous poem, The Deserted Village
inn. His dramatist. In his first novel, Ferdydurke (1937), and the
(1770), is a nostalgic lament for village life as it declines plays Princess Ivona (1938) and The Marriage (1953), he
under economic pressures. His novel The Vicar of Wakefield established the major preoccupations of his work, which
(1766) tells of the complex misadventures of a vicar's are questions of immaturity and forms of behaviour. He
family, and also contains the humorous 'Elegy on the saw the individual as struggling against sterile adherence
GONCHAROV
to form, his best weapon being to adopt the immature Gordixner, Nadine (1923- ), South African novelist
stance of the adolescent. In Argentina when World War and short-story writer. Her first collection of stories,
II broke out, Gombrowicz began there to confront certain The Soft of the Serpent (1953), showed a precise
Voice
unflattering characteristics of Polishness in Transatlantic psychological observation. Her later work is increasingly
(1953) and his idiosyncratic Diary (1953-68). concerned with racial politics, notably in A Guest of Honour
(1970), set in a newly independent African nation, and
Goncharov, Ivan (Aleksandrovich) 8 2-9 ), Rus-
( 1 1
1 in Julys People 1981), which envisages a future civil war.
(
and a psychological case-study based on the life of their Gorky, Maksim (Aleksey Mikhaylovich Peshkov),
own servant. The work of the Goncourt brothers is usually (1868- 936), Russian short-story writer and novelist. Of
1
associated with the literary doctrine known as * realism, humble provincial birth, as a youth he wandered over
though it may also be seen as a forerunner of the later Russia, working at many trades. In the 1890s he began
concept of *Naturalism. The Prix Goncourt was founded publishing short stories based on his experiences, and
in 1903 by the will of Edmond Goncourt. It is the most achieved international fame. 'Twenty-Six Men and a
important of the 1,500 literary prizes given each year in Girl' (1899) encapsulates the central idea of all his work:
France. that the strong, self-aware individual can overcome moral
and physical misery. The heroine of Mother (1906) is
gong, a bronze disc with turned-back rim, with either Gorky's most poignant embodiment of the struggle be-
a flat face, usually then of indefinite pitch like the tween the heroic human spirit and its degrading en-
orchestral tam-tam, or with a central boss. Tam-tams vironment; the trilogy Childhood (19 13), Out in the World
seem have originated in Central Asia and were perhaps
to (19 16), and My Universities (1923) tells of his self-
known Greece and Rome. They travelled also
in ancient liberation. An and active sympathizer with
early Marxist
to China and came thence into 19th-century Europe. the Russian revolutionary movement, he lived in Italy
Bossed gongs, always tuned to definite pitches, reached from 1905, returning to Russia in 191 7 to help the literary
their peak of development in Java, where the great gong intelligentsia oppose Lenin's dictatorial methods during
ageng and many smaller gongs make up the classical the years of upheaval; he then spent most of the 1920s
*gamelan. Gong orchestras are widespread in South-East abroad. Returning in 1928, he became the first Chairman
Asia, though few are as carefully made and tuned as the of the Union of Writers (1934) and figurehead the
Javanese. Chimes of tuned gongs are occasionally used in Stalin's regimentation of literary helped to
life. He
in Western orchestras also. consolidate the literary doctrine of *Socialist Realism,
which was to turn Soviet writers into political pro-
Gongora y Argote, Luis de (i 561 1627), Spanish pagandists.
poet. His early poetry elegant and original, but his
is
fame rests primarily on his mature works, which include Gossaert, Jan (Mabuse) (C.1478-C. 1533), Netherlandish
Panegyricfor the Duke ofLerma 1 609) The Tale of Polyphemus
( , painter, active mainly in Antwerp. In 1508-9 he visited
and Galatea (c.1613), and the unfinished pastoral poem Rome, and his work thereafter was transformed by his
The Solitudes (161 3). He introduced a baroque style experience of Italian art. He had a high reputation in his
[gongorismo) into Spanish literature through the Lat- day, and a generation after his death the Italian bio-
inization of vocabulary and syntax, a play on classical grapher *Vasari acclaimed him as the first 'to bring the
allusions, and an extended use of *metaphor and complex true method of representing nude figures and mythologies
*conceits. Rediscovered by *Garcia Lorca and the *Gen- from Italy to the Netherlands'. *Durer, rather more
eration of '27, Gongora has greatly influenced modern perceptively, said he was better in execution than in-
Spanish poetry. He is now acclaimed for his mastery of vention.
varied poetic forms, as well as for the longer poems of his
maturity in which theme, language, tone, and structure Gosse, Sir Edmund William (1849- 1928), British
are skilfully matched and controlled. critic, and biographer. His father was a pur-
scholar,
itanical and authoritarian Christian, portrayed by his son
Goodman, Benny *big band, *jazz. in his masterpiece Father and Son (1907). He was translator
for the Board of Trade for some thirty years, and librarian
gopura, a term in Indian architecture for an elaborate at the House of Lords (1904-14). Much of his scholarly
gateway in the surrounding wall of a Hindu temple. work was devoted to Scandinavian literature and he was
Found mainly in the Deccan and south India, they were the first to introduce * Ibsen's name to England. He wrote
originally fairly small, but from about the 12th century biographies of Thomas *Gray, *Congreve, and *Donne.
they grew to be enormous, tiered, pyramid-like structures Vivid and intimate pen portraits of his literary con-
covered with elaborate carving. temporaries are to be found in his many critical writings.
185 GOTHIC
A scene from the original production of Gorky's The patrons of the Middle Ages. Only a small part of Suger's
Lower Depths at the Moscow Art Theatre m 1902, rebuilding survives intact, the ambulatory of the choir,
directed by Konstantin Stanislavsky, who appears, left, as
but it is one of the most revolutionary structures in the
Satm. On the right is Olga Knipper, Chekhov's wife, as
history of European architecture. The heaviness of the
Nastya. A study of the wretched lives of derelicts, it is
perhaps Gorky's best-known play and has frequently Romanesque style has been completely abandoned, and
been revived. (Bakhrushm Theatre Museum, Moscow) the graceful columns, arches, and ribbed vaults create a
remarkable feeling of airiness and elegant poise. Whereas
in Romanesque churches the windows were openings
Gothic, the style of architecture and art that succeeded pierced through a thick wall, here the windows have been
*Romanesque. It originated in France in the mid- 12th enlarged to such an extent that they form a translucent
century, spread rapidly to other countries, and lasted into wall supported by a framework of stone. It is astonishing
the 6th century in many areas, particularly in northern
1 that Suger's masons managed to bring the elements
Europe. The word was originally a term of abuse; it was of the new style together with such total assurance.
coined by Italian artists of the *Renaissance to denote Saint-Denis was succeeded, in the following three-quarters
the type of medieval architecture which they condemned of a century, by a series of great cathedrals in the Paris
as barbaric —
implying, quite wrongly, that it was the region that brought the Gothic style to its most sublime
architecture of the Gothic tribes who had destroyed the heights. Chartres, begun in about 11 94, is sometimes
classical art of the Roman Empire. The Gothic style is considered the supreme example of a Gothic cathedral,
still characterized chiefly in terms of architecture, and by because its glories include not only architecture but also
three features in particular: the pointed arch (as opposed sculpture and *stained glass of the highest quality. Many
to the round arch of Romanesque architecture); the rib critics, however, consider that Amiens Cathedral (begun
*vault, in which transverse arches springing from the 1220) ranks even higher in architectural terms and marks
wall of the building support (or appear to support) the the climax of French Gothic. The windows are now so
ceiling; and the flying *buttress, a type of external support large and the stonework so taut and membrane-like that
that not placed solidly against a wall, but is instead
is the walls look like translucent, almost weightless curtains.
connected to it by an arch. None of these features was Later French Gothic became more decorative in the
first used in the Gothic period (they are all found in late *Rayonnant and *Flamboyant styles. Gothic spread from
Romanesque architecture), but when employed together France to most parts of Europe and it took on distinctive
they created a new type of skeletal structure and a sense forms in many countries. In Germany, for example, some
of graceful resilience that was different in spirit from the of the finest Gothic churches (such as Cologne Cathedral)
massive solidity of Romanesque buildings. Another highly are very close to French models, but in northern Germany
characteristic feature of Gothic architecture that de- there was an independent tradition of brick churches in
veloped slightly later was the use of *tracery, decorative a simple but impressive style called Backsteingotik. In Italy
stonework in window openings or applied as ornament the Gothic style took less firm root than elsewhere, and
to wall surfaces. Window tracery, in fact, evolved in such (with the conspicuous exception of Milan Cathedral)
distinctive and elaborate ways that its variations (or Italian churches of the period generally eschew the
absence) have often been used as the most convenient elaborate tracery, forests of buttresses, and spiky pinnacles
method of classifying the different stages of the de- of their northern counterparts, preferring instead broad
velopment of Gothic architecture. Whereas Romanesque relatively unadorned masses, the large areas of plain wall
architecture evolved gradually in several countries sim- surface inside often being covered with *fresco paintings.
ultaneously, the birth of the Gothic style can be located Secular buildings as well as churches were designed in
precisely in time and place. The key work was the the Gothic style, and Belgium made a particularly rich
rebuilding of the abbey church of Saint-Denis, just outside contribution to this field with buildings such as the Cloth
Paris, between 1 140 and 1 144. The reconstruction of the Hall in Bruges, celebrated for its towering belfrey. Some
abbey was carried out for Abbot Suger, one of the greatest of the earliest important English Gothic buildings (such
GOTHIC NOVEL
octagonal lantern at Ely Cathedral and the hammerbeam architecture. (See also *Burges, *Butterfield.)
roof at Westminster Hall in London. The term 'Gothic'
has much less precise meaning when it is applied to Gottfried von Strassburg (early 13th century), Ger-
painting or sculpture than it has when it is used in man poet. He is the author of an unfinished *narrative
architectural contexts, although a swaying elegance is poem Tristan (c. 1210) which is based on a French version
often considered typical of Gothic figures, which are of Celtic legends and is the source of *Wagner's opera
generally much more naturalistic and less remote than Tristan and Isolde (1865). Gottfried's work uses the illicit
those of the Romanesque period. There were great sculp- love between Tristan and Isolde, the wife of his uncle.
tural ensembles (particularly around portals) at several King Mark, for a pessimistic exploration of the situation
cathedrals (notably Chartres and Reims), and the char- of individuals searching for perfection through mystical
acteristic *gargoyles, but the most typical sculptural union, in a hostile and restrictive society. Gottfried was
product of the age was probably the standing figure of a master of rhetorical form, and his verse is the most
the Virgin and Child, notably in ivory. In late Gothic flexible and mellifluous of any medieval German poet.
Germany woodcarving reached great heights of beauty
and elaboration. Gothic painting is seen at its best in gouache, opaque *water-colour. The degree of opacity
manuscript illumination, and in stained glass which varies with the amount of white pigment added to the
,
187 GRAHAM
colour, but in general it is sufficient to prevent the Goya y Lucientes, Francesco Jose de ( 1 746-1828)
reflection of the paper through the paint, and it therefore Spanish painter and graphic artist. His genius was slow
lacks the luminosity of transparent water-colour wash. to mature, and he was well into his forties before being
Gouache was used for manuscript illumination, on fans, appointed a court painter to Charles IV. He was the
and for preparatory sketches. The term 'body colour' is victim of a mysterious and traumatic illness in 1792-3
sometimes used as a synonym for gouache. which left him deaf, and during his convalescence, 'to
occupy an imagination mortified by the contemplation
Gounod, Charles (Franqois) (1818 93), French com- of my sufferings', he painted a series of pictures of
poser. He became a church organist in Paris, and briefly 'fantasy and invention' that mark the beginning of the
studied for the priesthood, but abandoned these studies preoccupation with the morbid, the bizarre, and the
in favour of composition. Gounod's musical output in- menacing that was to be such a feature of his mature
cludes a series of masses and other sacred works, and two work. Goya made his living principally as a portraitist
symphonies. However, his reputation, which was once (and in this field he ranks among the greatest masters),
overwhelming, now rests on his operas (in particular Fausl but his imaginative gifts were brought out most fully by
(1859) based on *Goethe's drama), his songs, and the themes involving cruelty and terror. They included scenes
Petite Symphonie for ten wind instruments (1885). from the bullfight and the madhouse, and the French
occupation of Spain (1808-14) led him to create scenes
Gower, John (c. 1330- 1408), medieval English poet, of atrocities that are among the most savage anti-war
who wrote in English, French, and Latin. In French he protests ever produced. They include his famous series of
wrote Aiirour de romme ((-.1376-8), a moral *allegory etchings The Disasters of War (1810-14). The culmination
concerned with the virtues and vices of fallen man, and of his career is a series of murals, known as the 'Black
in Latin, Vox clamantis (c. 1379-81), an apocalyptic poem
Paintings', done for his own house and now in the Prado,
containing reflections on the disturbances of the early Madrid. They depict nightmarish scenes, painted with an
years of Richard H
and the Peasants' Revolt. In English almost ferocious intensity and freedom. His output also
he wrote In Praise of Peace, as well as his major work included cartoons for the royal tapestry factory in Madrid
Confessio amantis (c. 1390), containing 141 stories of courtly (the major work of his youth), numerous religious paint-
Christian love largely derived from classical authors and ings, and one of the most famous nudes in the history of art,
medieval *romance. It is written in octosyllabic *couplets the Naked Maja (c. 1800), said to represent the beautiful
which he handled with brilliant metrical skill. Duchess of Alba, whose relationship with Goya caused
scandalous gossip. After 18 15 he virtually retired from
public life, and in 1824 he settled in France.
This etchmg is part of Goya's series of sixty-five prints Graham, Martha (1894 ), US dancer and cho-
The Disasters of War, which he made in 1810-14. These reographer. She studied with Ruth *St Denis and Ted
nightmarishly savage scenes depict atrocities committed * Shawn and danced with their company before starting
by both sides and are among the most powerful anti-war on a solo career in 1926. She founded her own school
statements ever made. Contrary to the conventions of his
time, Goya does not show heroics and glory only — and company
significant
in 1927 and 1929 respectively, the most
*modern dance school and company to emerge
mutilation, pain, and death. (Courtauld Institute Galleries,
London) from the early 20th century. Her technique arose from a
GRAHAME Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
Grainger, (George) Percy (Aldridge) (1882 196 1),
Australian-born US composer and pianist. He settled in
1900 in London as a successful concert pianist, also
becoming deeply involved in the revival of interest in the
tunes and texts of *folk music. In 1914 he moved to New
York, acquiring US citizenship in 1918. In 1938 he
inaugurated a research institute studying ethnic music
and instruments at Melbourne University. His own music
is unconventional and resolutely unacademic, but also
presence. Rather than telling stories, as m traditional mercial printing, including text as well as illustrations.
dancing, her work explores emotions and psychological (See also *typography.)
situations.
mystical themes of Primitive Mysteries (1931), to stories of existentialism and the grotesque, elements which can be
Greek origin, Might Journey (1947), and to American found in the *picaresque novel The Tin Drum (1959).
pioneer themes, Frontier (1935). For these works she Two further novels also relating to Danzig, Grass's birth-
fashioned an abrasive and dramatic technique based on place. Cat and Mouse (1961) and Dog Tears (1963), show
the notion of 'contraction and release', a percussive and him as acommitted socialist exploring with technical
spare style. Later works such as The Witch of Endor (1965) virtuosity the average German's complicity with Nazism
were more lyrical. Modern dancers such as *Cun- and the complacent atmosphere of West Germany's
ningham, Hawkins, and *Taylor trained in her school, post-war 'economic miracle'. His recent novels include
danced for the company, and later set up their own The Flounder (1977), a ribald fable that treats relations
companies. between the sexes from prehistoric times to the present,
and The Rat, which is set in a post-nuclear-war Europe.
Grahaxne, Kenneth (1859-1932), British writer. Six of
his essays, published as Pagan Papers (1893), describe the Graves, Robert van Ranke 1895- 1985), ( British poet
life of a family of five orphans, who reappear in The and novelist. His prodigiousoutput includes volumes of
Golden Age (1895) and in its continuation. Dream Days verse, essays, fiction, biography, children's works, and
(1898). The sharp observations of the child narrator and translations. His autobiography Goodbye to all that (1929)
the authenticity of childhood vision brought him critical describes his unhappy schooldays, his experiences in the
and popular success. His children's classic The Wind in trenches in World War I, and the breakdown of his first
the Willows (1908) was based largely on bedtime stories marriage; its tone is distinguished by the passionate
and letters to his son. It was dramatized by A. A. * Milne disillusion of the post-war generation. His many novels
as Toad of Toad Hall in 1930. include /, Claudius and Claudius the God (both 1934). His
www.Ebook777.com
189 GREEK ART
Collected Poems (1955) confirmed his status as a major Greek sculpture. The first nearly life-sized statues were
poet. His writing is and epigrammatic and
lucid, intense, made about 650 bc in stone. These statues are stiff and
defies classification within any school or movement; his one-dimensional. In the beginning of this, the 'Archaic
self-imposed exile in Egypt, France, and Majorca dis- Period', the sculptor, to avoid cutting the stone deeply,
tanced him fi^om literary developments in Britain. rendered features and muscles as markings on the surface.
Sculptors of the 6th and early 5th centuries studied the
Gray, Thomas (1716 71), British poet. A precursor of forms of the body, gradually working out its proportions.
the *Romantic movement, he spent most of his life in Sculpture developed so that a statue was interesting from
Cambridge. He published several odes before completing any angle, instead of only its front or side. Statues were
'Elegy written in a Country Church-Yard' (1751), one painted throughout the Greek period. Many, buried in
of the best known *lyrics in the English language, which the debris after the Persians had sacked the Athenian
reflects on the obscure destinies of the villagers buried Acropolis (citadel) in 480 bc, were excavated with their
there and, through them, on the fate of men. His last
all colour still preserved. The victories over the Persians in
major works were the Pindaric *odes on 'The Progress of the early 5th century bc were followed by a graver,
Poesy' (1757) and 'The Bard' (1757). He lies buried grander style, which found characteristic expression in
in the churchyard at Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire,
celebrated in his 'Elegy'.
This marble statue of Hermes with the infant Dionysus is
Greco, El (Kyriakos Theotokopoulos) (1541-1614), one of the most fascmatmg examples of Greek art.
Cretan-born painter, sculptor, and architect known by Ancient literary evidence suggests that it is an original
his nickname, meaning 'the Greek'. In Crete he was work from hand of the 4th-century bc sculptor
the
trained in the local tradition of *icon painting, but little Praxiteles, which would make it a survival of the utmost
rarity, for the statues that were famous among the Greeks
is known of his work before he moved to Italy in the
are today known mainly through Roman copies. Certainly
1560s. *Tintoretto and *Michelangelo had a particular
It has a delicacy m
the modelling of forms and a subtlety
influence on his style. In 1577 El Greco settled in Toledo of finish far removed from the workmanship seen m most
in Spain, where he stayed for the rest of his life, painting Roman copies, but its authenticity is not established.
a succession of great altar-pieces. His distinctive style (Museum of Archaeology, Olympia)
features ecstatic figures elongated into flame-like forms;
through them he rapturously expressed the awesomeness
He also excelled as a portraitist,
of great spiritual events.
particularly of churchmen, and painted two striking
views of Toledo. In addition he designed complete altar
compositions, working as architect and sculptor as well
as painter. The strangeness of his art has inspired sug-
was mad, but his paintings express the
gestions that he
adopted country. After his death
religious fervour of his
he was generally forgotten until the development of
* Expressionism in the early 20th century.
sculpture, as atOlympia. It was a period of increasing *Greek vases). The Greeks were adept at other arts:
naturalism, and the sculptor, certain of his mastery of superb examples of bronzework have been found at Vix
body forms, turned to representing all forms of action. in central France (c.500 bc), for example. Gem engraving
Myron's Discobolos, an athlete hurling the discus, made reached a peak of perfection with the work of Dexamenos
in about 450 BC, was originally in bronze, but survives in the late 4th century, and jewellery of considerable
only in Roman marble copies. Indeed most sculptors of refinement has been found in Magna Graecia (southern
this period worked in bronze; hollow bronze casting was Italy) and southern Russia. Greek art did not end with
invented in the 6th century, but no works remain from the Roman conquest of Greece, or even with the transition
earlierthan the 5th. Few life-size bronzes survive, except from the ancient to the medieval world; it developed as
in copies, but we have one, by an unknown sculptor, *Hellenistic art and later as *Byzantine art, and has been
—
which must be among the greatest the bronze statue of at the foundation of the art of western Europe. Its lasting
Zeus hurling a thunderbolt, found in the sea off Cape influence is due to its sense of reason and balance, its
Artemisium, and dated about 470-460 bc. * Phidias, concentration on humanity, and its sheer beauty. (See
between 445 and 432 bc, made the two most famous also *Hellenistic art.)
statues, the Athene of the Parthenon, and the Zeus of
Olympia. Both are known only by late copies and Greek literature (ancient), the literature of the ancient
descriptions. They were colossal, with ivory flesh and and classical eras of Greece. The earliest European literary
golden garments. The sculptures of the Parthenon show works are the epic masterpieces the Iliad and the Odyssey,
Phidias' largeness of style and design, splendid strength, attributed to *Homer. Among other early *epic poems are
delicacy, and subtlety. His contemporary, *Polyclitus, in those of *Hesiod, which are didactic in tone. Fragments of
about 440 bc made a statue of a youth holding a spear, many other early Greek poets survive, both *elegiac and
embodying what he considered the ideal *proportions of personal, among which are the poems of
the greatest of
the human In the 5th century emotion was shown
figure. *Sappho. Lyric poetry *Greek lyric poetry), for
(see
in the whole figure rather than in the face, which choral performance, together with the song and dance in
was generally shown with calm features. Fourth-century the ceremonies honouring Dionysus in Athens, laid the
sculptors such as *Scopas concentrated on representing foundations for the *Greek theatre, both *tragedy and
intellect and emotion through the face, and this led to *comedy. *Iambic verse was employed especially for
the development of *portraiture. Earlier portraits had invective by poets like Archilochus (7th century bc); the
idealized the subject, representing a type rather than an *metre, well suited to more colloquial speech, went on
individual. Drapery became dramatic, with swirling folds, to be the vehicle for the non-choral parts of drama.
creating complications of light and shade, and indicating Elegiac verse was widely employed, for epitaphs and
different textures. The human body was soft and graceful even, as by Solon [c.^'^o-c.'^Qo bc), for political exhor-
but lacked the strength and dignity of earlier work. This tation. Prose was a late development. Herodotus (c.490-
change is seen in the works of * Praxiteles (mid-4th century 430 bc) and Thucydides (c. 460-400 bc) are the greatest
bc), who worked mainly in marble. Greek architecture has among a rich tradition of historians whose writings
an equally long and distinguished history. Early Greek continue to be read for their literary worth. Democracy,
temples were small hut-like buildings of rubble or mud- introduced in the 5th century bc, brought with it the
brick, sometimes thatched. Colonnaded temples of stone need to be persuasive in court and public assembly, and
were rare before the 6th century. The design was simple the sophists or itinerant professional teachers, whose
a rectangular building on a foundation of usually three uniting aim was to expound the new art of *rhetoric,
steps, with columns (see *orders of architecture) at the supplied the need. The great age of oratory, however, is
porch, at either end, or all round. The Greeks did not the 4th century, the most notable name being that of the
use the *arch, their buildings depending for effect on the Athenian Demosthenes (384-322 bc). At this time, too,
strong contrast of light and shade on horizontals and literature and philosophy were married to wonderful
verticals. Figure sculpture in the round filled the tri- effect in the dialogues of * Plato, whose pupil Aristotle
angular gable (pediment) at each end of the building, (384-322 bc) was to create for Western civilization a
and reliefs were carved on the horizontal beams supported whole vocabulary of literary, philosophic, and scientific
by the columns. The sculpture usually told a story, often thinking. By this time 'Old Comedy', with its free criti-
that of the god or hero of the place. Pediment figures cism, gave place in a less libertarian world to the stereo-
with elaborate scenes of movement have been preserved types of 'New Comedy'. This marked the end of the
from temples at Aegina (early 5th century), Olympia, classical age of Greek literature c.320 bc, though what
and the Parthenon (mid-5th century bc). In the reliefs followed was interesting in itself and important for its
the artists had to solve the problems of showing in a effect on *Latin literature, which was developing at the
depth of a few inches figures overlapping and receding same time. The next period of Greek literature reached
in space. This was brilliantly achieved on the Parthenon its peak in Hellenistic Alexandria, where a number of
frieze in Athens, where horsemen are shown effectively major writers were employed. *Callimachus' poetry is
grouped. Some of these, known as the 'Elgin Marbles' noted for its brevity, sophistication, and inventiveness in
after Lord Elgin, who had obtained permission from the form. Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd century bc), in his long
Turkish government to bring them to Britain (1802-12), poem on the voyage of the Argonauts, adapted the
are now on display in the British Museum in London. language of Homer to a romantic epic, while Theocritus
Little of large-scale Greek wall-painting, except for
is left (f.270 bc) broke altogether new ground with his *Idylls,
some remarkable tomb paintings of the 4th and 3rd which do not restrict themselves to the *pastoral. He was
centuries bc, notably the royal tombs at Vergina, Ma- followed by the biographer and philosopher * Plutarch
cedonia. Although the work of painters such as *Zeuxis (ad C.46-126), whose Parallel Lives was later to supply,
has left no trace, we can follow its influence in vase forexample, the material for some of Shakespeare's plays.
painting, an art practised by artists of great skill (see Most Greek poetry which- survives from the period after
191 GREEK THEATRE
the Alexandrian Age is in the form of *epigram. An dance as well as music, composed for a religious festival.
attractive product of later Greek
was the witty
literature Around 600 bc *Sappho and Alcaeus, both living on the
and satirical oeuvre of the prose-writer Lucian (ad c. 120- island of Lesbos, composed lyric poetry to celebrate their
after 180) whose True History influenced such writers as emotions and concerns; remarkable fragments of their
Rabelais and Swift. A reaction against the extravagance of work survive. The poems of Anacreon (c.570 bc) and the
some Asian Greek oratory initiated a period of 'Atticism', drinking songs {skolia) of Athenian aristocrats followed
when the restraint and even the vocabulary of the earlier on in the same Choral lyric reached its peak
tradition.
Athenian orators became the norm. Such antiquarianism in theworks of Bacchylides (5th century bc) and * Pindar.
set its mark on literature for many centuries, affecting Their *odes are usually in praise of the god and human
both the great Christian writers of the 4th century and involved in the occasion, and contain a moral message.
their Byzantine successors until the fall of Constantinople Choral lyric found a secure place in the structure of
in 1453- 5th-century tragedy (see *Greek theatre).
Greek literature (modern), the literature of modern, Greek Revival, a movement in architecture expressing
as distinct from classical, Greece. Between the fall of a new and gravity of ancient
interest in the simplicity
Constantinople (1455) and the War of Independence Greek buildings: an aspect of the broader movement
(182 -6) Greek literature developed in two independent
1
called *Neoclassicism (see *Greek art). Greek architecture
traditions. In Crete (until it fell to the Turks in 1669) became widely known in western Europe only in about
and the Ionian islands writers wrote in a form of language 1750 60 and in the early days of Neoclassicism it was
close to the spoken language (demotic). Elsewhere lit- regarded as primitive, few architects caring to imitate it.
erature was mostly cultivated by the Phanariots, the In the 790s Greek-style buildings became fashionable,
1
Greek administrative class within the Ottoman Empire, however, and the movement culminated in the 1820s and
who wrote principally in a form based on classical 1830S. Leading exponents included *Ledoux in France,
and church Greek. In the 19th century literature was *Schinkel in Germany, and *Soane in England. Imported
dominated by Ionian islanders the poets Dionysios— to America by *Latrobe, the Greek Revival became
Solomos (1798- 1 857) and Andreas Kalvos (1792- 1869) — something of a national style in the first half of the 19th
who successfully combined Greek preoccupations with century.
aspects of European *Romanticism. But in the i88os
political and cultural nationalism led to the growth of the Greek theatre, the drama of the ancient and classical
folklore movement, and mainland poets and prose-writers eras of Greece. It was characteristically performed on a
such as Kostis Palamas (1859- 1943) began to write, flat, circular space containing the altar of Dionysus, called
mostly in demotic, about modern Greece's roots, customs, the orchestra, where the *chorus sang and danced and the
and conditions. The movement culminated in Palamas's actors spoke. The skene or stage-buildings were at first
nationalist epics The Dodecalogue of the Gipsy and The Kings very simple, and the audience sat on wood or stone seats,
Flute. At the same period Greek poetry was being renewed rising around the orchestra. Plays were performed in the
in a very different way in Egypt, by *Cavafy. After the open air and in daylight. A notable tradition of drama
Balkan Wars and the disastrous Greco-Turkish war of grew up in Athens, where both *comedy and *tragedy
1922, literature could no longer draw on the nationalist were regularly performed at the festival of Dionysus, a
aspirations of the previous generation. With the exception god of the fertility of nature associated with religious rites.
of Angelos Sikelianos (i 884-1 951), a lyrical mystic, the Poets presented three tragedies (often not connected in
1920s offered a pessimistic reaction, coupled with an theme) and a satyr play (lighter in tone). Prizes were
attempt to adapt to an increasingly urban culture. But given for the best poet, and the victor was wreathed in
the so-called 'generation of the '30s' opened up new ivy. Early developments are obscure, but the Attic poet
perspectives in poetry, particularly under the influence Thespis (c.534 bc) is said to have made the decisive step
of *Surrealism, and sought new ways to understand and of introducing an actor whose role it was to conduct a
explore Greekness. The major, though very different, dialogue with the chorus. The Athenian *Aeschylus is
figures toemerge were *Kazantzakis, *Seferis, and Odys- said to have brought in a second actor, *Sophocles a
seus Elytis (191 1- ), who received the Nobel Prize for
third. Though the choral element remained important,
Literature in 1979. The novel in Greece developed more its changing character can be traced in the surviving
slowly than poetry. The major novelists of the 1930s, plays of the three great exponents of tragedy, Aeschylus,
reacting to the experience of war, re-examined their Sophocles, and * Euripides. The subject-matter of Greek
environment and roots. The undergone by
sufferings tragedy is almost always mythological, though oc-
Greece in World War II and the subsequent civil war casionally contemporary events could be presented, as in
led to a greater politicization of the novel. Post-war Greek Aeschylus' Persians. Action tends to take place off-stage,
literature has continued this trend towards a greater and is often reported in the speeches of a messenger.
element of commitment, whether political or social. There Actors and chorus alike wore *masks. The chorus was
has also been more formal experiment in prose fiction, present throughout the play. Choral and non-choral
particularly in the work of G. Chimonas (1936- )
elements alternate, but there is no fixed structure. Some
and Aris Alexadrou (1922 78). Another significant de- mechanical devices were used: a derrick or 'machine'
velopment has been the growth of major women writers could raise characters in the air (hence *deus ex machina,
in both prose and poetry in the last forty years, reflecting 'god from a machine'), while the ekkuklema (a moving
the rapidly changing position of women in Greek society. platform) could reveal action inside a house. *Aristotle's
precepts for the best kind of tragedy, given in his Poetics,
Greek lyric poetry, poetry in ancient *Greek literature do not fit many of the surviving plays. In 'Old Comedy'
accompanied by the *lyre. It could be sung by an (<:.5th century bc), which we can properly judge only
individual {monody) or by a *chorus accompanied by from *Aristophanes, and which presented political, lit-
GREEK VASES 192
erary, and philosophical parodies interspersed with per- and wall pictures of the time have been destroyed, vases
sonal lampooning, the chorus again plays an important —
which survive in great numbers are the main source of
part. Its address to the audience in the poet's name, and first-hand knowledge of Greek painting. For the earliest
unconnected with the action of the drama, is known as period of Greek art, indeed, vases are virtually the only
the parabasis, and its grotesque costume, with the phallus surviving works. Vases were made in a great variety of
de rigueur for male roles, symbolizes the irreverence that shapes and sizes: some of the commonest types are the
governed the whole occasion. After a transitional 'Middle amphora, used mainly for storing wine; the hydria, a
Comedy' (C.400-C.320 bc), we come to 'New Comedy', water-jug; the krater, used for mixing wine and water;
starting in the last part of the 4th century bc and now and the lekythos, an oil-bottle. The earliest type of
easier to recapture in the newly discovered Ill-Tempered decoration on Greek vases consisted of geometric bands;
Man of *Menander. It contains little contemporary ref- these came to incorporate stylized plant, animal, and
erence, and its domestic plots and characters are largely figural decoration, and eventually the human figure came
stereotyped. There is a regular division into five acts, and to be the dominant motif, often illustrating scenes from
the dramatic chorus, once the representative of forces Greek legend. There were two main techniques of Greek
larger than life, has either completely disappeared or vase-painting: black-figure and red-figure. In the former,
become a small band of musicians and dancers who which originated in Corinth in the 7th century bc, the
provide light entertainment. Both Greek tragedy and figures were painted in black pigment or sometimes by
'New Comedy' had their imitators in Latin (see * Latin overpainting in red or white. In the red-figure technique,
literature and *Roman comedy). (See also *theatre.) the background was painted black, leaving the figures in
the unpainted red colour of the pottery. Details of the
Greek vases, decorated clay vessels made by the ancient figure could thus be added with a brush rather than
Greeks from the 12th century bc. Because almost all panel incised through the black paint, allowing much greater
flexibility and subtlety of treatment. Because of this
advantage the red-figure technique, which developed
The Greek theatre at Epidaurus (c.350 bc) is the
in Athens from about 530 bc, rapidly superseded the
best-preserved building of its type; the stage section is
black-figure technique.
ruined, but the seating for about 12,000 spectators
remains. Most Greek cities were built on or near hills, so
theatres were generally buih m a natural hollow, suitably Green, Henry (Henry Vincent Yorke) (1905-73), Brit-
excavated and terraced. Initially spectators sat on ish novelist. His first novel, Blindness (1926), appeared
temporary wooden banks, but after an accident in Athens when he was an Oxford undergraduate, but he is
still
m 499 BC, safer, more permanent seats were introduced. better known Living (1929), about factory life in
for
Birmingham, and Loving (1945), set in an Irish country
house. He is noted for his strangely poetic and colloquial
style.
Greek Vases
skyphos kylix
Drinking cups
1 1
Copenhagen. In 1864 he spent the summer with the around 450 films made between 1908 and 191 3 (mostly
vioUnist Ole Bull, and later worked with the composer fifteen-minute one-reel films) he abandoned the theatrical
and *folk music enthusiast Rikard Nordraak. These type of presentation hitherto favoured for a fluid, cine-
experiences fired his imagination and fi-om 1866 he set matic use of the camera, moving it about and bringing
himself the task of creating a national style — partly it closer to the actors, whom he also trained to behave
through the music he wrote, and partly through the more cinematically. He began making feature-length
recitals he gave in partnership with his wife, the singer films in 9 14, and the spectacular 5?></? o/fl A"a/?o« (1915),
1
Nina Hagerup. Despite the popularity of his Piano Con- about the American Civil War, was one of the most
certo (1868) and the *suites of incidental music to Sigurd ambitious films ever made, gaining the cinema a new
Jorsalfar (1872) and Peer Gynt (1875), his finest work is respectability. His next film, Intolerance (191 6), used four
to be found in his songs and short piano pieces. separate stories to drive its message home. Hearts of the
World 1918) had a World War I background, combining
(
Griffith, D(avid) W(ark) (1875- 1948), US film a fictional story with *documentary material. In 1919,
director, one of the great figures of the early cinema. In with *Chaplin and others, he founded the United Artists
GRILLPARZER 194
Corporation, which released his Broken Blossoms (191 9), he is regarded as the chief originator of the 'synthetic'
a touching *melodrama set in Limehouse, London's type of Cubism. In the 1920s his style became more fluid.
Chinese quarter. After Isn't Life Wonderful? (1924), a His output included a number of book illustrations and
naturahstic film about contemporary Germany, Griffith's numerous designs for stage sets (see *set design) and
career went into decline. He made his last film, Abraham costumes, notably for the great Russian ballet impresario
Lincoln, in 1931, only a year afi:er his first sound film, and *Diaghilev.
died in obscurity.
grisaille (French, gris, 'grey'), a painting done entirely
Grillparzer, Franz (i 791 -1872), Austrian dramatist in shades of grey or another neutral greyish colour.
and poet. His plays, mostly on historical and mythological Grisaille is sometimes used for underpainting or for
subjects, explore the tragic ambivalence of human action sketches (Rubens often painted sketches in grisaille), and
and will and their interaction with an unsympathetic in the Renaissance it was used for finished works imitating
society. He was belatedly recognized as perhaps the the effects of sculpture. The earliest known use of grisaille
greatest tragedian of the Austrian stage. Most notable is in Giotto's series of Virtues and Vices (c. 1305) in the
among his works are Sappho ( 1 8 1 8) on the irreconcilability
, Arena Chapel in Padua.
of art and life; his patriotic drama King Ottokar: His Rise
and Fall (1825), which explores the proximity of inevitable Gropius, Walter (1883- 1969), German-born architect,
failure and apparent success; his classical tragedy The and teacher. He became a US citizen in 1944,
designer,
Waves of Sea and Love 83( 1 and his comedy Woe Betide
1 )
;
and was one of the most internationally influential figures
theLiar (1838). His verse play A Dream is Life (1834) was in modern art and design. He worked with *Behrens and
influenced by the popular Viennese theatre and by practised independently as an architect before founding
Mozart's Magic Flute. In 1823 he wrote Melusina as a the *Bauhaus in 1918. He was Director until 1928, then
libretto for Beethoven; another contemporary, Franz resumed his architectural practice in Berlin, before leaving
Schubert, set his poem Berthas Lied to music (181 9). Germany in 1934 because of the rise of Nazism. After
working in England for three years, he settled in the
Grimm, Jacob (1785- 1863), and his brother Wilhelm USA, where he became professor of architecture at
(1786- 1 859), German writers and scholars, pioneers of Harvard. He remained active to the end of his long life
German nationalism.The brothers' work must be seen and had an extensive list of notable buildings to his credit,
against thebackground of contemporary *Romantic
notions of the nature of the German people, dashed hopes
of German unification in 1815 and 1848, and accelerating The Fagus Factory (191 1) at Alfeld-an-der-Leme was
social change. For the Grimms German nationhood was Gropius 's first important commission, and it is a
vested in its language, and the study of its history and revolutionary building. The supporting structures of the
literature was an expression of patriotic unity. Their wall are recessed, so the windows seem to form a
transparent skm around the building, a treatment that was
famous collection of folk-tales. Children's and Household
to become one of the standard patterns of modern
Tales (181 2- 15, revised 1819), known in the English-
architecture,
speaking world as Grimm's Fairy Tales, is an attempt to
identify and preserve the original spirit of the people in
a changing world. The same notions underlie their many
editions of medieval literary texts, among them Jacob's
German Grammar (1819-22), which initiated the historical
study of the German language, and the brothers' German
Dictionary (1852, completed 1961).
Group f.64, a US-based association of photographers Guarini, Guarino (1624-83), Italian architect. The
(1932-5). It created a new style of clearly defined and spiritual heir of the great *Borromini, Guarini was a
sharply detailed photography, in revolt against the soft- priest, a philosopher, and a mathematician, facts relevant
focused, academic photography then fashionable. The to his architecture, for his buildings combine geometrical
name refers to an aperture setting which facilitates this complexity with a sense of spiritual exaltation. He built
style. Its members included Edward *Weston and Ansel churches in places as far apart as Lisbon, Messina, Paris,
* Adams; the exhibition staged by the Group in 1932 and Prague, but almost all his surviving work is in Turin.
marked a turning-point in US photography. His most famous buildings are the Chapel of the Holy
Shroud (1667-90) in Turin Cathedral and the church of
Grub Street, a street in London (now renamed Milton S. Lorenzo (1668-87), celebrated for their breathtaking
Street) off Chiswell Street by Finsbury Square, which openwork domes of interwoven arches. Guarini also
was occupied in the i8th century by impoverished writers designed secular buildings, notably the Palazzo Ca-
who turned out third-rate poems, reference books, and rignano in Turin (1679-83), which has a spectacular
histories to make a living. The term now covers any such curved facade. Among Guarini's many learned pub-
underworld of literary penury, as in *Gissing's novel New lications was the architectural treatise Civil Architecture,
Grub Street (1891). Its writers are known as 'hacks': an posthumously published in 1737; this helped to spread
abbreviation of 'hackney', a hired horse. his influence, which was strongest in Central Europe.
Griinewald, Mathis (c. 1470- 1528), German painter. Guercino, II (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri) (1591-
Griinewald's work forms a complete contrast to that 1666), Italian painter. His nickname, meaning the
of his contemporary Diirer. Whereas Diirer was an squinter, was given to him because of an eye defect. In
intellectual imbued with Renaissance ideas and had his early work he drew on north Italian sources to
limitless visual curiosity, Griinewald concentrated ex- create a highly individual style characterized by dramatic
clusivelyon religious themes, in particular the Crucifixion. lighting, strong colour, and broad, vigorous brushwork.
His most famous treatment of it is the central panel of In 62 -3 he worked in Rome, painting the famous
1
1
his masterpiece, the Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1512-15) in ceiling fresco of Aurora, a bravura triumph of *Baroque
Colmar. The intensity with which Griinewald represents illusionistic decoration, in the Casino of the Villa Ludo-
Christ's physical sufferings, his expressively distorted body viso. His later works can be remarkably similar to Guido
convulsed with pain, makes this one of the most un- *Reni's, calm and light in colouring, with little of the
forgettable images ever painted. At the end of his career lively movement of his early style.
Griinewald's fortunes declined. It was not until the advent
of *Expressionism in the early 20th century that his few Guixnard, Hector (1867- 1942), French architect and
surviving works began to arouse widespread interest. designer, France's leading exponent of *art nouveau. His
GUIRO 196
Rite of Spring.
H
Habimah (Hebrew, 'stage'), a Jewish theatrical com-
pany founded in Moscow in 1917 to promote the revival
plays by avant-garde European and British writers. He
was managing director of the Royal Shakespeare Com-
pany (1960-8) and director of the *National Theatre
(1973-88).
Haggard, (Sir Henry) Rider (1856-1925), British Hamsun, Knut (1859- 1952), Norwegian novelist,
writer. Southern Africa provided the setting for his most dramatist, and poet. His early novels of the 1890s {Hunger,
celebrated novels. King Solomon's Mines (1885), Allan 1890, Mysteries, 1892, Pan, 1894) embody his theories of
Quatermain (1887), and She (1887). In all he wrote the 'unconscious life of the soul', reflecting the turbulent
thirty-four adventure novels variously set in Mexico, inner conflict of modern man, and written with haunting
Iceland, Egypt, and Turkey. lyrical intensity. In laterworks (including Segelfoss Town,
1915, and Growth of 191 7, for which he won the
the Soil,
Hague School, group of Dutch painters including the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1920) he turned to social
brothers Jacob, Matthijs, and Willem Maris and Anton issues, attacking modern capitalist decadence and cel-
Mauve who worked in The Hague between about i860 ebrating the ideal of the noble peasant. His extreme
and 1900. The group is particularly associated with conservatism led him to support Hitler, but the rich
*landscapes and beach scenes, but its members also inventiveness of his later works (like the 'August' trilogy,
painted street scenes, views of everyday life, and church 1927-33) is unaffected by his political bias.
interiors. They had a special interest in sensitively re-
cording light and atmospheric effects, and in this they Handel, George Frideric (1685- 1759), German-born
looked back to the great Dutch landscapists of the 17th composer, who spent most of his working life in Britain.
century and also showed something in common with the His first operas, Almira and JVero, were succes-sfully pro-
*Barbizon school and the * Impressionists. duced in 1705. Invited to Italy, he soon established
himself as a leading composer of Italian *opera. In 17 10
haiku, a form ofjapanese *lyric verse which encapsulates he left Italy to become Kapellmeister (director of music)
a single impression of a natural object or scene, within a to the Elector of Hanover (who in 17 14 became King
particular season, in seventeen syllables arranged in lines George I of England). He made his first visit to London
of five, seven, and five syllables. Arising in the i6th in 171 I, where Rinaldo, written for the occasion, proved
century, it flourished in the hands of *Bash5 and Buson a sensational success. He returned to London in 1712,
(1715-83). During the Tokugawa or Edo period (1603 this time for good. For a while he dominated the London
1867) it was known as a hokku, the introductory stanza stage with his operas. However, increasing financial
of a haikai no renga sequence (see *renga), but it became difficulties forced him to bring his operatic ventures to
a separate form in the modern period under the influence an end (1736) and exploit the less costly field of the
of Masaoka Shiki (1867- 1902). The haiku convention, *oratorio. Though not all his oratorios were successful
whereby feelings are suggested by natural images rather (not even Messiah (1742) initially), the popularity of^ Saul
than directly stated, has appealed to many modern (1739), Samson (1743), Judas Maccabaeus (1747), and
Western imitators, especially * Pound and his followers. Joshua (
748) restored his fortunes and he died a wealthy
I
who advocated a simpler, freer, and more direct prose fiction. His epic drama The Dynasts (1904-8), combining
and poetry style based on models from the Han dynasty verse and prose, centres on the tragic figure of Napoleon.
(206 BC AD 220) and earlier. In his most famous essay, Most of his poems and novels reveal Hardy's love and
'Memorial on the Bone of the Buddha', he attacked observation of the natural world, often with symbolic
Buddhism as a foreign religion, criticizing the emperor effect. He experimented with rhythms and verse-forms,
for paying respect to the supposed finger of the Buddha. and his Collected Poems (1930) contains over 900 poems.
His own essays, for example 'On Man' and 'On the Way', He also published volumes of short stories, including
are among the most beautiful written in Chinese. Wessex Tales (1888). He married twice, first Emma
Lavinia Gilford and after her death Florence Dugdale,
happening, a form of entertainment, often carefully herself a writer of children's books.
planned but usually involving some degree of spontaneity,
in which an artist performs or directs an event combining Hariri, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al- (1054 1 122),
elements of theatre and the visual arts. The term was Arab philologist and poet. His fame rests on his set of
coined by the US artist Allan Kaprow in 1959, and fiftymaqdmdt or dramatic anecdotes written in rhymed
happenings became a popular means of artistic expression prose that Arabs commonly consider to be second only
in the 1960s, involving spectator participation.
often to the *Koran in literary merit. Each maqdma is an
Happenings are related to Performance Art; the two independent discourse in rhymed prose, with some verse,
terms are sometimes used more or less synonymously. featuring the doings of a *picaresque rogue Abij Zayd.
www.Ebook777.com
199 HARMONICS
only the overtones of the harmonic series. Most are short distinguish between the sound of different voices or
enough that players stop the distal end with a finger, instruments. Each emphasizes different harmonics and
producing the overtones of a stopped flute, odd-numbered therefore has a characteristic timbre. Harmonics follow
harmonics of a fundamental an octave lower than that a mathematical progression, and as the series rises the
of the open flute. By interlocking that series with the intervals between them grow smaller, as shown in the
open-tube harmonics, players can produce a complete example of the harmonic series of the note C.
harmonic series from a tube half the length of an open
flute. Some harmonic flutes are end-blown, for example |>e». I>Q. I;q. ^
the Romanian lilinka. Others are duct-blown, for example
the Norwegian selje-fleyte, a seasonal flute made of a tube
of bark in the spring, though nowadays a plastic version
is used all year round. Much larger harmonic flutes,
nearly 3 metres (about 10 feet) long, are played in pairs,
blown transversely in alternation, in New Guinea as ritual 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th
instruments.
* Pitches evolved in this way are said to be acoustically
harmonics, a term used to describe the lesser vibrations 'pure'. So too are the intervals that arise between them.
produced by voices or instruments that add colour to the Western music, however, has preferred to make slight
main note. Voices and instruments produce their sound adjustments away from acoustically pure tuning in order
—
when something is made to vibrate the vocal cords, a to enjoy the advantages of equal *temperament. In
column of air, a stretched string. Each main vibration comparison with the 'tempered' tuning of the piano, the
contains a series of lesser vibrations. Thus a string vibrates 7th, 13th, and 14th harmonics actually sound slightly
alongs its whole length, and also in halves, thirds, quarters, flat, and the iith slightly sharp. Individual harmonics
vibrations (harmonics, overtones, or partials) produce and simultaneously touches it at the half-way point, the
HARMONIUM 200
sound of the second harmonic (an octave above the first) development of the chromatic keyboard instruments) one
will be heard — a delicate, silvery note. Touched a third reads of a 'double harp' {arpa doble). This later came to
of the way along, the same open string will produce the signify a harp with a second row of strings to provide
third harmonic, and so on. accidentals. The 'double harp' was also made in Germany
up to the mid- 1 8th century, but in that country, from
harxnoniuxn, a musical instrument, a reed-organ blown the late 17th century, greater use was made of the single-
by the player with a pair of pedals. It is often used as a row harp with hand-turned 'hooks' of stout iron wire for
substitute for a church organ, with *free-reeds instead of the semitones— like those of the present so-called Celtic
pipes,especially in chapels and small churches. The harp. In the i8th century various pedal mechanisms were
harmonium was also popular for domestic use. Strictly invented, each controlling all the strings of one note
the harmonium blows air past the reeds, as opposed to name. In 1810 Sebastien Erard patented his double-action
an American organ, which sucks air past them. In- harp in which each pedal has three positions: this became
struments vary in size from small and portable for outdoor the basis of the modern concert harp. The present Celtic
services to large and ornate, with as many stops and —
harp derives its size and shape with the column out-
ranks of reeds as a church organ has pipes. curved in older Irish and medieval style from the—
'portable Irish harp', produced in Dublin about 1819 by
harmony (in music), the art of using *chords, involving the maker John Egan as a drawing-room successor to the
not only the way in which individual chords are con- old professional Irish harp. 'Bardic' or 'knee harps' (Gaelic
structed, but also their relationship. This aspect of music clarsach)are based on the medieval Irish and Scottish
only began to be codified into a specific 'grammar' with models. The Welsh triple harp was known in Italy around
the establishment of a system of *tonality during the 7th i 1600 and adopted by the Welsh harpists in the 17th
century; harmonies began to be thought of as entities in century, replacing an older single-strung harp and be-
themselves, as distinct from being the vertical outcome coming their normal instrument, until almost wholly
of horizontal lines in combination: *polyphony giving replaced by the pedal harp after the mid- 19th century.
way to homophony. Such vertical combinations of notes
as seemed pleasant to the ear were known as concords.
harpsichord, a keyboard musical instrument. A wooden
Those that seemed less pleasant were discords. Both were jack resting on each key jumps up so that a quill, set in
linked by accepted methods of progression that stemmed,
a tongue, plucks the string. As the jack falls back, the
ultimately, from the harmonic series. Discords always
tongue tips, preventing the quill plucking again. During
needed to be 'resolved' on to concords, and concords the 1 6th century two distinctive types of harpsichord
moved in stately progression from one to the other. developed, the bright-sounding Italian and the rather
Fundamental to this practice was the idea of diatonic richer Flemish. By the i8th century, French, German,
—
harmony chords built from the notes of the major or and English harpsichords were also established, each
minor *scale. Chords involving notes outside the scales with a characteristic tone quality; thus Bach, Couperin,
were said to be chromatic. It was only when chromatic Scarlatti, and Handel each wrote for different sonorities.
harmonies began to be accepted as the norm, at the end Mechanisms also developed. Contrasting tone qualities
of the 19th century, that the tonal system was undermined were available using two keyboards (double-manual),
and new ways of explaining music (such as *serialism) several rows of jacks, and several ranks of strings, usually
had to be found. two ranks in unison (8'), one an octave higher (4'), and
occasionally in Germany one an octave lower (16'). The
harp, a plucked musical instrument with strings rising 8' ranks, one on each manual, had different tone qualities,
vertically from the resonator to an arm or neck. A and an extra row of jacks plucked the upper 8' near its
forepillar may hold the arm from the resonator, but many
bridge, producing a sharp nasal sound (lute stop). A
regional harps are open, with either a curved or an
batten, fitted with little pieces of buff leather, could be
acutely angled arm. Harps were perhaps the earliest slid against one 8', muting the sound (buff or harp).
stringed instruments of civilization, possibly even older
These effects could only be produced by moving a stop
than *lyres. Arched harps may be seen as a development with the hand, and thus changes were normally made
from the musical *bow; they have a curved wooden neck, only between movements.
a hollowed-out soundbox with a skin belly, and under
this, pressing upwards against it under string tension, a Harris, Joel Chandler (1848- 1908), US author of
stick holding the strings. Such harps are today played by children's fiction and short He published the first
stories.
singers in central Africa, often held with the neck pointing of his UncleRemus stories in 1879. These verses and tales
away, and deep-sounding with their low-tension strings. were based on the folklore of former plantation slaves,
India knew arched harps in the later centuries bc; one told in dialect by the story-teller Uncle Remus. The
type has survived in the Nuristan area of Afghanistan central animal characters, led by Br'er Rabbit and Br'er
and another in Burma. The European harp, with a Fox, are noted for their humorous dialogue and homely
sloping soundbox, strings tuned at the neck above, and wisdom. Harris also wrote stories set in Georgia for adults.
a rigid column in front, can first be made out in pictures
and carvings of the 9th and loth centuries ad. The Harris, Roy (1898 1979), US composer. His large
medieval harp was small, often placed on the knee output includes sixteen symphonies, written between 1933
between the player's arms, and had about 19 strings. and 1979, of which the Third (1937) made a particularly
Renaissance harps were a little larger, with 24 to 26 strong impression. His music is stark and forceful, highly
strings from F to G upwards. They seem often to have contrapuntal (see *counterpoint), and often based on
—
been fitted with 'brays' wooden soundboard-pins shaped American folk idioms and Protestant hymn tunes.
in an obtuse angle for the string to buzz against the
tip. In Spain as early as 1378 (about the time of the Hart, Lorenz *Rodgers, Richard.
201 HAYDN
Hasek, Jaroslav (1883- 1923), Czech novelist and hesitant about his buildings, which are bold, dramatic,
short-story His satirical masterpiece, The Good
writer. and highly original, using the forms of classical archi-
Soldier Schweik (1920-3), recounts the *picaresque ad- tecture with energetic freedom. He combined something
ventures of the archetypal survivor, ^vejk, a private of the monumental grandeur of Roman buildings with
serving in the Austro-Hungarian army, who feigns idiocy the daring vigour of the Gothic style, as in Christ Church,
in order to prevail over the inhumanity of the military Spitalfields (1714-29), one of six churches he built in
machine. In Prague Hasek edited anarchist publications London. Hawksmoor also did work on royal buildings
(1904-7); he was drafted into the Austrian army in World and country houses, and designed university buildings in
War I and was captured by the Russians. He was briefly Oxford and the west towers of Westminster Abbey. His
a member of the Czech liberation army, but later joined genius was little appreciated until the 20th century.
the Bolsheviks and wrote Communist propaganda.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804 64), US novelist and
short-story writer. After bringing out his first collection
hatching, the use of finely spaced parallel lines to suggest
of stories, Twice-Told Tales (1837), he worked in the
shading. The technicjue is found mainly in drawing and
Boston Custom House (1839-41) and briefly joined the
*engraving, but it is also used, for example, in * tempera
experimental commune at Brook Farm; in 1842 he took
painting. When crossing sets of parallel lines are used,
a house in Concord, Massachusetts, the centre of the
the term cross-hatching is used.
*Transcendentalist movement. Mosses from an Old Manse
(1846), his second collection of stories, was hailed as a
Hauptznann, Gerhart (1862 1946), German dram-
atist, poet, and novelist. A consistent use of dialect and work of genius by *Melville, whom he later befriended.
It was followed by a period of great creativity: his
a refusal to shirk unpleasant realities places him at the
forefront of German *Naturalism. Hauptmann char- masterpiece. The Scarlet Letter (1850), a sombre romance
acteristically introduces outsiders —
the idealist Alfred of conscience and the tragic consequences of concealed
guilt; The House of the Seven Gables (1851), tracing the
Loth in Before 1889), the 'new woman' Anna Mahr
Dawn (
and not always with the manufacturer's approval. This psychological acuteness. Many of his short stories are
type of work flourished mainly in Bavaria, Silesia, and and he is recognized as a leader in the de-
classics,
Bohemia during the 17th and i8th centuries, and many velopment of the *short story as a distinctive American
Hausmaler of the period are known by name. genre.
Havel, Vaclav (1936- ), Czech dramatist. His first Haydn, (Franz) Joseph (1732 -1809), Austrian com-
play, The Garden Party (1963), uses the technique of the poser, one of the most highly skilled musical craftsmen of
Theatre of the * Absurd to satirize post-war Czechoslovak all time. Born in modest circumstances, he received his
society. Largo Desolato (1984) and Temptation (1985) con- first musical training as a chorister and in 1740 was
tinue his preoccupation with the individual at odds with chosen for the choir of St Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna,
a pervasive bureaucracy, while Letters to Olga (1989), where he remained for twenty years. In 1761 he entered
based on addressed to his wife from prison, reflects
letters the service of the aristocratic Magyar family of Esterhazy,
on the interior life of the individual under state socialism directing all the musical activities in their palace of
in Eastern Europe. An active campaigner for human Esterhaza at Eisenstadt, and composing church, opera,
rights he suffered frequent imprisonment by the au- chamber, and orchestral music in great quantity, as well
thorities and his writings were banned. In 1989 he was as 108 symphonies. His originality of thought, rich sense
in the vanguard of the peaceful revolution that caused of harmony, and thematic development, are to be found
the overthrow of the Communist regime and its re- particularly in his sixty-seven string quartets. The early
placement by a multi-party system, and late in the same pieces are suites of simple movements, but later works
year he was elected as President of his country. are balanced sets of four contrasted movements, built
symphonically from closely argued themes and employing
Hawksmoor, Nicholas (i 661 1736), English archi- every device available to music. On the death of Prince
tect,with *\'anbrugh the outstanding figure of the brief Nikolaus Esterhazy (1790) Haydn retired to Vienna.
*Baroque period in Britain. Unlike Vanbrugh, a brilliant Visits toLondon in 1791-2 and 794 5 (crowned by the
i
'amateur', Hawksmoor was a thoroughly trained pro- twelve 'London' symphonies) were particularly successful
England at this time. He was *Wren's
fessional, a rarity in and aroused his interest in choral music. In collaboration
assistant for many and also provided expertise for
years, with the amateur musician Baron von Swieten he com-
Vanbrugh at Castle Howard and Blenheim. A man of posed two *oratorios in the English as opposed to the
humble origins and modest nature, Hawksmoor was slow- Italian manner, that is, giving an important role to the
in establishing an independent career, but there is nothing choir rather than writing in a predominantly opera seria
HAYDON 202
A performance of Haydn's opera The Unforeseen as in Death of a Naturalist (1966) and Door into the Dark
Encounter m the castle of his patron Prince Nikolaus (1969), which express complex feelings in homely images.
Esterhazy m Hungary. The figure at the keyboard {far His later, densely written work broods on the cultural
probably the composer himself direchng his work;
left) is
implications of words and on the interweaving of politics
thisgouache was painted between 1766 and 1790.
(Deutsches Theatermuseum, Munich) and tradition, as in Wintering Out (1972), North (1975),
and Work (1979). The Government of the Tongue (1989)
Field
discusses the role of the poet in an authoritarian society.
In the year of its publication he was elected Professor of
manner, based on the aria. The Creation was completed Poetry at Oxford University.
in 1798, and The Seasons in 1801.
mind. Haydon was closely linked with the *Romantic commission motivates her murder of Holofernes. In Agnes
Bernauer (1851) the heroine's adherence to the validity of
movement in literature, and painted portraits of Keats
and Wordsworth. In 1846 he shot himself in his studio. her love leads to her political murder. In the domestic
tragedy Maria Magdalena (1843) the heroine's death is
Hazlitt, William 778-1830), British essayist and critic.
(
caused not by her offence against the morality of a
1
Influenced by *Coleridge and encouraged by Charles patriarchal society but as a result of her acquiescence in
*Lamb, he embarked on a prolific and versatile career its most restrictive demands.
that included painting and journalism. He was a supporter
of the French Revolution and of Napoleon and showed Hebrew literature, literature written in the Hebrew
a deep concern for the social conditions of his own language and produced uninterruptedly since at least the
country. Notable among his works are his literary criti- 1 2th century bc. From c.1200 bc to ad c.200, historical,
cism. Characters of Shakespeare's Plays (181 7); Lectures on the legal, ethical, and liturgical works were compiled to create
English Comic Writers (181 9); Political Essays (1819); and the Old Testament of the Bible. Later the main juridical
Liber Amoris (1823), an account of his obsessive love for and religious laws were committed to writing in the
Sarah Walker. Many of his best essays, noted for their Mishnah (ad c.200), itself expanded into the Gemarah and
forceful style, were written during this period and were ultimately the Talmud, which was written down in the
published in his two most famous books. Table Talk 4th and 5th centuries ad. After ad c.220 Hebrew became
(1821) and The Plain Speaker (1826). At the height of his a literary language only. The centre of Jewish culture
powers as a critic he published The Spirit of the Age (1825), moved first to North Africa, then to Muslim Spain (7th
a selection of incisive portraits of his contemporaries. to 15th centuries), where both the liturgy and secular
poetry in Hebrew were raised to a level of excellence by
Heaney, Seamus (Justin) (1939- ), Irish poet. His poets including Solomon *Ibn Gabirol and Yehuda
early poetry is rooted in the Derry farmland of his youth, Halevi (f. 1080 11 40). The Judeo-Arabic school reached
203 HELLER
its zenith with Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, 1135- feeling for movement and emotion
is shown in the Great
but if he didn't want to he was sane and had to.' His Henze, Hans Werner (1926- ), German composer.
second novel, Something Happened (1974), exposes a dark His early music combined the *Neoclassicism of Hin-
view of the Hfe of a business executive, disgusted with demith and Stravinsky with *serialism and touches of
what he does and is. Good as Gold (1979) is a farcical *jazz. As music director of the Wiesbaden State Theatre
treatment of Jewish family life and of the Washington (1950-3) and composer of such operas as Boulevard Solitude
political scene; Picture This (1988) follows Heller's theme (1952), Elegy for Young Lovers (1961), The Bassarids (1965,
of money and war, pursuing the link between commerce a re-working of Euripides' Bacchae), We Come to the River
and conflict through the ages. (1976), and The English Cats (1982), he proved himself a
true man of the theatre. Seven symphonies (1947 84)
Helmholtz resonator, an acoustical chamber devised and numerous concertos have confirmed his international
by the scientist Hermann von Helmholtz (1820 94) to standing. In 1953 he settled in Italy, his music becoming
isolate single pitches incomplex tones, as a globular vessel richer and more lyrical. Later works, such as The Raft of
with two orifices, the smaller fitting the ear, the larger the Medusa 1968), express, powerfully and even violently,
(
admitting sound. The pitch which it resonates is governed his strong Marxist sympathies.
by the vessel's volume and fine-tuned by the area of the
larger hole. It is thus the inverse of a *vessel flute, for it Hepplewhite, George (d. 1 786), British cabinet-maker
receives sound whereas the latter emits it. and furniture designer. No furniture by him has been
identified and his fame depends on his book of designs.
Helpxnann, Sir Robert (1909-86), Australian dancer, The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Guide (1788). This
actor, and choreographer. He studied with Pavlova and contains almost three hundred designs representing the
de Valois, and was one of the first dancers of the Vic-Wells style used by furniture-makers of the time. It sums up
Ballet, known for his comic and dramatic roles. His own the *Neoclassical taste of the time in pieces that are
choreography includes Hamlet (1942), Miracle in the Gorbals characterized by the use of light and elegant lines,
(1944), and Eleklra (1963). He returned to direct the shield-backed chairs, and a restrained application of
Australian Ballet in 1965. classical ornament.
Hepworth, Dame Barbara (1903-75), British sculptor, Herzog, Werner (1942- ), West German film director.
one of the most important figures in the development of His complex, allegorical films, written and produced by
*abstract art in Britain. She worked in various materials, himself, express a personal vision in striking, ambivalent,
including bronze, but she always had a special feeling for sometimes repulsive images. His characters are usually
carving wood and stone. Her early sculptures were quasi- exceptional in some way —
perhaps through talent or
naturalistic, but by the early 1930s her work had become physical deformity —
and are never fully revealed. He first
entirely abstract. At this time she worked in close harmony attracted attention with Even Dwarfs Started Small (1970),
with Ben *Nicholson (her second husband) and Henry about a rebellion of dwarfs, and two of his best-known
*Moore; unlike Moore's, her work was not repres- films are Aguirre, Wrath of God (1973), describing a
entational in origin, but she attained a subtle synthesis 16th-century conquistador's search for gold, and The Mystery
between geometric and organic forms. By the 1950s she of Kasper Hauser (1974), a supposedly true story set in the
was internationally famous and had many prestigious 820s, of a foundling's attempt to escape from a state of
1
commissions. From 1939 she lived in St Ives in Cornwall. nature. Later films included Nosferatu the Vampire (1978),
Fitzcarraldo (1982), in which opera is performed in the
Herbert, George (1593- 1633), English religious poet. jungle, Where the Green Ants Dream (1984), and Green Cobra
A friend of John *Donne, he was ordained deacon (1987), about slavery.
(c. 1624) and canon of Lincoln Cathedral (1626), and he
finally became rector of Bemerton near Salisbury. The Hesiod (f.700 bc), one of the earliest Greek poets.
Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations (1633) contains Only two surviving poems are likely to be his, both in
nearly all his surviving English poems (he also wrote *hexameters. The Theogony deals with the mythology of
poetry in Greek and Latin). He is noted for the subtlety the gods and Zeus' rise to supremacy. The Works and Days
of his writings, and for his attempt to express the com- describes peasant life, with a strong moralizing element
life; his poems are marked by
plications of the spiritual and some personal detail.
simplicity,unusual imagery, rhythmic skill, and metrical
invention. He is now accepted as one of the greatest Hesse, Hermann (1877 1962), German novelist, poet,
*Metaphysical poets. His major prose work, A Priest to and short-story writer. He was posthumously elevated
the Temple (1652, as part of his Remains), gives a picture to a cult figure in the English-speaking world for the
of a typical country parson. celebration of Eastern mysticism and search for self-
experiences the moral dilemmas of contemporary man, chology and experimental form combine in Steppenwolf
themes present in Herbert's poetry since Chord of Light (1927) to provide a critique of society's superficiality, and
(1956). The essays Barbarian in the Garden (1962) reflect a semi-autobiographical study of the hero's mid-life crisis,
his interest in European culture and history. and his acceptance of his divided self and the imperfections
of life. The Glass Bead Game (1943) depicts a problematic
Herman, Woody *big band, *jazz. Utopia, from whose sterile spirituality the hero escapes
into everyday life, only to meet his immediate death.
Herodotus (<•. 490-425 bc), Greek historian. His account Hesse received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1946.
of the Persian wars earned him the title 'the father of
history', since he wrote on a scale and with a com- hexameter, a verse line consisting of six metrical units
prehensiveness that had never been attempted before. His ('feet'). Greek and Roman poets used *dactylic hexa-
style is simple, clear, and graceful, and his narrative has meters in *epic poetry, and for *elegies and *satires. This
great charm. *metre was later imitated by Goethe and Pushkin, but
does not easily fit the stress-patterns of English, although
heroic couplet, a rhymed pair of *iambic *pentameter Longfellow and Clough attempted long poems in English
from their use by Dryden
lines in poetry, called 'heroic' hexameters.
in heroic (*epic) verse and drama. An important English
verse-form first used by Chaucer, the heroic couplet was 'high-tech' style * Foster Associates.
perfected by Dryden and Pope into a balanced, polished
medium sharing the qualities of *epigram. Hikxnet, Nazim (1902 63), Turkish poet. Hikmet re-
turned to Turkey in 1924 a convinced Marxist, after two
Herrick, Robert (i 591 1674), English poet and cleric. years studying in Moscow. Arrested for working on a
He was ordained priest 1623 and apparently moved
in leftist magazine in Turkey, he escaped to the Soviet
in the London literary circles of *Jonson. While living in Union, where he was influenced by *Futurists such as
Devon he developed an appreciation for English folklore Mayakovsky, and worked with *Meyerhold. Hikmet
and lyrics. Among his most outstanding poems are 'Co- wrote his poems in forcefully colloquial Turkish, in-
rinna's Going A-Maying', the 'Nuptiall Song', and 'To troducing *free verse and a range of innovative imagery.
the Virgins, to make Much of Time', which includes his His Epic of Sheikh Bedreddin (1936) and Human Landscapes
best-remembered line 'Gather ye rosebuds while ye may'. from my Country (1941) portray a powerful range of
A *Cavalier poet, deeply influenced by classical writers Turkey's past and present.
such as *Horace and *Catullus, his secular poems are
mostly exercises in miniature: highly polished with me- Hildebrandt, Johann Lucas von (1668 1745), Aus-
ticulous use of syntax and word order on the theme of trian architect. He was born in Genoa and his style is
love, transience, and death. The 17th-century English more Italianate than that of *Fischer von Erlach, to whom
composer Henry *Lawes set some of his poems to music. he ranks second in renown among Austrian *Baroque
HILL 206
After the turn of the century his position as the leading Sanskrit forms to depict love and physical beauty. Stand-
miniaturist in the country was challenged by his former ard Hindi prose (Kharlboll) evolved with pundits at Fort
pupil Isaac *01iver. William College (founded 1800) such as LalliJjT Lai,
whose The Ocean of Love, retelling Krishna's childhood,
Hindexnith, Paul (1895- 1963), German composer and proved extremely popular. Modern Hindi literature
instrumentalist. His early * Expressionist works, such as proper began with Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850-
the one-act opera Murderers, the Hope of Women (19 19), and essayist. In the 1930s
83), poet, playwright, novelist,
gave way to a drier, *NeocIassical style (as in the opera the Chayavad movement of mystical romanticism de-
Cardillac, 1926) and then to something altogether more veloped with the poets Nirala, Pant, Mahadevi Varma,
lyrical, as in hisoperatic masterpiece Mathias the Painter and Jayashankar Prasad, author of the epic Kdmdyam
(1935), from which he also derived an important sym- (named after its heroine). The fiction-writer Premchand
phony. Attacked by the Nazis, he left Germany (1937), (1880- 1936) vividly depicted village life in short stories
settling in the USA (1940) and then Switzerland (1953). and novels like The Gift of a Cow. (See also *Sanskrit
Hindemith was much concerned to write music that literature.)
would be of use to amateurs and the community in
general, and to establish a coherent musical grammar Hindu art, art and architecture in the service of Hindu-
that would explain contemporary musical developments ism. Hinduism has an extremely complex mythology. In
in terms of *tonality and the immutable laws of acoustics. artistic terms the main gods are Shiva, the god of
destruction and reproduction, and Vishnu, the preserver.
Hindi literature, literature in Hindi, the national Each of them takes many different forms. Shiva, for
language of India, spoken particularly in the north example, is often represented as a phallic pillar (lingam)
Indian plain. The literature began (ad c. iooo) with verse and Vishnu has several earthly incarnations, most notably
romances of Rajput chivalry. The most famous is Cand as Krishna, whose love-life forms one of the staple subjects
Bardal's The Lay of King Prithviraj (14th century), glor- of Indian art. There are other major gods and a host of
ifying PrthvTraj Cauhan, King of Delhi. Muslim mystic minor and local deities. Images of them are found
poets also produced allegorical romances, most notably wherever Hindus worship, from wayside shrines to great
Jayasi's Padmdvat (named after its heroine) (c. 1540), pilgrimage centres. The earliest Hindu buildings to survive
describing King Ratansen's love for Princess Padmavati are from the *Gupta period, although earlier examples
of Sinhala. Hindi *Bhakti literature began with the in wood presumably existed. normal material
Stone is the
monotheistic Kablr (1430- 15 18). Devotion to Rama is for major buildings, although brick known. Hindu
is also
epitomized by the Rdmcaritmdnas ('The Lake of the Acts of architecture generally uses upright supports and cross-
Rama') of Tulsldas (1532-1627), the greatest vernacular members as the basic constructional devices, with arches
version of the * Rdmdyaria. Krishna-devotion is best seen and domes being eschewed. Wall surfaces were often
207 HITCHCOCK
extremely richly decorated with sculpture, such beau- Outstanding 19th century examples include Hugo's JVotre
tification being an attempt to recreate the celestial en- Dame de Paris (1831), Dumas />(?re's Les Trois Mousquetaires
vironment of the gods. The heart of a Hindu temple is (1844), Flaubert's Salammbd (1862), and Tolstoy's War
typically a sanctuary where an image of the god to which and Peace (1863-9). Historical novels have remained
it is dedicated is enshrined; in northern India this is popular, especially the kind known as historical or
surmounted by a tower-like structure called a *sikhara, 'costume' romances, like Margaret Mitchell's Gone With
and in southern India by a smaller structure called a the Wind (1936): these are usually more romantic than
vimana. Outside is a columned hall {mandapa) where historical. Some recent historical novels, like Vidal's
devotees gather. These buildings are often set within a Lincoln (1984), come very close to *biography.
court, which may contain subsidiary shrines, including
that of the god's consort, and also further mandapa. The history painting, a term in art applied to scenes
court is typically entered by a towered gate {*gopura), representing actual historical events, and to scenes from
and nearby there is usually a water-tank for ritual legend and literature of a morally edifying kind. From
ablutions. Hindus, like Buddhists, also built rock-cut the Renaissance to the 19th century it was generally
temples, as at *Ellora,where instead of being tunnelled accepted by artists and critics that history painting was
into a rock face, the temple has been created — amaz- the highest branch of the art. It was traditionally treated
ingly — by carving downwards from the top of an immense 'Grand Manner' — that is, with rhetorical gestures,
in the
block of stone, and at *Elephanta. The sculptural dec- lofty and figures either nude or clad in
sentiments,
oration of Hindu temples (as at *Khajuraho) is often 'timeless' draperies. It was only in the late i8th century
explicitly erotic, *mithuna(love-making couples) being a that contemporary costume began to be used for history
recurring motif Sexual love was seen as a manifestation painting, the US artists Benjamin West and John Sin-
of divine power and a way in which the self could be gleton Copley leading the way, initially against strong
transcended through union with another. The great age criticism.
of Hindu art was over by the 17th century, when the
main artistic impulse had passed to Islam (see *Mughal Hitchcock, Sir Alfred (1899 1980), British film dir-
art), but there was a splendid late flowering of Hindu ector, the cinema's 'master of suspense', and probably
painting in the courts of north-west India (see *Rajput
painting).
the best-known director of all time. He excelled in which he based on a design illustrated in James *Gibbs's
all branches of the cinematic art and was a brilliant Book of Architecture. Hoban carried out several other
story-teller. His career covered fifty years, from the silent federal commissions in Washington, and was one of the
The Lodger (1926) to Family Plot (1976). His early British superintendents of the construction of the Capitol.
films included The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934)
(which he remade in 1956), The Thirty-Jsine Steps (1935), Hobbezna, Meindert (1638- 1709), Dutch landscape
and The Lady Vanishes (1938). His Hollywood career painter, only documented pupil of Jacob van
the
began with Rebecca (1940) (Academy Award for best *Ruisdael. Some
of his pictures are very like Ruisdael's,
film). Outstanding among his other US films were No- but his range was narrower and he concentrated on a
torious (1946); Strangers on a Train (1951), in which two —
few favourite subjects particularly water-mills and trees
strangers arrange to perform murders for each other; North —
round a pool which he painted again and again. After
by Northwest1959); Psycho i960), with its famous shower
( ( 1668 he seems to have painted only in his spare time; his
murder; and The Birds (1963), a film in which birds turn most famous work. The Avenue at Middelharnis, dates,
against human beings. Hitchcock's constant search for however, from 1689. His work was very popular with
new challenges was shown in Lifeboat (1944), set entirely British collectors and painters; *Gainsborough was among
within the boat; Rope (1948), his first colour film, filmed the artists influenced by him.
in one room in a series of prolonged takes; and Rear
Window 1954), shot from the viewpoint of a man confined
(
Hockney, David (1937- ), British painter, draughts-
to a chair. Hitchcock's portly figure was famous from his man, print-maker, photographer, and designer. Hockney
practice of making brief appearances in his own films. achieved international success by the time he was in his
mid-20s and has since consolidated his position as the
Hittite art, the art and architecture of the Hittites, an best-known British artist of his generation. Since the late
ancient people of Anatolia (the Asian part of Turkey), 1970s he has lived in the USA. His phenomenal success
who built a great empire in the 2nd millennium bc. has been based not only on the flair and versatility of his
Hittite artists worked in their own native variety of metals work, but also on his colourful personality, which has
such as bronze, copper, silver, gold, and iron, then a very made him a widely known figure. His early paintings,
precious metal, and could carve stones both in the round often almost jokey in mood, gained him a reputation as
and in relief, often carving for preference on the living a leading *Pop artist, but in the late 1960s he turned to
rock. But the main part of their art was apparently a weightier, more traditionally representational manner.
executed in the service of religion, and depicts gods and He is a fluent draughtsman and has been much acclaimed
goddesses (for example, the rock-carved reliefs at the as a book illustrator. In the 1970s he achieved success as
Great Sanctuary of Yazilikaya near Bogazkoy); gateway a stage designer and recently has worked much in
figures of guardian lions and sphinxes (for example, at photography.
Catalhiiyiik or at Bogazkoy); and scenes of cult or
mythology, as at Carchemish: only rarely and in a limited Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus (1776- 1822),
form do we see narrative representations of human German writer, composer, and music critic. Although
activities, as, for example, the musicians and hunting Hoff^mann's first love was music, he is best remembered
scenes on the palace walls at Catalhiiyiik, c 1400 bc. The for his literary works. Exploring the dichotomy between
minor arts are represented by vases, perhaps ritual in artistic calling and philistine society, his grotesque and
purpose, in the form of animals. The Hittites' pottery was bizarre tales belong to the later period of German
made on the wheel, with fine red burnished walls, *Romanticism. The best known are The Golden Pot ( 1813)
sometimes with painted decoration over a slip. They were and The Maid of Scuderi (1818). His one completed novel
exceptionally skilled in goldwork. In the British Museum is The Devil's Elixirs (181 3- 16), which shows horror
is a set of minute figures of a king, deities, and sacred The unfinished Philosophy
stretched to the point of insanity.
monsters carved out of lapis lazuli and encased in gold. oj Life ofTom-cat Murr (1819-21) maintains a subtle
the
They were originally attached to a golden garment woven balance between dark, irrational elements and a palpable
of strands, each threaded with tiny golden beads forming reality. Hoffman is the central figure in the opera The
real 'cloth of gold'. Hittite architecture is best known Tales of Hoffmann (1881) by *Offenbach.
from Bogazkoy, where massive city walls and great stone
substructures of temples and other buildings remain. They Hoffmann, Josef (1870- 1956), Austrian architect and
also developed the heavily fortified double gateway, designer. He was a pupil, assistant, and disciple of Otto
decorating this sometimes with a bottom course of slabs, * Wagner, and one of the pioneers of the * Modern
ornamented in relief with mythical or magical groups or Movement in Austria. His mature style was based on the
single figures of gods, men, or monsters, with a preference right angle and other primary geometric forms, but it
for making every slab a self-contained scene. Of the was extremely elegant and refined, rather than severe.
internal appearance of Hittite buildings we know nothing, Hoffmann designed numerous Austrian government pa-
though at Bogazkoy and Atchana there are remains of vilions for exhibitions throughout Europe and many
wall-paintings executed in *fresco strongly recalling, and houses in Vienna, but his best-known work is in Brussels
possibly connected with, the brilliant, highly developed the Palais Stoclet (1905- 11).
use of the same art in Crete (see *Minoan art). (See also
*Iron Age art.) Hofmannsthal, Hugo von (1874- 1929), Austrian poet,
dramatist, and essayist. His early work characterized is
Hoban, James (c.i 762-1831), Irish-born architect who by a luxuriant aestheticism and a *fin-de-siecle melancholy.
settled in the United States after the American Revol- In The Tale of the 6y 2nd Night (1895) and the drama The
ution. Hoban is best known as the architect of the White Fool and Death (1900) he expresses his sense of the dangers
House in Washington DC (i 793-1801), the facade of of aestheticism; in the so-called 'Chandos Letter' (1902)
www.Ebook777.com
,
209 HOLBERG
he records a loss of faith in the abihty to communicate Holbein the Elder 1465- 1524), and in his early career
(c.
ideas or give coherence to the world. After 1900 he worked mainly There he became the leading
in Basle.
concentrated on the theatre, adapting plays from such artist of the day, both as a painter (mainly of religious
diverse traditions as the classical in Elektra (1904) and works) and as a designer of book illustrations. The
the medieval in Everyman (1911). He collaborated with disturbances of the Reformation meant a decline in
Richard Strauss on several operas, notably Rosenkavalier patronage in Basle, however, and in 1526 he moved to
( 191 1
) and The Woman without a Shadow 1916). Nostalgia
( England, settling there permanently in 1532. He worked
for the Habsburg empire and adherence to traditional mainly as a portraitist, and as court painter to Henry
values colour his social comedies The Difficult One (1921) VIII he created a superb gallery of portraits of the king
and The His tragedy The Tower 1925-
Incorruptible (1923). ( and his courtiers, both in paintings and in a marvellous
7) deals with the possibility of overcoming tyranny collection of shrewdly characterized drawings in the
without brutality or the loss of humane values. He was Royal Collection Windsor Castle. He also did many
at
co-founder with Max *Reinhardt and Richard *Strauss designs for decorative work which introduced the *Re-
of the Salzburg Festival (191 7). naissance style of ornament into England. In his last years
he turned to *miniature painting, to which his exquisitely
Hogarth, William (1697 1764), English painter and detailed craftsmanship was well suited, and he was a
engraver. He was
trained as an engraver, but in the 720s i major influence on Nicholas *Hilliard, the greatest of
also turned to painting. In the early 1730s he invented English miniaturists.
and popularized the use of a sequence of anecdotal
pictures 'similar to representationson the stage' to satirize Holberg, Ludvig, Baron (1684- 1754), Dano-
social abuses. The best known
probably A Rake's Progress
is Norwegian dramatic poet and man of letters. The out-
(c. 1735, eight scenes), portraying the punishment of vice standing Scandinavian literary figure of the * Enlight-
in an entertainingly melodramatic fashion. Engravings of enment, he is best remembered today for the comedies
each series were extremely popular, and were so much he wrote for the first native-language Danish theatre in
pirated that Hogarth succeeded in having a copyright
act passed in 735 to protect him from profiteers. His
1
satire was directed as much at pedantry and affectation This drawing by Holbein, inscribed 'M Souch'
as at immorality, and he saw himself as a defender of represents either Mary Zouch, a maid-of-honour to
native virtues against a fashion for French and Italian
Queen Jane Seymour, or Joan (nee Rogers), the wife of Sir
Richard Zouch (the 'M' may stand for 'Mistress'). It is in
mannerisms. This no-nonsense approach also char-
various coloured chalks reinforced with mk and shows
acterizes his forthright portraits, while his treatise The the delicacy of technique and subtlety of characterization
Analysis of Beauty (1753), argues that the views of the typical of Holbein's drawings of the English court. (Royal
practising should carry more weight than the
artist Collection, Windsor Castle)
theories of learned connoisseurs. Hogarth was the most
important British artist of his generation: the quality and VI ^ i'^2,ir$li.'£i
of his belief in a new Greek Christ, symbol of spiritual Later works, such as the overture Egdon Heath (1927),
regeneration, who will overcome the fragility and aliena- grew even more austere. The one-act chamber opera
tion of human existence. Using mainly the *hexameter Savitri (1908) is outstanding among his compositions.
and the *ode, Holderlin's supple, condensed lyricism is Some of his most characteristic and powerful music is in
dignified and elevated, but impassioned. the choral works such as the Choral Fantasia (1930) and
the Ode to Death (1919), and in his solo songs such as the
Holiday, Billie * blues. Welsh folk-song settings for unaccompanied chorus
(1930- ). His part-song This Have I Done for My True
1
HoU, Elias (1573 1646), German architect, active Love (191 6) has become part of the canon of English
mainly in his native Augsburg, where he became city carol-singing.
architect in 1602. Holl had travelled in Italy in 1600-
and he held a position somewhat comparable to Inigo Holub, Miroslav 1914- (), Czech poet and essayist. A
*Jones in England in introducing a regular *Renaissance research immunologist by profession, his cool, intellectual,
style to his country. Of the many buildings he designed and anti-sentimental poems on contemporary civilization
in Augsburg the most notable is the Town Hall (1616- show a preoccupation with ethical reflections. In his many
20, destroyed in World War H and rebuilt), a tall, austere volumes of poetry, such as Achilles and the Tortoise (i960),
block with very plain classical detailing. Holl was a and On the Contrary 1981 ), optimism alternates with irony
(
hoxnophony *polyphony.
Hopkins, Gerard Manley (1844 89), British poet. At Hopper, Edward (1882- 1967), US painter, active
Oxford he was deeply influenced by John Henry Newman mainly in New
York. He first worked as a commercial
and the religious fervour of the Oxford Movement. After illustrator, but he began to win recognition as a painter
he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1866 he became in the 1920s. His work usually features anonymous,
a Jesuit and renounced poetry, burning most of his non-communicating who express the loneliness of
figures
youthful poems. In 1874 he was sent to St Beuno's College life in a large city. He
explored a visual world that no
in North Wales to study theology. There, encouraged by —
earlier artist had seriously considered a world of concrete
his Superior, he once more began to write poetry. Moved and glass, motel rooms and filling stations, soulless offices
by the death of five Franciscan nuns in a shipwreck, —
and cafeterias and created from it some of the most
Hopkins composed his masterpiece, 'The Wreck of the poignant images in 20th-century US art.
Deulschland\ Other notable poems include 'The Wind-
hover' and 'Pied Beauty'. After his ordination he was Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (65-8 Bc), Latin
sent to work as a priest in Liverpool, where he felt lyrical poet. He enjoyed the support of the Roman
oppressed by 'vice and horrors' and a sense of his failure statesman Maecenas (also * Virgil's patron), and the
as a preacher. In 1884 he became professor of Latin at Emperor Augustus, and produced a wide body of work.
University College, Dublin, where he wrote his pro- His early *lyric poems, the Epodes, are invectives in the
foundly tragic 'Dark Sonnets', which begin with 'Carrion tradition of the Greek Archilochus. More notable are the
Comfort' and express his sense of exile, spiritual aridity, four books of * Odes, poems in lyric metres in the tradition
HORN 212
of *Sappho, though much influenced by the Alexandrian hornwork, artefacts and decorative work made from
poetry of *Callimachus and others. Masterfully con- the horns of cattle and other animals. Horn can be
structed in a verse that shows Latin brevity at its best, softened by gentle heating and pressed into shape, and it
they cover an enormous range of topics, though love, has been used for a variety of small objects. John Obrisset,
politics, philosophy, the art of poetry, and friendship a French Huguenot who worked in London in the
predominate. The poet's personality, wry and self- firstquarter of the i8th century, was renowned for his
deprecating, comes over more consistently in the Satires snuff-boxes made of horn and tortoiseshell. One of its
and Epistles, both written in a relaxed *hexameter verse most common uses (on account of its transparency) was
that echoes the rhythms of conversation. Particularly in making a children's elementary reading aid called a
notable are the Epistle to Augustus, on literary themes, and —
hornbook a page bearing the alphabet or a religious
the companion Epistle to the Pisones, the so-called Art of text held in a frame with a sheet of horn covering the
remotely descended from Aristotle's Poetics, which
Poetry, paper or parchment to preserve it. They were common
had great influence on poetic practice and theory in the until the i8th century. In the 19th century there was a
17th and 8th centuries.
1 fashion for furniture incorporating horns or antlers.
horn, any wind instrument sounded by applying buzzing Horowitz, Vladimir (1904-89), Russian-born pianist,
lips to a hole in a tube. Some
of horn, but
are made assuming US citizenship in 944. Making his international
1
ivory, shell, wood, bamboo, gourd, pottery, or metal are reputation with concerts in Berlin in 1925, Horowitz gave
used as often. The earliest horns were probably animal debut performances in Britain and the USA in 1928. A
horns and *conches. Most are end-blown, but in Africa, remarkable pianist, his career was frequently interrupted
Oceania, parts of tribal India, South America, and Bronze by illness and retirement. A virtuoso of the highest rank,
Age Ireland, horns have also been blown from the side Horowitz seemed sometimes to complicate the composer's
of the tube. Ivory horns were often status symbols in intentions, but was a magnificent interpreter of Liszt and
Africa, but they and horns of other materials are also Prokofiev.
widely used for music and signalling. Ivory horns, called
olifants,were also used in Europe in the early Middle Horta, Victor, Baron (1861-1947), Belgian architect
Ages, sometimes replacing a written charter as a symbol and designer, one of the outstanding exponents of *art
of land ownership or rights of usage, but usually, and nouveau and one of the pioneers of *modernism in
also in the Renaissance, as status symbols. In ancient Belgium. His first major work was the Hotel Tassel (a
Egypt, Israel, Greece, and Rome, horns of bronze and house, not a hotel) in Brussels (1892-3), in which he
other metals were used. The only other horns of similar made extensive use of iron, both as a structural material
antiquity which have survived are the Scandinavian and for decorative purposes. He designed every detail
bronze lurs and the slightly later Irish bronze horns. In of his buildings down to the light fittings, which are
medieval European iconography, short horns, presumably characteristically in the form of flowers, to achieve a
cow horns, can be seen in the *Bayeux Tapestry, and complete unity of effect, with flowing curves everywhere.
longer horns, of wood or metal, in Anglo-Saxon and His most innovative building was the Maison du Peuple
Mozarabic manuscripts. Coiled horns, ancestors of our (a meeting hall) in Brussels (1896 9, destroyed), which
*French horn, appear from the i6th century onwards. had the first iron and glass facade in Belgium. After
World War I, Horta's style became more austere and
Hornixnan, Annie (Elizabeth Fredericka) (i860 conventional.
1937), British theatre patron and manager, pioneer of
*repertory theatre. In 1904 she founded the Abbey Housxnan, A(lfred) E(dward) (1859 1936), British
Theatre, Dublin. From 1908 to 191 7 she supported a poet and scholar. His best-known work, A Shropshire Lad
repertory company at the Gaiety Theatre, Manchester. ( 1896), was a series of sixty-three nostalgic *lyrics largely
The more than 200 plays presented included many new in * ballad form and often addressed to a farm-boy or
works, the playwrights connected with the theatre, such soldier. Many of his earlier poems, preserved in notebooks,
as Harold Brighouse {Hobson's Choice, 191 6) and Stanley appeared in later volumes; his Collected Poems were pub-
Houghton [Hindle Wakes, 191 2), being known as the lished posthumously in 1939. Praefanda (1931) is a col-
Manchester School. Though the enterprise was financially lection of bawdy and obscene passages from Latin authors.
unsuccessful it gave a strong impetus to the repertory His lecture 'The Name and Nature of Poetry' (1933)
movement. illuminates the process of poetic creation.
hornpipe, a single-reed musical instrument with a horn Howells, Herbert (Norman) (1892 -1983), British
bell and often also a horn fixed over the reed to keep it composer. His early work includes songs and orchestral
dry. The reed is a cane tube with a vibrating tongue cut and chamber music, written in a rhapsodic, pastoral style
from its surface, like the *drone reeds of a Highland that owed much to *Vaughan Williams and *Delius. The
*bagpipe; hornpipes are also often bagless chanters blown success of his highly personal requiem Hymnus Paradisi
by mouth. Two British examples are the Welsh pibcorn (1950) renewed his interest in liturgical music, of which
and Scots stock-and-horn. Some hornpipes, such as the he became the foremost English practitioner. He is a
Basque alboka and Tunisian zukra, have two pipes, fixed master of complex contrapuntal textures, soft dissonance,
side by side, often with different numbers of finger-holes and a quality of sensuous spirituality.
in each.
The hornpipe is also an energetic dance popular in Howells, William Dean 1837 1920), US novelist and
(
the late 17th and i8th centuries. It was originally per- literary critic. Like his friendHenry *James, he first made
formed in triple *time; later, when associated with the his name with 'international novels' set in Europe, but
Navy, a simple duple time was used. his most admired works. The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885)
213 HUGO
and A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890), deal with the scale.Their patriotic spirit won them great popularity in
problems of the machine age. In his later years he the middle years of the century, but later taste has often
championed the trend towards realism in the novel found their work overblown. Painters of a similar outlook
represented by Hamlin Garland (i860- 1940), Frank who found their inspiration in the farWest are known
Norris (1870- 1902), and Stephen *Crane. collectively as the Rocky Mountain School.
Hrabal, Bohumil (, 1914 ), Czech novelist and short- Hughes, Ted (Edward Hughes) (1930
J. ), British
story writer. In his works eloquent and eccentric charac- poet. An obsession with the cunningand savagery of
ters reveal themselves in highly original language. His animal life and a sense of the beauty of the natural world
novel A Watch on the Trains (1965) tells of an ado-
Close are themes which dominate much of his work, including
lescent during World War II, while Dancing Lessons for his first volume of poems The Hawk in the Rain (1957). In
Older and Advanced Pupils (1968) is a single-sentence mono- Crow 1970) he introduced the central symbol of the crow
(
logue by an elderly man. In How I Wailed Upon the English which recurs frequently in his verse; through the dark vi-
King (1984, not published in Czechoslovakia), a resource- sion of the predatory bird he reflects the legends of cre-
ful sur\ ivor narrates his exploits before, during, and after ation and birth. Later volumes include Cave Birds (1975),
World War II alienated from the world around him. Season Songs (1976), and Moortown (1979). In Remains of
Elrnet (1979) and River (1983) he shows his interest in
Hudson River School, a name applied to a group of topographical poetry. In 1956 he married the US
poet
US landscape painters including Washington * AUston and Sylvia *Plath. He was appointed *Poet Laureate in 1984.
Thomas Cole 1801-48), active from about 1825 to about
(
1875, who were inspired by pride in the beauty of their Hughes, Thomas (1822 96), British novelist. He is
homeland. As well as the Hudson River valley, they remembered as author of Tom Brown's Schooldays
the
painted the Catskill Mountains and other remote and (1857), evoking Rugby School which he attended when
untouched areas of natural beauty, often on a grandiose Dr Thomas Arnold was headmaster. In the character of
the tyrannical Flashman, Hughes condemned the bullying
in public schools and advocated a form of 'muscular
A contemporary illustration of the first night of Victor Christianity' which saw Christian principles allied to
Hugo's Hernani at the Comedie Frangaise m 1830, one of physical courage, the love of sport, and patriotism, a
the most famous occasions m the history of French combination that had much impact on late 19th-century
theatre. Traditionalists, determined to crush the play,
public-school ethos. Other works include Tom Brown at
packed the expensive seats, but they were outclapped
Oxford (1861), biographies, memoirs, and sermons.
and outshouted by the hordes of Hugo admirers young
artists, musicians, and writers — —
who ensured the success
of the play that was to herald a new age of Romanticism in Hugo, Victor (1802 85), French poet, novelist, and
drama. (Musee Victor Hugo, Pans) dramatist. In range and quantity he was the greatest
HUMMEL 214
French poet of the 19th century. His poetry exhibits great Hungarian literature, literature written in the Hun-
rhythmical diversity, breaking away from the regularity garian language which may be divided into two main
of the *alexandrine, which had dominated 17th- and periods. The first is from about 1200 to the late i8th
18th-century verse. Hugo's poetry prior to the mid- 1840s century. In verse the outstanding figures are two soldier-
is primarily lyrical, a well-known poem from this period poets, the lyricist Balint Balassi (1554-94) ^"d the epic
being 'Tristesse d'Olympio' from the collection Les Rayons writer Miklos Zrinyi (1620 64). Cardinal Peter Pazmany
et les ombres (1840), which displays a characteristic note (1570-1637) was a master of Baroque prose style. The
of pathos. The later collections are more openly philo- Enlightenment and Joseph II's political reforms initiated
sophical, but scattered through them are some of his the second period. Writers and literature assumed the
finest poems. Les Chdtiments (1853) is full of satirical role of political opposition. Thus the romantic pessimism
invective against the usurpation of political liberty in of the poet Mihaly Vorosmarty (1800-55) and the re-
France. Les Contemplations (1856), a nostalgic review of volutionary ardour of *Petofi reflect the political at-
his own life, includes the poem 'A Villequier' inspired by mosphere leading to the 1848 revolution. Its defeat
the death of his daughter Leopoldine. La Legende des siecles resulted in a period of introspection characterized by the
(1883), containing the well-known poem 'Booz endormi', psychological novels of Zsigmond Kemeny (1814-75),
is a historical account of the spiritual progress of mankind. Imre Madach's The Tragedy of Man (1862), and the
Hugo's ideas on drama are set out in the preface to his ballads and epics ofjanos Arany 1817-82). The romantic
(
play Cromwell (1827) and include the view that the theatre novels of Mor Jokai (1825- 1904) offered escapism; those
should express both the grotesque and the sublime of of Kalman Mikszath (1847 1910) criticized Hungarian
human existence, the real and the ideal. The success of society. The demands of 20th-century readers were met
Hernani (1830) signalled the triumph of *Romanticism by the journal JVyugat (1908-41), which rejuvenated lit-
over the dramatic conventions which had governed erary activity and attracted new talent. *Ady, *Babits,
French theatre since the time of *Corneille and *Racine. the poet and novelist Dezso Kosztolanyi (1885- 1936),
His novels, notably Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) and Les the social novelist Zsigmond Moricz 1879- 1942), and the
(
Miserables (1862), are written with great verve and humorist Frigyes Karinthy (1887- 1938) were among its
demonstrate his concern for social and political issues. leading contributors. The dramas of Ferenc Molnar
(1878- 1952) proved popular abroad. The post-war Com-
Hummel, Johann Nepom.uk (1778 1837), Austrian munist regime initially stifled cultural development, pro-
composer and pianist. Outstanding as a child prodigy, voking the literary ferment which led to the 1956
he embarked in 1788 on concert tours that took him all revolution. Several writers, including the socialist Tibor
over Europe. Returning to Vienna in 1793 he built Dery (1894- 1977), were later imprisoned, while others
up a reputation as a composer and teacher, and later left Hungary. Of the younger writers, Laszlo Nagy 1925-
(
(1804- 11) entered the service of Prince Miklos Ester- 78) is perhaps the most significant.
hazy. A spectacularly successful return to the concert
platform (1814) was followed by an appointment as grand- Hunt, William Holman (1827-1910), British painter,
ducal Kapellmeister (director of music) at Weimar co-founder of the * Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848
(181 8). Enormously prolific, he is now remembered for and the only member of the Brotherhood to remain
his fluent but somewhat conservative piano music. faithful to its ideals throughout his career. His work is
Humphrey, Doris (1895 1958), US dancer, choreo- hurdy-gurdy, a musical instrument with strings rubbed
grapher, and teacher. She studied a range of dance styles by a wheel, instead of a bow. One or two strings are
before joining Ruth *St Denis to learn an early form stopped by pressing wooden blades against them with the
of *modern dance. She formed a group with Charles fingers; others are *drones. The instrument is thus a
Weidman in 1928 and toured with performances of her stringed equivalent of the *bagpipe. It derived from the
own choreography. Her dances were often concerned earlier forms such as the 11th-century organistrum and
with form and based on musical structures, but reveal the 13th-century symphony. It was one of the aristocratic
also a concern for humanistic values. Her movement instruments of Marie Antoinette's court, but after
'folk'
vocabulary resulted from what she called 'the arc between the Revolution of 1789it reverted to folk use, and is still
two deaths', the standing position and the lying position, found over much of Europe.
movement between which results in a sensation of falling
or recovering. Her works include the music-based Air for Huston, John (1906-87), US film director. Early in his
the G String and the abstract mood piece Water Study, both career he combined critical and popular success in four
made in 1928. In contrast. With my Red Fires (1935 6) outstanding films, for allof which he was also involved
and Day on Earth (1947) are both passionate and hu- in the screenplay: The Maltese Falcon (1941), his first film,
manistic. Her writings represent a fully developed theory a classic of the detective genre; The Treasure of the Sierra
of the modern dance. Madre (1948) (Academy Award for best director), about
215 HYPERBOLE
iambic verse, the commonest type of English verse, Duck (1884), the wounded duck symbolizes the delusions
consisting of metrical units ('feet') known as iambs: these of characters as ideals and idealists are exposed as in-
have one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed adequate; the title-character in Hedda Gabler (1890) is a
syllable, as in the word 'beyond'. The most important woman whose lust for life, denied any outlet, turns inward
English form ten-syllable iambic *pentameter,
is the and becomes self-destructive; and Solness in The Master
which is unrhymed*blank verse and rhymed in *heroic
in Builder (1892) is punished for sacrificing human qualities
couplets; the eight-syllable iambic tetrameter is also a to ambition. When We Dead Awaken (1899), described by
common English verse line. In Greek and Latin verse, Ibsen as the epilogue of his writing, depicts a sculptor
iambs consist of one short syllable followed by one long who places his art above his personal fulfilment, and
syllable, and are found mainly in dramatic dialogue. realizes too late that by denying the latter he has destroyed
the former. Ibsen's plays pose questions, but seldom
Ibert, Jacques (Franqois Antoine) (1890- 1962), provide answers beyond a deep scepticism of political,
French composer. The * Impressionistic orchestral suite social, and artistic ideals taken to excess. Few playwrights
Escales (1922) reflects his travels in the Mediterranean have matched his mastery of dramatic technique.
area. He later worked in Rome
as director of the Academic
de France (1937-60). Of his seven operas, the witty icon (Greek, eikon, 'likeness'), an image of a saint or
Angelique 1926) has proved the most popular. Though his
( other holy personage particularly of the Byzantine Church
style is eclectic it is basically *Neoclassical in conception:
elegant, humorous, and designed to please.
According to tradition, the first icon depicted the Virgin
Ibn Gabirol, Solomon Ben-Judah 1020 r. 1070),
(c.
and Child and was painted by St Luke the Evangehst. This
famous example, 'The Virgin of Vladimir', was probably
Spanish-Jewish philosopher and poet. Born probably in brought from Constantinople to Russia m the 1 130s. It has
Malaga, he was the most outstanding of Hebrew secular become the most venerated of Russian icons. (Tretyakov
and religious poets during the Jewish Golden Age in Gallery, Moscow)
Moorish Spain. He fused the heritage of Hebrew literature
contained in the Bible, Talmud, and other rabbinical
writings with that of the dominant Arab culture of
Andalusia, drawing in the *Koran, Arab poetry (see
* Arabic literature), philosophy, and ethics. His major
philosophical work. The Fountain of Life, originally written
in Arabic, was in the 12th century translated into Latin
under the name of Avicebron. The Hebrew version
appeared in the 13th century. Ibn Gabirol's Neoplatonist
conception of the universe as a product of the divine will
influenced the medieval Franciscan school of Scholastics,
but was rejected by the Dominicans, including Thomas
Aquinas. In his The Royal Crown, a long meditative poem,
he describes the splendours of the universe, the smallness
of man, and the divine grace that infuses both. His secular
poetry includes love poems, wine songs, portraits of nature
and praise of the seasons, as well as panegyrics about his
noble patrons.
Iliad * Homer.
illumination, a term in art applied to the decoration The Book ofDurrow, made at the monastery of Durrow m
of manuscripts with paintings and ornaments, an art that about 680, is the first manuscripts from the
of the great
golden age of Irish illumination. It is a Gospel Book (also
can be traced back as far as the ancient Egyptians and
called an Evangeliary), containing the text of the four
which flourished particularly in the Middle Ages. The gospels. This page shows St John's symbol, an eagle. As
decorations can be classified into three main types: mini- with other Irish books of the period, the decoration consis
atures, or small pictures, which sometimes occupy a whole mainly of boldly elaborate interlace patterns. (Trinity
page; initial letters; and borders. The initials and borders College Library, Dublin)
sometimes contained devotional and domestic scenes, but
were often composed of purely decorative, floral motifs.
The art of illumination declined with the invention of the *free verse over metrical forms; a stress on economy and
printed book in the 15th century, although early printed exactness; the use of the language of common speech; and
books sometimes have illumination added by hand. a 'dry, sophisticated' quality. An English group influenced
by the radical philosopher T. E. Hulme, led by Richard
illusionism, a term which generally refers to the use of Aldington, was joined by the Americans Ezra * Pound
pictorial techniques such as *perspective, foreshortening, and Hilda Doolittle ('H. D.') (1886-1961) in 1912. In
and *trompe-roeil to deceive the eye (if not the mind) into 1914 Pound edited the anthology Des Imagistes, which
believing a painted object is a real one. In architecture and also contained poems by D. H. * Lawrence, James *Joyce,
stage scenery similar techniques can be used to make William Carlos *Williams, and Amy *Lowell. Lowell,
three-dimensional constructions seem more extensive than who had arrived in England in the same year, then took
they are. over the movement, producing a number of anthologies
called Some Imagist Poets (1915). For the leading writers,
Imagists, members of an Anglo-American poetic move- Imagism was only a stage in their development.
ment which lasted roughly from 1910 to 191 7, and
represented a reaction against *Romanticism. The aim impasto, a term in art describing thickly applied paint
was poetry in which the image was central rather than retaining the marks of the brush, knife, or other in-
ornamental. Other key features included a preference for strument of application. The textural qualities it creates
IMPRESSIONISM Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
218
can be one of the most personal aspects of *oil painting, tion. They were interested in the objective recording of
and impasto is also a feature of certain types of *acrylic; it contemporary life, trying to capture an 'impression' of
is not possible, however, with *water-colour or *tempera. what the eye sees at one particular moment. Landscape
Rembrandt is one of the great artists particularly as- is considered the theme most typical of the Impressionists,
sociated with rich impasto. but they painted many other subjects. Degas depicted
subjects such as horse-races, ballet-dancers, and laund-
Impressionism, a movement in painting originating resses, and Renoir is famous for his pictures of pretty
in the i86os in France and regarded as perhaps the women and children. The Impressionists' desire to look
most momentous development in 19th-century art. The at the world with freshness and immediacy was en-
Impressionists were not a formal group with clearly couraged by photography and by scientific research into
defined principles and aims but an association of artists, colour and light. In trying to capture the effects of light
linked by a community of outlook, who banded together on varied surfaces, particularly in open-air settings, they
for the purpose of exhibiting. The central figures involved transformed painting, using bright colours and sketchy
in the movement were *Cezanne, *Degas, *Manet, brushwork that seemed bewildering or shocking to tra-
*Monet, Camille *Pissarro, *Renoir, and *Sisley, and ditionalists. The name 'Impressionism' was coined de-
theircommitment to Impressionism varied considerably. risively, when it was applied after the first Impressionist
Manet was much respected as a senior figure, although exhibition, held in Paris in 1874, to a picture by Monet,
he never exhibited with the group. The Impressionists Impression: Sunrise (1872, stolen from the Musee Mar-
reacted against academic teaching and conventions and mottan in Paris in 1985 and now listed by Interpol as
were also in revolt from the basic principle of *Ro- one of the ten 'most wanted artworks missing'). Seven
manticism, that art should convey intense personal emo- more Impressionist exhibitions were held between 1876
and 1886; after the final one the group broke up, only
Monet, the most devoted exponent of Impressionism, Monet continuing rigorously to pursue Impressionist
worked on a series of pamtmgs of Rouen Cathedral from ideals. Although Impressionism was at first greeted with
1892 to 1895, using a makeshift studio next to the hostility and many of its practitioners had to endure
Cathedral during his visits to Rouen and finishing the financial hardship early in their careers, it began to win
pictures m his own studio at Giverny. He represented the
critical acceptance in the 1880s and its influence was
cathedral at various times of the day and m various
weather conditions to show how a scene's appearance enormous — much of the history of late 19th-century and
changes according to the prevailing light. (Metropolitan early 20th-century painting is the story of developments
Museum, New York) from it or reactions against it. The word 'Impressionist'
—
has been applied to painters outside France for example
Philip Wilson *Steer in Britain —
who painted in a style
influenced by the French movement. By extension, the
term has also been applied to literature in which the
author attempts to convey his own impression rather than
an objective description. The term has also been borrowed
by musicologists to describe music which attempts to
convey an idea of immediate experiences which are
intangible and fleeting. In particular it has been applied
to the works of *Debussy, such as his Prelude a V apres-midi
d'unfaune (1892-4) and the piano piece Reflets dans Peau
(1905). In this context it refers to the free use he made
of dissonant chords, asymmetrical melodies, fluid rhythms,
unusual scale formations, and subtle orchestral colora-
tion. He used such innovative techniques to lend his
music an apparent spontaneity and to avoid sharp
contrasts. (See also *Neo-Impressionism and *Post-
Impressionism.)
www.Ebook777.com
219 INDIAN DANCE
overture for Goethe's Egmont. *Film and television music presence in India since the arrival of the Portuguese
also fall into this general category. navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498. By the mid- 8th 1
were recognized in 1958. All trace their ancestry to traced back to the first centuries ad and its early styles
Bharata Muni's *J^a(yasdstra, a comprehensive treatise on of epic and love poetry are quite unlike those of Sanskrit.
ndtya (dramatic art that is also dance), and to the *Vedas, Later, however, all Dravidian literature, including Tamil,
the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. The dances are a was heavily influenced by Sanskrit literary forms and
combination of two basic styles: abhinaya, a mimed rep- traditions. The vernacular Indian literatures, whether
resentation of a song or story from Indian classical Indo-Aryan or Dravidian, show a remarkable degree of
mythology; and nrtta, 'pure' or abstract dance, where uniformity in their development. Initially bardic poetry
composed sequences of rhythmically complex movements and versions of the Sanskrit classics predominated, but it
are performed to vigorous drum accompaniment. Two was the rise of devotional *Bhakti literature which first
temperaments Idndava, the forceful male energy of the established the vernacular literary tradition as something
god Siva, and Idsya, the tender grace of Shiva's wife quite distinct from the Sanskritic. From the 14th to the
Parvati^are represented in the various forms. Bhar- I 7th centuries Bhakti literature was the dominant creative
atanatyam and Manipuri have a Idsya character, Ka- force in all the Indian vernaculars. The arrival of Muslim
thakali is predominantly tdndava in mood, while Kathak rule in India brought with it the Perso-Arabic literary
combines the two. In the 20th century Indian classical tradition, and the mystical writings of Sufi saints were
dance-forms are widely taught in small academies and particularly influential. * Persian literature flourished at
training centres. Dance-forms that draw on Western the Muslim courts of India until increasingly supplanted
*ballet and *modern dance forms have also developed by *Urdu literature from the 7th century onwards. With
1
since the 1930s, when Uday Shankar choreographed the spread of Western education under the British in the
Western-style ballets that drew on the classical Indian igth century, the Indian vernaculars acquired a modern
styles. Indian dancers working in Britain are also ex- prose style which led in turn to the introduction of
perimenting with new ideas, notably conveying modern European literary forms such as the novel, the short story,
themes using the vocabulary of Indian classical dance. and the essay alongside poetry and drama revitalized by
(See also *mudrd.) the mingling of the Western with the Sanskrit traditions.
Indian literature, literature of the Indian subcontinent. Indian music, music of the Indian subcontinent, di-
In written form it derives primarily from the languages vided into two classical traditions: the North Indian
of the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian families, while the or Hindustani (as used in Pakistan, north India, and
Tibeto-Burman and Austric languages such as Manipuri Bangladesh) and the South Indian or Carnatic (followed
or Santali are rich in folk-songs and oral literature. The in south India and Sri Lanka). Despite many differences
oldest Indian literature is Indo-Aryan, the hymns of the between the two, certain general characteristics are
*Vedas, some of which date from the middle of the 2nd shared, such as the essential texture, consisting of highly
millennium BC. With the scientific codification of the ornamented melody, multiple *drone and complex rhyth-
language in the 5th century bc, *Sanskrit literature mic accompaniments, and an emphasis on virtuoso im-
proper began with the * Mahdbhdrala and * Rdmdyana epics, provisation. The most ancient surviving music is that of
and during the early centuries ad classical Sanskrit poetry, the Sdmaveda, highly melismatic chants (that is, many
drama, and prose emerged under Gupta patronage. notes to each syllable) for the sacred Sanskrit hymns of
Through works such as the epics and the *Purdnas, the *Veda which are over 4,000 years old. Non-Vedic
Sanskrit literature profoundly influenced not only all the art music emerged nearly 2,000 years ago, when it
later vernacular literatures of the subcontinent but also, was associated with dance and poetry. The * Ndtyasdstra
as Hindu culture spread overseas, South-East Asian classified melodies into modal groups or jdti, and was
literatures such as Thai and Balinese. Through later influential throughout India. In the 5rAa^fi^^iTof Matahga
Mahayana Buddhist works such as the Diamond Sijtra, (8th~ioth centuries) the concept of ragas (modes) was
Sanskrit literature permeated Central Asia and further first developed, refined with much sophistication over
eastwards. Indian folk-tales in Sanskrit like the *Pan- ensuing centuries. A series of invasions between the 12th
chatdntra have, through various translations, been ab- and 1 6th centuries by Central Asian peoples brought
sorbed into European literature. The non-Brahmanical Islam to India: an influence discerned in the absorption
religions of ancient India did not use the 'refined' Sanskrit of Muslim instruments such as lutes, *shawms (including
for their sacred writings but the spoken language of the the *shahndi), and * kettledrums into north Indian culture
masses, the 'unrefined' Prakrit, of which various dialects (see West Asian music). Western rulers of the last two
developed. Hence the *Pali literature of early HTnayana centuries have had little influence on Indian music. The
Buddhism, from which the *Jatakas proved particularly twin essentials of Indian music are its organization by
popular throughout South-East Asia, and *Jain literature raga and tdla. Many different ragas were extracted from
in Ardhamagadhl Prakrit. There was also some secular each same basic *scale by listing small differences such
literature composed in Prakrit, since by convention San- as frequent, infrequent, or omitted notes, so that the
skritdramatists used it for the speech of lower-caste and Sahgitaratndkara, a mammoth text on the theory of music,
female characters. From 600 ad onwards, the Prakrits written in the 13th century, could list over 200 ragas.
underwent further simplification into what is termed Each raga was also considered to have an individual
Apabhramsa, a variety of which was used by a few Jain musical and aesthetic characteristic, and was associated
poets in Gujarat and Rajasthan. After about 1000 the with a particular deity, sentiment, season, even time of
modern Indo-Aryan literatures began to emerge, such as day at which it should be performed. A simultaneous
Assamese, *Bengali, and Oriya in eastern India, *Hindi development was the emergence of the dldpa, a method
in the centre, and Rajasthani, Marathi, and Gujarati in of improvisation that set out systematically the char-
the west. The *Dravidian literature of southern India, acteristics of the raga being performed, and used today
written in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada, has as the basis of extended improvisation. The three basic
distinctive traditions of its own. *Tamil literature can be types of scale in use today are diatonic, scales using
221 INDONESIAN ART
complex cross-rhythms ensue, the drum providing a of region are the brick temple towers (candi) of the
this
rhythmic counterpoint to the melody. Typically, pieces Majapahit kingdom (13th late 15th century) with their
begin with an improvised prelude, proceed with a tra- distinctive kala face reliefs, and the bronzes, both ritual
ditional composition set in raga and tdla, and end with utensils and images, associated with the ritual life of the
virtuoso variations on these, in which the first phase of temples. Much of the stone sculpture of this period is stiff
the composition serves as a refrain. Performers such as and formal, lacking the naturalism which graced earlier
Ravi *Shankar have extended the appreciation of Indian Javanese art. The later courtly arts of Java are linked
music beyond the subcontinent. with the palace {kraton) rather than the temple and
reflect, in part, the overlaying of Chinese and Islamic
Indian musical instruments. The most highly re- influences on Hindu-Javanese tradition.
garded 'instrument' is the voice, which in performance
uses a variety of glissandos (movement through a suc-
cession of notes), vibratos (slight variations in pitch to A view of the upper terraces of Borobudor, one of the
great monuments of Indonesian art, which culmmates in
lend tone), and much ornamentation, techniques all
a central stupa. The ten levels of the temple represent
imitated on instruments. Plucked string instruments are stages in the pilgrim's path from ignorance to
next in importance, examples being the long-necked lutes enlightenment. Thus the austerity of the upper circular
*vTnd, *sitar, and the *tambura (used to play the *drone) terraces, corresponding to a spiritually advanced state,
and sarod, short-necked lute (see *rebab). Bowed
the contrasts with the rich sculptural ornamentation of the
instruments include the dilrubd and esrdj (small-boned lower levels, depicting scenes of worldly distraction.
sitars), and the sdrangi, an instrument of Central Asian
origin used especially to accompany the verse. Amongst
wind and brass instruments, transverse bamboo flutes are
of great antiquity and are associated with the god Krishna,
while curved horns and straight trumpets are used in
folk and religious ceremonies. The playing of percussion
instruments, especially drums, such as the mrdamga and
*tabla, is a great art-form in India, and they are in-
dispensable to classical and much folk music.
Indonesian literature, the traditional poetry and prose each player interpreting and elaborating it according to
writings in Sundanese, Javanese, and other languages the speed and form of the music and the technique of his
of the peoples of Indonesia, and modern writing in instrument, from fast embellishments in the higher pitched
Indonesian. Many
themes and forms have been borrowed instruments to infrequent punctuation on the deepest
and adapted from * Indian literature, whose influence is gong. The result is a complex polyphonic texture, static
particularly strong upon old Javanese literature. The yet full of movement, and with a calm and refined beauty.
sophisticated Javanese poetic genre called kakawin in- Gamelan music is used in concerts, accompanies many
cludes subjects adapted from the Indian * Mahdbhdrata social gatherings, *shadow plays and dances, as well as
*epic as well as from Buddhist sources. The 14th-century being used in Hindu temple ceremonies. Central Javanese
Javanese work the Description of the State is, unlike other gamelan music spread most notably to west Java (Sunda)
kakawin, not predominantly mythological but a de- and Bali, where it was adapted and modified. Of the
scription of the Javanese kingdom of Majapahit. An gamelan ensembles of the Balinese tradition, some are
important Javanese prose work is the Pararaton ('Book of clearly related to the Hindu-Javanese ceremonial court
Kings') which has a strong historical content. In 'modern' ensembles, others add instruments such as *jew's harps
Javanese literature, which has flourished from the early or bamboo instruments, while in some groups me-
18th century, there are many long works called babad, of tallophones are tuned slightly apart, producing a shim-
which the most important is the Chronicle of the Land of mering sonority. In the 20th century gamelan gong kebjar,
Java relating the history of Java. Indonesian literature an energetic and virtuosic orchestral style which uses
incorporates much from Muslim traditions as well as from abrupt contrasts of tempo, dynamics and texture, has
Indian, and often has a strongly mystical element. Other developed rapidly, and replaced older types of gamelan.
sources of inspiration have come from models and story- Sundanese gamelan ensembles generally employ fewer
cycles in *Persian and *Arabic literature, for example instrumentalists and feature more prominently the female
from the * Thousand and One Nights. Much historical vocalist. (See also *South-East Asian music; *South-East
literature takes the form called hikayat, of which the Story Asian dance.)
of Aceh, telling the history of Iskandar Muda (1607 36),
Sultan of Aceh, is a typical example. In the 19th century industrial architecture, a general term applied to
the influence of contact with the West is apparent in buildings designed in the service of large-scale industry.
works by the Javanese writer Ranggawarsita, while the Although major commercial buildings (such as ware-
emergence of a vernacular press and, in the early 20th houses) were erected earlier, the term 'industrial archi-
century, the growth of nationalism contributed to the tecture' is generally confined to buildings dating from the
modernization of Indonesian literature. After World War time of the Industrial Revolution in the i8th century.
II writers of the Angkatan 4^ (Generation of '45) group Mechanization, particularly the development of steam
pioneered a new style and saw themselves as part of a power, greatly increased the production of goods, and
world culture. Indonesian literature in the post-war years new types of building were needed for their manufacture,
became increasingly polarized along political lines and, transport, and storage, and for the administration of
following the attempted communist coup of 1965, many business. Early factories, foundries, and similar buildings
writers were imprisoned. Among the last to be released were often built in a simple utilitarian style; they would
from prison in the late 1970s was the outstanding writer scarcely have been thought of as architecture at the time,
Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Many writers accused of leftist but they are now often admired for their rugged strength.
associations are still under restrictions and writers and Some buildings continued in this tradition in the 19th
the press in general operate a degree of self-censorship. century, but with the Victorian passion for reviving
(See also *Malay literature.) historical styles there was also a tendency to make, for
example, a brewery look like a castle (see * Victorian archi-
Indonesian music, music from the 3,000 inhabited tecture). Railway stations are often particularly good
islands stretching from Sumatra in the west to Irian Jaya examples of the way in which new technology behind the
in the east, and with a population of 150 million people scenes was combined with highly ornamented historicism
distributed through more than 300 cultural groups speak- on the show facades. The vast iron and glass train shed
ing almost as many languages. Indonesian music, not at St Pancras Station, London, for example, a marvel of
surprisingly, demonstrates great cultural diversity. Never- Victorian engineering, is hidden behind the pinnacles
theless, its most famous and characteristic music is *gam- and towers of Sir George Gilbert *Scott's Midland Grand
elan music, sophisticated ensemble music primarily for Hotel, *Gothic Revival at its most sumptuous. In the
*gongs, developed from before the 7th century ad. The 20th century, however, following the lead of figures
dominant gamelan tradition is from central Java and its such as *Behrens, industrial architecture has moved
modern practice dates from around the 17th century, overwhelmingly in the direction of simplicity, *func-
when two basic types of royal court orchestra the loud — tionalism, and cost-effectiveness. The health and welfare
—
and soft ensembles were merged. Ensembles consist of of the occupants is (or should be) another major con-
various types of gongs combined with other percussion sideration in modern industrial buildings.
and melody instruments and vocalists. Two different
tuning systems are used: slendro and pelog, with
(laras) industrial design, the design of products made with
respectively five and seven
fixed pitches to the octave, machines or tools in organized industry, as opposed to
though pelog in practice yields a number of pentatonic the works of individual artists and craftsmen. Although
*scales. A tablature notation developed in the 19th the term did not come into use until much later, the
century has been replaced this century by the
[kraton) concept of industrial design was born with the decline
kepatihan system,which uses numbers to represent notes. in craftsmanship following the Industrial Revolution the —
Usually only the balungan (fixed melody) is notated. All Royal Society of Arts was founded in London as early as
the instrumental parts are derived from this fixed melody, 1754 to encourage a union of 'Art and Commerce'.
,
223 INRO
However, as industrialization increased, it became clear he was considered to have distorted forms for the sake of
to many critics that the overwhelming majority of manu- sinuous elegance, so that on his return to Paris in
produced before the
facturers put the quantity of goods 1824 he was surprised to find himself acclaimed as the
quality. In the UK
the poor quality of goods displayed champion of 'ofliciaF academic art against the rising tide
at the Great Exhibition held in London in 1851 per- of *Romanticism. He was appointed director of the
suaded many artists (particularly the members of the French Academy in Rome in 1834. In 1841 he returned
*Arts and Crafts Movement) industry and art
that to France, again acclaimed as the upholder of traditional
were incompatible. In the early 20th century the real values in art. His preferred subjects were grandiose
breakthrough came, with designers working totally in historical and religious themes, but he was also one of
harmony with the methods of machine mass-production. the greatest portraitists of his day and painted some
The key developments took place in Germany, where in superb nudes. In spite of his role as the guardian of
1907 *Behrens joined the firm of AEG, marking the and precepts, it was his personal obsessions
classical rules
beginning of a desire within large-scale industry to hu- and mannerisms that made him a great artist, and his
manize technology. In the same year was founded the profoundest influence was on other masters of line, such
Deutscher Werkbund (German Association of Crafts- as *Degas and * Picasso.
men), which promoted the ideas of *functionalism and
abolition of ornament. These ideas were developed during inro, a small medicine case carried attached to the sash
the 1920s at the *Bauhaus, which has had an enormous of the kimono as part of the traditional male Japanese
influence throughout the world. In the 1930s industrial costume. Originally such cases held seals, but they were
design became established as a profession, and in the adapted for holding medicine in about the 17th century.
fiercely competitive markets of the modern world the They are made of several sections fitted on top of one
appearance of a product has become of great importance another, and are usually decorated with *lacquerwork,
in attracting customers. The extent to which industrial the most splendid examples having all the resources of
design has entered into everyday life can be gauged from this luxury craft bestowed on them, including embel-
the example of Raymond Loewy (1893- 1986), the most
successful US designer of his period; in the 1950s it was
estimated that 75 per cent of all Americans came into The Valpingon Bather (1808) is one of Ingres 's most
daily contact with at least one of his designs, which memorable depictions of the female nude. Although the
include such classics as the Lucky Strike cigarette packet precision of outline and immaculately smooth handling
are typical of Neoclassicism, the sensuous response to
(1940) and the Pepsodent toothpaste packet (1945) in
the subject is entirely personal to Ingres. (Louvre, Paris)
addition to cars, electrical goods, and many other prod-
ucts. Recently, the subject of ergonomics —
the scientific
study of human efficiency in the working environment —
has become of great importance in industrial design,
products such as office furniture, for example, being made
so that it can be used with optimum effectiveness, comfort,
and safety.
civilizationsand cultures) is the semitone. The size of an such as the Raven Cycle, versions of which they share
interval reckoned numerically, beginning with the
is with the *North American Indians, which celebrate the
unison and progressing through the second, the third, dramatic contrast between summer and winter, the arctic
and so on, to the octave. Intervals larger than the octave day and night, and which highlight the urgent need to
are known as compound intervals. It is also necessary to find food in the blank world of snow and ice.
define the quality of the interval. All seconds, thirds,
sixths,and sevenths are either major or minor the minor — lonesco, Eugene (1912- ), French dramatist of Ro-
version always having one less semitone than the major manian birth. He is often associated with the so-called
(C to A
flat, as opposed to C to A natural). Unisons, Theatre of the *Absurd. In La Canlatrice chauve (1950) he
octaves, fourths, and fifths are said to be perfect. If a portrays the banality of everyday existence, basing the
major interval is increased by a semitone it is said to be platidudinous dialogue through which he conveys the ali-
augmented (C to A sharp, as opposed to C to A natural). enation of the individual on the formal phrases of the text-
When a minor interval is reduced by a semitone it is said book he was using to learn English. Rhinoceros ( i960), less
to be diminished. Perfect intervals can also be augmented negatively, defends the individual against the de-
or diminished in the same w<iy. humanizing force of totalitarianism. His ubiquitous fear of
death finds its fullest expression in his masterpiece, Le Roi se
Intiitiisme, a term in art applied to a type of intimate meurl 1962). lonesco produces almost *Surrealistic effects
(
domestic *genre painting particularly associated with by his use of props and settings to externalize his characters'
*Bonnard and *Vuillard from about 1900 onwards. anxieties.
By this time both men were moving away from the
experimental work of their youth in favour of a more Ireland, John (Nicholson) (1879-1962), British com-
naturalistic, more or less Impressionist, approach, and poser and pianist. His music reflects the influence of
their own homes, family, and friends figured prominently Debussy and Ravel and found its most persuasive outlet
among their favourite subjects. in songs and piano pieces. His second Violin Sonata
(191 7) made a considerable impact, as did his Piano
Inuit literature, literature of the Inuit (Eskimo) people. Concerto (1930) and two * Impressionistic programme
The unique polar environment of the Inuit infuses their works: The Forgotten Rile (1913) and Mai-Dun (1921). The
literature, which ranges from shamanist chants to ex- light-hearted overture Satyricon (1946) revealed a less
tended creation narratives. Particularly notable are texts, introspective side of his nature.
group of legends and tales dealing with the heroic age of were the first people to produce iron on a commercial
the Ulaids, a people who gave their name to Ulster, was scale (by the 15th century bc), and when their empire
recorded from oral tradition between the 8th and 1 1 th collapsed in about 1200 bc their techniques soon spread
centuries. Outstanding in Irish literature, they are pre- to other parts of theNear East and then to Europe. The
served in the 12th-century manuscript, the Book of the beginning of the Iron Age is thus conventionally placed
Dun Cow, and narrate the high deeds of Conchobar, King at about 1200 bc, and by about 1000 bc most of Europe
of the Ulaid, Cu Cuchulainn, a boy warrior, Medb, had made or was making the transition from bronze to
Queen of Connaught, and the doomed lovers. Noise and iron, although the former continued to be used for
Deidre. (The latter story has been retold in the 20th artefacts and decoration. The Italian peninsula became
century by W. B. *Yeats and J. M. *Synge.) After the an important cultural and artistic centre, first with
1 2th century the hereditary *bards perfected the art of the Villanovian civilization whose burial rites inspired
eulogistic and ornamental poetry. Tales and *ballads decorated, biconical pottery urns for the ashes of the
centring on the deeds of the legendary Finn MacCumhaill dead, and later with the *Etruscans, whose influence
(MacCool) were recorded in manuscript in The In- spread into the surrounding areas. In central and eastern
terrogation of the Old Man (c. 1200), and have remained a Europe a metal art with geometrical abstract ornament-
vital part of Irish folklore. The gradual infiltration of a ation was developed. The Hallstatt culture, so-called after
Norman and English aristocracy and the intense hardships a burial site of this name, produced polychrome pottery
suffered under British rule undermined the old literature and characteristic bronze buckets that were severely
which was preserved only as a folk tradition. * Satire geometric in style. It was superseded by the La Tene
flourished, and the old poetic metres were abandoned in culture with its typical curvilinear decoration. The char-
favour of the vernacular. By the middle of the 19th acteristic *Celtic art-form was established, with its S-
century literary activity in Gaelic had all but ceased, but shaped spirals and circular patterns. Its finest work is a
the revival of the language has since played a significant remarkable mixture of abstract and figurative rep-
part in modern Irish nationalism. In the 20th century resentation. In Asia, including India and China, Iron
works in Gaelic have been published, and novels such as Age art was developed in the first millennium bc; it did
Flann *0'Brien's At Swim- Two-Birds, published in English not become fully established in Egypt until about the 3rd
(1939), translated into Gaelic (1956), and his second century bc. In Africa bronze had never been adopted, so
novel An Beal Bocht, published in Gaelic (1941), as well the Iron Age culture there immediately followed the
as Brendan Behan's Giall (1957) {The Hostage; 1958) have *Stone Age. In America, the use of iron was introduced
received popular acclaim. by European settlers.
Irish Literary Revival, a renaissance of Irish literary ironwork, decorative objects, particularly architectural
culture and nationalism which began in the last quarter ornamentation, made of iron, one of the most widely
of the 19th century and continued to flourish until the distributed of metals and one of the most useful in the
1920s. The movement drew on the heritage of * Irish- service of mankind. The malleability of iron varies with
language literature. Early pioneers were Sir Samuel the impurities present, especially the amount of carbon;
Ferguson (1810-86) who stimulated interest with his the type used in most decorative work is called wrought
translations of works based on Irish legend (such as Lays iron, which has a very low carbon content and can be
of Western Gael, 1865); and Douglas Hyde (1860-1949) hammered by the blacksmith into elaborate shapes. Iron
whose translations from Gaelic and A Literary History of
Ireland (1892) were influential. The leading figure of the
movement was W. B. *Yeats, whose poems such as The The great French ironworker Jean Tijou, who lived in
England between 1688 and 1712, did much work for Sir
Wanderings of Oisin and other poems (1889), were inspired
Christopher Wren, including these railings at Hampton
by traditional and nationalist themes. He expressed the Court Palace. His ironwork is among the most splendid
mysticism of the Irish in The Celtic Twilight (1893), a ever made. He published a book of his designs m 1693
collection of stories which gave a name to the Irish Revival that helped spread his style among English ironworkers.
movement. In 1899 Yeats, Augusta, Lady Gregory (1852-
1932), and Edward Martyn (1859- 1923) founded the
Irish Literary Theatre to encourage Irish drama. This
subsequently became the Irish National Theatre Society,
which in 1904 acquired the Abbey Theatre, Dublin where
J. M. *Synge's play The Playboy of the Western World
caused outrage and riots in 1907. The Abbey Theatre
also staged plays by Yeats and *Shaw, while *0'Casey's
controversial play The Plough and the Stars 926) provoked
( 1
was used ornamentally by the Greeks and Romans, but Prairies (1835), and later turned to biographical and
because it is so susceptible to rust, very little early work historical studies.
survives. From about the 12th century, however, many
magnificent examples of decorative ironwork survive. It Irzykowski, Kazol (1873- 1944), Polish critic and novel-
was much used for grilles, gates, stair-rails, and balconies, ist. He began only novel, The Hag (1903), in 1899,
his
the great age of the art extending into the i8th century. well before the publication of Freud's first work on
Among the most renowned of all craftsmen in wrought psychoanalysis, yet in it he explores conscious and sub-
iron was Jean Tijou (French-born but active in England), conscious motivations for human behaviour. His most
who did superb work at St Paul's Cathedral in London, important work of criticism was The Struggle for Content
Hampton Court Palace, and elsewhere, working in an (1929)-
opulent but dignified style. In the 19th century wrought
iron was largely superseded by cast iron, which contains Isherwood, Christopher (1904-86), British novelist
more carbon and is consequently more brittle, but has and dramatist. His concern with the role of the intellectual
the advantages of being cheaper to produce and less in a tyrannical society is reflected in Mr Norris Changes
subject to corrosion. Wrought iron has continued to Trains (1935) and Goodbye to Berlin (1939), a series of
be used for high quality work, however, and enjoyed sketches featuring seedy expatriates living through the
something of a revival at the end of the 19th century, decay of the Weimar republic and the rise of Hitler's
during the heyday of the Arts and Crafts Movement and Nazism. Reissued in 1946 as The Berlin Stories, they were
the art nouveau style. dramatized by John Van Druten as I am a Camera (1951)
and adapted as a Broadway musical {Cabaret, 1966). He
irony, a subtly humorous perception of inconsistency, in wrote several verse-plays in the 1930s with *Auden.
which an apparently straightforward statement or event Together they went to the USA in 1939 and became
is undermined by its context so as to give it a very American citizens in 1946. Other works include the novel
different significance. In various forms, irony appears in Down there on a Visit (1962); Christopher and His Kind
many kinds of literature, from the *tragedy of Sophocles (1977), an account of his homosexual experiences; and
to the satire of Swift. At its simplest, in 'verbal irony', it translations of Hindu classics.
which the audience knows more about a character's of their architecture. While powerful political groupings
situation than the character does, foreseeing an outcome have tended to foster schools of art and thereby created
contrary to the character's expectations. 'Cosmic irony' dynastic styles, religious architecture draws on a group
is a view of people as the dupes of a cruelly mocking
of models which can claim to be universal. The focal
Fate, as in the novels of Hardy, for example, Tess of the point of Islamic religious life is the congregational mosque
D'Urbervilles. or masjTd, literally the place of prostration. The pattern
for early mosque architecture was set by Muhammad's
*melodrama adapted from Erckmann Chatrian's Le Juif with a veranda for shade on the north and south sides
polonais. With his Hamlet of 1874 he reached the peak of and living rooms on the east. As the congregation
his profession, where he remained for thirty years. With increased, the veranda was enlarged by adding more
*Terry as his leading lady he was actor-manager at the columns, and this type was developed into the many-
Lyceum from 1878 to 1899, making it the most prestigious columned mosque with arcades on three sides of an open
theatre in the country. He was the first actor to be courtyard. As prayers are said facing Mecca, an important
knighted. component of the mosque is the indication of the qibla or
direction of prayer by the mihrdb, an ornate niche in the
Irving, Washington (1783- 1859), US short-story appropriate wall, first introduced in the mosque at Me-
writer and historian. His early contributions to the satir- dina (707-9). Other components include the minaret,
ical essays and poems Salmagundi (1808), were followed first introduced in the mosque of 'Amr (Cairo, 673), for
by the *burlesque History of New York (1809), in which, the call to prayer, and areas for ritual washing [ziydda),
under the name of Diedrich Knickerbocker, he satirizes often outside the main mosque. Important optional ele-
the methods of contemporary historians. He is better ments include the dome or qubba, which had special
known for The Sketch Book (1820), a successful collection significance as a symbol of the heavens and divinity, es-
of sketches and tales, including 'Rip Van Winkle' and pecially in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (685-91).
'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow', which was to make him This was built by the *Umayyads at the place from which
the first American author to be known abroad. Later he Muhammad undertook his mirdj or night journey to
served as a diplomat in Spain and wrote several books heaven, and as an alternative focus of pilgrimage. In
on the country. Returning to the USA, he published *Ottoman mosques of 16th-century Istanbul, the *dome
works on the Western frontier, including A Tour of the became highly prominent, inspired by the 6th-century
ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE 228
Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia. An important building or khdngdh, introduced into Egypt by the Ayyubid Saladin
type which was widely imitated in the Islamic world is (1093), and the Ottoman kiilliye, a religious philanthropic
the four iwdn plan. The iwdn, borrowed from Sassanian assemblage, each acquired a specific architectural form,
architecture, is a square or rectangular room, completely as did trading institutions like caravanserais (inns for
open at one end and covered by a deep, elliptically arched travellers). Although there is no special Koranic pro-
roof, four ends of which are usually arranged around an scription against representing human figures, tradition
open courtyard. Originating in Khorasan, the cruciform prohibits their depiction and so these are never found in
plan was used in the construction of madrassahs (religious religious buildings. The walls of the Umayyad fortress of
colleges), mosques, and domestic buildings. In mosques Mshatta (744) were decorated with friezes of
in Syria
two opposing Twdndt form the entrance and the prayer interlaced vines and animals, the latter omitted where it
hall. The side Twdndt are usually for teaching and are forms the outer wall of a mosque. In mosques, decoration
often not emphasized. In Iranian mosques the main twdndt was restricted to floral, geometric, and *calligraphic
are often faced with tall, tiled rectangular frames {pTshtdq), designs from an early date, as in the Dome of the Rock
flanked by minarets. The madrassah itself, widely emulated in Jerusalem (685-91). Early coinage of the Umayyad
in the Islamic world, became an instrument of *Seljuk period used figurative decoration derived from both
and Ayyubid state policy. Standing examples are the Byzantine and Sassanian models, but this was abandoned
Mustansiriyya (Baghdad, 1234) and the Ince Minareli in the coinage reform of 'Abd al-Malik in 696. This
madrassah (Konya, 1258), where, because of the inclement proscription was largely maintained on coins, until the
weather, the central courtyard is domed. Although gen- secularmovements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Three
erally discouraged by Islam, the building of funerary major periods of development can be distinguished in
monuments became widespread. One of the earliest traditional Islamic art. Firstly the period of the classical
known is the hexagonal Qubba al-Sulaybiya (862), built inheritance which saw borrowings from the Sassanids (see
in Samarra for an Abbasid Caliph. In Central Asia * Persian art) and from the classical and Byzantine worlds
square, brick, domed mausolea, such as that of the in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Spain. This is seen in the
Samanid dynasty in Bukhara (before 942), are ethnically Umayyad palace of Khirbat al-Mafjar (c.743), in the use
Turkish in origin. In Seljuk Iran, a fashion for round, of mosaic, marble wall coverings, stucco decoration, and
fluted and polygonal, often isolated, tomb towers wall painting. The second phase is marked by the eastern
developed, culminating in the massive, domed tomb of influence of the Turkish peoples of Central Asia and Iran,
Sultan Oljaitu in Sultaniych (1305-13) and influencing up to and including the Seljuk period. Turkish traditions
the mausolea of the *Timurids and *Mughals. In Mamluk had already influenced some aspects of *Abbasid art,
Cairo domed mausolea were often built in association such as the use of seated figures on monochrome *lustre-
with pious foundations, usually in urban contexts. Other wares, and carving styles. In architecture, decorative
typically Islamic institutions such as the monastic mosque brickwork and the use of the muqarnas or stalactite vault
also probably spread from the east. The third phase
introduces colour into the external decoration of build-
This interior of the Hajj terminal in Saudi Arabia is an ings. In Spain,North Africa, Egypt, and Syria coloured
example of the successful blending m modern Islamic stone ablaq was used architecturally, and in Persia and
architecture of advanced technology and traditional Central Asia coloured tile and tile mosaic emerged in
local forms, m this case the tent. The terminal was
the Seljuk Strong Chinese influence was felt
period.
designed by Fazlur Rahman Khan for the firm of
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in Jeddah; it serves as a particularly inminiature painting and *ceramics
focus for thousands of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. throughout the Islamic world after the Mongol conquests
229 ISLAMIC DANCE
and seek spiritual perfection by shedding one's own fundamental importance of *calligraphy in Islamic art),
identity in the dance itself. and colours are flat and used decoratively rather than
naturalistically. In the i6th century, however, European
Islamic decorative arts. There is no real distinction influence began to affect Islamic painting, notably in
in Islamic art between 'fine' and 'decorative' art, for portraiture. Some of the finest late examples of Islamic
painting and sculpture do not hold pride of place as they miniatures, including portraits, belong to *Ottoman and
traditionally have done in the West. Thus most Islamic *\Iughal art.
religious art would be classified in the West as decorative
(a term that usually carries the implication of 'minor') Islamic music, music composed and performed within
even though it represents the highest aspirations of Islamic the Islamic faith. Since music is traditionally proscribed
inventive genius. As the Islamic world has embraced such in Islamic society because of its secular connotation
a huge geographical span over so many centuries, Islamic instruments are not used in orthodox ritual, and vocal
decorative arts are extremely varied. There are, however, performance is considered to be recitation, not song.
certain areas in which Islamic craftsmen have set stand- Within the mosque is the call to prayer of the muezzin,
ards that have been unexcelled anywhere. Textiles and varying from single-note calls to melismatic chants, in
metalwork are perhaps the two most outstanding which a number of notes are sung on one syllable, and
examples. Islamic textiles have long enjoyed world-wide the important chanting of the Koran by a soloist, which
prestige and Persian *carpets and rugs are universally varies between stylized speech and simple recitative,
acknowledged to be the most beautiful ever made. In though some traditions employ ornamentation derived
metalwork Islamic craftsmen have produced superb ex- from the maqdm system of Arabic classical music (see
amples of virtually every type of object in precious *West Asian music). These chants are orally transmitted
metals (silver and gold) as well as steel, brass, and bronze. and hence regional variations are found. Outside the
As Islamic tradition prohibits the representation of living mosque one finds hymns of praise for the Prophet {na'at)
things on religious buildings and furniture, craftsmen and and songs sung during the journey to Mecca and the
artists have traditionally resorted to geometric, *cal- month of the pilgrimage (hajj) and in Ramadan, the
ligraphic, and floral themes. They developed highly in- month of fasting. Chanting with drum accompaniment
tricate techniques of inlay and were masters at creating is used in the Shi'ite Muslim ta'ziya, a mystery play. The
lustrous surface finishes. Arms and armour were wrought ecstatic rituals of the Sufi communities involving the
with consummate skill, the sword blades of Toledo and dervish dance (see * Islamic dance), songs and hymns, and
Damascus (see *damascening) being regarded as the reed-pipes, flutes, and drums, are now largely restricted.
finest in the world. Among other fields in which Islamic
craftsmen have excelled are *rock crystal and *jade isorhythm, a technique in which a rhythmic pattern is
carving, glass, ceramics (see * Islamic ceramics), and repeated over and over again within an evolving *melodic
woodwork. The pulpit of carved wood (known as a minbar) line. The applied rhythm thus acts as a structural device.
was one of the most important features of the mosque Isorhythmic techniques are found in the masses and
and often received the finest attentions of Islamic crafts- *motets of the 14th and 15th centuries.
men, who sometimes used ivory inlay on it.
Italian literature. The first significant works of Italian
Islamic literature * Arabic literature, * Persian lit- literature were St Francis of Assisi's Cantico del Sole
erature, *Sufi literature, *Turkish literature, *Urdu lit- 2th century) and the Landi ofjacopone da Todi {c. 230-
( 1 1
was the time of activity of Bihzad (c. 1455- 15 16), one of Medici (1449-92), * Michelangelo, and Vittoria Colonna
the most illustrious figures in Islamic art. Only a very (1492- 1547). Virtually all these poets came from Florence
small amount of work survives that can be attributed to or Tuscany and they established Tuscan as the literary
him with any confidence, but he had many pupils who language of Italy. The other principal poetic tradition,
continued his style, which was marked by exquisite for the *narrative poem, stemmed from the store of
draughtsmanship, beautifully clear colouring, and vivid Carolingian chivalric *epics. *Boiardo started weaving
characterization. As with all Islamic painting, the em- them together in a rich heroic narrative, Orlando in Love,
phasis is on outline rather than mass (reflecting the heedless of the sardonic populist medley. The Greater
—
231 IZNIK WARE
Morganle by Luigi Puici (1432-84), while *Ariosto com- teeth of various animals, including the crocodile. Ivory
posed the brilliant satire of the chivalric tradition, The has been used since prehistoric times for utilitarian and
Frenzy of Orlando. The heroic epic of the Renaissance decorative purposes and can be worked with saws, chisels,
reached its culmination with *Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. drills, and rasps. In the ancient world it was classed with
In prose, it was *Boccaccio in the Decameron who es- gold and precious stones as a luxury material, and the
tablished a new standard for the *short story, a genre Greeks used it for colossal statues of gold and ivory, the
important thereafter in Italian literature. The vernacular, ivory simulating the flesh. In the Middle Ages it was
too, gradually displaced Latin as the medium for humanist particularly favoured for standing figures of the Virgin
scholarship— the language of the historians *Machiavelli Mary, the shape of the tusk being used to indicate the
and Francesco Guicciardini (1483 1540), of the artists pose, but the art of statuary in ivory declined fairly
*Alberti and *Vasari, of philosophers and poets including steadily after the 14th century. Ivory has also had many
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 94), Pietro Bembo uses in the decorative arts— as mounts on furniture, for
(1470- 1 547), Giordano Bruno (1548- 1600), and Tom- example, and for a wide range of small objects, including
maso Campanella (1568- 1639), as well as of *Castiglione boxes, fans, and chess pieces. It is also used for inlay.
and Giovanni della Casa (1503 56). There is now widespread opposition to the use of ivory
With the Counter-Reformation and the foreign dom- since elephants are threatened with extinction.
ination of Italy, literature echoed the *Baroque's search
for a formal, surface beauty of expression, as in the poetry Iznik ware, pottery and tiles produced mainly at Iznik
ofGabriello Chiabrera (1552- 1638) and *Marino. In the in western Anatolia for the imperial *Ottoman court.
theatre, dominated by the improvisation of the *commedia The great period of production was from the mid- 6th 1
delTarte, fresh life was restored in the i8th century by to the mid- 7th century. Using a body of white clay
1
*Goldoni's new comedy of manners and by *Alfieri's covered in a thick, transparent lead *glaze, potters
classical tragedies. A new note of passion, of commitment, executed naturalistic underglaze designs of flowers and
of savage irony returned in the poetry of *Parini, *Fos- *arabesques, some showing Chinese influence, in a range
colo, and *Carducci; in *Leopardi Italy found the voice of colours, from olive green, purple, and grey in the
of a lyrical emotion largely absent since Petrarch. The earlier period to a rich sealing-wax red and brilliant
serious foundation of the Italian novel subsists in the turquoise in the heyday of production. Designs were
works of *Manzoni, *Fogazzaro, and *Verga, who also supplied by court workshops and tiles were specially
enhanced the tradition of short-story writing. The latter ordered to decorate the interiors of the magnificent
was to continue its flowering in the 20th century with mosques being built at this time by architects such as
* Pirandello and *D'Annunzio, Natalia Ginzburg *Sinan, and also in the sultans' apartments and the
(1916- ), and *Calvino. Pirandello's contribution to the
harem of Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. However, by 1648
revival of the Italian theatre was followed by that of a contemporary noted a mere nine workshops in Iznik
Ugo Betti (1892- 1953) and Dario *Fo. The poets have compared to over 300 at the beginning of the century,
undergone foreign influences and sought new ways of and subsequent attempts to revive the industry met with
relating art to experience; among the best have been failure.
*Pascoli, D'Annunzio, *Montale, *Quasimodo, *Un-
garetti, and *Pasolini. Breaking out of a narrow pro-
vincialism, Italian novelists have faithfully mirrored their
.society and reflected it to a world-wide audience, es-
pecially in the novels of *Svevo, Carlo Emilio Gadda
(1893- 1973), *Vittorini, *Pavese, *Moravia, Ignazio
Silone (1900 78), and Primo Levi (1919-87), who is also
renowned as an essayist and autobiographer.
J jade pendants called hei-liki {hei, 'to hang', and liki, 'image
of man') in the form of representations of ancestors.
(1959), Copenhagen's first skyscraper. His design for St Vardhamana and Jina), the founder and major prophet
Catherine's College, Oxford (1964) is a good example of of the religion. Vardhamana and the other tirlhankaras
the stark simplicity of his style. (teachers) are the central figures ofjain iconography, and
it is often only in iconographical details (the particular
jade carving, the making of ornaments, utensils, and symbols by which figures are identified) that Jain art can
other objects from either of two hard, semi-precious be clearly distinguished from *Buddhist or *Hindu art.
—
stones jadeite and nephrite —
both of which are com- Jain architecture in particular is very similar to Buddhist
monly called jade. The stones are so hard (they cannot architecture; little survives from before the 7th century
be cut with steel) that they have to be laboriously AD (the Jains were often persecuted and their temples
worked with abrasives. The two minerals are unrelated in were probably destroyed during these times). The most
chemical composition, but similar in appearance; jadeite, typical form ofjain sculpture is the bronze figure donated
the rarer and more prized stone, has a glassy lustre, while to a temple as a 'good work'. Often the figures have
nephrite (sometimes called 'true jade') is more oily in inscriptions on the reverse mentioning the name of the
appearance. They vary in colour, but green is the colour donor, the temple to which it was given, and so on. Jain
most associated with the material. They have been worked painting is found as temple murals and as manuscript
since prehistoric times in various parts of the world, but illustrations; there was a flourishing school of miniature
China has by far the richest tradition in the medium. painting centred in Gujarat in the 12th to i6th centuries,
Perhaps the most impressive collection of jade objects was patronized by wealthy Jain merchants.
found in the Mancheng tombs excavated in the district
of Hebei in 1968. These included royal burial suits made Jain literature, literature in both Prakrit and Sanskrit
from over 2,000 pieces of finely carved jade sewn together consisting of religious teachings, commentaries, philo-
with gold and silver thread. Jade was used for weapons, sophy, and narrative tales and legends. Jainism as a
bowls, and bottles, among other objects. Jade vessels of religion and philosophy was founded in India by
unbelievable thinness and translucence were a notable Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, in the 6th
feature of *Mughal art in India, including Shah Jehan's century bc. His teachings advocating non-violence and
cup with a delicately carved ibex-headed handle. Jade self-purification were initially transmitted orally in Prak-
rit, the spoken language, rather than Sanskrit. Gradually
I
233 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE
completed his first important opera, Jenufa (1904), the garden, intended as a park for Buddha to walk m. This
sensitive integration of building with landscape is
folk-song influence had been completely integrated into
characteristic of much Japanese architecture.
his style, as had his theories about 'speech melody' the —
natural rhythm and rise and fall of ordinary speech,
heightened into musical themes and melodies. Success, architecture, however, tends to be less grandiose than
achieved after a revival o{ Jenufa in 1916, coupled with Chinese and to pay greater attention to the integration
a late, one-sided love affair, prompted an astonishing of a building with its surroundings, whether garden or
upsurge of creativity. The operas Kalya Kahanova (1921), natural scenery. This consideration has been particularly
The Cunning Little Vixen (1923), The Makropulos Case important in the siting of Shinto shrines (Shinto is the
(1925), and From the House of the Dead (1928), a setting of ancient native religion of Japan, predating Buddhism);
incidents from Dostoyevsky's prison-camp novel, together they were often located in beautiful places that had an
with the Sinfonietta (1926), the Glagolitic Mass (1926), air of grandeur or mystery, suggesting the nearness of the
some lyrical piano pieces, and two string quartets (1923, gods. In essentials, Japanese traditional architecture has
1928), all testify to an outstanding originality. changed little over the centuries, and continuity has been
preserved by the fact that some religious structures have
Japanese architecture, the architecture ofJapan from been periodically rebuilt in exactly the same form for
ancient times to the present day. Evidence of buildings ritual purposes. Buddhist temples were often built as
from Neolithic times survives in the form of models of monastic colleges and had numerous types of building
houses buried in tombs, but it is not until after the within a compound; the to or pagoda housing a holy
introduction of Buddhism in the 6th century ad that a relic; the kondo, housing images of the deities worshipped
continuous tradition can be traced. As with the Buddhist at the temple; the koro or drum- or bell-tower; the kyozo
religion, architecture in Japan has been strongly affected or sutra (scriptural narratives) or storage hall; the kodo or
by the influence of China (see *Chinese art and archi- lecture hall; the sobo, or dormitories; and the jikido or
tecture), using wood as its main building material and dining hall. Carpentry was brought to great heights of
the column as the main structural element (Japan has an mastery, and the beauty of Japanese buildings depends
abundance of trees, and wooden buildings are particularly as much on the subtle curvature of the roofs as on any
suitable for a country prone to earthquakes). Japanese decorative treatment, which included the painting of
JAPANESE CERAMICS 234
pillars and beams and the use of gilding. The high point Ceramics from the Neolithic Age provide the earliest
of Buddhist architecture in Japan was reached in the evidence for culture in Japan (see *Japanese visual arts);
Todaiji monastery in Nara, which was founded in 745 these were fairly crude, but sophisticated pottery has been
and marks the adoption of Buddhism as a state religion made in Japan since the 6th century ad. *Porcelain has
by the imperial house. The Hall of the Great Buddha, been made in Japan since the early 17th century, when
dedicated by the Emperor Shomu in 752 (reconstructed suitable clay for manufacturing it was discovered at Arita.
in 1709), is stillthe largest wooden building in the world, Many different places in Japan have produced ceramics,
and the rest of the complex was executed on a similarly but Kyoto (the capital city from 794 to 1868) has been
ambitious and costly scale. Japanese domestic archi- the most important creative centre. It was there that
tecture, on the other hand, is noted for its simplicity and *raku ware was developed in the i6th century and there
exquisite refinement. Sliding panels of wood or rice-paper in the i8th century that *Kenzan, the most famous
flexibly sub-divide the living area into a series of airy of Japanese potters, lived and worked. His influence,
spaces. A space is sometimes set aside within the house particularly as mediated through the Japanese-trained
for the tea ceremony, associated with contemplation and Bernard *Leach, has endured into the 20th century,
the cultivation of the arts, but tea-houses are often helping to create the *studio pottery movement. The
separate pavilions in the garden. The relationship of house vigorous tradition of Kenzan represents only one facet of
to garden is traditionally very important to the Japanese, Japanese pottery, however, for many wares have been
with the veranda serving as a transition space. Palaces extremely refined and exquisitely decorated, not least
were modest by Western or Chinese standards but, those aimed at the Western market. The term Tmari
following the introduction of European firearms in the Ware' is applied to the richly decorated porcelain that
16th century, a number of huge and imposing castles was exported to the West from the port of Imari from
were built (there was incessant civil war at this time). about 1600 (it is also sometimes called 'Arita Ware', as
They were constructed on massive stone bases and had Arita was the main centre of manufacture). The types
multi-storey central towers. Himeji Castle is the most
impressive. From the mid- 17th to the mid- 19th century
Japan pursued an isolationist policy, with virtually no The 17th-century stoneware sake bottle illustrates the
contact with the West, but from the 1860s it began to
hand-made quality prized in Japanese ceramics. The
thick, crackled brown glaze and the slightly asymmetric
industrialize along Western lines and adopt the European proportions of the bottle are considered to be
architectural tradition. Frank Lloyd *Wright designed expressions of the individuality of the craftsman. (Victoria
the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo (1916-20, destroyed) and and Albert Museum, London)
the International Style of the *Modern Movement was
adopted in the 1930s. It was not until the 1950s that
Japan began to make a distinctive contribution to modern
world architecture. Since then, with a building boom
reflecting the country's remarkable economic revival after
World War II, Japan has become an acknowledged
centre of excellence and originality in modern design.
*Tange is the outstanding figure in modern Japanese
architecture, his work reconciling the influence of *Le
Corbusier with traditional Japanese forms. Among
Tange's pupils, the most distinguished is perhaps Arata
Isozaki (b. 193 1), whose major works include the Tokyo
Globe Theatre (1988).
performed, together with new types of theatre such as In the Tokugawa period 1603 1867), Japan entered
(
shimpa, which combines elements of Kabuki with less a period of isolation, and the city of Edo (later Tokyo)
exaggerated acting and the use of actresses; the less grew in economic and cultural importance. The art and
commercial shingeki, presenting Western plays and real- literature of the * Floating World became popular, as
istic plays about modern Japan; and an avant-garde witnessed by the stories of *Saikaku, while the pre-
movement. eminent poet was *Basho, and the dramatist Chikamatsu
Monzaemon (1653 1725) wrote historical and domestic
Japanese literature. Although Japanese was not writ- tragedies for the puppet theatre. Modern Japanese lit-
ten till was a considerable oral
the 6th century, there erature can be dated from the Meiji Restoration (1868),
tradition before that. Writing began when Chinese char- and the first modern Japanese novel, Futabatei Shimei's
acters were introduced, but although the influence of Ukigumo ('Floating Cloud'), the story of a clerk, un-
*Chinese literature on Japanese culture was very great, successful because he is not sycophantic, appeared in
the Chinese writing system was far from ideally suited to 1887-9. Akutagawa Ryunosuke (1892- 1927) gave a mod-
the Japanese language. In 710 Nara became the first ern psychological edge to traditional Japanese stories such
permanent capital ofJapan, and two years later the Kojiki as Rashomon, which Kurosawa later adopted in his famous
(Record of Ancient Matters) was finished. In 720 the film. Two other important late Meiji novelists were
Mhon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan) appeared, and the *Natsume S5seki and *Mori Ogai (1862- 1922), whose
JAPANESE MUSIC 236
Dancing Girl (1890) was the first of the influential auto- the *pipa. From this time also dates the earliest notated
biographical novel genre. Kawabata Yasunari (1899- music: tablatures for instrumental music and neumes
1972) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968, and (symbols indicating melodic shapes) for vocal genres. The
his Snow Country (1935-47), Thousand Cranes (1949-51), arts flourished in the Heian period, 782-1184 (based at
and House of the Sleeping Beauties (1939) all deal with guilt present-day Kyoto), when court song and official court
and the psychology of the erotic. Major writers of modern music [gagaku) were widely developed. Buddhist chant
Japan include *Tanizaki Jun'ichiro, *Mishima Yukio, [shdrnyd) was also introduced (see *Buddhist music). By
print-making developed known as *ukiyo-e, with *Hi- an annual allowance for life and are revered figures.
roshige, *Hokusai, and *Utamaro as its most splendid (See also *calligraphy, *inro, *Japanese architecture,
representatives. Their lively observation of everyday life *Japanese ceramics.)
JAPANNING Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
238
japanning *lacquerwork.
even with *Aesop's Fables. jazz player, though there were two musicians of that
name in New
Orleans at the time. Although it began as
Jawlensky, Alexei von (1864 1 941), Russian painter. a black music, jazzwas initially brought to a wider public
He left Russia in 1896 and settled in Munich, where he by white musicians. The Original Dixieland Jazz Band
met *Kandinsky and became associated with the *Blaue were a white New Orleans group who became immensely
Reiter. Although he had much in common with this group, popular in New York playing *Dixieland music. In 191
he developed a markedly individual style, fusing elements they made the first jazz recordings, and by the end of
from modern French painting (particularly *Fauvism) that year jazz was becoming a nationwide phenomenon.
with Russian traditions of *icon painting and peasant As jazz gained popularity it became possible for black
art. Like Kandinsky, Jawlensky was obsessed by a belief musicians to make records. Of great importance were the
in the correspondence between colours and musical early recordings (1923) of Joseph 'King' Oliver, who
sounds, but he always based his abstractions on nature. numbered among his players the trumpeter Louis *Arm-
His later works often have a mystical feeling. strong. Armstrong's imaginative playing marked the
emergence of the soloist as a shaping influence on the
jazz, a type of *popular music which developed in the way jazz developed, as 'Jelly Roll' Morton and Bessie
Southern states of America around the end of the 19th Smith had respectively influenced the development of
and beginning of the 20th century, principally in New ragtime and blues. As jazz spread to Chicago and New
Orleans and largely in the hands of black musicians. York, and thence to London, Paris, and the rest of
Although certain outstanding practitioners, such as Fer- Europe, it became more ambitious and sophisticated. The
dinand 'Jelly Roll' Morton, claimed to have invented it, 'arranger' came into existence, scoring the music in such
hundreds of musicians contributed to its evolution. Be- a way that improvisation (the life-blood of the style) was
cause the term jazz is so broad, no one characteristic still possible within the context of the written score. The
can distinguish it from other styles. However, common typical seven-piece ensemble now began to develop into
characteristics are an emphasis on improvisation, a rhyth- the *big band, and with it came the first of the great
mic 'swing' resulting from small departures from the jazz composers: Edward 'Duke' *Ellington. The carefully
regular pulse, and an emphasis on individuality of instru- thought-out big band style led to the development of a
mental or vocal sound. Musical elements that went much smoother style of playing, less subject to the raw
into the evolution of jazz include the hymn tunes of emotions of improvisation. This style became known as
19th-century revivalist meetings; white imitations of slave swing. Typical swing bands were led by virtuoso players
www.Ebook777.com \
239 JEWELLERY
such as the clarinetists Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, and about country life in Wiltshire written in a descriptive,
Woodrow 'Woody' Herman, and the pianist WilHam poetic prose. Hodge and His Masters (1880) is a classic
'Count' Basic. In its turn, swing was overtaken in the record of Victorian countrymen. This was followed by
ig40s by a more rhythmic style of jazz known as bebop, Bevis, the Story of a Boy (1882), an outstanding evocation
so called after the practice of imitating its sound by of a country childhood drawn from Jefferies's own boy-
vocalizing meaningless, onomatopoeic syllables ('scat' hood in Wiltshire. His autobiography, The Story of my
singing). Among the leading exponents of the new style Heart (1883), tracing the development of his unorthodox
were the saxophonist Charlie 'Bird' *Parker, the and atheistic beliefs, caused some literary scandal.
trumpet-player John 'Dizzie' Gillespie, and the pianist
Thelonious Monk. 'Bop' was in some respects a return to Jencks, Charles *Post-Modernism.
the principles of early jazz, in that it reacted against big
band commercialism and laid a greater emphasis on Jensen, Johannes V(ilhelni) (1873 1950), Danish
spontaneity and solo virtuosity. In the 1950s the rise of novelist, essayist, and poet. He made his mark with
*rhythm and blues and *rock and roll led to a decline Himmerland Stories (1898- 19 10), collections of tales im-
in jazz audiences. Jazz continued to develop, but along mortalizing his home region of North Jutland. The Fall
several pathways. Some musicians moved towards a of the King (1900- i) his best-written work, is a *historical
blending of jazz and classical styles; this cool or West novel full of exuberant fantasy and rich poetry. More
Coast jazz involved such musicians as Miles *Davis and uneven is the six-volume novel cycle The Long Journey
Gerry Mulligan;- it was further developed by John Lewis's (1908-22), a history of mankind counterbalancing the
Modern Jazz Quartet. Miles Davis and saxophonist John Bible, mythology, and saga with an idealized Darwinian
Coltrane later introduced modal playing, in which modal vision of human development. The eleven volumes of
scales (see *mode) were used as the basis for impro- stories and essays Myths (1907-44), in similar vein, gained
visation. In the late 1950s such players as Ornette him the Nobel Prize for Literature (1944).
Coleman and Cecil Taylor abandoned scales altogether
and began to play 'free' jazz. Free jazz has continued as jet ornaments, small decorative objects, particularly
a minority form, and more recent groups such as the Art
jewellery, made of jet, a hard, black, lustrous stone (a
Ensemble of Chicago have brought it to a wider audience. form of lignite) similar to coal, but capable of being
In the late 1960s Miles Davis was once again at the
elaborately carved. Used since prehistoric times, it has
forefront of a new development in jazz, fusing jazz idioms
always been thought to be able to ward off evil, and so
with elements of rock music. In the 1970s and 1980s there was much used for making amulets, particularly in
has been an increasing use of electric and *electronic medieval Spain. There the art of jet carving flourished in
instrumentation in jazz. Many jazz groups have evolved Santiago de Compostela, where figures of saints and
rosaries were sold to the pilgrims to the famous shrine.
with multinational personnel, and this has led many
musicians to incorporate the music of other countries into Jet carving was also important in Whitby, northern
their work: Chris MacGregor's group Brotherhood of
England, in the early 19th century. By the middle of that
Breath, for example, draws on South African music.
century card-cases, paper-knives, busts, seals, and many
other ornaments were being made; it was also used for
Other groups show a wider eclecticism: Carla Bley's opera
inlaying in alabaster.
on record, Escalator Over the Hill, uses different styles of
jazz, Western art music, and folk-song from various parts
jewellery, decorative objects worn as adornments on
of the world. Jazz styles from all earlier periods continue
various parts of the body. Jewellery has been made from
to flourish, and the term now covers a range of music in
a great variety of materials including precious metals,
which no clear mainstream is discernible.
gemstones, *amber, bone, *coral, glass, *jet, *shell, wood,
jazz dance, a popular form of North American ver- and more recently plastic. It has also involved the use of
nacular dancing performed to *jazz music. During the many techniques, such as gem-cutting, *enamelling, *fil-
early decades of the 20th century African and Caribbean igree, and so on. From the earliest times people have
dance elements were incorporated into White dancing in lavished and wealth on jewels for personal adorn-
skill
Westernized version. In common with jazz music, the ancient Egyptians is also of very high quality, for example
elements of jazz dance are difficult to disentangle, partly the beautiful pieces in gold and lapis lazuli discovered in
because of their improvisational character. Balletic and Tutankhamen's tomb. The finest Greek jewellery belongs
modern dance movements also appear in later forms, but to the Classical period of 475 to 330 bc. Diadems were
there now seem to be two, often conflated, versions: made of embossed strips of gold, while ear-rings were
African jazz dance (which remains as true as possible to often made in the form of spirals, with the thin end
its African elements), and North American jazz dance passing through the ear and the other end ornamented
(which borrows from existing Western theatre forms). with an animal or human head. The Romans followed
Jazz dance is highly popular at a participatory level in Greek patterns but made greater use of precious stones,
the Western world. In musical shows and films such as including emeralds, pearls, sapphires, and uncut dia-
Cabaret (1972) it appears as the main form of dance. Its monds. They also made great use of *cameos in their
impact is clear in the work of ballet *choreographers jewellery. The Inca peoples of what is now Peru had
such as *Balanchine and in much *modern dance. distinctive ear-plugs, worn within holes pierced in the
ear-lobes. They varied in size and material according to
Jefferies, (John) Richard (1848-87), British novelist, status, those of royalty being some 15 cm. in diameter.
essayist, and He is remembered for his works
naturalist. The men of this civilization also wore gold arm-bands,
JEW'S HARP 240
while women wore necklaces of shells. Anglo-Saxon jewel- Joachim, Joseph 83 907) Hungarian violinist and
( 1 1 1 ,
lery {Ji. 7th century ad) was famous for the fine quality composer. After studying in Vienna (1841-3), Joachim
of the goldwork and ^cloisonne enamel, a good example went to Leipzig where he was taught by *Mendelssohn.
being the Alfred Jewel now in the Ashmolean Museum, In 1849 he became leader of the Weimar court orchestra,
Oxford. Much of medieval jewellery was made for the under *Liszt. A superb interpreter of the classical
Church, especially for fastening ecclesiastical robes and concerto, especially that of Beethoven (for which he wrote
regalia. Later jewellers found employment at the royal cadenzas), Joachim was the dedicatee and first player of
courts (see *crown jewels). The Renaissance brought a Brahms's concerto.
different kind of jewellery, based on more classical motifs
and personal to the wearer: Henry VIII had a jewel with John, Augustus (1878 1 961), British painter and
the initials H and K for himself and his wife Katherine of graphic artist. As a young and brilliant draughtsman
Aragon. In the i 7th century jewellers became increasingly John was identified with all that was most independent
skilful in the cutting of stones, and used less interesting and rebellious in British art. In the years immediately
settings.The craze of the Napoleonic era (1804-14) for before World War I he painted some ambitious figure
imitating the dress of the ancient world led to a new compositions showing an awareness of advanced French
fashion for cameos, worn as brooches or on bracelets. art, but increasingly he turned to portraiture. He painted
Towards the end of the 19th century the precious stone many famous personalities, but the bravura of his early
became increasingly important and the setting of less work often degenerated into mere flashiness, and the
account. Around nouveau
the turn of this century the *art second half of his long career added little to his achieve-
style had an important influence on jewellery design, the ment, although he remained a colourful figure.
guiding spirit being *Lalique, who made jewellery based
on the naturalistic forms of flowers, winged insects, John, Gwen(1876- 1939), British painter. She was the
and the human figure made from gold, ivory, horn, sister of Augustus *John, but his complete opposite
mother-of-pearl, and enamel. *Tifrany's designs combined artistically, as she was in personality, living a reclusive
the art nouveau styles with the Byzantine and Oriental life and favouring introspective subjects. For most of her
traditions that had strongly influenced him. One of the life she lived in France, where she was a pupil of *Whistler,
most important recent developments in jewellery for the adopting from him the delicate greyish tonality that
mass market has been the introduction of plastic, which characterizes her work. Most of her work consists of single
allows the use of a very wide range of colours. figures, usually young girls or nuns (she was deeply
religious), painted with great sensitivity and unobtrusive
Jew's harp, a plucked musical instrument, in fact neither originality. She was little known in her lifetime, but her
Jewish nor a harp. Western models, and the Indian ones reputation now stands higher than her brother's.
from which they derive, have a steel reed, or feather,
between the arms of a bowed frame. The free end of the Johns, Jasper (1930- ), US painter, sculptor, and
feather is upturned and is plucked by thumb or finger. print-maker. He has been closely associated with *Rau-
241 JONSON
schenberg, and they are considered to have been largely Most of Jones's buildings have been altered
a designer.
responsible for the movement from *Abstract Ex- or destroyed,but his two finest surviving works, the
pressionism to the types of *Pop art and *Minimal art Queen's House at Greenwich (1616-35) ^^^ ^^e Ban-
that succeeded it. Much of his work has been done in the queting Hou.se in Whitehall (1619-22), with its painted
form of series of paintings representing commonplace ceiling by * Rubens, are among the masterpieces of English
two-dimensional objects, for example Flags, Targets, and architecture. His immediate influence was confined
Numbers, and his sculptures hax'e most characteristically mainly to court circles, as his style was too advanced and
been of equally banal objects, such as beer cans. subtle to be generally imitated, but he was an inspiration
to *Wren and a hero to exponents of *Palladianism such
Johnson, Philip ( 1906- ), US architect and writer on as *Burlington and *Kent.
architecture. His book The International Style (1932), writ-
ten in conjunction with the architectural historian jongleur, a medieval combina-
travelling entertainer, a
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, is regarded as a fundamental tion of *minstrel, conjuror, *clown, and acrobat. Des-
work on the * Modern Movement. In the 1940s he turned cendants of the *mime of Roman times, jongleurs formed
to architectural practice, working in the fastidiously a link during the theatreless Middle Ages between the
elegant style of *Mies van der Rohe, with whom he earlier pagan drama and the emergent *liturgical drama.
collaborated on the Seagram Building, New York (1954-8), They were vagabonds working sometimes in groups and
possibly the most beautiful of all skyscrapers. Later, sometimes independently, and included both sexes. They
Johnson's work became more experimental, and in the are not to be confused with the trouveres, who were
1970s he became one of the leaders of *Post-Modernism, attached to particular households and whose material
notably with his AT&T
building in New York (1978- was more uplifting and sometimes used by the jongleurs.
83)-
Jonson, Ben(janiin) (c. 1572- 1637), English dramatist
Johnson, Samuel (1709-84), British poet, lexico- and poet. His first important play Every Man in his Humour
grapher, and critic. His student days at Oxford were
marred by poverty and he left prematurely, without a
Ben Jonson collaborated with Inigo Jones on court
degree. He contributed articles and poems to the Gentle- masques from 1605 until 1631, when their quarrelling
man s Magazine; in 1 750 he started his own journal the brought the partnership to an end. This design by Jones
Rambler, followed by the Idler. Among his best-known IS for Queen Henrietta Maria's costume m Chlondia
Donne, and many younger writers known as the 'tribe of and Paris with Nora Barnacle, whom he married in 1931.
Ben'. Of Shakespeare he was to say on his death, 'I loved His collection of short stories Dubliners (1914) was greeted
the man, and do honour his memory, on this side idolatry, with enthusiasm by * Pound, who greatly encouraged
as much as any.' In both his religious and secular poems Joyce's career. His next important work, the auto-
Jonson wrote in a variety of forms with a classical, biographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Toung Alan
unadorned clarity and with great depth of feeling. (1914-15), introduces Stephen Dedalus, who reappears
in his masterpiece, Ulysses (published in Paris by Sylvia
Jooss, Kurt (1901-79), German dancer, choreographer, Beach, 1922). This work, a gentle *parody on Homer's
teacher, and director. He studied ballet before meeting Odyssey, employs a variety of techniques, and ranges from m
*Laban, with whom he then worked. His best-known extreme realism to fantasy; it deals with a day in the life
work. The Green Table (1932), 'a dance of death in eight of an 'everyman' figure, Leopold Bloom. Together with
scenes', is a powerful work showing how the horrors of Firmegans Wake (1939), which presents the story of a
war ordinary people. With the rise of Nazism Jooss
affect Dublin tavern-keeper, Chimpden Earwicker, it re-
left Germany for Dartington Hall in Britain, where his volutionized the form and structure of the *novel, de-
group Ballets Jooss toured extensively. He returned to cisively influenced the development of the *stream of
Essen in 1949 to re-establish his school and company. His consciousness, and pushed language and linguistic ex-
works continue to be mounted by his daughter Anna periment to the limits of communication. Both works
Markard. The synthesis of *ballet and *modern dance have produced a mass of critical commentary. Joyce also
stylesmark his choreography, as does his concern with wrote two collections of poems, Chamber Music (1907) and
dramatic versions of social events. Pomes Penyeach (1927), and a play Exiles (1918).
Joplin, Scott (1868- 191 7), US pianist and composer. Juvenal (ad and greatest writer of
c.6o-c. 127), the last
Little is known
of his early career, but after working Roman *satire. The main
(but not invariable) subject of
in various musical capacities he formed his own band his sixteen surviving satires is the darker side of human
(Chicago, 1893) and began to write down his piano life and of imperial Rome; their style is forceful, rhetorical,
compositions. 'Maple Leaf Rag' (1899) established his and often lofty. He had
considerable influence on later
reputation, and its many successors earned him the title poetry; in English this best seen in *Johnson's poems
is
K
Kabuki *Japanese drama.
generally regarded as his best work, six individuals achieve
spiritual equilibrium through self-sacrifice. After the Nazis
banned his plays (1938), Kaiser went into exile in
Switzerland. His last work was a mythological trilogy in
which he reaffirms
regeneration.
Kalidasa (b. ad
his self-confidence and
and dramatist. He
f.400), Sanskrit poet
flourished during the reigns of Chandragupta II and
his belief in
Kafka, Franz (1883-1924), Austro-German novelist Kumaragupta I (ad 375-455), the heyday of ancient
and short-story writer. The son of a prosperous Jewish Indian courtly culture. Only six works can definitely be
businessman in Prague, Kafka's works create a world of ascribed to Kalidasa, his earliest poem perhaps being
private myth, where, with dreamhke logic, events are
Meghaduta ('The Cloud Messenger') with its lyrical de-
recorded with sobriety and exactitude, tinged with grot- scriptions of Indian nature and landscape. Among the
esque humour. Although his vain attempts to escape finest works of *Sanskrit literature are his two epic poems:
domination by his father, documented in Letter to His The Birth of Kumara on Shiva and Parvati's courtship and
Father (1919), contributed to his obsession with the theme
the birth of their son, the war-god Kumara, and The
of guilt and self-doubt and with figures of authority, his Lineage of Raghu, thought to be his last composition, a
writing betrays a more fundamental metaphysical fear, history of the Raghu dynasty inspired by the *Rdrndyaria.
uncertainty, and alienation. Life offers his heroes merely Of Kalidasa's plays, Malavika and Agnimitra is a comedy
a choice of evils; it demands justification of self and status of court love-intrigues, while Urvashi won by Valour portrays
or provokes an endless search for meaning, which is the ancient love-story of Pururavas and Urvasi. His
re-enacted in the reader's frustrated attempts at un- masterpiece, much admired by Goethe, is Sakuntala
ambiguous interpretation. In The Judgement
his short story (named after its heroine), in which a king, cursed to
(191 2) a son's compliance with a death sentence passed forget his wife, finally recognizes her again by the token
on him by his father reveals the hollowness of his social of a ring.
success and the validity of his initial self-doubt. With
relentless logic The Metamorphosis (1915), a story in three kalixnba *sansa.
sections, pursues the effect on an entire family of the
hero's impossible metamorphosis into an insect. The Kandinsky, Wassily (Vasily Vasilyevich) (1866-
transformation itself is thought to represent either the 1944), Russian-born painter and writer on art who
hero's willing servility or his hitherto suppressed rebellion
against the worlds of work and family. Kafka's three This woodcut by Kandinsky was used as the cover for
novels, all unfinished, were published posthumously the first issue of the Blaue Reiter Almanach. published m
(against the author's wishes) by Max Brod. The most 1912 (a second number was planned, but never appeared
important are The Trial 1925), in which the unexplained
because of the outbreak of war). The almanac is a
collection of essays and illustrations, many of the pictures
(
became a German citizen in 1927 and a French citizen kathakali, a form of *Indian classical dance originating
in 1939: one of the most important pioneers of *abstract in 17th century in Kerala, in the extreme south.
the
art. He abandoned a promising university career teaching Kathakali relates stories from the *Ramayana and other
law and in 1896 went to Munich to study painting. From religious texts through dance-drama, accompanied by
1908 he began to ehminate the representational element singing and by instrumental music with an emphasis on
from his work; and between 1910 and 191 3, in a series percussion. Most characters wear towering headgear,
of pictures he called Compositions, Improvisations, and Im- billowing skirts, and elaborate make-up in which different
pressions, he arrived at pure abstraction, using colour and characters are represented by different facial colours.
line freely with vigorous expressive power. From 191 he 1 The dance comprises sequences of delicate and vigorous
was a prominent figure in the *Blaue Reiter, but on the movements. In the latter not just the hands, but also neck,
outbreak of war in 1914 he returned to Russia, where he face, eyes, and eyebrows are all important. Performances
was appointed to several distinguished academic posts. generally take place at night and in the open air.
In 92 1, however, being out of sympathy with ideals in
1 Traditionally the roles are played by men. Outstanding
the newly created Soviet Union according to which fine kathakali performers include Guru Chandu Pannikar and
art was subordinated to *industrial design, he left his Krishnan Kutty.
homeland for Germany and took up a teaching post at
the *Bauhaus, remaining there until it closed in 1933. Kauffmann, Angelica (i 741- 1807), Swiss painter.
He then settled in France. He was influential not only Having formed her style in Rome, she lived from 766 1
through his paintings but also through his writings, which to 781 in London, where she enjoyed great professional
I
show his interest in mysticism. and personal success. In 1768 she became a founder
member of the Royal Academy, and was a close friend
kantele, a musical instrument, a Finnish *zither, ori- of its President, Sir Joshua *Reynolds. She worked ini-
ginally carved from solid wood but now usually built up tially as a portraitist, but then devoted herself more to
from slats. It has the same position in the Finnish Kalevala historical scenes and to decorative work for Robert
epic as the lyres of Orpheus and Apollo in Greek legend. *Adam and other architects. She married the decorative
In the 19th century and earlier the kantele had only five painter Antonio Zucchi in 1781 and returned to Rome,
strings, but more have been added recently. It is played where she continued her successful career.
with a *plectrum or the fingers. Similar instruments
are called kannel in Estonia, kokle in Latvia, hankies in kaval, an *end-blown flute widely used in Turkey and
Lithuania, and gusli in Russia; early examples have been
found in Gdansk and Novgorod.
the Balkans by virtuoso performers, probably deriving
from the Arab *nay. It is commonly accompanied by a
^
^
*drone, either hummed by the player, which greatly
Karsh, Yousef (1908- ), Canadian portrait pho- alters the tone character of the flute, or played on another
tographer. Born in Armenia, Karsh learned photography kaval by a colleague.
in Boston, Massachusetts, from John Garo. His mag-
nificent portrait of Winston Churchill appeared on a Life Kawabata Yasunari ^Japanese literature.
magazine cover in December 1941. It was the beginning
of Karsh's international reputation as the greatest modern Kayagiim 'koto.
Navigator (1924), his biggest success, set in a deserted about the eflfects of social and political complacency in a
ocean liner; Go West (1925); Battling Butler (1926); and society that is beginning to disintegrate.
The General (1926), in which, in authentic American Civil
War settings, the eponymous railway engine was stolen Kelly, Gene (191 2- ), American dancer, choreo-
and chased. In 1928 he abandoned independent pro- grapher, and film director. He appeared in musicals in
duction to work for MGM; his career plummeted when the 1940s and achieved success with An American in Paris
the spoken dialogue displaced pantomime. Beset by per- (1952). He has choreographed extensively for both stage
sonal problems and conflict with the studio, he continued and film in the popular *musical genre.
to appear mostly in short films. In his last twenty years
he gradually rebuilt his career, appearing in films such Kexnble, John Philip (1757- 1823), British actor and
as Sunset Boulevard (1950) and Limelight (1952). theatre manager. The son of strolling players, he was the
brother of Sarah *Siddons. He began his London career
Keats, John 795-1821), British poet. In 181 6 he
(i with Hamlet at Drury Lane in 783 and ended it with
i
qualified as an apothecary, but gave up medical practice Coriolanus in 181 7, two of the tragic roles in which he
in favour of his literary pursuits. His long narrative poem excelled. He acted in the declamatory and statuesque
Endymion (1818) was attacked by the critics as the writing style then in fashion, but his career on the stage waned
of an ignorant apothecary's apprentice. During 1 818- 19 when his rival, Edmund *Kean, introduced a more
he reached his creative heights and wrote some of his naturalistic interpretation of dramatic roles. He managed
greatest poems, all published in 1820. These include 'The *Drury Lane and later *Covent Garden, where his
Eve of St Agnes', with its rich and vivid imagery and reforms improved the status of the theatrical profession.
heightened atmosphere of passion; 'Isabella, or The Pot
of Basil'; 'La Belle Dame sans Merci', much admired by Kent, William (1685 1748), English architect, interior
the Pre-Raphaelites; 'Ode to a Nightingale'; 'Ode on a designer, landscape gardener, and painter. He began his
Grecian Urn'; 'To Autumn'; 'Lamia', inspired by *Bur- career as a painter and in1709 19 worked in Rome.
ton's Anatomy of Melancholy which reflected Keats's re- There he met Lord *Burlington and returned with him
curring preoccupation with the relationship between the to England; from then until Kent's death they were
real and the ideal, between art and life; and the unfinished inseparable partners in the conversion of Britain to
epic poem Hyperion. Suffering from tuberculosis, he left *Palladianism. Kent gradually abandoned painting
for Rome in 1820, where he died. Keats is regarded as (which was never his greatest talent) and worked as an
one of the principal figures of the *Romantic movement. architect, interior decorator, and garden designer. His
KENZAN 246
most important building was Holkham Hall in Norfolk saders,and were known as nakers; they were common
(begun 734), where the entrance hall is one of the richest
I throughout medieval Europe. Larger ketdedrums, played
and most splendid works of the period. In general he on camel-back in the Turkish armies, were taken up
excelled more at interiors than exteriors, often designing by late 15th-century European potentates and became
the furniture as well as the decoration, anticipating the *timpani.
way which Robert *Adam created complete interior
in
ensembles. As a landscape designer he was important key, musical composition, a general adherence to the
in
in pioneering the informal style later developed by notes of the major and minor scales. There are twelve
'Capability' *Brown. major keys: one for each of the semitones available in the
chromatic *scale of Western music. Each has a reladve
Kenzan (Ogata Kenzan) (1663- 1743), the most fam-
minor key that shares the same general pitch area, but
ous ofJapanese potters, also a painter, poet, calligrapher, whose .scale starts on a different note. Thus the scale
and lacquerer. His work is varied in style, but often represented by the 'white notes' of the piano and which
combines the simplicity of form required for the tea has C as its tonic (starting note) is the key of C major.
ceremony with a bold sense of decoration reflecting the A white-note scale starting on A is the key of A minor.
influence of his brother, the painter Ogata Korin (1658- The tonic note of the minor key is always three semitones
had a great influence on the *studio pottery movement, sequences, linked by a tone. These tone tone-semitone
studied with Kenzan VI and himself was given the title sequences are known as tetrachords. The example below
Kenzan VII. (See also *Japanese ceramics.) shows the tetrachords for the scale of C major.
Kertesz, Andre (Andor) (1894- 1985), Hungarian pho- keys immediately related to our C major example are G
tographer. Born in Budapest, Kertesz took his first pho- above and F below. In the key of G major the scale
tograph at the age of 16. Its sophisticated visual sense
derived from a childhood love of magazine illustrations
and several years of taking photographs 'in his head'. As This detail of an illustration from Sandford's History of the
Coronation of James U and Queen Mary (1687) shows
a World War I soldier, he took a camera to the front
. . .
C maj.
ti
G maj.
^ D maj.
i
A maj.
reflects the influence of Armenian folk-song.
Khajuraho,
Madhya
the site of a vast group of temples in the
Pradesh province of central India. Khajuraho
was a capital of the Chandella dynasty and the temples
Amin. E min. B mm. Ftt mm.
were built in the loth and ith centuries; originally there
i
sk^ iffe
yv \,
s n\^ \ fe
m,
(seldom used)
^ II
translation, or interpretation, of his poems by Edward
*Fitzgerald.
major and D flat major involve the same notes, as do C analogy was used to identify the king's authority as
flat major and B major. These keys are said to be divinely sanctioned.The gods most widely worshipped in
enharmonic versions of each other they sound the same — ancient Cambodia were the Hindu deities Shiva, Vishnu,
but have different notation. and Harihara (a combined form of these last two deities),
The word key is also applied to the levers on woodwind but Buddhism also became widely practised, and an
instruments that enable the player to obtain different increasingly hybrid religion emerged. The popularity of
notes more easily. The complete set of levers is known as particular deities chronicled through the surviving
is
diatonic notes. The complete diatonic octave was thus insight into the daily life of ancient Cambodia. Far and
compressed into a shorter span that enabled the left hand away the most important Khmer temple is Angkor Wat,
to tackle larger intervals. The colour of the keys, though near the capital of Angkor Thorn. Probably the world's
now universally black and white, has been a matter of largest religious structure (almost 2.6 sq. km. or i sq.
fashion. In the 17th and i8th centuries the present-day mile) it was begun in the reign of Suryavarman II ( 1 1 3-
, 1
black and white arrangement was often reversed. 50) as his dynastic temple and mortuary shrine, and is
KINETIC ART Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
248
of his four heads are visible m the photograph, with sac- a child brought up by wolves; Just So Stories (1902); and
red threads on his arms and wrists. (Musee Guimet, Puck of Book's Hill (1906) continue to be read, as is
Pans) his masterpiece Kitn (1901), about an English boy's
adventures as a spy among the natives of North-West
the supreme example of the Khmer concept of the temple India. In 1907 he was the first British writer to receive
as sacred mountain. Dominating the structure are five the Nobel Prize for Literature.
huge acorn-shaped towers and the sculptural decoration
is astonishingly rich and abundant. The carving indicates Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig (1880- 1938), German
that the temple was dedicated to Vishnu, with whom the painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. He was the dominant
king may have aspired to be identified. Angkor was finally figure of the *Brucke group, and his finest works mark
abandoned in 1431 and, despite reoccupation by Khmer one of the high points of German *Expressionism. His
royalty in the i6th century, never regained its artistic style had much in common with that of the *Fauves, but
momentum. Later Khmer art tends to reflect the influence was more emotional, revealing the influence of *Munch.
of *Thai art, particularly in its temple architecture. Particularly noteworthy are his series of street scenes,
Khmer ceramics are made in shapes inspired by metal done in Berlin in the years immediately before World
vessels, with a rich iron-brown/black glaze. Examples War I, which powerfully express the pace and morbidity
have mostly been excavated in the vicinity of Khmer of city life. Later he turned mainly to painting landscapes
temples of the 12th and 13th centuries, both in Cambodia and scenes of mountain peasants, his work gaining in
and in north-eastern Thailand, once part of the Khmer what it lost in vigour. It was declared degenerate
serenity
kingdom. Many of the forms, such as the balaster jar, by the Nazis in 1937 and he committed suicide the
incense burner, and conch-shell vessel are associated with following year.
the ritual life of the temple. Production appears to have
ceased with the collapse of the Khmer empire. Some Kirov Ballet, Russian ballet company based at the
Cambodian pottery pre-dating the Khmer kingdom has Kirov Theatre, Leningrad. Until the Revolution it was
also been excavated, associated with the earlier Fu-nan called the Maryinsky and was the principal company in
kingdom of the Mekong Delta region. (See also *Buddhist Russia. *Petipa and *Fokine choreographed for it, and
art, *Hindu art, *Indian art.) dancers Tamara Karsavina, Anna Pavlova, and *Nijinksy
were trained at its school. After the revolution Agrippina
kinetic art, term describing art incorporating real or Vagonava became ballet director; she maintained the
apparent movement. In its broadest sense the term can classical purity and elegance which are still the Kirov's
be used to encompass a diverse range of phenomena, hallmarks. *Nureyev, Natalia Makarova, and *Ba-
including cinematic motion pictures, but most usually it ryshnikov were all members of the company and its
is applied to sculpture incorporating motors or driven by current stars include Attynai Assylmouratova and Fa-
air currents, such as Alexander *Calder's mobiles. The roukh Rusimatov. Its current director, Oleg Vinogradov,
www.Ebook777.com
249 KNELLER
is looking to Western choreographers to expand the travelled to Tunisia, a visit that awakened in him a sense
repertoire. of colour that was to be one of the glories of his work.
During World War I he served in the German army,
Kitab al-Aghani, an Arabic Hterary encyclopedia com- then in became a teacher at the *Bauhaus, remaining
1 92 i
piled by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967). It is a twenty- until 1 In 1933 he was forced by the Nazis to leave
93 1.
volume survey of Arab poets and musicians down to the Diisseldorf and returned to Switzerland. His work was
time of the compiler. One of the most delightful works included in the Nazi exhibition of degenerate art in 1937.
in Arabic, it is the chief source of information on early Klee was deeply troubled by contemporary events (as
Arab culture. well as by illness from 1935) and his late works are
sometimes sombre and intense. His output was highly
kitchen-sink drama, a term applied in the London varied, moving freely between figuration and abstraction,
theatre after John *Osborne's Look Back in Anger (1956) absorbing countless influences and transforming them
and after the staging of plays by Arnold *Wesker, to using through his unrivalled imaginative gifts. He was equally
working-class settings rather than the drawing-rooms of a master of oils and water-colour (sometimes he combined
polite comedy. It was used somewhat contemptuously, the two in one picture) and was a superb draughtsman.
and as modern dramatists enlarged their settings to cover His work explores the fantasies and fears of mankind with
many different places it fell out of use as being no longer a joyous spirit that is unequalled in 20th-century art.
appropriate. (See also *'Angry Young Men'.)
Kleist, Heinrich von (1777-1811), German dramatist
kitsch (German, 'trash'), a term applied to art that is and writer of short stories. His works, predominantly
considered vulgar, tawdry, or pretentious, especially work tragic, are based on the belief that knowledge is illusory
designed to have a popular, sentimental appeal. It has and events are usually misunderstood by humans and
been most often applied to mass-produced commercial controlled by a remote, apparently arbitrary Fate. The
atrocities such as cheap tourist souvenirs, but it can also moral laws behind existence thus appear inscrutable.
be used in connection with 'serious' art, for example Andy The theme of the conflict of reason and emotion lies at
Warhol's silk-screen prints of Campbell's soup cans. the heart of all his work; it appears in 77?^ Broken Pitcher
(1808), one of the finest German comedies, but is more
Klee, Paul (1879- 1940), Swiss painter and graphic obvious in The Schroffenstein Family (1803), a re-working
artist,one of the great figures of 20th-century art. He of the Romeo and Juliet * tragedy, and Penthesilea (1808),
spent most of his early career in Munich and became a work which contains some of Kleist's most powerful
involved with the *Blaue Reiter in 191 1. In 1914 he poetry. Prinz Friedrich von Hamburg (1810) conveys his
admiration for Prussia, and discusses the concepts of
heroism and cowardice, of dreaming and action. Kleist's
short stories are distinguished by their dramatic com-
Old Man the title of this enigmatic head by Paul Klee,
is
pactness and narrative skill in handling extreme situations
painted m1922. The whimsical expression, disarming
of violence and disorientation.
simplicity of presentation, and delicate beauty of
colouring are typical of Klee's subtle, poetic, and
imaginative style. He greatly admired the directness of Klixnt, Gustav
(1862- 19 18), Austrian painter and
vision found m
children's drawings. (Offentliche graphic After an early * Impressionist phase Klimt
artist.
Kuntsammlung, Basel) came under the influence of *Symbolism and *art nou-
veau and created a highly distinctive style of lush sen-
suality. He painted large allegorical works and female
portraits; the figures themselves are treated more or less
naturalistically, but they are embellished with richly
decorative patterns recalling butterfly wings or peacock
feathers. They are often erotic but pessimistic in feeling
and his work sometimes caused violent controversy. Klimt
was regarded as the leading avant-garde artist in turn-
of-the-century Vienna (he founded the Vienna *Sezes-
sion), and his work was highly influential, notably on
*Kokoschka and *Schiele.
early i8th centuries. The finest portraits fi-om liis own KoUwitz, Kathe (1867- 1945), German *Expressionist
hand are excellent, but his studio turned out much slick graphic artist and sculptor. She concentrated on tragic
and mechanical work. He is best known for portraits of themes, much of her work being intended as social
the members of the fashionable Kitcat Club. protest — against, for example, the working conditions of
the urban poor. Many of her best works were devoted to
Kochanowski, Jan (1530-84), Pofish poet. The lyrical the mother and child theme, and most of the later ones
Songs (1586), modelled on *Horace, reveal how he en- were pacifist in intention (her son was killed in World
riched Polish poetic diction, influencing many subsequent War I and her grandson in W^orld War H). Her work
generations of Polish writers. When he virtually retired conveys both power and poignancy and represents one
from court life to the country, to lead a life he idyllized of the high points of Expressionist art.
in St John s Eve (<:. 1575), he wrote the first Polish classical
drama. The Dismissal of the Grecian Envoys (performed Komisarzhevsky, Fyodor (Fyodorovich) (1882-
1578) and a poetic version of the Psalms, The Psalter of 1954), Russian-born theatrical director and designer.
David (1579). The death of his young daughter Orszula Influenced by the naturalistic theatre of ^Stanislavsky,
led him to express his grief and crisis of faith in an he produced plays and operas in Russia from 1907, but
extraordinarily personal cycle oi^ Laments (1580). after the Revolution of 191 7 moved to Britain and then
to the USA. In 1926 he directed a notable Russian season,
Kodaly, Zoltan (1882- 1967), Hungarian composer and including Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and Three Sisters. In the
educationalist. With *Bart6k he became deeply involved 1930s there followed a series of Shakespeare productions
in and study of *folk music, while
the collection at at Stratford-upon-Avon, such as Macbeth (1933) in 20th-
the same time attempting to stimulate an interest in century dress, with aluminium scenery.
contemporary music. Both composers were indebted to
folk-song as the basis for their own style. International kora, a musical instrument, the bridge-harp or harp-lute,
success came 1923 with the choral work Psalmus
in used by the professional bards of the Manding peoples of
Hungaricus, and was followed by the equally successful West Africa. There are 21 strings, on the left and 10
1 1
opera Hdry Jdnos (1926). Later works include the or- on the right side of the bridge, which stands upright, on
chestral Dances of Marosszek (1930), Dances of Galdnta the skin belly of the large hemispherical gourd body.
(1937), and 'Peacock' Variations (1939); and the Missa
brevis (1944). From 1925 Kodaly was much occupied in Koran (Qur'an), the Holy Scripture of the Muslims, who
laying the foundations of a Hungarian national scheme believe it to be Allah's word revealed to his messenger
for musical education, for which he wrote a graded series Muhammad (570-632) through the angel Jibril or Ga-
of imaginative singing and sight-reading exercises, based briel over the period 610 32. It consists of 114 suras
on folk-song. This 'Kodaly Method' rapidly gained in- (chapters) of varying length, each sura being composed
ternational acceptance. of a number o{ dyas (normally translated as verses because
assonance is involved, although the Koran is a prose
Kokoschka, Oskar
(1886- 1980), Austro-Czech work). The early revelations are highly charged and
painter, graphic artist,and writer who became a British rhetorical, but the style becomes more lelaxed with the
subject in 1947. Throughout his long life he was unaffected passing of time. The contents are diverse, particularly
by modern developments and pursued his own highly prominent themes being the omnipotence of Allah, the
personal and imaginative version of pre- 914 *Ex- 1
duty to believe in Allah alone, descriptions of the Day of
pressionism. His varied output included portraits, large Judgement, heaven, and hell, stories of the Prophets, and,
and a particular kind of
allegorical decorative paintings, in the latest phase, social legislation. Much of the power
town view seen from a high viewpoint. His writings of the Koran lies in the Arabic and does not come across
include an autobiography (1971) and several plays. in translation.
often acted as a cultural crossroads and its art has Korea from 1948) for the Olympic Games held there in
frequently been treated as a poor relation of that of its 1988. (See also *Buddhist art, *Chinese art, *Japanese
two great neighbours. Certainly Korean art has been visual arts.)
decisively influenced by China, but theKoreans are one
of the most creative people of Asia, their finest work
Korean music, a form of East Asian music performed
being characterized by an effortless grace and vitality. in Korea. Though influenced for centuries by * Chinese
Unfortunately, Korea's war-torn history has led to the musical traditions, Korea has maintained its own dis-
tinctive style in north-east Asia. Chinese influence is
destruction of a great deal of the country's art. Few
ancient buildings are left standing, for example, even apparent from the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc-ad
though temples and fortifications were often built of 668), with early native Korean instruments, such as the
six- and twelve-string *zithers komungo and kayagum (see
granite, rather than wood. Korea's documented history
*kolo), related to the Chinese qin and zheng (see *Buddhist
goes back to the 12th century bc, when it was colonized
music), and with the introduction of *Buddhism and
by the Chinese, and the first native Korean state emerged
in the ist century bc. The time from then until ad 668
Confucianism and their attendant music and rituals. This
is known as the Period of the Three Kingdoms, when
continued during the Great Silla period (668-918), when
Korea was divided into Koguryo in the north, Paekche music was categorized as hyangak (native music) or tangak
in the south-west, and Silla in the south-east. Many tombs (Tang, later any Chinese music). In the Koryo dynasty
survive from this period, and in of widespread
spite (918-1392) Confucian ritual music was imported from
looting, some of them have yielded goldwork of superlative
China and is still performed, though in a Koreanized
style. Chinese music lessened in importance in the early
quality. Others contained mural paintings. In 668 Korea
years of the Yi dynasty (1392- 19 10), from which time
was united under the rule of Silla, and this inaugurated
also dates the oldest surviving notation, and musical
the finest age of the country's art, the Great Silla period,
settings of poems written in the newly developed Korean
which lasted for 250 years (668-918). Buddhism provided
the basis for a cultured society centred on the capital
alphabet. These show the characteristic pentatonic scales
Kyongju, and impressive remnants of temple architecture and triple metres of later Korean music. Court music is
di\ided into various genres, including ceremonial or-
and sculpture survive, notably the cave temple of Sukku-
1am. Stone-carving reached high levels and the bronze- chestral music, aristocratic chamber music (including the
casters of the Great Silla period were famed throughout
vocal solo kagok)y and 'folk music' —
actually sophisticated
solo genres for instruments [sanjo) or voice (the one-man
the East for their temple bells, the finest surviving example
being the great bell at Kyongju, made in 770. The ruling opera p'ansori). The National Classical Music Institute
dynasty was deposed in 918, inaugurating the Koryo was founded in 1951 to preserve traditional music.
period, which lasted until 1392 and during which the
Korngold, Erich Wolfgang (1897- 1957), Austrian-
capital moved toSongdo (now Kaesong) in 938. Nu-
born US
composer. His ballet The Snowman (1910) was
merous temples and monasteries were built during this
followed in 19 16 by a remarkable first opera Violanla. His
period, but little large-scale work survives. Some superb
masterpiece. The Dead City (1920), conquered the world's
bronzework remains, however, in the form of mirrors and
operatic stages. In 1934 he settled in Hollywood, be-
ornaments, and Korean ceramics reached their peak
coming one of the most imaginative and fluent composers
during this period, matching even the finest products of
of film music; the scores for Robin Hood and Anlhony Adverse
China. In particular the *celadon ware made during the
received Oscars. Korngold's music is highly chromatic
Koryo period is generally regarded as being among
(see *harmony), sumptuously scored, and romantic to
the most beautiful pottery ever created anywhere in the
the point of decadence.
world. The Yi dynasty superseded the Koryo dynasty in
1392 and lasted until 19 10, when Korea was annexed koto, zheng, and kayagiini, musical instruments, the
by Japan. The new dynasty replaced Buddhism with long *zithers ofjapan, China, and Korea. A bridge under
Confucianism as the state religion, and art became pre-
each string allows scales to be set by moving bridges rather
dominantly secular. In 1592-8 a Japanese invasion dealt
than retuning strings. Pitches are varied by depressing the
a severe blow to the arts, causing widespread destruction
strings behind the bridges. The kayagiim is plucked with
and forcing many Korean potters into captivity in Japan,
the flesh of the fingers, the zheng with fingernails, and the
where they played a major role in creating the Japanese
kolo with artificial nails. The Chinese qin differs by not
porcelain industry. Korea produced a number of fine
having bridges and by making more use of harmonics,
painters in the 17th and i8th centuries who added lustre
whose positions are indicated by spots set into the sound-
to the national tradition. Chinese influence was strong,
board; its use and repertoire are very ancient.
but Korean painters created distinctive features of their
own, showing for example a special talent for portraying Krasicki, Ignacy 735-1801), Polish poet. An acute
(i
domestic animals. The most illustrious name in Korean observer of human
he employed various styles and
follies,
painting is Chong Son (1676- 1759), who brought a new succinct language with wit and irony in the mock-heroic
vitality and freshness to the portrayal of landscape. He
Mouse-iad (1775), Fables and Parables, Satires (1779), and
travelled the country visiting famous places and painting Utopian Nicholas Try-All
the first Polish novel, the ( i 776).
what was called 'real landscape', using a vigorous tech-
nique that broke with the restrained Chinese tradition. Krasinski, Zygmunt (1812-59), Polish dramatist. His
More recent Korean art has been less distinguished, major work, the play The Undivine Comedy (1835), is
although modern folk arts have won high praise. The concerned with the universal problem of divine in-
national economy has shown a revival since the Korean tervention in historical processes, and seems to anticipate
War of 1950-3, and there was a massive building cam- an organized revolution that would destroy the aristo-
paign in Seoul (capital of Korea from 1392 and of South cracy to which he belonged. His other literary achieve-
KREISLER 252
L
is
*romances, such as d'*Urfe's UAstree, in pursuit of Lamb, Charles (1775- 1834), British essayist, literary
that verisimilitude which was to become the concern of critic, and poet. He is best known for his 'Essays of Elia',
18th-century novehsts. It is written with the styHstic a series of miscellaneous articles which appeared in the
restraint characteristic of French classicism. London Magazine between 1820 and 1823. After his older
sisterMary, in a fit of insanity, killed their mother, Lamb
La Fontaine, Jean de (1621-95), French poet. His took charge of her and entered into a long-standing
fame rests principally upon his * Fables, published in 1668, literary collaboration with her which was to include Tales
1678-9, and 1694. These are drawn from sources both from Shakespeare (1807), a re-telling of the plays for
ancient (Phaedrus, * Aesop) and modern, though La children. He
contributed *essays, articles, and poems to
Fontaine uses them as the starting-point for observations the major periodicals of the day under the pseudonym of
on human nature — often quite astringent ones — in which Elia. His Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about
he ranges across all classes of society. La Fontaine sided the time of Shakespeare (1808), a selection of much-edited
with *Boileau and the Ancients in the literary *Quarrel Elizabethan drama, drew attention to that period.
of the Ancients and Moderns, though he disavowed the
idea of slavish imitation. Lamming, George (1927- ), West Indian novelist.
His novel. In the Castle of
first My
Skin (1953), is set in his
Lagerkvist, Par (Fabian) (i 891 -1974), Swedish nov- native Barbados, and follows the growing awareness of a
elist, poet, and dramatist. His novels explore the am- village boy. The Emigrants (1954) examines West Indians
biguities of life, the fear of death, and the problem of migrating to Britain. His later novels, notably Natives of
good and evil. The Dwarf (ig^^), set in Renaissance Italy, My Person(1972), are more poetic and symbolic, exploring
deals with man's destructiveness; Barabbas ( 1 950) heralded West Indian identity through imaginary voyages.
a series of novels whose central concern is man's search
for God. Lagerkvist's poetry collection Angest (191 6) is
lampoon, an insulting written attack upon a real person,
startling in emotional intensity and forceful language
its in verse or prose, usually involving caricature and ridicule.
and he developed into one of Sweden's greatest *lyric Among English writers who have indulged in this ma-
poets. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature liciously personal form of *satire are Dryden, Pope,
in 1951. and Byron. The laws of libel have restricted its further
development as a literary form.
Lagerldf, Selxna (1858- 1940), Swedish novelist. The
first woman to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature Landler 'walt2
(1909), her writings, often based on legends and sagas,
are vividly descriptive and lyrical. Among her most not- Landor, Walter Savage 775-1864), British poet and
(
1
able works translated into English are Jerusalem (1901-2), prose writer. A sense of control and formality characterizes
The Story oJGosla Berling (1891), and the children's book much of his verse which is in sharp contrast to that of other
which won her world-wide fame. The Wonderful Adventure *Romantic poets. His skill as a lyricist is demonstrated in
of Nils (1906-7). his *epic poem (1798), an oriental tale. He is
Gebir
remembered for his Imaginary Conversations of Literary Men
Lalique, Rene (i860- 1945), French jeweller and glass- and Statesmen (1824-9), ^ prose work with dialogues
maker, one of the outstanding exponents of the *art concerning political, social, and literary questions, which
nouveau style. He abandoned the conventions of the day, range from classical antiquity to the 19th century.
creating dynamic, sinuous, asymmetrical patterns of plant
and insect forms. Most of his later career, particularly landscape gardening *garden art.
after World War I, was devoted to glass production; he
made a great variety of objects, including light fixtures, landscape painting, the art of depicting natural
jewellery, screens, vases, and mascots for cars at two scenery in painting. Although Western examples of land-
factories he established in France. scape painting by the Romans survive from Pompeii, it
was not until the i6th century that landscape began to
Lalo, Edouard- (Victoire-Antoine) 1823-92), French (
emerge as a distinctive subject in European art. The
composer. He remained in relative obscurity working as German Altdorfer is generally credited with being the
a teacher and violinist until the 1870s, when his Symphonie first artist to paint a pure landscape and it was in northern
most popular category of painting. In modern painting (1927), a bleak look at a dehumanized city of the future.
landscape has also been the basis for Surrealist fantasy His first sound film was A/ 93 a classic study of a child-
(
1 1 )
,
or abstract compositions. (See also * Chinese painting, murderer. The Testament oj Dr Mabuse (1933) attracted the
*Japanese visual arts.) attention of Goebbels, who invited him to supervise Nazi
Germany's film-making. Lang rejected the offer and
Landseer, Sir Edwin (1802-73), British painter, moved to the USA; his first American film was Fury
sculptor, and engraver of animal subjects. Though his (1936), a study of lynch-law. Notable among his other
work delighted the Victorian public, his reputation has American films were Tou Only Live Once (1937), in which
had great skill in depicting
since declined, for although he a man is wrongfully executed; the anti-Nazi Hangmen Also
animals, his sentimental and moralizing compositions do Die (1943), co-authored with Bertolt Brecht; The Woman
not appeal to modern taste. In his last years he suffered in the Window (1944), about ill-fated sexual desire; Rancho
from bouts of madness aggravated by alcohol. His father Notorious (1952), the best of his three Westerns; and The
John (1769-1852) and his brother Thomas (1795 1880) Big Heat (1953), a crime melodrama. After leaving the
were engravers. USA in 1956 he made only two more films, both in
Germany, the second being a contemporary Mabuse film.
Lanfranco, Giovanni (1582- 1647), Italian painter, The Thousand Eyes of Dr Mabuse (i960).
active mainly in Rome and
Naples. In the 1620s he
overtook *Domenichino as the leading *fresco decorator Langland, William (r. 1330-^.1400), English poet, pre-
in Rome, and with *Guercino and da *Cortona
Pietro sumed author of 'Piers Plowman' (f. 1367-70), one of the
he ranks as one of the founders of the mature *Baroque major poems of * Middle English literature. It exists in
style of painting. His most important work is the As- three versions and is an * allegory of mankind's pre-
sumption of the Virgin (1625-7) ""^ the dome of San Andrea dicament on earth. The first part contains the poet's
della Valle in Rome, in which he took to new extremes vision of society under Lady Meed (love-of-gain) and of
the dynamic type of illusionistic foreshortening practised Piers 'ploughing his half-acre', beset by the seven deadly
by *Correggio. It became a model for illusionistic dec- sins, on his pilgrimage to Truth. In the remainder of the
orators throughout Europe. From 1633 to 1646 Lanfranco poem the nature of Truth is examined in the life of Dowel
worked in Naples and had a great influence on painters (Do-Well), and Piers comes to personify the individual
there. Christian in his search for self-knowledge, grace, and
charity. The poem is written in colloquial, simple English,
Lang, Fritz (1890- 1976), Austrian-born US film dir- using simple symbols and images while maintaining the
ector. He established his reputation in Germany with a religious orthodoxy of medieval Christian doctrine.
series of films including Dr Mabuse the Gambler (1922), a
two-part film about a criminal mastermind in decadent Lao
literature. The classical literature of Laos, written
contemporary Germany; Die JVibelungen (1924), based on both prose and poetry, contains many epics, of which
in
the Siegfried legend, also in two parts; and Metropolis the most famous is the Prah Tak Prah Lam, a much
adapted Lao version of the Indian *Ramavana. Popular
literature consists of oral legends, stories, and poems.
The massive sets needed to create Lang's vision of the Modern Lao literature only originated in the 1960s and
future m Metropolis almost bankrupted its producers; but reflected the political divisions within Laos. A re-
itremains a landmark m cinema history. Lang was more
volutionary style of literature which praised the people's
successful m his later Hollywood career than most
European directors, though his lack of independence struggle against the US and the pro-Western regime
caused him frequent frustration. based at Vientiane emerged and, with the establishment of
LAO SHE 256
the Popular Democratic Republic in 1975, predominated. nun Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz (1648-95). In the 19th
The numerous Dai minority peoples who inhabit Laos century literature initially reflected European fashions,
also possess a rich and diverse Buddhist literature of their but some original works did begin to appear, such as the
own, preserved for themost part in manuscript form. literary sketches, Peruvian Traditions, of Ricardo Palma
(Peru, 1833-99). By the end of the century a great
Lao She (Shu Qingchun) (1899- 1966), Chinese novelist novelist, Machado de Assis (Brazil, 1839- 1908), and an
and dramatist. He taught in London in the 1920s and outstanding poet, *Dario, had appeared. The former's
was deeply influenced by *Dickens, *Conrad, and *Swift. Dom Casmurro (1899) ranks alongside any 19th-century
He is best known for his later novels, which were more European novel, and the latter founded a poetic move-
concerned with patriotic and social themes. His master- ment, modernismo (* modernism), from French models but
piece is the novel Xiangzi the Camel 1936), which recounts
( with sufficient freshness to be influential in Spain itself.
An un-
the tragic story of a rickshaw-puller in Beijing. The 20th century has seen Latin American literature
authorized and bowdlerized English translation entitled grow in vitality as the century has progressed. In poetry
Rickshaw Boy appeared in 1945 and became a best-seller the outstanding authors are *Vallejo, *Neruda, and
in the West. Octavio Paz (Mexico, 1914- ). The short story has
reached inspired levels in, for example, the work of
Larkixi, Philip (Arthur) (1922-85), British poet and *Borges and *Cortazar. The novel, of high quality since
novelist. Larkin's poems acquired a distinctive voice in the 1930s and increasingly successful since the so-called
The Less Deceived (1953), which was followed by The 'boom' of the 1960s, has its major exponents in Carlos
Whitsun Weddings (1964). He spent the latter part of his Fuentes (Mexico, 1929- *Garcia Marquez, and
),
life as librarian at Hull University, and there is a *Vargas Llosa.
melancholy comedy in his observations of provincial
urban life and the presentation of himself as out of date Latin American music, the music of South America,
and Throughout his work contemporary
disillusioned. a mixture of native Indian music (see *American In-
speech rhythms and vocabulary are adapted to an un- dian music), transported African elements (see *Afro-
obtrusive metrical elegance. The Collected Poems appeared
in 1988.
American music in South America), and imported Euro- week before Lent). Dances like the *cueca, *samba,
pean traditions, each region and country of South Amer- Congo, salsa, and *tango have been exported to the
ica having its own distinct voice due to the relative ballrooms of Europe and North America, beginning with
strength of each tradition in the mixture. Taken as a the tango in 1910.
whole, the Indian element in South American music is
relatively weak, and restricted to highland areas with Latin literature, the literature of the Roman republic
large native populations, for example parts of Mexico (C.500-C.44 Bc), imperial Rome
{c^o bc-ad c.400), and
and Peru. The African component is stronger, especially medieval Europe. Little or no Latin writing untouched
in the Caribbean and Brazil, while the European element by *Greek literature has been preserved. The first work
is everywhere and in every aspect a major influence. The of note was the adaptation of *Homer's Odyssey (3rd
advanced civilizations of South America quickly adapted century bc) by the slave Livius Andronicus. Drama,
to the instruments and music the Europeans brought with firmly based on *Greek theatre and *epic poetry, de-
them from the i6th century onwards. Sacred *polyphonic veloped during the 2nd century bc. *Ennius introduced
compositions were imitated throughout the i6th and 17th the *hexameter into Latin with the Annals, a poem on
centuries, both by Spanish-born or Spanish-descended the history of Rome. The greatest of Roman dramatists
composers like Juan Gutierrez de Padilla (1605-73), was Plautus (c.254-184 bc), who adapted his plays from
active at Puebla, Mexico, and Gutierre Fernandez the 'New Comedy' of the Greek theatre. As in Greece,
Hidalgo 1553-C. 1620), who worked at various centres
(
prose developed later than poetry. Annalistic history grew
in South America, including Cuzco, the Inca capital, but gradually from the records of the priests, but Greek
also by Indian composers like Don Juan de Lienas influence was also crucial. The first Roman
werehistories
(c.1620-50), who worked at Mexico City. The Roman in Greek, and the first known Cato the
history in Latin,
Catholic churches and cathedrals in the major centres Elder's Origins {c. 49 bc) was influenced by Greek writers.
1 ,
provided the ideal setting for their music. Secular forms Terence (c. 185-159 bc) adapted Greek themes for his own
like the villancicos, in popular Spanish dance-song, some- polished and urbane comedies. Oratory, an important
times accompanied by the *vihuela, were also widely weapon in Roman republican politics, took on Greek
imitated, Juan de Araujo (1646- 171 2) composing a large sophistication and rhythms from the time that the tribune
number. Opera was an important genre of the i8th and Gains Gracchus (d. 121 bc) delivered his speeches, reach-
19th centuries, the earliest extant New World opera being ing its peak in the work of *Cicero in the next century.
The Purple of the Rose, written by Torrejon y Velasco This period produced some of the greatest figures in Latin
(1676- 728) and first performed in 1701. Many theatres
I literature: *Catullus wrote some of the finest lyric poetry,
and opera houses were built and much pride was taken employing the hexameter for mythological subjects, as
in a flourishing artistic tradition. In the early 20th century well as experimenting in the elegiac couplet, while
Latin American composers capitalized on exotic local *Lucretius showed how poetry could accommodate
elements, incorporating them successfully into their works: philosophy, and Sallust brought a new style and dignity
for example, the Mexican Carlos Chavez (1899-1978) to the writing of history. The fall of the republic did much
used Indian themes and subjects, and Jose Pablo Moncayo to stifle the art of oratory and of historical writing, and
(1912-58), also from Mexico, wrote orchestral works with the classic Augustan period is marked mainly by the
a strong folk element. Later 20th-century composers for poetry of *Ovid, the later work of *Virgil, the lyrics of
the most part spurned such Latin American colour and *Horace, and the maturity of Roman *elegy. It was
followed more mainstream musical developments. The followed by the writers of the Silver Age, notably Stratius
foremost 20th-century South American composer is (ad c. 45-96), whose epic Thebaid influenced Dante and
*Villa-Lobos, who combines traditional rhythmic and Chaucer. The literature of this period is preoccupied with
melodic elements with European Classical music. The wit, epigram, and melodrama. In the ist century ad this
Argentinian composer Alberto Ginastera (1916-83) com- manner put its mark on epic poetry, most notably in
bined the influence of Indian folk music and Western *Lucan, but it also affected the tragedy and prose of
composers such as *Bart6k in his music. The folk music *Seneca. Classical Latin is rounded off at the start of the
of South America is also indebted to European models. second century by two mordant writers, *Juvenal, who
The many varieties of guitar found throughout Latin perfected * Roman *satire, and by the sceptical historian
America, such as the *cuatro (a guitar with four doubled *Tacitus. Apart from the extraordinary writings of
strings varying in size from that of a standard guitar to Apuleius (2nd century ad) (see *Greek and Roman
that of a ukelele), and *charango, are adaptations of novel), there is little of note until Christianity brought
European instruments, while the simple chordal harmony new inspiration. Latin literature survived in Africa and
employed is also European. Even the most characteristic Europe through the so-called Dark Ages of the 5th and
—
rhythm of Latin America a fast alternation of the time 6th centuries in hymns and other religious verse, notably
signatures 6/8 and 3/4 —
is of Spanish derivation. the influential *allegory Psychomachia (c.405) by the Span-
ish poet Prudentius; in the philosophical reflections of
Latin American popular dance. Spanish col- Boethius, whose Consolatio (c.524) was later translated by
onization of South America from the i6th century on- Chaucer; and in the historical writings of the English
wards introduced many European dance-forms to the monk Bede (673-735). From the end of the ith century i
continent. The Spanish also brought with them many a reawakening of Latin poetry began in France, stim-
African and Asian slaves, and the rhythmic sophistication ulating the production of secular verses by wandering
of their cultures had a strong influence on South American scholars, notably in the *Carmina Burana. Important
dance and music. The fusion of African, Asian, and Latin prose works of the late Middle Ages include the
European forms with the indigenous Amerindian dance letters of the philosopher and scholar Peter Abelard
has created a vigorous and colourful popular dance 1079- 1 142), the theological writings of Thomas Aquinas
(
culture, which flourishes especially during carnival (the (c. 1225-74), ^rid the very popular mystical work De
LA TOUR 258
the *glazes combined with the occasional vigorously brass tools, which are heated. The design may be traced
incised or splashed motif. on the surface of the leather and is then lightly impressed
with the heated tools. Gold may then be put on the
Leacock, Stephen Butler (1869- 1944), Canadian hu- surface and pressed on using the tools. This form of
morist. The author of o\er 60 books, he is best known decoration has been used particularly for leather book-
for many collections of humorous sketches, parodies, and covers. Leather can also be dyed or embroidered to create
essays, beginning with Literary Lapses (1910), and in- a stunning variety of clothes and shoes.
cluding Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town (191 2), Arcadian
Adventures of the Idle Rich (19 14), and My Discovery of Leavis, F(rank) R(ayzn.ond) (1895-1978), British *lit-
England (1922). He also wrote biographies of his masters, erary critic. As a lecturer at Cambridge University and
Twain and Dickens. co-editor (1932-53) of the quarterly journal Scrutiny,
the vehicle of the 'new Cambridge criticism', he, in
Lean, David (1908- ), British film director. Already collaboration with his wife, Q,(ueenie) D(orothy) Leavis
a highly professional editor, he co-directed In Which We (1
906 8 ,) established a new critical approach that upheld
1
Serve (1942) with Noel Coward, and then directed films strict intellectual standards and attacked what appeared
of Coward's plays This Happy Breed (1944) and Blithe to be the dilettante elitism of the *Bloomsbury group.
Spirit (1945). A Coward one-act play, Still Life, provided JVew Bearings in English Poetry (1932) championed the
one of his best films. Brief Encounter (also 1945), a poetry of *modernism against the Victorian tradition.
sensitively made story of middle-aged romance. Two Turning to in The Great Tradition (1948) he
fiction
famous Dickens films. Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver works of Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry
reassessed the
Twist (1948), further enhanced his reputation. The Sound James, and Joseph Conrad. Leavis saw a close correlation
Barrier (1952)had spectacular flying scenes and Hobson's between an author's moral position and his literary
Choice (1954) was an excellent adaptation of Brighouse's achievement, and introduced a new seriousness into the
play. After Summer Madness (1955), about a single woman's study of English literature.
unhappy love affair in Venice, he turned to more spec-
tacular, epic-style productions. The Bridge on the River Lebrun, Charles (1619-90), French painter and inter-
Kwai (1957) and Lawrence of Arabia (1962) both won ior decorator. In 1642 he went to Rome, where he was
Academy Awards for Best Film and Best Director; they influenced by the theories of *Poussin, but on his return
were followed by Doctor ^hivago (1965) and Ryan's Daughter to Paris his own style developed in a more illusionistic
(1970), which were attacked by the critics. Discouraged, *Baroque manner. In 1662 he was made court painter
he made no further films until A Passage to India (1984), under Louis XIV, and as such he was responsible not
based on the novel by E. M. Forster. only for the Galerie d'Apollon at the Louvre (1661) but
also for much of the grandest decorative work at
Lear, Edward (1812-88), British writer of humorous Versailles. In 1663 he was made director of the re-
verse and landscape artist. The youngest of twenty-one organized Academy of Painting and Sculpture, imposing
children, he suffered from epilepsy and melancholia. He a codified system of orthodoxy in matters of art and taste:
began his career as a zoological draughtsman and in 1832 his lectures laid the basis of official French academicism,
his Illustrations of the Family of the Psittacidae appeared. attempting to impose rules of artistic creation in the spirit
Commissioned by the Earl of Derby to make drawings of Poussin's classicism.
of his private menagerie, he produced his first Book of
Nonsense (1845) for the earl's grandchildren. This was the Leconte de Lisle, Charles-Marie-Rene (1818-94),
first of many volumes of *nonsense verse in which lin- French poet. He was born on Reunion Island in the
guistic fantasy and humorous drawings, combine with western Indian Ocean, but lived almost continuously
occasional touches of melancholy. Nonsense Songs, Stories, in France after 1837 and became the leader of the
Botany and Alphabets (1871) contains the well-known 'The *Parnassians. The preface to his Poemes antiques (1852)
Owl and the Pussy-Cat' and 'The Jumblies'. In the 20th contains a statement of his poetic ideals in reaction against
century his reputation as a landscape painter (especially * Romanticism and stressing the need for impersonality
in water-colour) has risen steadily. and discipline; the poems themselves are mostly of Greek
or Indian inspiration, presenting a heroic ideal from
leathercraft, the creation of artefacts from animal skins which civilization has declined. His Poemes barbares 1862) (
that have been made smooth arid flexible by various draw on Nordic, Egyptian, and biblical sources, and con-
processes. It is one of the oldest crafts known to man, its tain an exotic streak characteristic of Parnassian poetry.
origins dating back to the Stone Age. Leather can be
crafted in a great variety of ways. The most basic skill is Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) (1887-
cutting, which can be used as a means of decoration: a 1965), Swiss-born architect, interior designer, painter,
remarkable example comes from ancient Egypt f. 1500 and writer who became a French citizen in 1930. His
BC, in the form of gazelle skins cut into a fine network pseudonym, adopted in 1920, derived from the name of
with an uncut border around the edge. Shoes similarly one of his grandparents and was a pun on his facial
decorated by cutting leather were made by the Romans resemblance to a raven (French, corbeau). Through his
and in medieval Ireland. Hard inflexible leather can be buildings, designs, and prolific literary output he has
moulded once it has been soaked in water, to make probably had a greater influence on 20th-century ar-
such objects as armour, saddles, drinking vessels, bottles, chitecture than any other man. He saw architecture
quivers, and various boxes and containers. Such objects in terms of the problems and potentialities of modern
were decorated with embossed designs, which were im- industrial society, and he was particularly interested in
pressed onto the leather while wet. Another form of town-planning, prefabrication, and the use of stand-
ornamentation is tooling, involving the use of patterned ardized building elements. Early in his career he worked
LEDOUX 260
influential houses — white, cubic, and often raised on pilotis (1902). In 1905, however, he became world famous with
(stilt-like pillars) that leave the ground floor open. After
his eighth *operetta. The Merry Widow. A
whole series of
World War II, however, he turned from this smooth, successful operettas followed, including Frasquita (1922),
elegant, rationalist style, to a much more massive, sculp- Paganini (1925), and The Land of Smiles (1929). His last
tural, and expressive style which soon became equally stage work, Giuditta (1934), brought operetta nearer to
influential.The Unite d'Habitation at Marseilles (1947- opera, but was not a lasting success.
52), a huge housing block with its own shops, and the
pilgrimage chapel Notre-Dame-du-Haut at Ronchamp Leighton, Frederic (Lord Leighton ofStretton) (1830-
(195 -5) are perhaps his most famous works in this vein.
1 96), British painter and sculptor, one of the dominant
Le Corbusier's enormous international reputation ensured figures of Victorian art. He was President of the Royal
that many commissions came from outside France, and Academy from 1878 and on the day before his death he
his largest project was the layout (i 950-1) of the new was raised to the peerage, the first English artist to be so
city of Chandigarh in India. He also designed several of honoured. His varied output included portraits and book
the major buildings there. As a painter Le Corbusier is illustrations, but he is best known for his beautifully
noted as one of the founders of * Purism. (See also drawn and opulently coloured paintings of classical Greek
*functionalism.) subjects.
Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas (1736- 1806), French archi- leitmotif (German, 'leading motive'), a musical theme
tect. Ledoux began designer of charming,
his career as a associated with a person, object, or emotion in *opera
elegant houses, but then became one of the most original and *programme music. An invention of the 19th century,
and powerful exponents of *Neoclassicism and the *Greek it is used to great advantage in *Wagner's music-dramas,
Revival. He is similar to his contemporary *Boullee in where a network of such themes enables him to weave a
his imaginative powers and his feeling for starkly simple coherent symphonic commentary on the action, spread
geometrical forms. His buildings included a series of out over many hours. Through the leitmotif a composer
forty-six massive toll-gates surrounding Paris of which can provide detailed information in purely orchestral
four survive, notably the Barriere de la Villette (1784- terms, thus in an opera, a theme that has already been
9). His most remarkable building is the salt works at established as representing 'hatred' may reveal the true
Arc-et-Senans near Besanfon (1775-9), almost fright- thoughts of a villain who appears smiling blandly.
eningly austere and powerful. Ledoux's career was ended
by the Revolution, during which he was imprisoned and Lely, Sir Peter (1618-80), painter of Dutch origin who
wrote an architectural treatise, published in 1804. It spent almost all his career in England and was naturalized
contains many visionary ideas, including plans for an in 1662. He painted Charles I and Oliver Cromwell, but
261 LERMONTOV
he is associated chiefly with the court of Charles II, who the rise of the more naturalistic English style (associated
appointed him Principal Painter in 1661. With the aid particularly with Lancelot *Brown) in the i8th century.
of a team of assistants he maintained an enormous output,
and bewigged courtiers and fleshy, sleepy beauties
his Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian artist, scient-
clad in have created the popular image of Restoration
silks ist, and writer. He was one of the greatest painters of the
England. Much of his work is repetitive but he was a *Renaissance and probably the most versatile genius,
fluent and lively colourist and had a gift for impressive being also an anatomist, engineer, mathematician, musi-
composition. His tradition of society portraiture, de- and philosopher, as well as an architect
cian, naturalist,
veloped by *Kneller, endured for almost a century until and sculptor. His scientific ideas generally remained
it was challenged by *Hogarth. hidden in his notebooks and it was as an artist that he
had the greatest effect on his contemporaries. He was
Lent, Stanislaw (1921- ), Polish novelist. He studied trained in *Verocchio's studio in Florence, but his first
medicine, and in his science fiction combines scientific major commission, The Adoration of the Magi (Uffizi,
expertise with discussion of moral and psychological Florence), was left unfinished when he moved to Milan
issues. In early works such as Astronauts (1951) the in 1481 or 1482. He stayed in Milan until 1499, working
emphasis is on technical details, but from Solaris (1961; mainly at the court of Duke Ludovico Sforza. The major
*Tarkovsky film 1973) meditative elements predominate. work of his Milanese period is the mural of The Last
Supper ((".1495-7) i" '^he monastery church of Santa Maria
Lemercier, Jacques (r. 1582- 1654), French architect. delle Grazie, which, in spite of its poor condition, has
His major patron was Cardinal Richelieu, for whom he powerfully influenced successive generations of artists and
designed his most famous building, the church of the writers. Until 1506 Leonardo worked mainly in Florence,
Sorbonne in Paris (1635-42), which, especially in its and probably during this time painted the Mona Lisa, a
dome, reflects Lemercier's knowledge of Italian archi- work now so famous that its originality, subtlety, and
tecture. For the cardinal Lemercier also designed the naturalness of pose and expression tend to be overlooked.
enormous chateau (almost totally destroyed) of Richelieu From 1506 to 15 16 he was based in Milan and Rome.
and the adjacent town of the same name, which still In 15 16, at the invitation of Francis I, he retired to
survives as a fine example of regular town-planning. France, where he died. Leonardo's output as an artist
was small and he left a high proportion of his works
Le Nain, Antoine (d. 1648), Louis (d. 1648), and unfinished, but his influence was enormous, in his own
Mathieu 1607-77),(
French painters. The three brothers time and in succeeding centuries. Stylistically, he brought
were born at Laon but had all moved to Paris by 1630. new naturalism to painting through his mastery of light
Little is known of their careers, and the assigning of works and shade, and his noble compositions ushered in the
to one or the other of them is one of the most controversial High Renaissance. He was the greatest and most prolific
issues in art history. They are said to have sometimes draughtsman of his time, and his marvellous drawings
collaborated; such paintings as are signed bear only the (mainly in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle) are
surname, and of those that are dated none is later than the finest testimony to his extraordinarily powerful and
1648, when all three were still alive. The finest and most wide-ranging imagination.
original works of the Le Nain brothers —
powerful and
dignified scenes of peasants — are
conventionally given to Leopardi, Giacomo (1798- 1837), Italian poet, scholar,
Louis; Antoine is credited with a number of small-scale and philosopher. The greatest Italian *Romantic poet,
and richly coloured family scenes; and a more mis- his richly suggestive *lyrics {canti, 1845) were written
cellaneous group, chiefly portraits and group portraits, between 181 6 and 1837. In 1824 he turned his attention
are attributed to Mathieu. Some religious scenes are to philosophical prose, notably the ironical dialogues
generally considered works of collaboration. Moral Tales (1827). The 'cosmic pessimism' of his poems
is often attributed to chronic illness, but it was also an
L'Enfant, Pierre-Charles (1754- 1825), French-born intensely intellectual and even scholarly development.
American architect, engineer, and soldier. He enlisted in His creative work is based on the tension between past
the American Revolutionary Army in 1776, and was and present, childhood innocence and adult awareness of
made a major of engineers in 1783. His first significant insignificance, illusions and their loss. This gave rise to a
architectural work was the remodelling of New York's wistful poetry of images he called 'vague', in that they
old city hall ( 1 787, destroyed) to serve as the US Congress evoke memory: the present is too precise to be beautiful.
and in 1 789 he was asked by George Washington to
prepare the layout for the new capital city, Washington Lermontov, Mikhail (Yuryevich) (1814-41), Rus-
DC. L'Enfant was dismissed in 1792, partly because of sian poet and no\elist. Steeped in European *Roman-
his high-handed attitude, but his grandiose plan, with its ticism, especially the works of *Byron, and exposed to
splendid formal vistas, was followed in essentials. the atmosphere and legends of the Caucasus, he had
marked out his characteristic territory by the age of 18
Le Notre, Andre (1613-1700), French landscape gar- in a series of civic, philosophical, and nature *lyrics, and
dener, one of the most famous of all practitioners of in obsessively redrafted long poems, which include The
*garden In 1637 he succeeded his father as royal
art. Demon and The Novice. Lermontov also turned to prose
gardener, and from the 1650s he designed, altered, or and in A Hero of our Time (1840) produced a pioneering
enlarged gardens for some of the greatest chateaux in psychological novel, a study from many viewpoints of
France. His grandiose style, characterized by formal Pechorin, the proud, isolated, selfish intellectual. Ler-
arrangements and magnificent unbroken vistas, and ex- montov's work, which has a strong misogynistic tinge, was
emplified above all by the enormous park at the palace fundamentally concerned with the problem of individual
of Versailles, dominated European garden design until freedom and the possibilities for social engagement of the
LESMIAN 262
outstanding individual. Moody and petulant, he was, like Lewis, C(live) S(taples) (1898- 1963), British liter-
his great contemporary Pushkin, killed in a duel. ary scholar, critic, and novelist. His critical works include
his publication The Allegory of Love (1936).
early
Lesmian, Boleslaw (1877-1937), Polish lyric poet. He Among Lewis's popular religious and moral writings
was one of the first writers to adapt *symbolism and is The Screwtape Letters (1940), which purports to be
*expressionism to Polish verse. Of Jewish origin, he was advice from one devil to another on the art of tempta-
educated at Kiev and wrote in both Russian and Polish. tion. He also wrote 'space fiction' with a strong
He was a lawyer by profession; in his poetry he attempted Christian flavour [Voyage to Venus, 1943, reworks the story
to depict man's co-existence with nature, expressing his of the Garden of Eden), and the Narnia series of novels,
own existential philosophy in Orchard at the Crossroads including The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (1950),
(191 2), 77?^ Meadow (1920), The Shadowy Drink (1936), for children. Surprised by Joy (1955) is his spiritual
and Woodland Tale, published posthumously in 1938. autobiography.
Lessing, Doris May (19 19- ), British novelist. Her Lewis, (Harry) Sinclair (i 885-1 951), US novelist,
quintet, Children of Violence (1952-69), a *Bildungsro?nan, short-story writer, social critic, and dramatist. His best
traces the history of Martha Quest from childhood in work was written before he received the Nobel Prize for
Rhodesia through post-war Britain to an apocalyptic Literature in 1930, in the satirical studies of a complacent
ending in ad 2000. Her ambitious novel The Golden middle-class, middle America represented by the novels
Notebook (1962) was hailed as a landmark in feminist Main Street (1920), set in a small town in Minnesota,
literature. Later novels, Briefing for a Descent into Hell and Babbitt (1922), a satirical portrayal of an 'average'
(1971) and Memoirs of a Survivor (1975) enter the realm American businessman. Later works include Arrowsmith
of inner space fiction', exploring mental breakdown and (1925), Elmer Gantry (1927), a satire on a hypocritical
the collapse of society. preacher, Dodsworth (1929), and It Cant Happen Here
(1935), in which Lewis imagines a future fascist uprising
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 729-8 (
1 1 )
, German poet, in the USA.
dramatist, and critic. Lessing's most significant con-
tribution to German letters lies in the field of dramatic Lewis, Wyndham *Wyndham Lewis, Percy.
art: in his periodical Hamburg Dramaturgy (1767-8) and
earlier works he rejected the conventions of French clas- Leyster, (1609 60) and Molenaer, Jan
Judith
sicism on the German stage in favour of the Greek Miense 1610-68), Dutch painters. Both belonged
(r.
classical traditions and Shakespeare. In his own plays he in their youth to the circle of Frans Hals which made
introduced *blank verse to German drama and effectively Haarlem one of the great centres of Dutch painting.
founded the modern German dramatic tradition: Miss As husband and wife they collaborated so closely in each
Sara Sampson (1755) established the domestic tragedy on other's work that it is sometimes difficult to differentiate
the German stage; in Minna from Barnhelm (1767), a their paintings. Leyster is at her best in small *genre
topical work set during the Seven Years War, he rejected pieces. Among her best-known paintings is the Gallant
a comedy of types for greater realism and nuance of Proposal (Mauritshuis, The Hague). Her monogram in-
characterization. In 1766 Lessing published his treatise cludes a star, a play on 'Ley/ster' (lode star). Molenaer's
on aesthetics, Laokoon, on the Limits oj Painting and Poetry, work ranges from pictures of the crude, indecorous
a study of the nature of art-forms, which with more activities peasants to small, exquisitely finished
of
specialized works helped to create an understanding of portraits, and domestic scenes of well-to-do families.
classical culture in 18th-century Germany. A second In accordance with the general development of Dutch
domestic tragedy, Emilia Galotti (1772), an attack on painting from c 1625 ^'^ 1650 Molenaer's early works have
princely despotism, and Nathan the Wise 779), a powerful
( i a grey-blond tonality and wide range of colour, whereas
plea for balance and tolerance, make him a powerful the later ones have less variety of colour and tend to be
German proponent of the *Enlightenment. a brownish tone.
Le Vau, Louis (1612-70), French architect. He lacked Li Bai (701-62), Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty (618-
the subtlety and refinement of his great contemporary 907). Li Bai was a friend of the poet *Du Fu, rivalling
*Mansart, but he was highly efficient and able to organize him for the title of China's greatest poet. In many ways
teams of craftsmen to great effect. These qualities were his opposite, he was a romantic, who wrote of the joys of
particularly evident in his masterpiece, the chateau of friendship, wine, nature, and, with regret, of the passage
Vaux-le-Vicomte, Fouquet, Louis XIV's
built for Nicolas of time. He became increasingly interested in the study
finance minister. Begun in 1657, it was being roofed by of Daoism and of alchemy. According to popular legend
the end of 1658, and the lavish decorations were complete
by 661; *Lebrun did the paintings and *Le Notre
1
and rhythm as distinct features, replacing them with an A 13th-century pen-and-mk portrait by Liang K'ai of Li
Bai chanting a poem. Boastful and exuberant m
overall cluster of sound. The Requiem 965) elaborates this
( 1
character, Li Bai none theless fulfilled the ideal of writing
idea in terms of a highly complex evanescent counterpoint, poems 'like lotus flowers standing ma pool of clear
though later works,such as the Double Concerto (1972), go water, naturally captivating and needing no artificial
some way towards rediscovering melody. trimming', and he managed to combine the two qualities
most prized m Chinese poetry: romantic abandonment
lighting, stage, the means of lighting a theatrical and artistic restraint. (Tokyo National Museum)
performance. Daylight was virtually the only source of
theatre lighting until roofed theatres were introduced into
Renaissance Italy. The first artificial lighting of stage and placing lights behind containers of coloured liquids. The
auditorium was provided by chandeliers, candle sconces, chandeliers above the stage dazzled the audience and
and torches. Concealed lighting was directed on to the were removed by David *Garrick from Drury Lane in
stage by reflectors on the backs of the wings; and later 1765 and at much the same time in France. It was not
footlights were used. Coloured lights were produced by until the 19th century, at Henry *Irving's insistence, that
265 LI QINGZHAO
He was popular and prolific, painting altar-pieces and poignant melancholy after the death of her husband and
LIRA 266
the nomad invasions which brought about the downfall and * Arnold. Contrary to the everyday sense of criticism
of the Song dynasty. as 'fault-finding', much modern criticism assumes that
the works it discusses are valuable; the functions of
lira, a term used for a number of bowed, stringed musical judgement and analysis having to some extent become
instruments, among them the Greek and Turkish *fiddles, divided between the market (where reviewers ask 'Is
but pre-eminently for the lira da braccio, the 15th- to 16th- this worth buying?') and the educational world (where
century precursor of the *violin. This was the size of a academics ask 'Why is this good?'). The growth of
large viola, with five fingered strings and two *drones. A academic criticism in the 20th century has brought with
larger instrument, the lira da gamba or lirone, resembled a ita profusion of different schools of thought in criticism,
bass *viol but with many more strings. It was designed for very broadly divisible into those which approach the
playing chords as a *continuo instrument and remained in literary work as a self-contained entity to be analysed in
use into the 17th century. isolation from 'external' factors (American 'New Critics'
of the 1940s, for instance, influenced by T. S. *Eliot and
Lissitzky, El (Lisitsky Lazar Markovich) 1890- 941), (
1 *Empson), and those which insist on discussing literature
Russian painter, designer, and graphic artist. He was one in terms of related spheres of interest (psychology, politics,
of the leading Russian avant-garde artists of his day and sexual differences, *biography, history, the social struc-
one of the most important channels for spreading the ture) which they refuse to regard as 'external'. Further
ideas of *Constructivism and *Suprematism in Western disagreements about the nature of criticism itself, such as
Europe. From 1923 to 1928 he lived in Switzerland and whether it can or should become objective description
Germany, and after his return to Russia he devoted rather than subjective opinion, remain largely unresolved.
himself mainly to *typography and industrial design. He (See also *Leavis, *Longinus.)
designed several propaganda and trade exhibitions, and
his dynamic techniques of photomontage (see *montage), lithography, a method of printing from a design drawn
printing, and lighting had wide influence. directly on to a slab of stone or other suitable material,
invented in 798. The process is based on the antipathy
i
in a press. Many distinguished artists of the igth century sian poet, political reformer,and polymath. Of humble
worked in the lithographic technique, notably Daumier. northern origin, he came to Moscow and then St Pe-
tersburg (now Leningrad), where he was taken up by the
liturgical drama, medieval drama performed within German founders of the Academy of Sciences and sent
or near a church, initially at Easter but later also at abroad to study. He returned in 1740 to lay the found-
Christmas. The plot was provided by the events of Christ's ations of achievement in poetry, verse theory, grammar,
birth and death. The antiphonal singing of the original and many other fields of scholarly and scientific endeav-
drama was later interspersed by other music with ap- our. At his death his notes, outlining his humanitarian
propriate texts {tropes); the latter often consisted of dia- ideas, were suppressed by Catherine the Great, and his
logue, chanted rather than spoken. Incidental dance and complete Works were published only in 1950-7.
processions were also performed. As liturgical drama
evolved it encompassed subjects outside the liturgy London Contemporary Dance Theatre (LCDT),
(though always religious) and characters not in the British modern dance company, which first performed in
Scriptures. There were no 'actors' apart from priests and 1967 as the Contemporary Dance Group. It was the first
choirboys; the dialogue was in Latin and the congregation dance company in Europe to be based on *Graham's
played no part in the singing. Gradually the connection work; the company's artistic director and major cho-
of liturgical drama with the church was broken as the reographer Robert Cohan 925- (was a leading soloist
1 )
plays became sponsored by the laity and were performed with the Martha Graham Company before moving to
in the vernacular speech. They survived until the 15th Britain, and the associated London School of Con-
century, when they were superseded by *mystery and temporary Dance, from which the company draws most
* passion plays. ofits members, teaches mainly Graham technique and
and Kenneth Brown's The Brig (1963), based on his short-story writer, and The son of a poor San
journalist.
experiences in a military prison. Francisco family, he exploited the experiences of a shifting
many-sided life in his popular fiction: the Klondike and
Lloyd Webber, Andrew 948- (
1 )
, English composer. Yukon in the collection of short stories The Son of the Wolf
With the librettist Tim Rice (1944- ), Lloyd Webber (1900); a spell as a sailor in the novel The Sea-Wolf
composed a number of commercially successful musicals, (1904); the political struggles of the oppressed in The Iron
from the catchy Jesus Christ Superstar (1970), to the Heel (1907); and literary success in Martin Eden (1909).
popular Evita (1978). In the eighties, he has applied his The People of the Abyss (1903) is a celebrated report on
pastiche style to the record-breaking Cats (1981), based the London slums, and The Call of the Wild (1903) and
on T. S. Eliot's poems, the roller-skating Starlight Express White Fang (1906) are powerful tales about dogs which
(1984), the melodramtic Phantom of the Opera (1986), and explore the ambivalent attractions of wilderness and
a requiem 1984). ( civilization.
locks and keys, devices for securely fastening doors, Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807-82), US poet.
drawers, lids and so on. Locks and keys are of various His literary debut was with the travel sketches ofOutre-Mer
types, but the essential principle involved in them is of a (1833-4), which he followed with the autobiographical
lever (the key) acting on a bolt in the lock to move it in romance Hyperion (1839). He gained a wide readership
or out of the secured position.The Egyptians were using through his second volume of verse Ballads and Other Poems
huge wooden locks and keys about 4000 years ago; they which included 'The Wreck of the Hesperus',
(1841),
were mounted on the inside of the door, the arm being 'Excelsior', and 'The Village Blacksmith'. This popularity
inserted through a hole. The Romans introduced the was sustained by a succession of * narrative poems with
keyhole, making it possible to fasten and unfasten the historicalsubjects: Evangeline (1847); the Indian saga
lock from the outside. It was also the Romans who Hiawatha (1855) in unrhymed trochaic tetrameters which
introduced the portable padlock. From the point of view were derived from the Finnish epic K'alevala; and The
of skill in design and decoration (rather than ingenuity Courtship of Miles Standish (1858). He set great store by
in terms of security) the great age of the locksmith lasted the religious trilogy Christus (1872). A
highly-respected
from the 15th to the i8th century. In the 17th and i8th on both sides of the Atlantic, Longfellow made
figure
centuries apprentices were often required to submit a Americans aware of the European literary tradition,
finely worked lock and key to qualify as masters in the and Europeans aware of the existence of an American
guild, and these 'apprentice locks' are often particularly literature.
fine examples of virtuosity in steelworking.
Longhena, Baldassare (1598- 1682), Italian architect,
Loesser, Frank (Henry) * musical. the chief exponent of the *Baroque style in Venice, where
LONGHI Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
268
This staircase hall (1643-5)at the monastery of San was influenced by *Sullivan and the *Chicago school.
Giorgio Maggiore m Venice is, apart from his Rejecting the decorative tradition of *art nouveau and
masterpiece Santa Maria della Salute, Longhena's most
the Vienna *Sezession, Loos developed a style of extreme
imposing and original work. This design was highly-
influential on Baroque architecture in Central Europe.
*functionalism and rationalism (in 1908 he wrote an
article called 'Ornament and Crime'). His best-known
work is the Steiner House in Vienna (1910-1 1), austerely
geometrical and one of the first private houses built of
he built many churches and palaces. His masterpiece is concrete. Loos was in charge of municipal housing in
the church of Sta Maria della Salute (1631-87), which, Vienna in 1920-2, and in 1923-8 lived in Paris, where
with its great dome supported by massive scrolled but- he associated with the *Dadaists.
tresses, is one of the chief landmarks of Venice, dominating
the entrance to the Grand Canal. The interior, octagonal Lorca *Garcia Lorca, Federico.
in plan, is less rich and vigorous than the exterior, its
stately harmony showing Longhena's debt to *Palladio. Lorenzetti, Pietro {fl. 1320-48) and Axnbrogio (/.
1319-48), Italian painters, brothers. They were among
Longhi, Pietro (1702-85), Italian painter, best known the outstanding Italian artists of their time, but their lives
for small *genre scenes of Venice. These charming
life in are poorly documented — both are assumed to have died
and often gently satirical scenes were very popular and in the Black Death of 1348. They worked independently,
much duplicated by pupils and followers, but Longhi but shared a certain aflfinity of style, the weightiness of
does not seem to have been patronized by English visitors their figures (showing the influence of *Giotto) setting
to Venice —
the type of client who made up most of them apart from the graceful tradition of Sienese art
the business of his contemporary *Canaletto. His son exemplified by *Duccio and Simone *Martini. Ambrogio
Alessandro (1733- 181 3) was a successful portraitist. was the more innovative of the brothers, and his greatest
work, the fresco series representing Good and Bad Government
Longinus, the name bestowed by a scribe's error on the (1338-9) in the Town Hall at Siena, is one of the most
author of the Greek critical treatise on the Sublime, one remarkable achievements in 14th-century Italian art,
of the great seminal works of *literary criticism. Perhaps breaking new ground in the naturalistic depiction of
written in the ist century ad, the author discusses with landscape and townscape. Pietro's work is noted for its
perception a wide variety of figures of speech in prose emotional expressiveness. Both brothers painted panel
and verse. His critical analysis of what constitutes literary pictures as well as frescos.
greatness shows concern with the moral function of
literature, and impatience with pedantry. The period of lost generation, the name applied to the disillusioned
its greatest influence extends from *Boileau's French intellectuals and aesthetes of Europe and the USA of the
translation (1674) to the early 19th century. years following World War I, who rebelled against former
ideals and values but could replace them only by despair
Loos, Adolf (1870-1933), Austrian architect, a pioneer or a cynical hedonism. The remark of Gertrude *Stein,
of *modernism. Although he worked mainly in Vienna, 'You are all a lost generation', addressed to *Hemingway,
from 1893 to 1896 he was in the USA, where he was used as a preface to the latter's novel The Sun Also
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269 LOWELL
style, and stands somewhat apart from the central Going to the Wars' ('I could not love thee. Dear, so much
Venetian tradition. His work draws on a wide variety of I
Loved I not honour more').
sources and is extremely uneven, but at the same time
shows acute freshness of observation. He is now perhaps Lowell, Amy (Lawrence) (1874- 1925), US poet and
best known for his portraits, in which he often conveys a literary critic. A member of a distinguishedMassachusetts
mood of psychological unrest, but he worked mainly as family, she joined in 191 3, and later led, the group of
a religious painter. poets known as *Imagists, editing several anthologies
with the title Some Imagist Poets. Her own work is marked
Louis XIV ('Louis Quatorze') style, style of decor- by technical experiments, notably the *free-verse form
ation and France during the
interior design prevailing in 'polyphonic prose'. She wrote three critical studies. Six
latter part of the reign of Louis XIV, who became king French Poets (19 15), Tendencies in Modern American Poetry
as a child in 1643 and was effective ruler from 1661 to (191 7), and John Keats (1925).
17 15. Reflecting the grandeur and pomp of Louis's court,
the style was highly formal and massively rich; the costliest Lowell, James Russell (i 819-91), US poet, essayist,
materials were used freely, but colours tended to be and satirist. Harvard Professor, editor of the Atlantic
sombre. Louis's palace at Versailles was the greatest Monthly and North American Review, he was also a versatile
monument to the style, but much of the finest furnishing author, with a reputation established by the works he
and decoration there has been destroyed. (See also produced in 1848: Poems Second Series and the verse
. . .
*Boulle, *Lebrun, *Le Notre, *Le Vau.) satires The Biglow Papers, opposing the Mexican War,
and A Fable for Critics, on the contemporary literary scene.
Louis XV
('Louis Quinze') style, style of interior He became one of the country's most respected men of
decoration and design in early 18th-century France, more letters, with later works including the second series of The
or less equivalent to the *Rococo style in painting. It Biglow Papers (1867) and the *blank-verse poem The
coincided only very roughly with Louis's reign (1715- Cathedral (1869), in which he attempts to find refuge in
74), emerging around 1700, reaching its peak from about a depersonalized deity, 'so far above, yet in and of me'.
1720 to about 1750, and being long outmoded by the
time of his death.
Louis XVI
('Louis Seize') style, style of interior
A commode (decorative chest of drawers) m the opulent
Louis XIV style. is by Andre-Charles Boulle, the most
It
decoration and design prevailing in France from about notable French furniture-maker and designer of this
1760 to the Revolution of 1789. Its development thus period, and is a type of furniture that he possibly
antedates the reign of Louis XVI (1774-92), after which invented and certainly played a major part m
it is named. The style marked a reaction against the developing.
frivolity of the *Louis XV style and a return to greater
solidity and sobriety.
paintings on glass.
LOWELL 270
Lowell, Robert (Traill Spence Jr.) (1917-77), US He was remarkably precocious, producing mature work
poet. A member of the leading Bostonian Lowell family, when he was still in his early teens, and his output
he was gaoled for refusing to serve in World War II. was large. He made etchings and woodcuts as well as
His second collection Lord Weary s Castle (1946), which engravings and was a prolific draughtsman, ranking as
reflected the influence of *Yeats and T. S. *Eliot, was one of the greatest figures in the history of the graphic
highly praised. After Life Studies 1959) he became known
(
arts. His contemporary fame rivalled that of *Durer, who
for a form of 'confessional poetry' which caused con- was the main influence on his work. Lucas, however, was
troversy when it revealed his manic-depressive tendencies less intellectual in his approach, tending to concentrate
and aspects of his married life; Notebooks (1969), History on the anecdotal features of the subject. His status as a
(1973), and The Dolphins (1973) continue in this mode. painter is less elevated than as an engraver, but he was
Other works include For the Union Dead (1964) and Near one of the finest Netherlandish painters of his period,
the Ocean (1967); the poetic adaptations of Baudelaire in showing vivid imaginative powers, marvellous skills as a
Imitation (1961); and the three verse-dramas collected as colourist, and deft and fluid brushwork.
The Old Glory (1965).
Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus) (C.94-C.55 bc), Latin
Lowry, L(aurence) S(tephen) (1887 1976), British poet. Virtually nothing is known
of his life. His one great
painter. He lived all his life in or near Manchester and poem, De Rerum Natura {On Nature of Things), written
the
worked for a property company, his painting being done in *hexameters, is a masterpiece of ancient didactic
in his spare time. His highly individual pictures typically poetry. Lucretius passionately recommends the philo-
feature firmly drawn backgrounds of industrial buildings sophy of Epicurus, whose views on the atomic nature of
bathed in a white haze against which crowds or groups of universe and soul alike, and on the psychology of feeling,
stick-like figures are contrasted. There is considerable he expounds in six books. There are memorable set pieces,
divergence of opinion on his status, some critics considering as on the evils of religion and the passion of love. A
him a great artist, while others dismiss him as a minor talent convinced materialist, whose goal is to give men peace
although interesting as a social commentator. of mind by removing fear, Lucretius' combination of
philosophical zeal and poetic sublimity is unequalled in
Lowry, (Clarence) Malcolm (1909-57), British nov- Latin.
elist. As a young man he was influenced by *Conrad and
went to sea, travelling to East Asia. His first novel Ludwig, Christa (1924- ), German soprano and
Ultramarine was followed by further travels in mezzo-soprano Ludwig's 1946 operatic debut in
singer.
(1933)
Europe, the USA, and Mexico; he settled in Canada, but Frankfurt as Orlofsky in Johann Strauss's Fledermaus
returned to England before his death. Like many of his was followed by performances throughout Germany, in
characters, Lowry was an alcoholic, given to superstition. Vienna, New York, and London. Ludwig established
His autobiographical novel Under the Volcano (1947) ex- herself as a leading singer of the day with her in-
plores the alcoholic self-destruction of a British ex-consul terpretations of Octavian in Strauss's Rosenkavalier, Eboli
in Mexico; it is his best work, and a tragic masterpiece. in Verdi's Don Carlos, Leonore in Beethoven's Fidelio, as
and The Merry Widow (1934). Of his best comedies, *ballets (see also *opera-ballet). His finest operas, such
Trouble in Paradise (1932) took a benign view of theft. as 'La Nuit' (1653), which included the famous Ballet de
Design for Living (1933) of a menage a trois, and Bluebeard's la an archetypal * ballet de com, Alceste (1674), Thesee
Nuit,
Eighth Wife (1938) of serial marriage; in Ninotchka (1939) (1675), Amadis (1684), and Armide (1686), are noted for
a female Soviet Communist was seduced by Paris; and their fidelity to the French language. The ceremonial
To Be or NotBe (1942) satirized the Nazis through the
to solemnity of his church music, in particular of his grand
tribulations of a troupe of actors in occupied Poland. *motets, which effectively exploit the contrasting son-
orities of solo and full orchestral groups, was appropriate
Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus) (ad 39-65), Latin to the grandeur and theatricality of the palace of his
poet. Nephewof the younger Seneca, his unfinished *epic, royal patron at Versailles.
the Pharsalia or Belum Civile, describing the civil war
between Caesar and Pompey, is melodramatic and bril- Luxniere, Louis (1864- 1948), French cinema pioneer,
liantly phrased, with rhetorical speeches and unflagging whose father made photographic products. In 1895,
appeal to the emotion of the reader. with his brother Auguste (1862- 1954), he patented the
Cinematographe, which made possible the exhibition of
Lucas van Leyden (1494- 1533), Netherlandish en- moving pictures rather than the illusion of movement
graver and painter, born and mainly active in Leiden. created by *animation. (Edison's Kinetoscope of 1894
271 LUTYENS
could also record movement, but could not project it.) a resonator resembling a halved pear, which was, in the
During the next five years Lumiere produced films (mostly Renaissance, hailed as 'Queen of Instruments All'. The
of current events) in enormous numbers. Yet he could derived in the 13th century from
lute, in this latter sense,
seeno fijture for his invention, and it was left to *Melies the Arab 'ud, which is still widely used, plucked with a
and others to develop the potential of the new medium. *plectrum, in North Africa, the Middle East, and the
Balkans. By the 15th century the lute had four double
Luo Guanzhong *Water Margin, *Romance of the courses (pairs of gut strings). A fifth was added before
Three Kingdoms. the end of the century, and players changed to finger-
plucking, which made polyphonic playing much easier.
lustreware, pottery with an iridescent metallic surface. From about 1500 a sixth course was added, establishing
There were various ways of obtaining the metallic effect, a tuning of 4th, 4th, 3rd, 4th, and 4th, covering two
the most common of which involved painting the already octaves, with a single uppermost course tuned to g' or a'.
glazed pottery with pigments containing metallic oxides This remained the standard size, but by the 17th century
and then refiring. Different metals produced different there was a range of sizes, from a small instrument with
results, copper giving a rich ruby red, for example. a top string tuned to c", to basses with extended necks
Lustreware was invented in about the 7th or 8th century carrying unstopped strings. The latter had various
AD probably by Muslim potters in Mesopotamia. There —
names archlute, chitarrone, and theorbo and were —
is a long and distinguished tradition of lustre pottery in
mainly *continuo instruments. The mean, or standard,
several Islamic centres (see * Islamic pottery), culminating lute was both a solo instrument and an accompanist to
in the Spanish *Hispano-Moresque ware. Lustreware is singers and other instrumentalists. It was a favourite
difficultto produce; apart from Spain it went out of instrument throughout the i6th and 17th centuries,
fashion by about 1600, but the technique was revived by surviving well into the i8th, during these later periods
William *de Morgan in the 19th century. with a difTerent tuning from the old. During the later
18th century it was used less, and all but vanished in the
lute, a plucked stringed musical instrument. Generically 19th. It was revived in its old splendour as part of the
it is any instrument with integral neck and resonator and
mid-20th century early music revival. Lute music is
running parallel with the resonator, but in Western
strings
written in *tablature, the advantage being that the player
music the term is used specifically of an instrument with can more easily change from one size or tuning of lute
to another better suited to the range of voice or instrument
being accompanied.
In Costa's pamtmg The Consort the central figure is seen
playing a lute with one single and four double courses.
On the table lie the instruments of the other players: a Lutoslawski, Witold 9 3- ( 1 Polish composer. Dur-
1 )
,
small fiddle and a recorder. English lute music was ing World War II he earned his living as a cafe pianist.
famous for its excellence throughout Europe, one of the His earliest compositions employed a *Neoclassical style,
most impressive of all Renaissance pieces being John but a powerful First Symphony (1947) went further and
Dowland's 'Lachrimae', (National Gallery, London) was banned on account of its near *atonality. In deference
to political pressures, he began to follow a less con-
troversial, folk-based style, exemplified in the Concerto
for Orchestra (1954). A later change of political climate
allowed him to turn back to the exploration of atonal
techniques once more, as in the highly contrapuntal
Funeral Music for strings (1958). He later used *aleatoric
procedures, as in Venetian Games (ig6i). Since the mid-
1950s Lutoslawski has appeared widely as the conductor
of his own works and has been much admired as a teacher
and lecturer. His Third Symphony (1983) is one of the
most popular modern works of its kind.
such as the Ethiopian beganna, are bigger with heavy naturalism. He was oflficial portraitist to Alexander the
Great (who is said to have let no other sculptor portray
him) and several copies of his portraits of Alexander
This Greek vase shows the two types of lyre current in survive. Lysippus worked exclusively in bronze, but the
the ancient world. On the right is the lyra or chelys with
copies of his work are mainly in marble.
its characteristic tortoiseshell sandbox, and on the left the
kithara. or concert lyre, played by bards such as Homer.
The lady mthe centre plays a harp, while the figure to the
left holds a pair of reed pipes. (British Museum, London)
—
MACKINTOSH
M
273
Mabinogion, the, a collection of Celtic stories of which Machaut, Guillaume de (c.1300-77), French com-
the Four Branches of the Mabinogi are the most out- poser, associated with Rheims for most of his life. Although
standing. The title, derived from the Welsh word mab, a cleric, Machaut wrote relatively little church music and
'youth', and subsequently applied to 'tales of youth', was it is for his secular songs that he was admired. He
given by Lady Charlotte Guest to her translation (1838 greatly expanded their length in comparison with earlier
examples by *Adam de la Halle and L'Escurel, and
49) of the stories. They are taken from The Red Book of
Hergest (1375-1425) and form part of a cycle of legends introduced much more complex textures. They include
of ancient Irish and Welsh mythology and later myths, simple settings {*lais and virelais) and *polyphonic settings
including the Arthurian legend, in Roman and Christian (*ballades and *rondos), all of which combine beauty
Britain. with ingenuity. Perhaps the most famous of his songs is
the rondo Mafln est mon commencement, in which the second
Mabuse *Gossaert, Jan. voice sings the music of the first voice backwards. His
music is noted for its full use of the new rhythms and
Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1800-59), British more flexible notation developed in the 14th century;
historian. His essay on Milton for the Edinburgh Review in they are true examples of the *ars nova style, with many
1825 brought him instant fame, and for the next 20 years syncopations, small note values (the minim appears for
he wrote many articles on historical and literary topics the first time) and complex repetition of the tenor part
for the journal. His great work History of England (1849- in diminished note values. His only surviving mass (the
55) was notable for its declamatory style, its thorough Notre-Dame Mass) is the earliest known setting for four
research, and its biting wit. His descriptive power was voices.
one of his great assets, as was the narrative momentum
he was able to achieve. The History, one of the great Machiavelli, Niccolo (1469- 1527), Italian statesman
best-sellers of the century, has never since gone out of and political theorist. He was involved in political intrigue
print. in the Florentine republic, and turned his experience to
advantage in his writings, which include The Art of War
McCuUers, Carson (Smith) (1917-67), US novelist (1517-20). His comedy Mandragola (c. 1518) is a powerful
and short-story writer. Her reputation is largely based on *satire. His best-known work was The Prince (15 13), an
three novels set in her native South: The Heart is a Lonely impassioned work of propaganda aimed to rouse Italians
Hunter (1940), Reflections in a Golden Eye (1941), and The to a new sense of civic unity in face of foreign interlopers.
Member of the Wedding (1946), dramatized by the author
in 1950. They concern the loneliness, and quest for Mackenzie, Sir (Edward Morgan) Compton (1883-
love and identity, of outsiders in small communities 1972), British novelist and dramatist. He lived at various
adolescents, sexual outcasts, a deaf-mute. The novella times in the Channel Islands, Capri, and Scotland, all of
which gives its title to the collection of stories The Ballad which provide settings for his many novels and plays.
ofthe Sad Cafe (1951), dramatized by Edward Albee in The best known
are Sinister Street ( 191 3- 15) set in Oxford,
1963, continues these themes. and Whisky Galore (1947) a fictional account of a ship
loaded with whisky and wrecked off the Island of Eriksay,
MacDiarmid, Hugh (Christopher Murray Grieve) which was later made into a successful film. An ardent
(1892- 1 978), Scottish poet and critic. He was influenced Scottish Nationalist, he also produced books of travel,
by *Joyce's linguistic experiments in Ulysses and wrote biography, essays, poems, and an entertaining biography
lyrics in 'synthetic Scots', an amalgam of Scottish dialects My Life and Times (1963-71).
taken from *ballads and other literary sources. In this
mode he wrote poetry of great delicacy with detailed McKim, Mead, and White, New York-based US
observations of nature. His masterpiece, A Drunk Man architectural firm founded in
1879 by Charles FoUen
Looks at the Thistle (1926), is a mystical visionary poem McKim, William Rutherford Mead, and Stanford White.
presenting the poet's own image of place (Scotland) and It was many years the best-known architectural firm
for
time. Passionately devoted to Scottish independence from in theUSA, with hundreds of buildings to its credit.
England, he was a founder of the Scottish National Party, Success initially came with houses and country clubs, but
and a communist. With his First Hymn to Lenin (1931), itthen became renowned mainly for public buildings, in
he initiated the leftist verse of the decade. He also wrote which it championed a monumental classical revival style,
some remarkable poems in a Scottish form of English, reflecting McKim's training at the Ecole des *Beaux-Arts
but returned to standard English in Stony Limits (1934). in Paris. The firm's works include Boston Public Library
His later work comprises a series of linguistically dense (1888-95) ^^^ Pennsylvania Railway Station in New
poems amounting to a modern *epic of the Celtic con- York (1904-10).
sciousness.
Mackintosh, Charles Rennie (1868- 1928), British
Macha, Karel Hynek (1810-36), Czech poet. He is architect and Glasgow
interior designer, the leader of the
considered to be the greatest poet of Czech *Romanticism. School of *art nouveau and one of the most original and
May (1836) traces the revolt of the individual not only influential architects of his time. His furniture design and
MACKMURDO 274
The staircase and hall at Hill House, Helensburgh (1902), pointed resident choreographer (1965), and director of
one of the two country houses designed by Charles the *Royal Ballet (1970-7). He works also for * American
Rennie Mackintosh. The restraint and austerity are Ballet Theatre. His dramatic skills and depth of char-
typical of the graceful functionalism which characterizes
acterization are shown in works like Romeo and Juliet
Mackintosh's work. Mackintosh was responsible for the
entire interior, down to the pewter fire tongs and poker. (1965) and Mayerling (1978), although he has also made
plotless works like Diversions (1961). He represents the
expressionist direction of modernism in ballet and finds
interior decoration, often done in association with his suitable subject-matter in historical characters such as
wife, Margaret Macdonald (1865- 1933), showed the Anastasia (1967).
characteristic calligraphic quality of art nouveau but
avoided the exaggerated floral ornament often associated MacNeice, (Frederick) Louis (1907-63), Irish poet.
with the style. As an architect he worked in a clear, bold, Both his childhood Northern Ireland and his classical
in
rational style that did not, however, exclude an element scholarship influenced his work. MacNeice's poetry shows
of fantasy. His fame rests to a large extent on his Glasgow an exceptional virtuosity of technique, using accented
School of Art (1897-g) and its library block and other vowel correspondences, internal rhymes, half-rhymes, and
extensions (1907 9), but his interior decoration was ballad-like repetitions. At a time when poetry was much
perhaps most spectacularly expressed in the four Glasgow politicized, he remained non-aligned, but none the less
tea-rooms designed with all their furniture and equipment attempted to make sense of the interactions of public and
for Catherine Cranston (1897 c. igii, now mainly des- private life. Letters from Iceland (1937) was written with
troyed). Mackintosh's work was much exhibited on the W. H. *Auden; Autumn Journal (1938) was a long verse
continent of Europe and was extremely influential, so meditation on the Munich crisis; Modern Poetry (1938)
much so that the advanced style of the early 20th century makes a strong plea for poets to 'cut a middle course
was sometimes known there as 'Mackintoshismus'. between pure entertainment and propaganda'. During
World War II MacNeice joined the BBC and wrote radio
Mackxnurdo, Arthur H. ( 185 - 1942), British architect,
1 documentaries and parable-plays such as The Dark Tower
interior designer, and writer. In two-dimensional design (1947), with music by Britten.
he was a pioneer of *art nouveau, but his architectural
work was in a different spirit, showing a clarity of Macready, William Charles (1793- 1873), British
structure and independence from past styles that made actor, manager, and diarist, contemporary and rival of
him one of the most advanced figures of the i88os and a Edmund *Kean. A leading figure in the reform of the
forerunner of *Voysey. In 1882 he founded the Century techniques of production and acting, he imposed the
Guild, a group of artist-craftsmen inspired by the ideas principle of theatrical unity based on the central concepts
of *Ruskin and * Morris, and in 1884 he launched The of the playwright. He re-established some of the text of
Hobby Horse, a magazine that became a focal point for Shakespeare in its original form, partially purging the
the *Arts and Crafts Movement. Mackmurdo gave up adaptations introduced by CoUey *Cibber. His theories
architecture in 1904 and devoted much of his later career on the production of drama and of styles of acting opened
to writing on economics. the way to the art of the modern theatre.
MacMillan, Sir Kenneth (1929- ), British dancer, madrigal, a musical composition for several un-
choreographer, and director. He worked for both Sadler's accompanied voices. The words are usually secular and
Wells companies in the 1940s and 1950s, and was ap- light-heartedly amorous, though sometimes touching
275 MAHABALIPURAM
upon deeper feelings. Pastoral, allegorical, and satirical remembered for his plays, most of which were produced
subjects are also to be found. The madrigal is mainly at the Theatre de I'oeuvre, the home of symbolist drama.
*contrapuntal in style, involving much imitation in a The most famous of these, Pelleas et Melisande (1892),
sequence of contrasted but overlapping sections that which was set to music by *Debussy in 1902, displays a
follow the content of the poetry. The madrigal took shape simplicity and suggestive power shared by his principal
in 16th-century Italy, achieving its finest flowering in the collection of poetry, Serres chaudes (1889), and such essays
work of Marenzio, Gesualdo, and Monteverdi. It also as La Vie des abeilles (1901) and La Mort (191 3).
took root in England, following the publication in 1588
of an Italian collection, Musica transalpina. Byrd, Morley, Magnum Photos * Carder-Bresson.
and the ultimately successful Pandavas, for control of the Dutch faience industry became concentrated in Delft,
Kurukshetra, the region north of Delhi. Woven around hence the name 'delftware' to describe Dutch blue and
this story are various unconnected elements —myths, le- white maiolica. Tin-glazed earthenware was also made
gends, folk-tales, and philosophical pieces, including the in Bristol in the 17th and i8th centuries.
*BhagavadgTln. The Mahabharata is not the work of a single
poet but representative of the whole range of ancient make-up (theatrical). Little is known about make-up
Indian bardic poetry, probably compiled between 400 bc in classical times, sincemost of the actors wore *masks.
and AD 400. Two extremes of make-up used in later times were the
gilding of God's face in *liturgical drama, and the
Mahler, Gustav (i860- 19 11), Austrian composer and elaborate painting of the actors' faces in the Kabuki plays
*conductor. He had a very successful conducting career of Japan (see *Japanese drama). In the open-air theatre
from 1880, specializing in the operas of Mozart, Weber, of the Elizabethans there is evidence of some form of
and Wagner. His first important composition, the cantata —
character make-up black for Negroes, umber for sun-
Das klagende Lied, was completed in 1880. Mahler's com- burnt peasants, red noses for drunkards, chalk-white
positions consist of nine large-scale symphonies (1888- for ghosts. Before the introduction of modern grease-
1909) (plus a detailed sketch for a tenth); a number of paints, all make-up was basically a powder, compounded
song-cycles, including Lieder eines Jahrenden Gesellen (1885), with a greasy substance or with some liquid medium,
Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1892-8), and Kindertolenlieder which was often harmful to the skin, particularly if white
(1904); and Das Lied von der Erde (1909), a song-cycle lead was used in its composition. Powder make-up also
with orchestral accompaniment. His Second, Third, had the disadvantages of drying up and so hindering the
Fourth, and Eighth Symphonies also involve large choirs mobility of the actor's features, or of melting and streaking
277 MALLARME
in the heat. Gas lighting led to changes in the art of bungled attempts at learned speech include a reference
making-up, and although the paints used were still to another character as 'the very pine-apple of politeness',
powder-based, some form of grease was used as a found- instead of 'pinnacle'. This kind of joke, though, is older
ation. A revolution in make-up was achieved in the than the name: Shakespeare's Dogberry in Much Ado
second half of the igth century by the introduction of About Nothing (c. 1598) makes similar errors.
grease-paint, invented in about 1865 by Ludwig Leichner,
a Wagnerian opera-singer. He opened his first factory in Malay literature, poetry and prose writings in the
1873, and his round sticks, numbered and labelled from Malay language, distributed over the Malay peninsula
I to 54, were soon to be found in practically every actor's and archipelago. Much literature traditionally existed in
dressing-room. As well as the thick sticks of grease-paint oral form and has only comparatively recently been
which the actor was instructed to use over a slight coating recorded in writing. The two most important verse-forms
of cocoa butter, which was also used to clean the face are the pantun, consisting of four lines rhymed ABAB, and
afterwards, there were thin sticks, or liners, used for the syair, a long, often *epic, poem narrating legendary
painting in fine lines. The introduction of electric light and historical events. Among the genres of prose are kitab,
again caused fundamental changes in theatrical make-up, didactic Islamic literature, adab, stories of the prophet
which has also more recently been influenced by the Muhammad and of Muslim saints and heroes, and hikayat,
techniques of film and television. epics with strong romantic and historical elements, of
which the most famous is the Story of Hang Tuah. The
Malaznud, Bernard (1914- ), US and short-
novelist Malay Annals are considered to be a literary masterpiece.
story writer. Born in Brooklyn of immigrant Russian Munshi Abdullah, author o{ Story of Abdullah (1849) and
parents, he was one of the large group ofJewish- American other works, regarded as the first modern Malay writer,
is
writers who came to prominence in the 1940s and 1950s. although his writing did not inspire a new literary
His subjects are various, including a comic treatment of movement. Modern novels and short stories first appeared
baseball in terms of a myth in The Natural (1952); a in the 1920s, and often addressed contemporary social and
family grocery store in 77?^ Assistant (1957), in which the moral issues. After World War H, the Singapore-based
main character searches for the good life; a Western writersgroup Asas ^o (Generation of '50) were influential.
campus in A Mew Life ( 1 96 1 and anti-Semitism in Tsarist
)
; Although much drama is performed in Malaysia, little
Russia in The Fixer (1967). The Tenants (1971) treats has been published.
conflictsbetween a white and a black writer, Dubin's Lives
(1979) is about a famous author's marriage and love Malevich, Kasixnir (Severinovich) (1878- 1935),
affair, and God's Grace (1982) is a pseudo-biblical fable Russian painter and designer. Early in his career he
about a man who begins a new civilization among apes. was influenced by * Impressionism and *Futurism, and
created a distinctive style by combining these styles with
malapropism, a confused, comically inaccurate use of Russian themes and motifs. Desiring, however, 'to free
word or words. The term comes from the character
a long art from the burden of the object', he launched a
Mrs Malaprop (after the French mal a propos, 'in- movement called *Suprematism in 191 5. He used only
appropriately') in *Sheridan's play The Rivals (1775): her basic geometrical shapes and a severely restricted range
of colour, culminating in 19 18 with a series of White on
White paintings showing a white square on a white
An Italian maiolica roundel (1525) showing the Three background. Thereafter he virtually abandoned abstract
Graces. Maiolica was once known as Raphaelle-ware painting for teaching, writing, and making three-
since it was thought the young Raphael had painted
dimensional models that were important for the growth
plates. (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
of *Constructivism. His work was at odds with the ideals
of the newly created Soviet Union and he died in neglect,
but he had immense influence in western Europe on both
painting and commercial design.
undogmatic and his pictures often seem to be more used in the study of the visual arts. It was popularized
concerned with the act of painting than with the ostensible by the writings of the 16th-century artist and biographer
subject, although in some works he comments obliquely *Vasari, who used it as a term of praise, signifying
on current political issues. It is partly in this freedom qualities of grace, poise, and sophistication. From the
from the traditional literary, anecdotal, or moralistic 17th century, however, most critics thought that the
associations of painting that he is seen as one of the Italian art of the mid- to late i6th century marked a
founders of 'modern' art. decline from the peaks reached during the High *Re-
naissance by Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael,
Maxiipuri, classical * Indian
dance from the valley of and the term 'Mannerism' came to describe an art
Manipur in the Assam an area that remained
hills, characterized by artificiality, superficiality, exaggeration,
isolated from outside influences until the 1920s. Female and distortion. From being a stylistic label the term
Manipuri dancers move with slow, undulating rhythms, expanded its meaning to become a period label, so that
the immobility of the face being characteristic and in 'Mannerism' came to designate the style adopted by some
sharp contrast to the other classical forms. The Manipuri schools of Italian art— in particular the Roman — between
drummer is male, and dances in a frenzied, energetic the High Renaissance and *Baroque from about 1520 to
fashion to the rhythms of his drum. Atomba Singh and about 1600. The origins of Mannerism are generally
Amubi Singh are notable 20th-century performers. traced back to the late works of Raphael when he was
moving away from the supremely clear and balanced
Mann, (Luiz) Heinrich 187 1- 1950), German novelist,
(
idiom of the High Renaissance to a more complex and
dramatist, and short-story writer; elder brother of Thomas emotional style. Apart from emotionalism, the qualities
*Mann. While his early works deal with the artistic associated with Mannerist art include elongation of the
outsider or the quest for self-fulfilment, a strong demo- figure, strained *contrapposto poses, unusual or bizarre
cratic commitment infuses his mature writings. In Professor effectsof scale, lighting, or perspective, and vivid, some-
Unrat (1905, filmed as The Blue Angel, 1930) and Man of times harsh or lurid, colours. In sculpture, the archetypal
Straw (1918) he exposes the corrupting force of authority Mannerist was *Giambologna, whose elaborate twisting
and subservience in *fin-de-siecle Germany. Deprived of poses and smoothly flowing and polished forms were
his German citizenship by the Nazis (1933), he went into immensely influential. Benvenuto *Cellini is also num-
exile in France, where he wrote Henri Quatre-Romane, two bered among the leading Mannerist sculptors, as well
novels on the life of Henry of Navarre, which are generally as representing the highpoint of Mannerist virtuosity in
held to be the summit of his achievement. goldsmiths' work. *Michelangelo was much the greatest
sculptor of the age, but although some critics characterize
Mann, Thomas (1875- 1955), German novelist and his work (or certain examples or aspects of it) as Manner-
writer of short stories and essays. His elder brother was ist, others consider him so original and personal that he
Heinrich *Mann. His first novel, Buddenbrooks (1901), lies outside categorization. Mannerism in architecture is
traces the decline of a family of merchants through four generally as difficult to define and isolate as it is in
generations, sound business practice gives way to
as painting and sculpture, but it is often taken to involve the
refined aesthetic sensibility. It was for this work that deliberate flouting of the accepted rules and conventions of
Mann received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929. classical architecture.Michelangelo, who was extremely
In numerous shorter works he explores the position of inventive and free in his handling of architectural orna-
the writer, whose creativity depends on a renunciation of ment, is often cited as the fountainhead of Mannerist
full participation in life. Tonio Kroger (1903) traces the architecture, but the first great Mannerist building is
consequences of the neglect of safe, acceptable habits; generally agreed to be *Giulio Romano's Palazzo del Te
Difficult Hour (1905) explores an episode from the life of in Mantua (begun 1526), in which Giulio wilfully and
Schiller; while Death in Venice (191 2; film by Visconti, wittily handles the decorative features in such a way that
opera by Britten) depicts the sacrifice of a man's identity certain blocks of stone seem to have slipped out of their
and sense of dignity in exchange for the superior ex- rightful place. Outside Italy, the term 'Mannerism' is
perience of beauty and art. The Magic Mountain (1924) most readily applied to the School of *Fontainebleau
follows the tradition of the * Bildungsroman in that it shows in France. Other non-Italian art that has been called
the maturing, through error, of a man's character; It is Mannerist includes much work by 16th-century Nether-
an eloquent and complex commentary on the introverted landish artists (many of whom visited Italy and took back
civinz^on contained within a sanatorium, the symbol only partially digested ideas) and the ecstatic paintings
of a sick Europe. In the 1920s Mann's earlier support of El *Greco in Spain. In the fields of literature and
of German authoritarianism yielded to an acknow- music, the term 'Mannerism' is even more loosely and
ledgement, expressed in the story Mario and the Magician controversially applied than it is with art and architecture.
( ^ 930) c>f the danger presented both by the fascist dictator
5
Writing characterized by ornateness, involved syntax,
and the intellectual coward. Exiled from Germany after and the use of far-fetched images has sometimes been
1933, he wrote a biblical tetralogy, Joseph and His Brothers dubbed Mannerist, the best-known English exemplar
(1933-43); ^ semi-fictional portrait of the elderly Goethe, being the prose romance Euphues (two parts, 1578 and
Lotte in Weimar (1939); and Doktor Faustus (1947), in 1580) by John Lyly, a work that gave rise to the
which a composer's creative impasse is interwoven with term Euphuism, meaning a highly artificial and affected
MANNHEIM SCHOOL 280
literary style. In music the term 'Mannerism' has been at its purest and most elevated. Mansart completed few
applied, for example, to the Italian madrigal composer buildings because he refused to accept even the most
Carlo *Gesualdo, whose work is characterized by unusual reasonable restrictions from his patrons or to keep to an
harmonies, sudden changes of tempo, and vivid ex- agreed plan, leading frequently to his dismissal. The
pression. only building where he seems to have been allowed a
completely free hand was his masterpiece, the chateau of
Mannheim School, the name given, for convenience, Maisons (now Maisons-Lafitte) near Paris (1642-6). Its
to the group of conductors, violinists, and composers patron went as far as allowing Mansart to pull down part
associated with the electoral court of Mannheim in of the building during construction so that he could revise
south-western Germany, in the i8th century, in particular his design. It displays to the full the typical characteristics
the court of Prince Carl Theodor of Mannheim between of his style: grandeur, lucidity, subtlety, refinement and
1742 and 1778. By the middle of the i8th century the precision of detail, and a kind of severe luxuriousness
court orchestra was acknowledged to be the finest in depending on sheer quality of workmanship rather than
Europe, and the Mannheim composers, who also played richness of materials. Among the architects influenced
in it, were thus able to use its resources as a testing by his work was his great-nephew Jules *Hardouin-
ground for experiments which greatly contributed to the Mansart.
development of the early *symphony. The composers
include Johann *Stamitz and his sons Karl and Anton, Mansfield, Katherine (Kathleen Mansfield Beau-
Ignaz Holzbauer, Franz Xaver Richter, and Johann champ) (1888- 1923), New Zealand-born short-story
Christian Cannabich. The Mannheimers were famous for writer. After 1903 she lived mainly in England. Her first
their orchestral discipline: precision of attack, uniform collection of stories, In a German Pension (igii), was
bowing, and attention to dynamic detail. published the year she met the critic and essayist John
Middleton Murry, whom she married in 1918 and in
Mansart, Fran90is (1598-1666), the greatest French whose magazine, Rhythm, some of her stories, many of
architect of the 17th century, who like his contemporary them based on her New Zealand childhood, were pub-
*Poussin in painting represents the French classical spirit lished. Bliss, and other stories (1920) and The Garden Party
and other stories (1922) were the only other collections
Mantegna's painting of The Agony in the Garden published before she died of tuberculosis. Her stories vary
(c.1460) IS similar in composition to a version of the same from the long, delicate evocations of family life ('Prelude')
subject of about the same date by Giovanni Bellini (see to short, pointed sketches ('Poison'). Posthumous pub-
p. 43): both pictures, m fact, derive from a drawing of the
lications include two collections of stories, letters, and
subject by Mantegna's father-in-law (Giovanni's father)
extracts from her journal.
Jacopo Bellini The two paintings are very different in
.
Gallery, London) of the most famous artists of the early *Renaissance. His
281 MAORI ART
distinctive style was characterized by sharp clarity of of sinuous, intertwined figures produced with stone tools
drawing, colouring, and lighting, a passion for archae- became concentrated in northern and western areas,
ology and the ancient world, and a mastery of *per- reaching its greatest development just before European
spective and foreshortening unequalled in the 15th settlement. In the later 19th century, the central and
century. In 1460 Mantegna moved from Padua to Man- western style of straight, full-fronted figures flourished,
tua as court painter to the ruling Gonzaga family. His encouraged by the introduction of metal tools. By the
greatest work is the *fresco decoration of the Camera 1 870s, large, fully carved meeting houses became the
degli Sposi (bridal chamber) in the Gonzaga palace, main vehicle for Maori arts, as they still are today.
where he painted appeared
illusionistic architecture that
to extend the real space of the room. This was the first
time since antiquity that such a scheme had been carried
A panel from the Te-Hai-Ki Turanga meeting house,
out and Mantegna's work became the foundation for showmg an ancestress breastfeedmg her child. Skill at
much subsequent decorative painting in this vein. His woodcarvmg is one of the mam features of Maori art, the
other great work for the Gonzaga was a series of nine elaborate treatment of the surface being typical. (National
paintings on The Triumph of Caesar (f. 1480-95). He was Museum of New Zealand, Wellington)
also an engraver and one of the first artists to use prints
to spread knowledge of his work.
itihtit/tm iMstm^m
A panel from the Alexander sarcophagus (c. 325-300 BC), marble, a hard, crystalline rock formed when limestone
probably carved for a client king in Phoenicia, and has been subjected to great heat and pressure; it can take
excavated m 1887 from the royal burial-ground of Sidon. a high polish and has been much used in sculpture
The marble relief shown here represents a hunting
and architecture. Certain types of marble have been
scene m realistic detail. (Archaeological Museum,
Istanbul) particularly prized by sculptors. Among the Greeks the
favourite was the close-grained Pentelic marble, quarried
at Mt. Pentelicon in Attica; it is from this that the
Maori music, the music of New Zealand's indigenous sculptures of the Parthenon are carved. The pure white
people, who migrated from eastern Polynesia about i,ooo Carrara marble, quarried at Carrara, Massa, and Pietra
years ago in several waves. Maori music is predominantly Santa in Tuscany, is the most famous of all sculptors'
vocal, consisting mainly of unison group singing either stones and was the favourite material of Michelangelo.
recited or sung. In the former, words are chanted in a
rapid monotone, as in the pdtere, traditionally sung by Marc, Franz (1880 1916), German painter, a founder
slandered women, the karakia, intoned spells, and the of the *Blaue Reiter group and one of the most powerful
strongly rhythmic haka, posture war dances (which are and inspired of *Expressionist artists. A man of deeply
further characterized by shouting, jumping, and facial religious disposition, Marc was troubled by a profound
distortion). Sung-style chants have melodies using small spiritual malaise, and through painting he sought to
steps within a narrow range and are mainly strophic uncover mystical inner forces that animate nature. His
(that is, the same melody serves a number of verses). ideas were expressed most intensely in paintings of an-
Examples are waiata langi, laments for the dead; waiata imals, for he believed that they were both more beautiful
aroha, and waiata whaidipo, love songs; pao, short, ex- and more than man. Using non-naturalistic,
spiritual
temporized songs about everyday life; and the poi, a symbolic colour and simplified, rhythmic shapes, he aimed
spectacular dance with sung accompaniment, in which to paint animals not as we see them, but as they feel their
women swing decorated balls on strings. Instruments own existence. By 19 14, under the influence partly of
include the pahu, a large *slit drum, the putdtara, a shell *Cubism and *Futurism, his paintings had become almost
trumpet used for signalling, the wooden war trumpet entirely abstract, as in the celebrated Fighting Forms
pukdea, and the flutes koauau and nguru, used to accompany He was killed in action in World War
(1914). I.
waiata.
maqaxn *West Asian music. Marceau, Marcel (1923- ), French actor, the finest
modern exponent of *mime. In 1945 he joined the
xnaracas, a pair of *rattles used in Latin American company of *Barrault, but a year later abandoned
music. They are made from gourds, with a stick as the conventional acting to study mime, basing his work on
handle, with the seeds left inside to rattle or with pellets the character of the 19th-century French * Pierrot and
such as small stones inserted. Coconut shells are sometimes evolving his own character, Bip, a white-faced clown with
used instead, and nowadays plastic is common. Proper sailor trousers and striped jacket.
maracas are always made so that one is lower pitched
than the other. march, music designed to help keep groups of marching
people in step, often in 2/2 time. The military march
Maratta, Carlo (or Maratti) ( 1625- 1 713), Italian began as a simple drum beat that enabled soldiers to
painter, the leading painter in Rome in the latter part of keep in step. Fife tunes were added later, and the
the 1 7th century. He was an heir to the classical tradition instrumentation developed through the 17th-century
of *Raphael, but his work also has the rhetorical splend- wind band to the full military band of the present
our of the *Baroque style, shown in the many altar-pieces day. Marches, concert or military, generally follow the
he painted for Roman churches. Maratta was an ac- three-part ABA form known as march and trio, the trio
complished fresco painter and the finest portraitist in being more lyrical in style than the main march. The
Rome. concert march, scored for symphony orchestra, is usually
283 MARTIAL
more subtle than the practical military march. The US Marot, Clement (1496- 1544), French poet. He be-
composer John Philip Sousa (1854- 1932) was a famous longed to a circle of court poets, many of whom shared
composer of marches; his output during his career as a his moderate reformist leanings, and eventually left
band-leader numbered more than 130. His style displays France for Italy as a result of the persecution of Prot-
melodic inventiveness and great rhythmic vigour. estants. His religious concerns bore fruit in his translations
of the first fifty psalms of the Bible (1543), which became
Marenzio, Luca (c- 1553-99), Italian composer famous the basis for the Protestant Psalter. His use of medieval
as a composer of *madrigals, villanelle, and canzonelte. forms such as the rondeau (see *rondo) and *ballade recalls
They are noted for their expressive word-painting and *Christine de Pisan and *Villon, but later in his career
the intensity with which they convey emotion. In 1588 he shows signs of Italian and classical influences.
Marenzio entered the service of the Medici in Florence,
where he composed the music for the second and third marquetry, in furniture-making, a *veneer made of
*intermedii of La pellegrina. In 1589 he returned to Rome, pieces of wood or other suitable materials (ivory, for
and in the 1590s he spent some years at the Polish court. example) shaped and fitted together to form a design. If
the design forms a regular geometric pattern it is called
marimba *xylophone. parquetry. Marquetry originated in Germany and the
Low Countries in the i6th century and spread to France
marine painting, painting of scenes relating to the sea and Britain in the 17th century.
or shipping. was in the 17th century that marine
It
painting first became an independent subject for artists. Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis) (ad C.40-C. 104),
Initially it was a Dutch speciality: Holland at this time Latin poet, originally from Spain. His early poem on
won its independence from Spain, and pictures of the Spectacles commemorates the building of the Colosseum
ships that represented the country's strength appealed in Rome, but he is best known for twelve books of
greatly to national pride. The most famous of Dutch *epigrams, mostly in elegiac *couplets, reflecting all
marine painters, Willem van de Velde the Younger, facets of Roman life, and marked by witty realism and
moved to England with his father in 1672 and they coarseness. In his day he was widely read, and known,
founded the great tradition of marine painting in England, he claimed, even in Britain.
of which Turner was the outstanding representative.
he became Latin Secretary to the Council of State, and such as L'amico Fritz (1891) and Iris (1898), were al-
in 1659 he was elected Member of Parliament for Hull, together finer and more imaginative. Mascagni died
a post he held until his death. After the Restoration, discredited by his association with Mussolini's fascism and
Marvell turned to verse *satire. His *lyric poems (which disillusioned by his failure to match the success of his first
art. His work recaptured the gravity and grandeur of His children's story The Midnight Folk (1927) remains
*Giotto, but whereas Giotto set his figures in space popular. Masefield became *Poet Laureate in 1930.
intuitively, Masaccio solved the problem of creating
a completely coherent and consistent sense of three mask, a covering for the face with openings for the eyes
dimensions on a two-dimensional surface. His achieve- and mouth. Originally made of carved wood or painted
ment was based on his mastery of the new science of linen, later of painted cork, leather, or canvas, and later
*perspective and his use of a single constant light source still of papier-mache or lightweight plastics, masks in the
to define the structure of the body and its draperies. theatre derive from the use of animal skins and heads in
Before his death in Rome, which was so sudden that there primitive religious rituals. In the Greek theatre, masks
were rumours of poisoning, Masaccio left three great served, in an all-male company, to distinguish between
285 MASSINGER
the male and female characters and to show the age and mass, the principal service of the Roman Catholic
chief characteristic of each —hate, anger, fear, cunning, Church, in which bread and wine are consecrated and
stupidity. In tragedy the mask gave dignity and a certain consumed. There are two types of mass: the High Mass,
remoteness to demi-gods and heroes, and also enabled which is sung, and the Low Mass, which is spoken. The
one actor to play several parts by changing his mask. In most important parts of the High Mass are the five
comedy the mask helped to unify the members of the sections that never vary, and are said to constitute the
chorus (who wore masks of such creatures as frogs, birds, Ordinary of the mass. They are: Kyrie eleison ('Lord have
horses, etc.) and served as an additional source of humour, mercy'); Gloria in excelsis Deo ('Glory be to God on high');
particularly with the comic masks of slaves. The Roman Credo in unum Deum ('I believe in one God, the Father
theatre took over the tragic masks from the Greeks Almighty'); Sanctus and Benedictus ('Holy, holy, holy. Lord
(though not in the mime), adopting the later exaggerated God Almighty' and 'Blessed is He that cometh in the
form with a high peak over the forehead. The golden name of the Lord'); and Agnus Dei ('Lamb of God, that
masks worn by God and the archangels in some versions takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us').
of the medieval mystery play may have been a survival These texts, and their traditional *plainsong, were es-
of the Greek tragic mask or an independent discovery of tablished during the 7th to ith centuries and have been
i
the new European theatre; but the devils' masks, though set to music by composers ever since. The Proper of the
often comic in intention, seem by their horrific animal mass consists of those parts that vary from season to
forms to be linked to early primitive religious usage. The season. They are always sung to plainsong. The Protestant
comic actors of the commedia deWarle always wore masks, equivalent of the mass is the Oflfice of Holy Communion.
usually the small black 'cat-mask' which left the lower The parts that are set to music (always in the vernacular)
part of the face bare. Otherwise masks, which continued are the Kyrie, Credo, Sanctus, and Gloria. Settings of the
to be an essential feature in the No play of Japan and in mass achieved their greatest devotional intensity during
other Far Eastern theatres, were discarded in Europe, the *polyphonic period (roughly 1300 to 1600). Settings
and they are seldom seen on stage, though they are made in the 17th and i8th centuries, though musically
sometimes used for special effects. (See also *African fine, tended to be too beholden to the secular fashions of
masks and masquerades, *make-up (theatrical).) the day to be entirely satisfactory as vehicles for liturgical
observance. Certain examples, such as Bach's B minor
Masolino da Panicale (c. 1383-C.1447), Italian painter. Mass and Beethoven's Missa Solemnis, transcend both
His career is closely linked with that of *Masaccio, but fashion and liturgy.
the nature of the association remains ill-defined. They
worked together on the decoration of the Brancacci Cha- Massenet, Jules (Emile Frederic) (1842 1912),
pel in Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence (c. 1425-8). French composer. His first performed opera was heard
After Masaccio's death Masolino reverted to the more in 1867 and success came in 1872 with his sixth opera,
decorative style he had practised early in his career. At Don Cesar de Bazan. Of his thirty-four operas, the most
his best he was a painter of great distinction. successful were Herodiade (1881), Manon (1884), Werther
(1892), Thais (1894), and Le Jongleur de Notre- Dame
masonry, a term that can in its broadest sense be (1902). Together with *Puccini and Richard *Strauss,
applied to any kind of stonework, * brickwork, or concrete Massenet dominated the operatic stage at the turn of the
construction, but which is usually more specifically ap- century. His style was elegant but essentially conservative,
plied to high-quality stonework. A great many different relying for its effects on charm of melody and a somewhat
kinds of stone have been used in masonry, often what sentimental choice of subject-matter. He also composed
was available locally, but sometimes transported over many fine songs and several effective orchestral works.
long distances. The craft was brought to a high level of
accomplishment in ancient times, and both the Greeks Massine, Leonide (Fedorovich) (1896 1979), Rus-
and the Incas built complex stone structures without the sian dancer and choreographer. He joined the *Bolshoi
use of mortar, relying on extreme precision in the cutting Ballet in 19 12 and then the Ballets Russes in 19 14, under
and fitting of the blocks. Ashlar is masonry in which the *Diaghilev. He was known as a character dancer as well
blocks are carefully squared and laid in horizontal courses as a *choreographer, taking the lead male role in many
with fine joints, presenting a smooth surface. Rubble new productions such as Fokine's Legend of Joseph 1913). (
masonry, in contrast, consists of irregularly shaped stones. He choreographed Parade (191 7), The Three-Cornered Hat
(1919), and a version of The Rite of Spring (1930) with
masque, a spectacular kind of indoor performance Martha *Graham. He directed Ballets Russes de Monte
combining poetic drama, music, dance, song, lavish Carlo 1938 43), and developed theories of choreography,
(
costume, and costly stage effects, which was favoured in a system of *dance notation, and worked on a new form
England in the first half of the 17th century. Members of the symphonic ballet [Choreartium, 1953).
of the court would enter disguised, taking the parts of
mythological characters, and enact a simple *allegorical Massinger, Philip (1583- 1640), English dramatist.
plot, concluding with a dance joined by members of the The chief playwright of the King's Men (Shakespeare's
audience. Shakespeare included a short masque scene in old theatrical company), his plays are noted for their
The Tempest (161 1), and the music for Milton's masque social realism, satire, and comedy. They include A New
Comus (1634) was written by Henry *Lawes. At the courts Way toPay Old Debts (^.1625), in which he expresses his
of James I and Charles I the highest form of the masque indignation at the economic oppression practised by
proper was represented by the quarrelsome collaboration extortionate financiers; The Maid of Honour (<:. 1621), and
of *Jonson with the designer Inigo *Jones from 1605 to The Bondman (1623), both tragi-comedies; and his great
163 in the hugely expensive Oberon (161 1) and other
1 tragedy Believe As Tou List 1631 ), a study of the recurring
(
civilization, unequalled before the *Gupta dynasty. (See peatedly jailed for subversive activity, he was a leader of
also *Buddhist art.) the iconoclastic * Futurists {A Slap in the Face of Public
Taste, with Khlebnikov and others, 191 2). His early long
mausoleum,, a large and stately tomb, particularly one poems dramatize his own personality [A Cloud in Trousers,
in the form of a building. The term derives from Mausolus 191 5). He versified the myths of the Revolution in long
(d. 353 Bc), Persian satrap (provincial governor) in Caria poems like Okay! 1927), and At the Top of my Voice (1930).
(
in Asia Minor, who planned for himself a splendid tomb, The intimate strain in his work culminates in the great
erected at Halicarnassus (now in Turkey) by his wife tragic love poem About This (1923). Increasingly alienated
after his death. Built of white marble and richly decorated from Soviet life, he directed his satirical plays The Bed-
by some of the leading sculptors of the day, amongst them Bug (1928) and The Bath-House (1929) against post-
*Scopas of Paros, it was regarded as one of the Seven revolutionary philistinism. Denied a visa to travel abroad,
Wonders of the World. It was destroyed by an earthquake he committed suicide.
in the Middle Ages, but some of the sculpture survives
in the British Museum. Other famous mausoleums include
Mayan art, the art and architecture of a Maya-speaking
the Taj Mahal at Agra in India, built by the emperor civilizationwhich flourished in the Yucatan peninsula
and in Guatemala from c. ist to 12th centuries ad. Maya
architecture varied in detailed solutions and methods
of construction: in the most southerly sites, wooden
Most famous of the monuments of the Mughal rulers of superstructures were preferred to stone while elsewhere
India, the Taj Mahal brings pinnacle of grace and
to a
in building work of the 9th century, cores of rubble
refinement the influence of Iran on Indian Islamic
replaced the methods of building in huge blocks followed
architecture. The Taj Mahal ('crown of the palace'), 1632-
48, was built as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal,
in earlier practice. The essential aesthetic, however, re-
beloved favourite wife of Shah Jahan, and is the mained constant: regularity and external symmetry were
unquestioned masterpiece of Mughal architecture. unremittingly pursued; imposing height was sought, wit-
MAZURKA Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com
288
nessed by towers, roof-combs, and flying fafades; the This 14th-century Italian miniature 'Music and her
corbel-vault (a support jutting out from the wall), Attendants' illustrates Boethius's treatise on mathematics.
strengthened with mortar, was the universal method for In the centre the figure of Music plays a portative organ
while around her musicians play some of the principal
enclosing space; and everywhere the monumental style
instruments of medieval music (top left to bottom right):
largely confined to buildings of ritual importance was — fiddle, psaltery, lute, tambourine, clappers, bagpipes,
dominated by stepped platform pyramids, perforated by shawm, nakers, and trumpets. (Biblioteca Nazionale,
interior chambers. Relationships between buildings were Naples)
ruled by symmetry and signs derived from the earth.
Interiors were richly adorned with low reliefs, incised
with stone chisels in a style which probably derived from
the mural, ceramic, and bark-manuscript painting which
the Maya also practised. Throughout the thousand years
of Maya painting and carving, curvilinear silhouettes
predominate, often accompanied by hieroglyphic in-
scriptions which obey the same conventions. Free-
standing sculpture is rare, and usually modelled in clay
or stucco; carved stelae (upright slabs or pillars), however,
are common on most sites. (See also *Central American
and Mexican architecture.)
www.Ebook777.com
289 MELBA
make paint, for example, water in water-colour painting, carving for the tourist trade persists.
egg yolk in tempera, and linseed oil in oil painting.
Melba, (Dame) Nellie (Mrs Helen Porter Armstrong
Meistersinger *minstrel. (b. Milhall)) (1861-1931), Australian soprano singer.
Following her 1887 operatic debut in Brussels as Gilda in
Melanesian art, the art of the Melanesian people, Verdi's Rigoletto, Melba had a series of London triumphs,
inhabiting islands in the south-western Pacific, including followed by appearances in Paris, Milan, and New York.
M^Lit:s 290
She toured the USA with her own company (1897-8). the American Civil War he turned to poetry, and pub-
Her final performance in 1926 as Mimi in
operatic lished three collections and the long poem Clarel (1876),
Puccini's La Boheme was recorded. Her voice is notable without attracting much attention. In 1866 he became a
for its purity and brilliant agility. Customs Inspector in New
York. He retired in 1885, and
died in obscurity. The novel Billy Budd, Sailor was found
Melies, Georges (i 861 -1938), French film director in his papers and published in 1924; it was later used as
and producer, who developed the medium beyond the the basis for an opera by Britten (1950-1). Melville's
stage reached by *Lumiere. Beginning by recording major creative phase lasted only ten years, but in it he
insignificant happenings, he proceeded to make films produced several classic tales of life at sea and encounters
based on books, plays and, especially, fantasy and trick with primitive societies, powerful short fiction like 'Benito
photography, an area in which he was profoundly in- Cereno' and 'Bartleby the Scrivener', and, in Moby-Dick,
fluential; his most famous film was A Trip to the Moon one of the greatest 19th-century novels in any language.
(1902). He built the first studio in France in 1897, and Written in a rich, rhythmical prose, it has a solid basis
his films were so popular in the USA that in 1903 he in a brilliantly handled realistic narrative, and traces of
established his trademark Star-Film there to prevent an original documentary purpose. The story of Captain
piracy. His failure to adjust to public taste, however, led Ahab's pursuit of the white whale is a literary myth, with
to eventual bankruptcy. Over a thousand of his films commentaries which speculate on all manner of topics,
were destroyed, and only about a hundred remain. from metaphysical enigmas to man's exploitation of na-
ture.
xnelodeon *accordion.
Memlinc (or Memling) (c. 1430-94), Netherlandish
melodrama, a popular form of sensational drama which painter, active in Bruges. His softened and sweetened
flourished in the 19th-century theatre, surviving in differ- version of the style of Rogier van der *Weyden (who is
ent forms in modern cinema and television. The term, said to have been his teacher) made him the most pop-
meaning 'song-drama' in Greek, was originally applied ular Netherlandish painter of his day. Memlinc's paintings
to plays or scenes accompanied by music, as in opera. In are quiet, restrained, and pious, his style changing very
early 19th-century London, many theatres were only little during his career. He painted many portraits and
permitted to produce musical entertainments, and from showed rather more originality in this field than in reli-
their simplified plays the modern sense of melodrama gious painting. There is a museum devoted to him in
derives: emotionally exaggerated conflicts of puremaiden- Bruges.
hood and scheming villainy in a violent plot of suspense.
Well-known examples are Douglas Jerrold's Black-Eyd Menander ((7.342-^.290 bc), the leading writer of *co-
Susan (1829), the anonymous Maria Marten (c. 1830), and medy in the Hellenistic period of *Greek theatre. An
Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1842); the Athenian, he wrote 100 plays, of which one complete
Irish playwright Dion Boucicault wrote several melo- play {The Ill-Tempered Man) has come to light, together
dramas in the 1850s. The turn of the century saw with substantial fragments of several others. His plays
spectacular melodramas staged at Drury Lane, with deal with domestic situations and his verse stays close to
shipwrecks, earthquakes, and horse-racing. Similar plots colloquial speech.
and simplified characterization in fiction can also be
described as melodramatic. Mencken, Henry Louis (1880-1956), US journalist,
critic, and essayist. He became literary critic of The Smart
melody, any succession of musical notes, varying in Set in 1908 and was co-editor of this lively periodical from
pitch, with a recognizable and organized shape. Melody 19 14 to 1923. His essays were published in six volumes
is the horizontal aspect of music, as opposed to its vertical entitled Prejudices (1919-27). His most important work of
aspect, *harmony. Rhythm is an important element of scholarship is The American Language (19 19), a discussion
melody: a change of rhythm can completely disguise of English in the USA, noting specifically US expressions
a well-known tune. The music of many cultures has and idioms. He also wrote three volumes of autobiography
concentrated on melodic development, while harmony is a Happy Days (1940), Newspaper Days (1941), and Heathen
relatively modern invention and by no means universally Days (1943), as well as much literary criticism and
adopted. Being closely associated with words (as in biographies of literary figures.
folk-song), melody reflects the characteristics of language
and thus often conveys a sense of national identity. Mendelsohn, Erich (1887- 1953), German-born archi-
tect who became a British citizen in 1938 and settled in
Melville, Herman (18 19-91), US novehst, short-story the USA in 1941. Early in his career he was a leading
writer, and poet. As a young man he sailed as a cabin proponent of *Expressionism in architecture, his mas-
boy to Liverpool, and in 1841 went on the whaler Acushnet terpiece in this vein being the Einstein Tower (an ob-
to the South Seas, jumping ship at the Marquesas and servatory and laboratory) at Potsdam (1919), the bizarre,
returning in 1844. He drew on his adventures in Typee sculpturesque forms of which caused a sensation. Later
(1846), Omoo (1847), ^(i^di (1849), Redburn (1849), and his forms became more regular and simplified, although
White-Jacket (1850). These were largely successful, but still bold, as in his De La Warr Pavilion (a sea-side
Moby-Dick (1851), his massive experimental account of a pleasure pavilion) at Bexhill in Sussex (1933-6), one
whaling voyage, failed commercially, as did the anguished of the outstanding works of the *Modern Movement
first
study of artistic impotence Pierre (1852), the historical in England (Mendelsohn had left Germany because of
romance Israel Potter (1855), the story collection The the rise of Nazism in 1933). Mendelsohn also worked in
Piazza Tales (1856), and The Confidence- Man (1857), a Israel (then Palestine) in the 1930s, and his late work in
sardonic comedy set aboard a Mississippi steamer. During the USA included several synagogues.
291 MESSIAEN
(1983) stand as the summation of his development. metronome, a device for setting the * tempo of a musical
Messiaen's music is more concerned with the elaboration composition by reference to the number of beats per
and decoration of musical themes than with their dynamic minute. This can be as simple as a pendulum whose swing
development. Its consequent static qualities bring it close varies with its length, or more sophisticated, like the
in manner to the practices of oriental music. 19th-century clockwork Maelzel Metronome or the
present-day battery-operated electronic version, which
metamorphosis of themes *symphonic poem. can tick or flash as required. The composer places a
'metronome mark' at the head of the score as a guide to
metaphor, which one thing, idea,
a *figure of speech in the preferred speed, but the wise interpreter does not
or action is by the name of another, suggesting
referred to necessarily take the mark as sacrosanct.
some common quality shared by the two. In metaphor,
this resemblance is assumed as an imaginary identity Metsu, Gabriel (1629-67), Dutch painter, active in his
rather than directly stated as a comparison: referring to native Leiden and later in Amsterdam. He painted various
a person as 'that pig' is metaphorical, whereas 'he is like subjects, including portraits, still-lifes, and mythological
a pig' is a *simile. The use of metaphor to create new scenes, but he is best known for his *genre pictures. One
combinations of ideas is a major feature of *poetry, but of his best-known works. Mother and Sick Child, is often
much of our everyday language is also made up of compared with *Vermeer. His work displays carefully
metaphorical words and phrases which pass unnoticed, balanced composition and colour schemes, and his ob-
as 'dead' metaphors. servation of people and still-life details are charming.
Metaphysical painting, a style of painting invented Meyerbeer, Giacomo (i 791 -1864), German com-
by Giorgio de *Chirico in about 1913 and practised by poser. He made his mark first as a pianist and only began
him and a few other Italian painters, most notably Carlo to achieve success as an opera composer during a visit to
*Carra, until about 1920. The style is characterized by Italy (1816-24). His sixth Italian opera. The Crusader in
images conveying a sense of mystery and hallucination,
often involving the use of tailors' dummies or statues in
place of human figures. It had a strong influence on The Letter Reader (c. 1665) is one of Gabriel Metsu's
*Surrealism, though its concentration on depicting un- finest paintingsand is also a reflection on the place of art
in 17th-century Dutch society. The servant who has
inhabited cities was peculiar to itself
delivered the letter pulls back a curtain covering a
picture (they were often hung like this) so that she may
Metaphysical poets, a description used for a group examine it. Paintings were indeed so abundant in
of 17th-century British poets who share certain char- 17th-century Holland that they could be enjoyed by all
acteristics of expression, notably *Donne, *Herbert, levels of society rather than being the preserve of the
*Crashaw, *Cowley, *Vaughan, *Traherne, and *Mar- rich and privileged. (Collection of Sir Alfred Beit,
Blessmgton, Ireland)
vell. They are distinguished by their habitual use of
conceits (elaborate and surprising metaphors): these are
frequently taken from science or technology, rather than
from nature or conventional mythology; a famous ex-
ample is Donne's comparison of parted lovers to a pair
of geometrical compasses: ('Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes
no show To move, but doth, if the other do
I
.'). The . .
The Creation of Adam is the most famous of the nme the light tones are required and by polishing the metal
scenes from Genesis that form the central part of quite smooth in the highlights. When the plate has been
Michelangelo's Sistine Ceihng. Mighty figures of inked and then wiped, the ink is retained where the plate
prophets and sibyls who foretold Christ's birth are at the
isrough and will print an intense black, but where it has
sides of the ceiling, while the central scenes are flanked
by beautiful nude youths, whose exact significance is been smoothed less ink is held and a lighter tone occurs.
uncertain. In completing such a huge task virtually Mezzotint was invented in the Netherlands in the mid-
unaided m only four years (1508-12) Michelangelo 17th century and soon spread to England, where it
demonstrated heroic powers of physical endurance as became an extremely popular method for reproducing
well as matchless genius as an artist. portraits. The technique became virtually extinct in the
later 19th century with the development of photography.
Egypt (1824), brought him international fame. He then
set out to conquer Paris by writing the kind of spectacular
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), Italian
Grand Opera that was currently in vogue. In achieving sculptor, painter, architect,draughtsman, and poet, one
this end, through Robert le diable (1831), Les Huguenots
of the greatest figures of the *Renaissance. He was
apprenticed to *Ghirlandaio in Florence, though the
(1836), Le Prophete (1849), and LAfricaine (1865), he
outdid all his rivals. Meyerbeer's operas have a genuine greatest influence on his formative years was the work of
grandeur and are notable for their stirring melodies, in- *Giotto and *Masaccio, on which he drew avidly. In
genious orchestration, elaborate choral effects, and sheer 1496 he moved to Rome and there produced his first
theatricality. masterpiece, the celebrated Pieta (completed 1499) in St
Peter's. On his return to Florence in 1501 he consolidated
Meyerhold, Vsevolod (Emilyevich) (1874-1942), his reputation with the huge statue oi David (150 1-4),
Russian theatrical director, who played a major role in which has become a symbol of Florentine civic pride. In
the emergence of Soviet theatre. He was active before 1505 he returned to Rome, where he embarked on two
the Revolution of 191 7, when he introduced a stylized vast commissions for Pope Julius II. The first was for a
'*Formalism' into his productions. His system of Bio- tomb for the Pope, but little came of Michelangelo's
Mechanics, in which actors were required to suppress originally grandiose plans, and only the figure of Moses
their individuality and the settings were minimal, gave (15 1 3- 16) is by his own hand. Julius's other commission
rise to some exciting productions, notably of *Mayakov- was for the decoration of the Sistine Ceiling in the Vatican
sky, but was eventually condemned by the Stalinist (1508-12). It was this sublime work, full of figures
regime. His theatre was closed and he was arrested; he of superhuman grandeur, that definitively established
is presumed to have died in imprisonment. Michelangelo as the most famous artist of the age. After
a period in Florence from 1516 to 1534 Michelangelo
mezzotint, a method of *engraving that produces tonal returned to Rome, to paint the Last Judgement on the
areas rather than lines; the term also applies to a print altar wall of the Sistine Chapel (1536-41). It is a work
made by this method. A copper plate is roughened with entirely different in spirit from his ceiling *frescos, with
a tool called a rocker, which raises a 'burr' on the surface. massive (rather than graceful) figures of awesome power.
The design is formed by scraping away the burr where In this period he worked increasingly as an architect; his
MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO 294
in character. From the French influence of the trou- Travels of Sir John Mandeville (f.1356) was a popular
badours or aristocratic poet-musicians came the code of series of unlikely traveller's tales. Chaucer's contemporary
*courtly love and rhyme, which co-existed with a freer John Gower (c. 1330- 1408) wrote the Confessio Amantis, a
style of *alliterative verse. Many long *romances come collection of exempla or moral stories told in lucid style.
from both French and Anglo-Saxon sources, among them After Chaucer came the autobiographical poems of
'King Horn', 'Havelok the Dane', and 'Amadis of Gaul'. Thomas Hoccleve (c. 1368- 1426), the enormous output of
Layamon's Brut (c. 1200) is a nationalist *epic. The first John Lydgate (c. 13 70- 1449), and the Scots *Henryson,
of many continental-style debate poems, 'The Owl and *Dunbar, Gavin Douglas (1475- 1522), and James I
the Nightingale', in which the two birds debate the virtues (1394- 1437). The *morality plays and *mystery cycles
of the monastic and the secular ways of life, dates from of the early i6th century are of a high literary value,
before 1 250, and is the ancestor of *Chaucer's 'Parliament particularly those of Yorkshire, as are very many lyrics
of Fowls'. The 'alliterative revival' includes a debate poem and carols, including 'Alysoun' and 'Sumer is icumen in'
'Winner and Waster' (<^. 1353), and *Langland's moral (c.1250).
8
295 MILLER
Middleton, Thomas (c. 1580- 1627), English dramatist. but a cynic, and the merits of his later works are again
He collaborated with *Webster, *Dekker, William Row- being recognized.
ley, and others and wrote many successful comedies on
London city life including A Chast Mayd in Cheape-side Millay, Edna St Vincent (1892 1950), US poet. She
(c.1613) as well as *pageants and *masques for city published several collections of verse after her celebrated
occasions. His political *satire A Game at Cheass (1624) debut in Renascence and Other Poems (191 7). She favoured
was suppressed by James I on account of its covert traditional poetic language and forms (particularly the
allusion to Spain and the Jesuits, and caused him to be *sonnet) at a time when other young American poets,
summoned before the Privy Council. Middleton is now part of the international *modernist movement, were
known for his two great tragedies, The Changeling (with overturning these conventions. The tone and subject-
Rowley, 1622) and Women Beware Women (c. 1621). matter of her works of the 1930s and 1940s, for example
The Murder oj Lidice 1942), reflect an increasing maturity.
(
1944. One of the supreme architects of the 20th century, a sequence of powerful plays: the classic study of American
Mies was also a highly influential designer. His work, failure Death of a Salesman (1949); the re-creation of the
mainly in steel and glass, is distinguished by classical 17th-century Salem witch-hunt in The Crucible (1953);
poise and elegance, masterly refinement of detail, and an and the Brooklyn family melodrama A View From the Bridge
insistence on the highest standards of craftsmanship; one (1955). All are tragedies which subject to examination the
of his famous aphorisms is 'I would rather be good than values of the community and the individual. With some
original'. Early in his career he worked with *Behrens exceptions, the plays after the apparently confessional
(at the same time as *Gropius and *Le Corbusier) and were less successful. Miller also wrote
After the Fall (1964)
in the 1920s he was one of the key figures of the *Modern a novel, short stories, theatre essays, and The Misfits
Movement. From 1930 to 1933 Mies was director of the (i960), a film-script for his second wife, the actress
*Bauhaus, and in 1938 he became professor of archi- Marilyn Monroe. Timebends 1987) is his autobiography.
(
(1948-51), and the Seagram Building in New York Of his two best-known autobiographical novels, Tropic of
(1954-8, designed in association with Philip *Johnson),
skyscrapers that have been much imitated but never
equalled in their lucid precision. One of his last great Arthur Miller, author of some of the most acclaimed
works was for his native country, the Gallery of the plays in 20th-century American literature. His work is
Twentieth Century in Berlin (1962-8). As a designer Mies intensely serious, dealmg with the pressures of family
was best known for his furniture, notably the steel and and society and with the failure of human relationships.
leather 'Barcelona chair' (so-called because it was de-
signed for theGerman pavilion at the 1929 International
Exposition in Barcelona), which is still produced com-
mercially.
Cancer (1934) covers the emotional and intellectual life of ^polemical writings in both English and Latin: on divorce
a US expatriate in Paris, Tropic of Capricorn (1939) his (which he supported on grounds of incompatibility), on
adolescence in America: their sexual frankness prevented education, on the freedom of the press {Areopagitica, 1644),
publication in the USA before i960. The Rosy Crucifixion and in defence of England's republican policies. By the
is a semi-fictional memoir consisting oiSexus (1945), Plexus age of 43 he was totally blind, and from then on his
( 1 949)
and Nexus ( 1 960) Otherwise his extensive writings
, . poems were dictated to his daughters, nephews, and
are a miscellany of memoirs, literary criticism, essays, disciples, among them Andrew *Marvell. At the Res-
travel sketches, and lengthy correspondence with other toration in 1660 he went into hiding briefly, was arrested,
authors. The Colossus of Maroussi (1941), an uncon- fined, and released. His great work Paradise Lost, com-
ventional travel account in search of the spirit of Greece, pleted in 1667, is an epic in *blank verse on the biblical
emphasizing people, not sites, consumed in 'a world of story of man's fall from grace. In it he proves himself a
light', was seen by some of the *Beats as seminal to their supreme master of the rhythm and sound of language.
movement. Paradise Regained, its successor, appeared in 1671. In it
Milton recounts how Christ overcame the temptation of
Millet, Jean-Franqois (1814-75), French painter and Satan. In the same year he composed Samson Agonistes, a
graphic artist. His early pictures were conventional myth- powerful blank-verse drama modelled on Greek tragedy
ological and anecdotal *genre scenes and portraits, but in which Samson, 'eyeless in Gaza at the mill with slaves',
from the late 1840s he turned to those scenes of rustic life renews his spiritual strength and once more becomes
from which his name is now inseparable. He emphasized God's chosen champion. After his death Milton's re-
the serious and even melancholy aspects of country life putation grew steadily and his influence on 18th-century
and the solemnity of toil (he came from a peasant family). poets was immense.
Much of his career was spent in poverty, but his work
began to bring him success in the i86os and his most mime, to play a part with mimic gestures, usually
famous picture. The Angelus (1859), became perhaps the without words. Even at its highest level the mime diflfers
most widely reproduced painting of the 19th century. In from more conventional forms of drama by its pre-
1849 he settled at *Barbizon, remaining there for most occupation with character-drawing rather than plot, a
of the rest of his life. Late in his career he turned necessary consequence of its more or less improvised
increasingly to pure landscape. nature. In Ancient Rome it became a spoken form of
popular, farcical drama with music, which was played
Milne, A(lan) A(lexander) (1882- 1956), British poet, without masks. The distinctive *costume of the Roman
novelist, and dramatist. He was a regular contributor to mime-player was a hood which could be drawn over the
Punch and began a successful career as a playwright with head or thrown back, a patchwork jacket, tights, and the
Mr Pirn Passes By (1919), The Dover Road (1921), and phallus; the head was shaven and the feet bare. The
Toad of Toad Hall (1929, a dramatization of *Grahame's popular mimes, which all but drove other forms of spoken
Wind in the Willows). His large output of plays, novels, drama from the stage under the Roman Empire, were
poetry, short stories, and essays has been overshadowed sub-literary, unmetrical, and largely impromptu, with
by his classic books of children's verse. When We Were dialogue in prose which the chief actor was free to cut or
Very Young (1924) and Now We Are Six (1927), and the expand at will. The sordid themes and startling indecency
stories Winnie- the- Pooh (1926), and The House at Pooh Corner of the language, action, and near-nudity of the actors
(1928), written for his son, Christopher Robin, about his and actresses, judged by some later fragments which have
toy animals. survived, seem to have been characteristic of the Roman
mime. In the 5th century the Church excommunicated
Milosz, Czeslaw (191 1- ), Polish poet and essayist. all performers in mime for burlesquing the sacraments
His pre-War verse, such as Three Winters (1936), written and for their indecency. The Middle Ages had their
in his native Lithuania, contains a sense ofimpending mime-players, who may have taken over from the *pan-
doom. Later poetry, including Where the Sun Rises and tomimus, the last representative of classical drama, some-
Sets (1974), for which he received the Nobel Prize for thing of their traditions, and handed them on to their
Literature in 1980, confronts moral and philosophical descendants in the modern world. The actors of the
questions. Soon after settling in France he wrote The *commedia deWarte relied heavily upon mime, and it is
Captive Mind (1953), essays analysing how writers func- an essential part of ballet. The work of Jean Gaspard
tioned in Stalinist Eastern Europe. The novel The Issa Deburau (1796- 1846), which culminated in the famous
Valley (1955) evokes childhood in Lithuania. In i960 he U
mime-play Enfant prodigue, popularized mime in France
emigrated to the USA. in the 19th century and the vogue for it spread to Britain.
Again a more general interest in the subject was aroused
Milton, John (1608-74), English poet, scholar, and by the performance of *Barrault as Deburau in the film
pamphleteer, best known for his *epic poem Paradise Lost Les Enfants du paradis (1945). Modern mime has nothing
(1667). Among his early poems are the *ode, 'On the in common with the Roman mime, and approximates far
Morning of Christ's Nativity' (1629); 'L'Allegro' and its more closely to the art of the Roman *pantominus, being
companion poem 'II Penseroso' (c. 1631), the *masque entirelydependent on gesture and movement, usually
Comus (1637), and Lycidas (1637), a *pastoral *elegy on accompanied by music, but wordless. An outstanding
the death of a fellow-student. The Civil War then overtook exponent of mime in the 20th century has been Marcel
his and from 1641 to 1660 (apart from a few masterly
life, *Marceau. In recent years a new form of mime has
*sonnets in the grand style which include the noble 'On developed, particularly in the work of Philippe Gaulier
His Blindness' and 'On the Late Massacre in Piedmount') and Monica Pagneaux at the Le Coq School in Paris, in
he worked as a Puritan for the cause of the Com- which dialogue is not prohibited but arises out of
monwealth with a succession of political pamphlets and improvisation and issubservient to the physical component.
297 MINUET
miniatures were known as 'limnings' or 'pictures in little' and continued to about 11 00 bc. The evidence of early
during the Elizabethan period, the time when the art — Minoan pottery suggests strong trade contacts with Egypt
in the —
hands of Nicholas Milliard had its finest flowering. during the early Minoan period (c.3000-2000 bc), though
They were usually painted on vellum, occasionally on it is not clear whether the Minoan civilization originated
ivory or card. Miniature portraiture continued to flourish with immigrants or grew from the previous Neolithic
until the mid- 19th century, when photography virtually culture (see *Stone Age art). Minoan civilization enjoyed
killed the art. (See also *Islamic miniature painting.) its greatest prosperity from t.2200 to 1450 bc. It was a
dancing, but were also judged on their breeding, social designate certain sculptures by Alexander *Calder; they
status, education, and social manners. It became one of consisted typically of flat metal parts suspended on wires
the optional movements of the Baroque dance *suite, and and moved by a combination of air currents and their
thus gained entry into the symphony as a standard third own structural tension. The term has been extended to
movement. This in turn was supplanted by the Beethoven cover other sculptures of this type, with which many
*scherzo. The minuet is normally in AABA form: the B sculptors and interior decorators have since experimented,
section is a contrasting minuet, that was originally in some of them using motors to provide the movement.
three-part harmony, hence the title minuet and trio. Jean *Arp suggested the name 'stabiles' for Calder's
sculptures that were non-moving but otherwise similar to
miracle play *mystery play. his mobiles.
299 MODERN DANCE
Mochica culture *South American Indian art. increasing importance. For most people the phrase 'mod-
ern art', however, suggests the 20th century, and its
mode, in music, a way of ordering the notes of a *scale. beginnings may be plausibly located in the fertile period
A system of church modes dominated European music between the turn of the century and World War I. In
up to about 1600. The earhest description of these modes, the late century the notion that painting and
19th
from the 8th century, Hsts only eight modes, but with the sculpture were concerned with recognizably representing
evolution of *polyphony in the 15th century the number natural appearances was seriously undermined by artists
grew to twelve. The modes were said to be based on such as *Gauguin and *Munch, and in the early 20th
scales used by the ancient Greeks, but scholars now century was completely overthrown by a series of re-
believe that the church modes were evolved independ- volutionary movements, notably *Fauvism, *Ex-
ently. The Ionian and Aeolian modes have survived as pressionism, and *Cubism (which were among the first
the major and minor scales. In folk and non-Western of the many 'isms' in which modern art abounds). Cubism
music, the term mode indicates not so much a scale as a was the most radical and influential of these movements,
collection of characteristic phrases, motifs, and formulas for it stimulated many other developments and was one
peculiar to one mode and not found in others. The Arabic of the main sources of *abstract art. A movement that,
maqdm and South Asian raga systems contain scores of in its very diff'erent way, proved equally far-reaching in
different modes, which underlie a largely improvisatory its implications, was *Dada, which was founded during
practice. In jazz, the term mode is applied to scales other World War I and began questioning the nature and
than the major and minor that may serve as the basis for validity of art. Such questioning has been one of the
an improvised solo. keynotes of modern art, and in it lie the roots of *con-
ceptual art, in which ideas are considered of greater
modern art, a general term applied to avant-garde art importance than the finished 'product'. Despite the seem-
of the late 19th and 20th centuries. It is applied to art ing confusion of modern art, the traditional easel painting
that is or was outside the range of appreciation of the continues to hold its place, and the human figure still
general public, by virtue of its questioning or abandoning remains the central concern for many artists. In the field
of traditional techniques, subjects, or ideas. Various dates of architecture,modernism is generally thought to reside
have been suggested as convenient points to mark the in the development of a *functional style, largely or
beginning of modern art. Among them are 1855, when entirely stripped of historical ornament. Late 19th-
*Courbet expressed his unconventionality and hatred of century US architects such as *Richardson and *Sullivan
authority by organizing a pavilion of his own work at are placed in the vanguard of this movement. However,
the Paris Universal Exhibition, and 1863, the year of the the term *Modern Movement (or 'International Style'
Salon des Refuses. This was an exhibition held in Paris or 'International Modern') is used in a more specific way.
to show work that had been refused by the selection It refers to a developed in the 1920s by *Le
style
committee of the official *Salon, many artists having Corbusier, *Mies van der Rohe, *Gropius, and other
protested at being rejected. It drew huge crowds, who architects, characterized by cubic shapes (with white
came mainly to ridicule, and *Manet's Dejeuner sur Pherbe usually the dominant colour), large windows, often ar-
in particular was subjected to furious abuse. Artists now ranged in horizontal bands, and a spartan absence of
began to organize their own exhibitions (notably the detailing. The term '*Post-Modernism' refers to recent
* Impressionists in 1874) and art dealers became of architecture that rejects such functionalism and borrows
from historical styles, sometimes ironically.
The Ballet Rambert m Dangerous Liaisons 985) choreo- ( 1 ,
rejected * ballet, flowered between 19 lo and 1945, but early 20th century. At its broadest, the term embraces
continues to the present. Early signs are found in the *Cubism and *Surrealism in visual arts, the music of
work of the American dancer-choreographers *Duncan *Stravinsky, and the *Modern Movement in architecture,
and *St Denis. The first European *Expressionist dances as well as the innovations in literature to which it is more
were seen in the * Ausdrucklanz of *Laban, *Jooss, and frequently applied. Modernist literature is characterized
*Wigman in Germany in the 1920s. Ausdrucklanz differed by a rejection of the 19th-century consensus between
from US modern dance in two respects. Firstly, it at- author and reader; the conventions of *realism, for
tracted both sexes, resulting in a wider dynamic range instance, were abandoned by *Kaflca and the writers of
than in the female-dominated American modern dance. the *nouveau roman. Many writers saw themselves as
Secondly, prevailing artistic and cultural influences were an avant-garde disengaged from bourgeois values, and
highly relevant. The German * Expressionists' radical disturbed their readers by adopting complex and obscure
innovations and Laban's links with the *Bauhaus ex- forms and styles. In fiction, the accepted continuity
emplify this. Ausdrucklanz was an intense, emotional style. of chronological development was upset by *Conrad,
Academic classicism was replaced by dance based on *Proust, and *Faulkner, while *Joyce and *Woolf at-
everyday actions, individual psychological states, and a tempted new ways of tracing the flow of characters'
liberated technique. By the mid-20th century the Am- thoughts in their *stream of consciousness styles. In poetry
ericans *Graham and *Humphrey emerged as the major *Pound and T. S. *Eliot, using *free verse instead
figures in modern dance. Their ways of moving
distinctive of traditional*metres, replaced logical thoughts with
were tempered by abstraction. Greek myths, psy- fragmentary images. *Pirandello, *Brecht, and *Ionesco
chological states, political comment, and reflections on opened up the theatre to new forms of abstraction.
the mechanization of modern society were common Modernist writing often expresses a sense of cultural
themes, but the most important was the emotional state- disintegration following World War I. In English, its
ment. Ballet was regarded as inadequately expressive, landmarks are Joyce's Ulyssesand Eliot's The Wasle Land
and modern dance took 'natural' actions of walking, (both 1922).
running, and breathing, exemplified in Graham's 'con-
traction and release' and Humphrey's 'fall and recovery'. Modern Movement, a term that can in its broadest
The later trend towards abstraction, seen in the work of sense be applied to any progressive architecture from
*Cunningham, introduced compositional principles of about 1900, but which more specifically is applied to a
chance derived from the composer *Cage. Cunningham's particular style or outlook that dominated the work of
compositional work provided the starting-point for the some of the leading architects in Europe and elsewhere
* postmodern dance movement of the early 1960s. from the 1920s. In this more restricted sense the term is
Latterly, the European tradition has been revived in the synonymous with the labels 'International Modern' and
dramatic works of Germany's Pina *Bausch. Alienation 'International Style'. The characteristics of the style are
of the individual from the group and within male-female rationality and clarity of design, with clean lines, generally
relationships provide her expressionistic subject-matter. cubic shapes, and a conscious renunciation of all historical
references. Buildings were typically of steel frame con-
modernism, a general term applied retrospectively to struction, with large expanses of glass, the windows
the wide range of experimental trends in the arts of the often being arranged in horizontal bands. Wall surfaces,
external and internal, were often white. The leading
architects of the Modern Movement included *Gropius,
The Penguin Pool (1933) at Regent's Park Zoo m London *Le Corbusier, and *Mies van der Rohe. In the USA
was designed by the Russian-born Berthold Lubetkm, the Modern Movement found its exponents in the works
who was one of the most potent forces m establishing the of Louis *Sullivan and others of the *Chicago school. It
Modern Movement m Britain. The clean, uncluttered was the dominant force in progressive architecture until
forms are typical of the movement, but the taut inter-
locking ramps (which the penguins use as promenades the 1950s, when it was challenged by the more expressive
—
or divmg platforms) are highly original a novel solution *Brutalism and later by *Post-Modernism. (See also
to an unusual design problem. *Functionalism.)
modulation 'key.
the displeasure of the Church for plays like VEcole des with Pissarro, he took refuge in Britain from the Franco-
femmes (1662), Le Tartuffe (1664, but banned until 1669), Prussian War, then moved to Argenteuil, a village near
and Dom Juan (1665), though he maintained that he Paris, where he and his friends painted some of the famous
attacked not true faith and morality but religious hypo- works of the Impressionist movement. After a period of
crisy. extreme poverty, he began to achieve a moderate success.
In 1883 he settled at Giverny, where he made an
Mon *Burmese art, *Thai art. ornamental lilypond which served as the theme for his
Nympheas pictures. In early paintings he experimented
Mondrian, Piet (1872-1944), Dutch painter, one of the with the tonal values used by *Manet {Le Pont neuf 1870),
most important figures in the development of *abstract but later he abandoned this for the representation of light
art. In his early career, part of which he spent in and hue, in which he was the most consistent of all the
Paris, he was influenced by a variety of styles, including Impressionists. From about 1870 he restricted himself
*Cubism; but although his work was tending towards almost completely to landscape and to rendering har-
abstraction it still remained based on images in the monies of colours in varying conditions of light. Among
natural world. In 191 7, in Holland, however, he founded the most celebrated are the series of Rouen Cathedral
De *Stijl, which became the mouthpiece
the periodical painted at different times of day in different lights (1892-
new kind of rigorously geometrical painting that he
for a 4), and the waterlily pictures which prepared the way
named *Neo-Plasticism. In this he limited himself to murals he did
for the set of for the Musee de I'Orangerie
rectangular shapes and a range of colours consisting of towards the end of his life.
the three primaries (blue, red, and yellow) plus black,
white, and grey. In 1919-38 Mondrian lived in Paris, Mongolian literature. The earliest works of literature
then in 1938-40 in London before finally settling in New in Mongolian are historical epics and chronicles. The
York. In the USA he developed a more colourful style, imperial chronicle The Secret History of the Mongols {c. 240)
1
with energetic rhythms that reflected his interest in jazz which deals especially with the life of Chinggis (Genghis)
MONK 302
Khan, incorporates traditional stories. The historical ginated as simple commentaries upon quotations from his
chronicles the Golden Button (c. 1655) and the Jewelled favourite authors, especially Plutarch, but soon developed
Button (1662) place the Mongol empire in a Central Asian into a self-portrait of the author revealing, through a
context. Like *Tibetan literature, Mongolian writing was direct and lively style, his opinions on many subjects.
deeply influenced by Buddhist translations, and in the Montaigne's motto 'Que sais-je?' and the lack of trust in
18th and 19th centuries by *Chinese literature in Mon- human reason which he displays, for example in the
golian translation, including the ^Romance of the Three famous Apologie de Raimond Sebond, caused succeeding
Kingdoms, a novel of enchantment and romance. Modern generations to see him primarily as a sceptic. However,
Mongolia is divided between the Inner Mongolian Auto- within the complexity of his thought can be discerned
nomous Region of China, where literature is heavily other important strands, notably a Stoic belief in the
influenced by Chinese models, and the Mongolian power of will to govern action and an Epicurean trust in
People's Republic, with writers and poets like Dashdorjiya nature. His subtle analysis of human nature opened the
Natsagorj and Ts. Damdinsiiriin producing socialist lit- way for the moralists of the 17th century, while Voltaire
erature broadly sympathetic to the Soviet Union and and other writers of the *Enlightenment saw in him
critical of the feudal past. a model of the philosophical tolerance which they ad-
vocated.
Monk, Thelonious (Sphere) *jazz.
Montale, Eugenio (i 896-1 981), the greatest ItaUan
Monkey (Journey to the West), Chinese novel of the poet of the 20th century, recipient of the Nobel Prize for
Ming dynasty (1368- 1644). Monkey, or more accurately Literature in 1971. He draws on an extreme range of
Journey to the West, is an often comic sequence of episodes —
language from the prosaic to the lyrical from naval and
written in the vernacular, loosely based on the historical biological terminology to the dialect of Genoa, his native
pilgrimage of the monk Tripitaka (Xuan Zang) to India city — and on all the strains in Italian literary tradition,
in the 7th century in search of Buddhist scriptures. The recovering 'dead' words, coining new ones, and subjecting
version often attributed to Wu
Cheng'en (c. 1500-80) every word to intense multiplicity of meaning. This
introduces Monkey, who acquires magic powers, a pig, linguistic engagement means that he rejected the aloof
and a shadowy sand sprite as the monk's spirit companions 'Petrarchan' role for the poet, although his wariness
and also satirizes heavenly and earthly bureaucracy. of moral keys has often attracted the accusation of
apoliticality. Among his main books of poems are: Cuttle-
monody, a particular kind of vocal style developed fish Bones (1925), Occasions (1932), The Storm and Others
around 1600 as a reaction against elaborate *polyphony. (1943-54). and Diary of igji and 1972 (1973).
Monody sought to convey the rhythmic values and
meaning of words with the greatest clarity and accuracy. Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de
The vocal line therefore avoided the regular patterns of (1689 1755), French political philosopher and man of
'tunefulness' and aimed to become melodic speech. It was In 1721 he published the Lettres persanes, a fictional
letters.
accompanied in the simplest possible way with a few account in letter form of the visit of two Persians to Paris.
supporting chords. The monodic style became the basis The tale provides him with a vehicle to criticize the abuses
of early *opera. of church and state in contemporary France. His other
major claim to fame is his treatise De r Esprit des lois
monologue, an extended speech uttered by one speaker. (1748), a comparative study of the origin and nature of
Most poems can be regarded as monologues.
* lyric the laws governing society, showing his preference for the
Other varieties include the *dramatic monologue and the system of constitutional monarchy established in Britain.
dramatic *soliloquy. Some modern plays in which only Both these works reveal Montesquieu's kinship with the
one character speaks, like Beckett's Krapp's Last Tape early * Enlightenment through his use of comparative
(1959), are known either as monodramas or monologues. methodology and his application of the spirit of free
In prose fiction, the 'interior monologue' is a rep- enquiry to matters of politics and religion.
resentation of a character's unspoken thoughts, sometimes
rendered in the style known as *stream of consciousness. Monteverdi, Claudio (Giovanni Antonio) (1567-
1643), Italian composer. He published his first com-
montage, a pictorial technique in which cut-out illus- positions when he was 15. Two books of *madrigals
trations, or fragments of them, are arranged together and followed (1583, 1587), so that by the time he was 20 he
mounted; the term is also applied to the picture so was established as a composer of importance. In about
made. Montage differs from *collage in that it uses only 1592 he entered the service of the Duke of Mantua and
ready-made images and in that the images are chosen for thus came into contact with some of the finest musicians
their subject-matter — the technique has been much used of the time. In 1601 he became the Duke's maestro di
in advertising, for example, and in political satire. The cappella (director of music). Two books of madrigals
term 'photomontage' is applied to montage using pho- published in 1603 and 1605 show how far advanced he
tographs only. In cinematic usage, the term 'montage' was in the art of making his music express a wide range
refers to theassembling of separate pieces of film into a of emotions. But it was his first *opera. The Legend of
sequence or a superimposed image. Orpheus, written for Mantua in 1607, that established him
as one of the greatest composers of all time. In one
Montaigne, Michel (Eyquem) de (1533 92), French stroke he showed how the diverse elements of solo song,
essayist.Generally regarded as the inventor of the modern recitative, chorus, and orchestral interlude might be
'*essay', a genre which he fashioned out of the late organized into a coherent pattern; how emotion might
medieval 'compilation', transforming it into a personal be portrayed in music, and how characters could be
test of ideas and experience. His Essais (1580-95) ori- convincingly brought to life. A second opera, Ariadne
303 MORALITY PLAY
(1608), now mostly lost, proved equally successful. Mon- missions in Britain and elsewhere. In his later career
teverdi Mantua in 161 2 and in 161 3 became maestro
left bronze took over from stone as his favoured material and
di cappella at StMark's, Venice. Further opportunities to he often worked on a very large scale.
write opera came
in 1637 with the opening of the first
public opera house. Only two of his four later operas Moore, Marianne (Craig) (1887- 1972), US poet. Her
have survived: The Return of Ulysses to his Country (1641), first appeared in 1921, and from 1925
collection, Poems,
and The Coronation of Poppea (1642): both are masterpieces. to 1929 she edited The Dial, then the leading literary
Monteverdi's skill as a dramatist and his flair for handling magazine of American * modernism. Her poems are
expressive harmonies and powerful melodic lines can be witty, occasionally obscure, original in form imaginary—
seen also in his church music, which includes the Mass gardens with real toads in them, in her famous description
and Vespers of 1610, and in the 1641 collection Moral of the 'genuine'. The Collected Poems were published in
and Spiritual Maze, which includes a Mass, two Mag- 95 1, and her so-called Complete Poems, all she wished to
1
nificats, and some thirty motets. preserve, in 1967. She published a verse translation of
The Fables of La Fontaine in 1954.
Montgomery, L(ucy) M(aud) (1874 1942), Cana-
dian author of children's fiction. She achieved world-wide Moore, Thomas (1779 1852), Irish poet and musician.
success with Anne of Green Gables (1908), based on her He is chiefly remembered for his Irish Melodies (1807-34),
childhood and on the rural life and traditions of Prince a collection of 130 poems set to his own music and that
Edward Island. Seven sequels, tracing Anne's life from of Sir John Stevenson, with occasional adaptations of
girlhood to motherhood, were less successful. 18th-century Irish tunes; among the most familiar are
'The Minstrel Boy' and 'The Last Rose of Summer'.
Montherlant, Henri de (1896- 1972), French novelist His 'oriental' verse tale Lallah Rookh (181 7) became
and dramatist. He first gained recognition for his novels, internationally famous. His many satirical works include
Les Bestiaires (1926), Les Celibataires 1 934) and Olympiques
( , 77?^ Fudge Family in Paris (1818) and portray the politics
(1938), which glorify physical beauty and prowess. His and manners of Regency London.
major work of fiction is his cycle of four novels, which
include Les Jeunes Filles and Pitie pour les femmes (both Moorish art, the Islamic art of North Africa and Spain.
1936). Written in limpid, elegant prose, it is a sardonic Islamic rulers dominated Spain from the 8th century until
attack on women as willing tools of a successful libertine. they were finally driven out in 1492. Two outstanding
A series of historical plays written between 1942 and 1965 buildings date from this period: the mosque of Cordoba
reveal his preoccupation with pride and self-mastery, (now a cathedral) and the Alhambra palace in Grenada,
sensual pleasure, and an austere form of Christianity. begun in 785, the monumental mosque of Cordoba is
exceptional for itsdome, supported by a series of in-
Moore, George (Augustus) (1852- 1933), Anglo-Irish tersecting ribs, and the unusual double arches which
Having studied painting in Paris he returned to
novelist. create an effect of lightness and delicacy in the ornate
England in about 1880 and embarked on revitalizing the interior. The Alhambra palace, behind its massive walls,
Victorian novel with *naturalist techniques gleaned from represents the pinnacle of decorated delicacy, with its
*Balzac, *Zola, and the *Goncourts. His first novel, A surfaces covered in elaborate stucco-work, and wood tiles,
Christian salvation, but often include comic scenes, as in novels, notably The Conformist (1951) and ig;^4 (1983),
the lively obscenities o{ Mankind (c.1465). The earliest explore the psycho-sexual basis of politics. His stark,
surviving example in English is the long Castle of Per- unadorned style is used to powerful effect to convey the
severance [c. 1 420) and the best known is Everyman (c. 1 5 1 o)
, social alienation and loveless sexuality of his characters.
Most are anonymous, but Magnyfycence (c. 1515) was
written by John Skelton. Echoes of the morality plays Moreau, Gustave (1826 98), French painter, one of
can be found Elizabethan drama, especially Marlowe's
in the leading *Symbolist artists. He had a strong feeling
Dr Faustus (c 1593) and the character of lago in Shake- for the bizarre and developed a style that was highly
speare's Othello (c.1603), who resembles the sinister distinctive in subject and technique. His preference was for
tempter known as the 'Vice' in morality plays. mystically intense images evoking long-dead civilizations
and mythologies, treated with an extraordinary lush
Moravia, Alberto (Alberto Pincherle) (1907 ), Ital- sensuousness, his paint encrusted and jewel-like. Although
ian novelist. He played a major part in shaping neo- he had some public success, private means allowed him
realism in Italian fiction after World War II. His first to pass much of his life in seclusion. In 1892 he became
novel, The Time of Indifference (1929), portrays a middle- a professor at the Ecole des *Beaux-Arts in Paris and
class society sick with a moral inertia which favoured the proved an inspired teacher, bringing out his pupils'
rise of fascism. Two Women (1957), the most lyrical and individual talents rather than trying to impose ideas on
complex of his novels, deals with the close of the war, them. His favourite pupil was *Rouault, who became the
when Italy was occupied by both Germans and Allies. first curator of the Moreau Museum in Paris, left by
The Woman of Rome (1947) and Roman Tales (1957) draw Moreau to the nation on his death.
on the language and culture of the Roman working classes
in order to criticize middle-class values. Other full-length Mori Ogai (1862- 1922), Japanese novelist and critic.
He studied medicine in Japan and Germany, where he
became familiar with European literature. He translated
Hans Christian Andersen into Japanese and wrote many
This view of the Court of the Myrtles from the palace of
m
Spam (c. 1369), probably the greatest short stories, historical novels, and biographies. The Dan-
the Alhambra
monument of Moorish art, well illustrates the use of cing Girl (1890) is autobiographical and was the first of
decoration, particularly calligraphic, m
Islamic the genre known as T-novels'; Vita Sexualis (1909)
architecture. The tile panels, carved doors, use of stucco, describes the eventual triumph of intellect over passion.
and arched doorways leading from shaded inner rooms
are typical Islamic treatments of form, surface, and space. Morisot, Berthe (1841-95), French * Impressionist
painter, much influenced by *Manet, whose brother she
married in 1874. She is said to have persuaded Manet to
experiment with painting in the open air. After Manet's
death in 1883 she came under the influence of * Renoir.
She strongly opposed conventional academic teaching
and championed Impressionist ideals, exhibiting in seven
out of the eight Impressionist exhibitions. She specialized
in gentle domestic scenes, painted in a delicate, feathery
technique, and was also a noted marine painter and
water-colourist.
& Co., producing furniture, tapestry, stained glass, mosque * Islamic art and architecture.
as resonators, the Chinese sheng and Japanese sho have by da Ponte; Co si fan tutte (1790); The Clemency of Titus
these arranged in a circle with each reed, in the foot of ( 179 and The Magic Flute 79
; with text by Emanuel
,
1 ) ( 1 1 )
each pipe, in a wind chamber. The Laotian khden has its Schikaneder after the story 'Lulu' from a collection of
pipes in a double raft, with the reeds in a wind chamber oriental fairy tales, are rightly considered among the
part-way down. Asian mouth-organs are so constructed greatest of all Mozart excelled in every aspect of
time.
that a pipe will only sound when a hole in it is closed musical composition, and produced important works in
with a finger, or with wax as a *drone. every musical His forty-one symphonies are notable,
field.
particularly the last three (the G minor, E flat, and C
Mozart, (Johann Chrysostom) Wolfgang Am- major 'Jupiter'). The twenty-seven piano concertos and
adeus (1756-91), Austrian composer whose music is twenty-six string quartets are outstanding. In his music
perhaps more widely respected and loved than that of extraordinary technical skill is allied to an unrivalled
any other man. The son of a professional violinist and range of emotional intensity and a profound under-
composer, he was the most astonishing prodigy in the standing of the human condition: each separate element
history of music. Taught by his father, Leopold, he was in equilibrium and held within the bounds of classical
already a capable composer and performer at 5 years of restraint.
age, and by 15 he had well over a hundred substantial
works to his credit. His development was enormously mrdaxnga, a double-headed barrel-shaped drum, used
helped by a series of concert tours, beginning in 1762, in north and south Indian music, with heads tensioned
which took him to Germany, France, England, and by leather thongs. The right-hand head is tuned with
Italy, and brought him into intimate contact and equal blocks or wedges under the thongs, while the left is tuned
competition with the finest musicians of the day. In 1771 by hand pressure in performance. Both heads and playing
he settled with his father to work at the court of the technique are similar to, and were probably the origins
Archbishop of Salzburg, but continued to tour and accept of, those of the pair of drums known as the *tabla.
307 MUNCH
Mucha, Alphonse (i860- 1939), Czech painter and 1605), Jahangir (ruled 1605-27), and Shahjahan (ruled
designer, best known for his luxuriously flowing poster 1627-58). Akbar built the city of Fatehpur Sikri (he also
designs, which rank among the masterpieces of *art had courts at Delhi and Agra) and set up a workshop of
nouveau. Some of the finest were made in Paris in the painters (some imported from Persia) that initiated the
1890s for the celebrated actress Sarah Bernhardt, for superb Mughal tradition of book illustration. Books were
whom he also designed sets, costumes, and jewellery. He used as an instrument of state policy, for histories of
was also successful in the USA, where he made four Akbar's reign were circulated among rebellious factions
journeys between 1903 and 1922. In 1922 Mucha returned as an aid to unification. Jahangir, indolent and luxury-
to Czechoslovakia, where his work included designing loving, commissioned paintings of scenes from his own
banknotes and stamps. life and also encouraged portraiture. Mughal painting
The Dance of Life (1899-1900) baby; and Six Persimmons, in which the humble
pictures that Munch called the
is
'Frieze of Life'
—
part of a series of
'a poem
fruits
scrutinized with such intensity that they acquire a cosmic
are
of life, love, and death'. In this scene the dancing couples significance, the minimalist forms suggesting the sudden,
represent physical desire, but the mournful figure (right)
irrational experience of Zen illumination. All Muqi's
is a reminder of the transitormess of sexual pleasure and
of the loneliness that can exist m the midst of passion. pictures are virtuallymonochromatic and painted with
Munch showed unprecedented acuteness and subtlety in inspired spontaneity.
showing how the powerful emotions of sexual desire and
fear can combine to produce tortuous mental conflicts. mural, a painting, large, on a wall or for
usually
(National Gallery, Oslo) mounting on a wall permanent part of the decoration
as a
of a building. An ancient art-form practised by the
Minoans and Greeks, the classic technique for mural
replaced by a more extroverted outlook through which painting is *fresco, but other methods suitable for damp
he exalted the positive forces of nature. climates have been used especially in northern Europe.
The most successful alternative has been simply to paint
Munkacsi, Martin (Marton) (1896-1963), Hungarian in oilson canvas and glue the canvas to the wall. This
photographer. In 1923 Munkacsi photographed an old technique, known as marouflage, was used by Pierre
man and a soldier fighting in a street in Budapest. His Puvis de Chavannes, the most successful muralist of
picture was used as evidence in a widely reported trial, the later igth century, whose pale colours deliberately
and the publicity soon brought Munkacsi so much work imitated the effect of fresco. In Asia the traditional
that he claimed he was the highest-paid photographer in method of wall-painting is with glue or dry plaster, but
the city. Eighteen years later, now in New York, he the fresco technique was known there in the iith and
claimed he was the highest-paid photographer in the 1 2th centuries, as a technical examination of mural
USA. Employed by Carmel Snow, new editor oi Harper's paintings at Tanjore in India has revealed.
Bazaar, to take his first fashion photographs, he brought
to them a totally novel sense of reality and movement. Murdoch, Iris (Jean) (1919- ), Irish-born English
The photographers who acknowledge the influence of novelist and philosopher. Her highly individual novels
Munkacsi's exuberant spontaneity include *Avedon and show a preoccupation with the nature of good and evil,
*Cartier-Bresson. He suffered a heart attack in the war, the sacred and the taboo, with sexuality and Freudian
and his work declined thereafter. determinism. They include Under the Net (1954), her first
novel; The Bell (1958), set in a lay community; A Severed
Muqi (Fachang) (d. c.1270), Chinese painter. He was Head (1961); The Sea, The Sea (1978, Booker Prize), about
a Zen Buddhist monk living in a temple at Hangzhou a theatre director and his childhood love; and The
and little is known of his life. His contemporaries evidently Philosopher's Pupil (1983). Her plots combine comic, ma-
did not appreciate him, but he is now one of the most cabre, and bizarre incidents in a highly patterned sym-
celebrated Chinese painters, revered for the sense of bolic structure. Her philosophical works include studies
profound significance with which he imbued even the of Sartre and Plato.
simplest subjects. Almost all his surviving paintings are
in Japan, where he was initially more highly regarded. Murillo, Bartolome Esteban (1617-82), Spanish
They include two masterpieces in the Daitoku-ji, Kyoto: painter. He worked for almost all his career in his native
a triptych showing a white-robed Bodhisattva (see *Bud- Seville, where he displaced *Zurbaran as the leading
dhist art) flanked by a crane and a monkey with her painter in the 1640s. His early work was in a sombre
309 MUSIC-HALL
naturalistic vein influenced by Zurbaran, but his mature and a bar. This eventually gave way to the elaborate
style was quite different, featuring idealized figures, soft, two- or three-tier auditorium with a fully equipped stage;
melting forms, delicate colouring, and sweetness of ex- by this time they were known also as 'palaces of variety'.
pression and mood. He painted two main types of picture: They provided a varied programme of up to twenty-five
religious scenes appealing to popular piety and *genre 'turns': singers, dancers, comedians, acrobats, jugglers,
scenes of beggar children that have a similar sentimental even dramatic sketches. The early music-halls had a
appeal. His rare portraits are much more sombre and chairman who controlled the proceedings and (unusually
intellectual. Murillo's fame in the i8th century and early for the times) employed women singers and later comedi-
igth century was enormous, but as tastes changed he was ennes, their male counterparts. Some of the
as well as
dismissed as facile and sugary. Now that his own work is music-halls, such as the Alhambra, graduated to *revue
being distinguished from that of his countless imitators
interest in his art has revived.
A poster advertising Top Hat {1936). Fred Astaire and
Murnau, F(riedrich) W(ilhelm) (Plumpe) (1888 Gmger Rogers made nme other musicals together;
these ten films are among the most popular and important
193 1 ), German film director, whose high reputation rests
on a small number of films. He achieved prominence
made m the genre. Astaire's seemmgly effortless dances
were an inventive mixture of tap, ballroom, and ballet.
with Nosferatu: a Symphony of Terror (1922), based on Bram His partnership with Rogers had a special chemistry, and
Stoker's Dracula, which incorporated technical effects such his singing inspired some of the finest songs of Kern,
as negative images. His most important German film was Gershwin, Berlin, and other songwriters.
The Last Laugh (1924), a silent film without subtitles,
which portrays an old man's desolation on being demoted
after a heart attack. It broke new ground with its mobile
THEY'RE DANCING CHEEK-TO-CHEEK AGAIN!
use of the camera. After two impressive films based on
stage originals — Moliere's Tartuffe (1925) and Goethe's
Faust (1926) — he moved to the USA, where his film FRED
Sunrise (1927) was hailed for its superb visual impact.
Four Devils (1928), about trapeze artists, was a remake of
the 1925 German film Variete, and City Girl (1930) was a
companion piece to Sunrise. Tabu (1931), set in the South
Seas, was his greatest success.
ASTAIRE r
musical,
feature.
a play with music and song as the principal
Evolving in the USA during the 1920s, the
GINGER P
musical was stronger on plot and had generally more
dramatically integrated music than its immediate pre- ROiiEIIS
decessor, the 'musical comedy'. The first musical of real
importance was Jerome Kern's Show Boat in 1927. The
same year saw the coming of sound to the cinema; a
proliferation of film musicals followed, initially dependent
on the stage for source material. Composers such as
*Gershwin, *Porter, *Berlin, Richard *Rodgers, and
Harold Arlen, followed and challenged Kern's model,
and their work was in turn adapted to Hollywood.
Meanwhile, musicals were being written especially for
the big screen, the spectacular direction of Busby Berkeley
opening up new possibilities exploited in the dance
musicals of *Astaire and Ginger Rogers in the 1930s,
such as Top Hat (1935), and of * Kelly, especially On the
Town (1949), An American in Paris (1951), and Singin in
the Rain (1952). As stage musicals such as Frank Loesser's
Guys and Dolls (1950) and Bernstein's West Side Story
(1957) became increasingly sophisticated and almost
operatic, musicals in which the choreography is central
to the plot transferred with great success from *Broadway
to the screen, notably Cabaret (1972), directed and cho-
reographed by Bob Fosse.
du siecle (1836) is based on his stormy relationship with Bavaria). They seem to have developed gradually from
George *Sand. aspects of the Easter Mass in Latin (see *liturgical drama)
into civic occasions in the local languages, usually enacted
al-Mutanabbi, Abu al-Tayyib (915-65), Arab poet. on Corpus Christi, a holy feast day from 131 1. Several
Born he spent most of his life in Syria, becoming
in Iraq, English towns had 'cycles' of mystery plays, in which
court poet in Aleppo 948-57. He then spent eight years wagons stopping at different points in the town were used
in Egypt before being killed on his way back to Iraq. He as stages for the various episodes, each presented by a
is considered to be the greatest writer of formal Arabic trade guild (then known as a 'mystery'). A full cycle, like
poetry in the Islamic period. His self-glorification is the forty-eight plays enacted at York, would represent
unappealing, but his linguistic virtuosity and his general the entire pattern of Christian redemption from the
poetic skill earned him a reputation that has lasted to Creation to Doomsday. Other cycles survive from Chester,
the present. Wakefield, and the unidentified 'N-town'; the plays of the
anonymous 'Wakefield Master' are the most celebrated,
Muybridge, Eadweard (Edward James Muggeridge) notably the Second Shepherds' play. In Islam, there is the
(1830- 1 904), British photographer and inventor. Emig- Shi'ite passion play {ta'ziya), usually performed during
rating to the USA
at the age of 22 (and changing his the mourning month of Muharam, especially for the
name sound more 'Anglo-Saxon'), Muybridge became
to commemoration of the murder of Husain. The play
a professional photographer in California, taking hun- re-enacts in emotive detail the tragic death of Husain,
dreds of views of the Pacific Coast and Yosemite National and is often accompanied by street processions and public
Park. Leland Stanford, millionaire governor of California, expressions of grief, such as self-flagellation.
commissioned him to photograph his favourite horse at
full gallop. Having obtained a recognizable silhouette in Mystics, the, a description applied to Spanish mystical
1872, he returned to his experiments in 1877, constructing writers of whom St Teresa of Avila (1515-82) and St
a huge apparatus with twelve cameras actuated by John of the Cross (Juan de Yepes, 1542-91) are the most
electromagnets at specific intervals. Later, he doubled the notable. Their work, linked to a process of spiritual
number of intervals, setting them off by trip threads under ferment and reform within the Roman Catholic Church,
the horse's hoofs. Muybridge went on to photograph testifies to a deep-felt spiritual condition. St Teresa, a
many animals, publishing his famous Human and Animal Carmelite nun, led a life of extreme asceticism, and
Locomotion in 1887. His Zoopraxiscope was the most became involved in the controversial reforms of her
successful machine showing movement until Edison
for Order, founding many convents throughout Spain. Life
introduced his Kinetoscope in 1888. (1588), her autobiography. The Mansions (1588), which
describes the various stages of mystical experience cul-
Mycenaean art, Greek art in the Late *Bronze Age minating in union between the soul and Christ, Book of
(c.1580 BC-c. 1120 Bc), named after the city of Mycenae, the Foundations (1610), together with other prose works,
the site of the most important remains of the period. poetry, and many letters, record her experiences. St John
Usually the term embraces the art not only of the of the Cross, also a Carmelite, joined the reform, which
mainland, but also of the Greek islands with the exception led to his nine-month imprisonment in a Toledo mon-
of Crete, which had its own artistic tradition called astery (1576 and 1577), where he composed some of his
*Minoan. Mycenae was the dominant city in the Aegean finest poetry. His three major poems. The Dark Night of
and controlled much of the eastern Mediterranean, and The Living Flame of Love, and The Spiritual Canticle,
the Soul,
its architecture was on an extremely ambitious scale. The lyricallycommunicate his mystical experience through
most distinctive building type was the beehive-shaped the *allegory of human love, as he explains in the later
tomb, the most notable example of which is the 'Treasury commentaries. Among the many lesser-known Spanish
of Atreus' in Mycenae (early 13th century bc); its dome mystical writers are Bernardino de Laredo (1482- 1540),
remained the largest in the world until the Pantheon in Juan de Avila (1500-69), and Alonso de Orozco (1500-
Rome was built some 1500 years later. The other cel- 90-
ebrated structure in Mycenae is the Lion Gate (t. 1250
bc), so called from its carved figures of lions, the first Mytens, Daniel (c. 1590 1647), Dutch-born painter
monumental stone sculptures in *Greek art. The Mycen- almost all known career was spent in England.
of whose
aeans were a warlike people, and they developed the He worked for James I and Charles I, dominating court
with its royal palace at the heart of the city,
fortified citadel portraiture until the arrival of van *Dyck in 1632. Mytens
a feature that influenced the development of the later introduced a new elegance and grandeur into English
Greek polls with its acropolis. They decorated their portraiture, especially in his full-lengths, but he was
buildings with frescos and incrustations of alabaster and outclassed by van Dyck and he returned to the Nether-
with sculpture; the wealth of their
lapis lazuli, as well as lands in about 1634. His great-nephew, Daniel Mytens
civilization witnessed in the gold funeral masks and the
is (the Younger) (1644-88), also a portraitist, was probably
inlaid gold weaponry, utensils, and ornaments of their the best known of the many other artists in the family.
kings. Ivory imported from Egypt was a favourite
medium, and their pottery, of stylized design, often depicts
military or hunting scenes. The Mycenaean civilization
was destroyed by Dorian invaders in about 1 100 bc.
N
Nabokov, Vladimir (Vladixnirovich)
Russian-born US novelist and short-story
(1899- 1977),
writer. Brought
naker, naqquara *kettledrum.
Sebastian Knight, appeared in 1939, and in the following chief forms of narrative verse are the *epic, the *ballad,
year he emigrated to the USA. His witty, ingenious, and the verse *romance. Like dramatic verse, it has
stylized, and erudite novels include Lolita 955) a farcical
( 1 , tended to decline in importance since the middle of the
and satirical novel of the passion of a middle-aged 19th century, relative to the larger body of *lyric poetry.
sophisticated European emigre for a 12-year-old Am-
erican nymphet; Pale Fire (1962), a satirical fantasy Nash, John (1752- 1835), British architect, the most
encounter between poet and madman; and Ada or Ardor prolific and successful of the Regency period. Of Anglo-
(1969), a witty parody of a family chronicle. Conclusive Welsh parents, he practised at first in Wales, obtaining
Evidence (1951) revised as Speak, Memory (1966) is a commissions there and in Ireland. Up to the age of about
brilliant poetic autobiography. 50 he worked mainly as a designer of fashionable country
houses in a remarkable range of styles. They were in the
* Picturesque spirit and Nash often worked in col-
Nadar (Gaspard Felix Tournachon) (1820 19 10),
laboration with the landscape gardener Humphry *Rep-
French photographer. Nadar was a Parisian journalist
ton. From 181 1, however, he concentrated on his
and caricaturist before he took up photography in 1853
masterpiece, the layout of Regent Street and Regent's
in partnership with his brother Adrien. In i860 he opened
Park in London. His work in Regent Street has been
his own studio in the Boulevard des Capucines, to which
his flamboyance and position in the city's cultural life
brought many famous sitters. In 1874 he lent this studio Ivan Generalic painted Under the Pear Tree on glass in
to the * Impressionists for their first exhibition. Always 1943, adding to Yugoslavia's already rich tradition of
eager to experiment, Nadar took the first aerial pho- naive art. Like many exponents of the genre he had little
tographs (from a balloon), built the world's largest formal education, leaving primary school to work on his
parents' land, and taking paper along to draw when he
balloon, photographed in the sewers and catacombs of
had a free moment. After World War II Generalic's home
Paris, and, as early as i860, equipped his studio with
village of Hlebme became the centre of a school of
electric light. He also participated in the world's first Yugoslav peasant pamtmg.
—
photographic interview with the scientist Eugene
—
Chevreul taken in 1886 by his son Paul, who succeeded
Nadar when he retired in that year.
Artist in both World Wars, painting some of the finest the revolutionary masses as they stormed the royal
pictures to be inspired by the conflicts, and he was palace of the Touilenes, the anthem was suppressed for a
regarded as one of the finest book-illustrators of his time. time by Napoleon and again by the Bourbon monarchy,
He also designed stage scenery, fabrics, and posters, and who feared the inflammatory message of its words and
music. (Musee Carnavalet, Pans)
was a photographer and writer. His brother John (1893-
1977) was also a painter and illustrator.
Star-spangled Banner' (adopted in 193 1), uses the tune
national anthem, a hymn, song, or march authorized of a drinking-song, 'To Anacreon in Heaven', by the
by government as the official expression of patriotic British composer John Stafford Smith (1750- 1836), and
sentiment in words and music. The oldest national anthem words written in 18 14 by Francis Scott Key as he watched
is the British 'God Save the (King) Queen'. Its origins the unsuccessful bombardment of Fort McHenry by the
and authorship are obscure, but its popularity dates from British. In 1974 Australia declared 19th-century
the
the landing of the Young Pretender, 1745, when it was patriotic song, 'Advance Australia Fair' to be
its national
introduced in London theatres and widely taken up as anthem, with 'Waltzing Matilda' coming second in a
an expression of loyalty to King George II. At least public opinion poll as an additional national song. The
twenty nations have, at one time or another, borrowed second oldest national anthem, Spain's 'Marcha real',
the tune as their national anthem — its virtues being its dates from 1770. It has no words, and is an example of
brevity, dignity, and practical vocal compass. Other the march-anthem favoured by some countries. Other
national anthems have been written in direct imitation countries, such as the United Arab Emirates, content
of its solemn, hymn-like style— most notably the original themselves with simple fanfare-like flourishes. But what-
Austrian national anthem, 'Gott erhalte Franz den ever the style of anthem, it is an expression of national
Kaiser', composed by Haydn in 1797 (and later in- pride, and sometimes —
as with the officer, Rouget de
corporated in his 'Emperor' Quartet, Op. 76, No. 3). Lisle's song 'La Marseillaise', officially adopted by France
From the mid- 19th century this was sung in Austria and in 1795 —
of revolution.
Germany to the words 'Deutschland, Deutschland, iiber
Alles' and adopted, in 1922, by the German Nazi Party. national theatre, a permanent, state-subsidized theatre.
It is now used (with different words) by the German The oldest national theatre is the Comedie-Fran^aise in
Federal Republic — Austria having adopted a new Paris, in 1680 by Louis XIV; this was followed
founded
anthem, 'Land der Berge, Land am Strome'. Russia's by other French national theatres. Other long-
five
first national anthem, 'God Save the Tsar' (composed in established national theatres are to be found in Denmark
1833 by L'vov), was also clearly influenced by the (1772), Austria (1776), Sweden (1788), Holland (1870),
British example. After 191 7 the USSR adopted the Finland (1872), and Norway (1899). The Abbey Theatre,
'Internationale', which two French workers had written Dublin (1904) began to receive an annual subsidy from
in 1 87 1. It was replaced in 1944, on Stalin's orders, the newly formed Free State Government in Ireland in
by 'Gimn Sovietskovo Soyuza' ('Anthem of the Soviet 1925. The Greek National Theatre dates from 1930; in
Union'), but is still used as the unofficial anthem of 196 it was supplemented by the National Theatre of
1
many socialist and some communist parties. The Japanese Northern Greece. The Belgian National Theatre was
national anthem 'Kimigayo' (Reign of our Emperor), established in 1945. The British National Theatre (first
officially adopted in 1888, has words by an unknown suggested by *Garrick) was founded only in 1961, and
gth-century poet and is sung to a traditional court melody. moved into its own premises on the South Bank of the
On the other hand, the USA's national anthem, 'The Thames in 1976. The building, designed by Denys Lasdun,
NATSUME SOSEKI 314
isa vast complex housing three theatres (the Lyttehon, Nazarenes, a group of young, idealistic German painters
the OHvier, and the Cottesloe). Its first director was of the early 19th century who believed that art should
Laurence *OUvier, who was succeeded by Peter *Hall in serve a religious or moral purpose and desired to return
1973. The Royal Shakespeare Company, formed in 1961, to the spirit of the Middle Ages. The nucleus of the group
virtually ranks as a second national theatre. The *Hab- was established 1809 when six students at the Academy
in
imah is Europe
the national theatre of Israel. In Eastern of Fine Arts in Vienna formed an association called the
national theatres have survived in Hungary (1840), Ro- Brotherhood of St Luke, named after the patron saint of
mania (1854), Yugoslavia (1869), Bulgaria (1907), and painting. The name Nazarenes was given to them de-
Czechoslovakia (1920). The Moscow Art Theatre was risively because of their affectation of biblical dress and
founded by Stanislavsky and Vladimir Nemirovich- hairstyles. They wished to revive the working environment
Danchenko (1859- 1943) in 1898; it is now a state theatre as well as the spiritual sincerity of the Middle Ages and
dedicated to Maxim Gorky. they lived together in an almost monastic fashion. One
of their aims was the revival of *fresco painting, and they
Natsume SOseki 1867- 916), Japanese novelist and
( 1 received two prestigious commissions in this field in Rome
student of English literature. He moved from a traditional that made work internationally known. Stylistically
their
style to become one of the acknowledged masters of the they were much
indebted to *Perugino, and their work,
colloquial style. I am a Cat (1905) is an episodic satire on though clear and prettily coloured, is often insipid. The
ineffectual character seen through the eyes of a cat; Nazarenes broke up as a group in the 1820s, but their
Botchan or The Toung Master deals with the clash between ideas were
influential —
the studio of the best-known
the samurai values of the older feudal warrior class and member of the Brotherhood, Friedrich Overbeck ( 1 789-
the modern Meiji world (1867- 191 2); and the central 1869) (the only one to remain permanently in Rome),
theme o{ Heart (1914) traces the relationship between an became a meeting place for artists from many countries.
old man and a young boy. Ford Madox *Brown and William *Dyce were among
who knew him, and these two form a
the British artists
naturalism, a more deliberate kind of * realism in link between the Nazarenes and the similarly idealistic
*novels and plays, influenced by a view of human beings *Pre-Raphaelites.
as passive victims of natural forces and social environment.
As a literary movement, naturalism was initiated by the needlework *embroidery.
brothers *Goncourt with their novel Germinie Lacerteux
(1865'!, but led by *Zola, who claimed a 'scientific' Negre, Charles (1820-80), French photographer.
status for his studies of impoverished characters miserably Negre arrived in Paris in 1839 as an art student. His
subjected to hunger, sexual obsession, and hereditary teacher was Paul Delaroche, and his classmates included
defects in Therese Raquin (1867), Germinal (1885), and Fenton, Le Gray, and Le Secq, themselves destined to
many other novels. Naturalist fiction aspired to a socio- become famous photographers. Negre began taking
logical objectivity, offering detailed and fully researched daguerreotypes in 1844, but turned to photography on
investigations into unexplored corners of modern society: —
paper for his finest successes though even these were
railways in Zola's La Bete humaine (1890), the department intended as studies for his paintings. In 1852, however,
store in his Au Bonheur des Dames (1883), while spicing he found his true forte by beginning to document the
this with a new sexual sensationalism. Other novelists great buildings of Paris. Returning to the South he
associated with naturalism include *Daudet and *Mau- continued to work on the architectural views which,
passant in France, *Dreiser and Norris in the USA, and together with those of Chartres Cathedral, are his master-
*Moore and *Gissing in Britain. *Ibsen's play Ghosts pieces. He experimented with photogravure, as being
(1881), with itson heredity, encouraged a number
stress more permanent than conventional prints, and patented
of experiments in dramatic naturalism by *Strindberg, his own process in 1856. In 1863 he retired to a drawing
*Hauptmann, and *Gorky. The term 'naturalistic' in master's position in Lyon, but continued to produce
drama often has a broader application, denoting a very portraits and Riviera views until he died.
detailed illusion of real life on the stage, as in *Stan-
islavsky's work, especially in speech, costume, and sets. negritude movement * African literature, Aime
*Cesaire, Leopold *Senghor.
Nfttyas&stra, the earliest Indian treatise on theatre,
dance, and music. It is attributed to Bharata (ad c.200) Nekrasov, Nikolay (Alekseyevich) (1821-77), Rus-
and shows the performing arts had already developed sian poet and journalist. His satirical and sentimental
fully in India. The earliest surviving Sanskrit plays are lyrics expose the author's acute social conscience as he
fragments from the 2nd century ad. The JVd(yasdstra observes rural and urban injustice and misery. Nekrasov
classifies plays into ten types and maintains that the aim was at the same time an inventive master of verse-form.
of drama is to evoke a particular sentiment (rasa) in the His long poems include the folkloric Red-Nosed Frost
mind of the audience. Emotional content was therefore (1863-4) and the unfinished panorama of Russian village
more important than plot or characterization. Acting life after the emancipation of the serfs. Who Lives Happily
and dancing were closely linked, Indian drama having in Russia? begun in 1863. Nekrasov was the most import-
probably originated in ritual miming song and dance ant literary editor of his time; he worked tirelessly to
performed during religious festivals. publish and publicize the works of his great con-
temporaries in the face of unrelenting censorship and
nAy, a musical instrument, the *end-blown flute of the personal squabbles.
Arab world, usually made of reed or cane, and found,
often in other materials such as wood or metal, in almost Neoclassicism, the dominant artistic movement in
all the cultures influenced by Islam. European art and architecture in the late i8th and early
315 NEOCLASSICISM
David's The Oath of the Horatii (1784) is one of the purest A. R. *Mengs, who influenced such artists as Benjamin
examples of the severity of form and
loftiness of ideals *West from the USA, Gavin Hamilton from Scotland,
typical of Neoclassicism. The theme of the picture is
and (through Joseph-Marie Vien) its greatest exponent,
patriotic duty versus personal feeling. The three Horatii
brothers, young Roman warriors, swear to their father
*David in France. Among sculptors whose work was of
that they will defeat the three Curiatii brothers, the wide general influence were *Canova, *Thorvaldsen,
champions of the enemy state, Alba. To the right, the Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, Jean-Antoine Houdon, and John
Horatii sisters lament — one of them is in love with one of *Flaxman. The movement spread to the USA with the
the Curiatii. (Louvre, Paris) work of such artists as the sculptors Hiram Powers and
Horatio Greenough and the painter John Vanderlyn. In
the decorative arts Neoclassicism repudiated the asym-
19th centuries, characterized by a desire to re-create the metry of *Rococo, substituting for it a strict axial sym-
spiritand forms of the art of Ancient Greece and Rome metry, and relying mainly on motifs of Classical origin
(see *Greek and *Roman A new and more scientific
art). such as medallions, trophies, urns, tripods, and masks. It
interest in Classical antiquity was one of its features and influenced the design of textiles, plate, and interior
this was greatly stimulated by discoveries at Pompeii decoration, and among its most successful furniture de-
(where excavations began in 1748) and at Herculaneum. signers were Hepplewhite and Sheraton. In his interior
In France it permeated what are known as the *Louis designs Adam introduced the simple, rectilinear forms
XVI style, the Regence, the *Directoire, and the *Empire. which 770s and i 780s were popular through much
in the i
In Britain it was reflected in the *Adam style, *Hepple- of Europe. The great period of Neoclassical taste in
white and *Sheraton in furniture, and it constituted one ceramics and silverware extended from c. 1770 to 1820.
of the main elements of the *Regency. The main theorists In ceramics Josiah *Wedgwood produced in his new
of the movement were J. J. *Winckelmann in Germany 'basaltes' ware, a simple and elegantly sober pottery
and in France Antoine Quatremere de Quincy, whose admirably adapted to the Neoclassical interior. In metal-
book An Essay on the Nature and Means of Imitation in the work, Robert Adam designed domestic objects for
Fine Arts was published in English in 1837. Neoclassicism Matthew Boulton, a pioneer in *Sheffield Plate, which
was most successful, perhaps, in architecture, as in the found its fullest flowering in the Neoclassical style. Ro-
works of the Adams brothers, John *Nash, and Alexander mantic interest in medieval forms and fancies, which was
'Greek' Thompson in Britain, Langhans in Germany, partly literary in origin, led to the *Gothic Revival
Jean-Franfois Chalgrin, Alexandre-Theodore Brongniart, that was to supersede Neoclassicism. (See also *Greek
and *Ledoux in France, and Andreyan Zakharov in Revival.)
Russia. Important among the pioneers in architecture Neoclassicism in music is a style which, in a conscious
were Ange-Jacques Gabriel in France, who built the and usually ironic manner, adopts techniques, gestures,
Place de la Concorde in 1754 and whose Petit Trianon or forms from music of an earlier period. The term is
at Versailles was regarded as the most perfect example used particularly of early 20th-century composers who
of 'Attic' in French architecture, and *Soufflot, who was rejected the Romantic expressiveness of late 19th-century
instrumental in introducing the new Classicism into plans composers such as Wagner, and looked instead to 1 7th-
for reconstructing Paris. In painting its chief initiator was and 18th-century works for their inspiration. *Stra-
NEO-IMPRESSIONISM 316
vinsky's works echo many of the * Classical composers: have been influential in Tibet and in China, where a
his (1926-7) looks back to Handel in its
Oedipus rex Nepalese bronzeworker called A-ni-ko was controller of
general shaping and its massive choruses; the Capriccio the imperial studios under Kublai Khan in the 13th
for piano and orchestra 1928-9) is reminiscent of Weber;
( century. Natural and man-made disasters (earthquakes,
while the 'Dumbarton Oaks' Concerto (1937-8) returns invasions, civil wars) have taken a heavy toll of Nepalese
to Bach's concerto forms. The influence of Stravinsky's art and few major works survive from before the 15th
felt by many composers in Paris
Neoclassical scores was century. Almost all Nepalese art has been done in the
between the wars, among them *Poulenc, *Martinu, service of religion. Buddhism (Buddha was born in Nepal)
*Honegger, *Szymanowski, and *Copland. The move- and Hinduism have mingled with an animistic religion
ment in France was light-hearted and often ironic in its of spirits and demons to produce a highly complex
imitation of earlier composers. In Germany its leading iconography. The most important region of the country
proponent was Paul *Hindemith, who wrote many con- culturally is the Katmandu Valley (Katmandu is the
certos and chamber pieces which have a vigour and capital), which is fertile and comparatively densely pop-
directness not shared by contemporary Parisian music. ulated. Nepal has excellent timber and much of the
architecture is in wood. Temples are essentially Indian in
Neo-Impressionism, a movement in French painting inspiration,but sloping roofs with up-turned corners
that was both a development from * Impressionism and reflectChinese influence. Sculpture is the art at which
a reaction against Like the Impressionists, the Neo-
it. the Nepalese have chiefly excelled, using stone, bronze
Impressionists (of whom
*Seurat was far and away the and other alloys, and occasionally terracotta, as well as
most important) were fundamentally concerned with the wood. Guardian figures in the shape of lions or terrifying
representation of light and colour, but whereas Im- deities are placed at entrances to buildings; windows and
pressionism was spontaneous, Neo-Impressionism was door frames are covered with reliefs, statues flank the
based on scientific principles and resulted in highly stairs leading to temple entrances, and the temples them-
formalized compositions. By using dots of pure colour selves are replete with images. The quality of such
carefully placed next to each other on the canvas (a sculpture is often extremely high. Nepalese painting
technique called *pointillism) the Neo-Impressionists includes tankas (temple banners), murals, and book illus-
hoped to achieve a more luminous effect than if the same trations. Among the decorative arts, ritual objects such
colours had been physically mixed together. Seurat's as temple bells hold pride of place among a host of items
paintings do indeed convey a vibrating intensity of light, in wood, copper, and brass, sometimes lacquered, gilded,
which he combined with a magnificent solidity and clarity or studded with precious or semi-precious stones.
of form, but in the hands of lesser artists the approach
often produced works that look rigid and contrived. Neruda, Pablo (Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto) (1904
Neo-Impressionism, which was launched at the final Chilean poet, diplomat, and political leader. Prolific
73),
Impressionist exhibition in 1886, was a short-lived move- from his early youth onwards, he published over thirty
ment, but it had a significant influence on several major
artists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, notably
*Gauguin, van *Gogh, *Matisse, and *Toulouse- This 19th-century bronze of Garuda, a bird with golden
wmgs, worked in gilded bronze is a fine example of the
Lautrec.
elaborate craftsmanship of Nepalese art. The bird stands
on a dying naga, or serpent. (Private collection)
Neolithic art *Stone Age art.
but more elaborate designs began to be made in the i8th with Adolf *Loos in Vienna and worked with Erich
century, using ivory and many other materials. The finest ^Mendelsohn in Berlin. He helped to introduce the
are superb examples of miniature sculpture, generally in *Modern Movement to the USA. His finest works are a
the form of human or animal figures. With new customs series of luxurious Californian houses of the 1920s, 1930s,
of dress in the 19th century, they ceased to be everyday and 1940s, in which he employed the principles of the
* Modern Movement, but adapted to local traditions,
accoutrements, but netsukes continued to be made for
NEW ENGLAND GLASS COMPANY 318
particularly in the choice of materials. The best known of protest against post-Independence corruption. His
isthe Lovell House, Los Angeles (1927-9), the building political plays in the Gikuyu language led to his detention
that made his reputation. His later work, including some (1978) and exile.
commercial buildings, was less memorable.
large-scale
Neutra was also a prolific writer on architecture. Nibelungenlied (f. 1205), commonly used title for a
German heroic *epic poem written in Austria. It is based
New England Glass Company, US glass manu- on pre-Christian *sagas and was exploited by *Wagner
factory, founded in 1818 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. in The Ring of the Mibelung (1876). Written in more than
It began by making clear lead glass, but from the middle 2,300 rhyming four-line stanzas, the work utilizes many
of the 19th century it became well known for ornamental of the techniques of an oral poetic tradition. The narrative
pieces, sometimes engraved or coloured: amberina, a pale was transferred from the original pagan Germanic to the
amber blending into ruby, was one of the colours patented Christian courtly world of its 13th-century public. The
by the company (1883). After a change of ownership in anonymous poet simultaneously affirms the civilized val-
1878, the company moved in 1888 to Toledo, Ohio, ues of this martial society and demonstrates their fragility
where it is still active as the Libbey Glass Company. In by questioning the moral justification of the heroic acts
terms of both quantity and quality it is among the most of nearly all the protagonists. The Nibelungenliedh intensely
important glass companies in the USA. tragic: itsmotif is one of inevitable doom and the decline
of all happiness to grief.
New English Art Club, an artists' society founded in
London in 1886 in reaction against the conservative Nicholson, Ben (1894- 1982), British painter and maker
attitudes of the Royal Academy of Arts. The artists of painted one of the most distinguished pioneers
reliefs,
involved (including *Sickert and others who later formed of ^abstract art in Britain. He was the son of the painter
the nucleus of the *Camden Town Group) were much Sir William Nicholson (1872- 1949), from whom he
influenced by French painting, particularly * Impres- inherited a feeling for simple and fastidious still lifes,
sionism. In its early years the Club included most of which occupied much of work and showed him
his early
the outstanding painters in Britain, but it declined in responding to the innovations of *Cubism. In 1933
importance after World War I. Nicholson made the first of a series of white reliefs using
only right angles and circles, the most uncompromising
New York City Ballet, American ballet company examples of abstract art that had been made by a British
formed by writer Lincoln Kirstein and choreographer artist up to that date. In 1932 he married the sculptor
*Balanchine. Kirstein persuaded Balanchine to move to Barbara *Hepworth and from 1939 to 1958 lived with
the USA in 1934 as director of the School of American her in St Ives, Cornwall, where they became the centre
Ballet. From this arose the American Ballet in 1935, of a local art movement. He later lived in Ticino,
which after various transformations (Ballet Caravan, 936; 1 Switzerland, where he continued to experiment with new
Ballet Society, 1946) became the resident company of the textures and planes of colour.
New York City Center for Music and Drama, mounting
chiefly works by artistic director Balanchine and co- niello, a term referring to a black compound (typically
director *Robbins. The company rapidly gained an sulphur, silver, lead, and copper) used as a decorative
international reputation, combining European tradition inlay on metal surfaces; to the process of making such an
with American contemporaneity. It moved to the New inlay; and to a surface or object so treated. The craft
York State Theater at the Lincoln Center in 1964. flourished particularly in early Renaissance Italy, and
above all in Florence, where it was influential on the
New York School, a general term applied to the development of line *engraving, the two techniques
innovatory painters, *Abstract Ex-
particularly the having much in common. There was a revival of interest
pressionists, who worked in New York during the 1940s in niello in the i8th and 19th centuries in Russia, where
and 1950s at a time when the city replaced Paris as the it was known as Tula-work, from the name of one of the
world capital of avant-garde art. towns notable for craftsmen practising it. Typically it was
used to decorate small luxury items (known as nielli) such
Nezval, Vitezslav (1900-58), Czech poet, novelist, and as silver snuff'-boxes, cups, boxes, knife handles, and belt
dramatist. His early poems reflect the proletarian ideology buckles. Niello work is still produced in India and the
of post-World War
Prague, but he soon developed his
I
Balkans.
own idiom and became a virtuoso, producing a stream
of original images with elements of *Dadaism and dec- Nielsen, Carl (August) (1865 193 1), Danish com-
adence. He was a poet fascinated by the city, cruel and poser. He earned a living as a violinist and teacher,
alluring women, night, and death. A friend of Andre drawing attention to himself as a composer with the Little
*Breton and Paul *Eluard, he came to represent the Suite (1888) for strings. The success of his early chamber
*Surrealist movement in Czechoslovakia, but abandoned music and First Symphony (1894) led to a state pension
it when it was condemned by the official communist line (1901) that enabled him to compose full-time. There
on art.
1^^'
NIEMCEWICZ 320
followed five more symphonies (1902-25), concertos for * Field used the term to describe short piano pieces of a
violin (igii), flute (1926), and clarinet (1928), as well dreamy, romantic nature. Such pieces involve an ex-
as songs and choral works. Nielsen's free handling of pressive melody accompanied by the ripple of broken
tonality and powerful use of rhythm, combined with
his chords in the left hand. *Chopin's examples are par-
contrapuntal and abundant melodic invention, made
skill ticularly fine and, like Field's, owe much to the *bel canto
him one of the most effective symphonists of his day. singing style of Italian opera. Other composers have also
used the term for music with night associations. Debussy's
Niexncewicz, Julian (i 758-1 841), Polish dramatist, Three Nocturnes are orchestral tone-pictures; Britten's Noc-
poet, and novelist. He was active at crucial periods in turneis a song-cycle to poems about night.
(191 1 ), and for choreographic and interpretive powers in reputation and fortune. His finest portraits are brilliantly
LApres-midi d'un faune (1912). He was an innovative characterized, but there are many inferior studio copies.
choreographer; the distorted, inturned movement and He also made statues in a slightly erotic antique manner
violent rhythms of L^ Sacre du printemps (1913) to Stra- and had a large practice as a tomb sculptor.
vinsky's score outraged Paris, although it was in tune
with the *modernist movement. Mental illness ended his Nono, Luigi (1924- ), Italian composer. An innate
career prematurely. sense of Italian lyricism is married in his works to strict
and a passionate commitment to left-wing
*serialism
Nilsson, (Marta) Birgit (191 8- ), Swedish soprano politics. Among his most
powerful works are the orchestral
singer. Nilsson's international reputation as a leading Meetings (1955) and the opera Intolerance (i960). Later
Wagnerian soprano dates from 1954-5, with her works, such as The Illuminated Factory 1964), have involved
(
Briinnhilde in The Ring at Munich. Her vocal and dramatic the use of *electronics in a mixed-media context.
abilities continued to develop, and she was sensational as
Puccini's Turandot in Milan in 1958. By the mid-sixties nonsense verse, a kind of humorous poetry which
she was an unrivalled interpreter of Wagner, as well as amuses by deliberately using strange, non-existent words
of several roles in operas by Richard Strauss. and illogical ideas. Its masters in English are *Lear and
*Carroll. Classics of the *genre are Lear's 'The Owl and
No *Japanese drama, *Japanese music. the Pussy-Cat' (1871) and his limericks, along with
the songs in Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass (1871),
nocturne, a musical composition that suggests a ro- including 'The Walrus and the Carpenter' and the cel-
mantic view of the night. In the 8th century compositions
1 ebrated 'Jabberwocky'. This poem carries the use of
known as notturni were played as evening entertainments. nonsense words to its limit, although two of them, 'burble'
In the 19th century the Irish pianist and composer John and 'chortle', have passed into the language.
321 NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN ART
Norman, Jessye (1945- ), US soprano singer. With including architectural carving (unlike most Indians, they
her 1969 operatic debut in BerHn as Elisabeth in Wagner's built houses, of vast dimensions, near the fishing grounds
Tannhduser, and her 1972 performances as Verdi's Aida that were the basis of their livelihood). For the Indians
(Milan) and Cassandra in Berlioz's Les Troyens (London), of the Plains (such as the Crow and Sioux), in contrast,
Norman established herself as a notable figure on the the buffalo was the means of livelihood, and its skin was
international operatic stage. A singer of great vocal beauty used for almost everything they possessed, including
and musicianship, she is a noted interpreter of German clothes, shields, and tepee covers. Such articles were often
and French song. painted and adorned with featherwork. A third tradition
is represented by the Indians of the South-west, notably
North African music, the traditional music of Africa
the Navaho and Pueblo, who led a more settled life,
north of the Sahara desert and Atlas mountains. The
based on farming, and adopted more sophisticated arts
music is extremely difficult to define since the region is such as silversmithing (from the Mexicans) and weaving
so vast, there are no written records, and it is hard
(Navaho blankets are famous). They also made sand or
to extrapolate generalizations from the few historical
—
dry paintings stylized, symbolic pictures produced by
references or modern field recordings available. Ar-
trickling charcoal, pollen, or crushed stones of various
chaeological and historical evidence points to the import- colours on to a background of smooth sand —
depicting
ance of music from an early date. A rock engraving of a
harpist, dating from the i8th century bc, exists at
Saqqara, Egypt, while in the 5th century bc Herodotus A man's shirt made by the Tlmgit tribe of Alaska m the
wrote of women singing at religious ceremonies. Some late 19th century; it is woven of mountain goat wool and
ancient traditions have survived to the present day, trimmed with otter fur. The Tlmgits have one of the most
for example curved percussion sticks used by Libyan
North American Indian art; the
distinctive traditions of
repeated faces represent the brown bear, the most
mercenaries in the 2nd millennium bc are still in use in common motif in their art. (Portland Art Museum,
the Nile-Congo area. Though the region has suffered Oregon)
invasion from many groups, including Romans, Vandals,
Byzantines, and Turks, it is Arabic music that has exerted
the most influence. This is especially noticeable in the
Mediterranean coastal towns. Arab folk music was de-
scribed in the early 20th century by the Hungarian
composer and folk-music collector Bela Bartok, who wrote
of its rhythmic complexity (involving syncopations and
cross-rhythms), the vibrato trillings and gurglings of
its vocal performance, the invariable use of percussion
gods, lightning, rainbows, plants, animals, or other sym- published. In Promethidion (1851), a dialogue on beauty,
bols. art,and the dignity of manual labour, Norwid employed
the rhythms of ordinary speech. He consciously ex-
North American Indian literature, the literature of perimented with poetic form in the collection Vade-mecum
the native Indians of North America. Archaeological (completed 1866), and with colloquial verse in A Dorio
evidence increasingly suggests that tribes separated by ad Phrygium (written c. 1872). At a time when newspaper
language and habitat shared literary perceptions and production was increasing, he voiced fear of 'print pol-
ways of representing such phenomena as the passage of lution'. Recognition only came in the 20th century, and
time. The famous Winter Counts of the Sioux and the his work has since influenced Polish writers.
Plains Indians (of which some six dozen are known) echo
features of the east-coast Woodland chronology, of which notation (in music), any system for writing down music.
the most extensive example extant is the Walam Olum of Except in the field of folk music, the Western world has
the Lenape Algonkin Indians. In the south-west, an area always regarded the musical work as being the unique
linked with Mexico long before the European invasion, creation of an individual composer and given the per-
the sand-paintings which accompany the Chants or Ways former the secondary task of interpreting it according to
of the Navaho bear striking resemblances to pages from a more or less exact notation. The practice of many other
the screenfold books of *Central American Indian lit- cultures has been quite different. Here the emphasis has
erature. Still awaiting decipherment and adequate de- been (and placed on the performer's ability to im-
is)
scription is the considerable corpus of texts transcribed provise in a sophisticated and highly organized way.
in the Cherokee writing system, designed by the warrior Although some aspects of the music may be memorized,
and scholar Sequoyah (c. 1760- 1843) i^^ the early 19th the final effect depends upon the performer's on-the-spot
century. (See also *Inuit literature.) creative ability. In these circumstances notation is largely
unnecessary, for the music is always being created afresh.
Norwich School, an English regional school of land- In Western society this approach to composition is mainly
scape painting associated with the Norwich Society of confined to *jazz, though some avant-garde composers
Artists, which was founded in 1803 under the presidency have explored the same idea in their *aleatory com-
of John Sell *Cotman; it was the first provincial institu- positions. The earliest attempts to notate the music of
tion to hold regular exhibitions. The members of the Western Europe date from the 7th century, though it was
school were almost all landscape painters who particularly not until the iith that any reasonably efficient system
favoured Norfolk scenery. was devised (see *solmization) The first method, inherited
.
Notes Rests
One semibreve: --
or eight quavers: i i J J J J J J 7
—
invention of neumes signs written above the words to only the subjective experience of individuals. Their novels
be sung that indicated whether the notes were to rise or treat the world of things with detachment and are
fall. Neumes gradually became more complex, some frequently dislocated in their presentation of time and
standing for certain fixed groups of notes (they survive plot; many are also characterized by a high degree of
today as conventional signs for trills and turns). The next aesthetic self-consciousness.
step (in the loth century) was to place the neumes at
different heights above the words according to the relative Nouvelle Vague (French, 'New Wave'), a group of
pitch of the notes. Heightened neumes thus provided a French film directors who in the late 1950s began to react
rough outline of the melody. Eventually a horizontal line against the established French cinema and to make more
was added to represent one particular note. Neumes individual films.Some of its members *Truffaut, Claude—
placed above the line represented higher notes, neumes Chabrol (1930- ), and Jean-Luc Godard (1930- )
—
placed below were lower notes. The first *pitch to be had written for the film review Cahiers du cinema, which
singled out was F, and the horizontal line was coloured promoted the same ideas; but the first films in this
red. Soon a yellow line was added to represent C, then category were Louis Malle's (1932- Ascenseur pour )
another and another until a four-line grid had been Pechafaud (Frantic) and Les Amants (both 1958) the latter —
established. Each line, and each space between the lines, being considered extremely erotic. Chabrol, whose films
now stood for a different note. We use the same grid often depicted violence in z. petit bourgeois setting, directed
today (though now with five lines) and call it a staff or Le Beau Serge 1958) and Les Cousins (1959). Truffaut made
{
stave. Wealso add a clef (a *key or 'clue') to one or Les Quatre Cents Coups 1959) and Alain Resnais 1922-
{ ) (
other of the lines to establish its pitch-identity, rather broke new ground with Hiroshima mon amour (1959),
than rely on lines of different colours. All that was needed which moved constantly between past and present, and
now was information about the relative duration of the U Annie derniere a Marienbad (1961), a virtually plotless
notes. The simple neumes began to change shape, some film set in a sumptuous dreamworld. Godard was another
developing 'heads' and 'tails', others being replaced by innovator, who in A bout de souffle (Breathless, i960) used
square and diamond shapes. These are the ancestors of hand-held cameras, jump-cuts, and real locations. For a
our crotchets and quavers. Further signs were added, time in the early 1960s many new directors were at work;
including sharps and flats, which, when placed before a but the movement's influence soon waned, and its leading
note, would indicate that the pitch was to be raised or directors —
apart from Godard, the most politically com-
lowered one semitone. In early music these signs were —
mitted gravitated to the commercial cinema.
known as musicaficta (Latin, 'false music') and were used
to avoid certain awkward intervals in the melodic line. 'Novalis' (Friedrich, Freiherr von Hardenberg) (1772-
They later became the key signatures of *tonal music, 1801), German poet and novelist. His works and theories
and accidentals when they were used during the course influenced the *Romantic movement in Germany,
of a piece to contradict the prevailing key. The practice France, and Britain. His celebrated mythical romance,
of dividing music into bars of equal length came about the unfinished novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen (1802), out-
towards the end of the 15th century. Bars were first used lines the hero's search for the secret of art, 'the Blue
in choral scoring to show how the notes in the different Flower', in order to transform the world into one of
*voice-parts related to one another, and were not at first beauty through the power of imagination. Hymn to Night
included in the independent vocal parts used by the (1800) comprises six developing *odes in *free verse, in
singers themselves. In the 20th century composers have which the poet celebrates death as a mystical re-birth in
been forced to invent new signs to represent new ways of the presence of God.
playing instruments and new types of sound (natural and
*electronic). Performers often have to learn the notation novel, an extended fictional story in prose, with at least
of each new score before they can play it. Notation, one character involved in some form of plot or sequence
however, is only the blueprint for music. Only the of events; normally, several characters are presented in
performer's powers of sympathetic interpretation can relationships with one another within a social setting.
make it come alive. Even these minimal specifications, however, have some-
times been disregarded, since the novel is the most flexible
notch flute, an end-blown flute with a notch, either v- and unregulated of literary *genres: unlike other narrative
shaped or u-shaped with a rounded or square bottom, forms such as *epic or *ballad, it is bound by no rules
into which players direct the air-stream. The notch is of structure, style, or subject-matter, and has often freely
inherently more efficient than the plain end of simple borrowed its forms from other kinds of writing like
*end flutes, and notch flutes are found in many parts of *autobiography, history, journalism, or *travel writing.
the world. This flexibility has made it the most important and
popular literary genre in the modern age. Novels may be
nouveau roxnan (French, 'new novel'), a term, first distinguished from * romances by their more realistic
used by Jean-Paul Sartre, employed to describe the work characters and events, and from *novellas by their length,
of a group of French novelists who came to prominence but the boundaries here are indistinct. Although there
during the 1950s. The authors usually thus classified are are some precedents in the ancient world (see *Greek
Alain Robbe-Grillet {La Jalousie, 1957), Michel Butor and *Roman novel), the fully developed tradition of the
{La Modification, 1957), Nathalie Sarraute {Le Planetarium, novel in the West is relatively young: it is usually dated
1959), Claude Oilier {La Mise en Scene, 1958), Robert back to the first part of Cervantes's Adventures of Don
Pinget {Ulnquisitoire, 1963), Jean Ricardou {La Prise de Quixote (1605). La Fayette's La Princesse de Cleves (1678)
Constantinople, 1965), and Claude Simon {Histoire, 1967). began the distinguished line of French novels. The first
For the new novelists any authorial interpretation is significant novel in English was Behn's Oroonoko (c. 1688),
arbitrary: there is no ultimate meaning behind existence, but Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) is often regarded as the
NOVELLA 324
occasional verse, poetry written for a special occasion. and Polynesia melodies usually have a small range, slides
Poetic forms associated witli the term include the *epi- and ornaments between notes being considered of more
thalamion, the *elegy, and the *ode. Occasional verse importance than the melody notes themselves. Music
may be serious, like Marvell's 'An Horation Ode upon accompanies both everyday social activities and special
Cromwell's Return from Ireland' (1650) and Whitman's occasions such as various initiation rites. In Micronesia
'Passage to India' (1871), or light, like Cowper's 'On the and Polynesia music is closely integrated with poetry and
Death of Mrs Throckmorton's Bullfinch' (1789). The dance, hand and arm movements of line and sitting
major modern writers of occasional verse in English are dances decorating (Micronesia) or illustrating (Polynesia)
Yeats ('Easter, 19 16') and Auden ('September i, 1939', the sung text. A number of instruments are found through-
'August 1968', 'Moon Landing'). out the whole region, such as *conch-shell trumpets, nose
flutes, hourglass drums, *stamping tubes, and *rattles.
Oceanian music, music of the islands inhabited by the Instruments particular to one region include the huge
peoples of the central and southern Pacific Ocean. Despite *slit-drum of Vanuatu, the base of which is buried in the
huge cultural differences common threads unite music ground and the top carved with a human face; *panpipes,
throughout the region. Traditional vocal music is mostly highly distinctive in the Solomon Islands and cultivated
monophonic (consisting of a single melody sung in with much sophistication by the 'Are'are people of Malaita;
unison), led by a song leader in a call and response and the tall pahu, cylindrical drums of Polynesia. Mi-
fashion. In north Malekula this is accompanied by a cronesians generally use fewer instruments and employ
vocal *drone, in Micronesia parallel movement at the body-percussion.
fourth is common, while more sophisticated * polyphony
exists in the Loyalty Islands, the Solomon Islands, and Ockeghexn, Johannes (c. 1410-97), Franco-Flemish
Fiji, where voice parts have their own distinct names, composer. In c. 1452 he joined the music chapel of King
from the descant vakasalavoavoa to the bass druku. Charles VII of France, remaining in royal service for the
Nineteenth-century Christian missionaries discouraged rest of his working life. He is best known today for his
local and introduced hymns, now popular,
traditions masses, fourteen of which survive. These range in structure
especially throughout Polynesia,
and sung in two-, three-, from the conventional settings based on a *cantus firmus
or four-part harmony. Melanesian melodies commonly (see *plainsong) to others constructed entirely of *canons,
have triadic or pentatonic structures, while in Micronesia some of which were capable of being sung in any of the
church *modes. His style is characterized by its rich
*contrapuntal texture, in which the various voices are of
This illustration from Sydney Parkinson's A Journal of a more or less equal importance. Fewer than ten of his
Voyage to the South Seas (1773) shows a performance on *motets survive, as well as some twenty *chansons.
the nose flute, one of the prmcipal instruments of
Oceanian music. O'Connor, Flannery (1925-64), US novelist and short-
story writer. She was bornin Georgia, and spent most
of her life in the South. Her attraction to grotesque
subject-matter was intensified by her preoccupation with
locating godliness in a contemporary world in which it
could only appear in distorted forms. Her novels are set
in Tennessee, and deal with religious fanatics: Wise Blood
(1952) with a young man who founds a church without
Christ; The Violent Bear It Away (i960) with a boy seeking
to baptize another. Her reputation is based on the short
stories collected in A Good Man is Hard to Find (1955) and
Everything That Rises Must Converge (1965). The Complete
Stories were published in 1971.
Odyssey * Homer.
oehlenschlXger 326
Oehlenschlager, Adam
Gottlob (1779- 1850), Dan- until the mid-fifties. He was the dedicatee and first
ish poet and dramatist. His poem 'The Golden Horns' performer of Shostakovich's (1955) and Second
First
(1802) was strongly influenced by the German Romantics (1967) Concertos. A brilliant interpreter of the 19th-
and introduced *Romanticism into Danish literature. century concerto, he was one of the greatest violinists of
Oehlenschlager's masterpiece is Aladdin (1805), an ex- his day.
uberant treatment of the oriental fairytale in the style of
Romantic drama. Baldur the Good (1807) is based on O'Keeffe, Georgia (1887- 1986), US painter. One of
Nordic mythology; a similar theme was treated in ballad the pioneers of *modernism in the USA, she was a
form in the trilogy Helge (1814) and The Gods of the North member of the cirle around the photographer and gallery
(18 1 9). His *lyric poetry has remained more popular owner Alfred *Stieglitz, whom she married in 1924. She
than his dramatic verse. is best known for her near-abstract paintings based on
and the doomed aspirations of Irish nationalists; several performing lyrical, anti-heroic songs to his own guitar
biographies; memoirs Vive moil, 1964); and critical works.
(
accompaniment; they circulated on privately made tape-
His later stories tend to be dryer and more humorous recordings, and he soon became one of the most popular
in tone. Russian poets ever. He has also written a series of novels
dealing with 19th-century Russian history.
0£fenbach, Jacques (1819-80), German-born French
composer. The success of his tiny theatre in Paris, the Old English literature, a term used for the writings
Bouffes Parisiens (1855), enabled him to move to larger spoken by the Anglo-Saxons who colonized
in the dialects
premises and write works on a larger scale. Such *oper- England (ad c.450), until their conquest by the Normans
ettas as Orphee aux enfers (1858) and La Belle Helene (1864) (1066). Both its vocabulary and inflections come from
proceeded to conquer the world with their humour, West Germanic (which also gave rise to Dutch and
satire, and unfailing flow of memorable tunes. His serious German), as does its characteristic *alliterative verse. A
lyric-opera Les Contes d'Hoffmann was orchestrated and typical line of verse is in two halves, each with two main
provided with recitatives by Ernst Guiraud, and produced and usually the stressed syllables of three of these
stresses,
posthumously in 1881. main words share the same initial consonant: '^reoh and
^eorogrim Aringmael gebraegd'.
O'Hara, John (Henry) (1905-70), US novelist and The first poem of known date to survive is Caedmon's
short-story writer. After his debut with Appointment in Song of Creation (c. 657-80). The influence of King Alfred
Samarra (1934), an ironic, toughly realistic treatment of (871-99), whose programme of education included start-
the fast country-club set of a Pennsylvania city, he ing the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical record of England
produced a succession of sharply-observed novels and up to its conversion to Christianity, means that most of
short stories. They are diverse in their choice of material, this literature is in the West Saxon tongue and dates
but certain subjects recur: crime; the private lives of the from the loth and iith centuries. Alfred's translation of
rich; troubled marriages; Hollywood; the world of bars, Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy and other Latin works
nightclubs as in Pal Joey (1940); and the theatre. is also of great importance. The most significant Old
Old Vic, the theatre on London's Waterloo Road, which would bring modern art into touch with daily life and
opened in 1818 as the Royal Coburg and was renamed also provide regular work for talented young artists
the Royal Victoria in 1833. It originally presented *melo- (including Vanessa Bell, Duncan Grant, *Wyndham
dramas, but became a temperance music-hall in 1880. Lewis, and Henri *Gaudier-Brzeska). They produced
From 191 2 until her death in 1937, it was managed ceramics, furniture, textiles, and other products, although
by Lilian Baylis, who made it the leading centre for in general the work consisted of decorating manufactured
productions of Shakespeare. Bombed in 1941, it reopened objects rather than designing objects from scratch. Bright
in 1950, continuing its fine Shakespearean tradition as colour predominated in the designs, many of which were
part of a more varied programme. In 1963 it became the abstract. The products were sometimes vigorous and fresh,
temporary home of the *Nationai Theatre until its transfer but the craftsmanship was often amateurish. Fry was
to the South Bank in 1976. no businessman, and the workshops closed a financial —
failure— in 19 19. Though the workshops failed, it none
Oliver, Isaac (c. 1568- 161 7), English *miniaturist of the less influenced the subsequent development of English
Huguenot origin, his father (a goldsmith) being a refugee *industrial design.
from religious persecution in France. Oliver trained under
Nicholas Hilliard and later became his main rival, finding O'Neill, Eugene (Gladstone) ( 1888- 1953), US dram-
much patronage at court after the turn of the century. atist. His first works for the theatre were one-act plays
His style was more naturalistic than that of Hilliard, his experiences at sea and among outcasts and
based on
using light and shade to suggest three dimensions and oppressed people in many places. He established his
generally dispensing with the emblematic adornments reputation with the rural drama Beyond the Horizon (1920),
beloved of the Elizabethan age. Oliver's son, Peter and then, influenced by German * Expressionist theatre,
(1594 1647), was also a miniaturist. wrote a sequence of plays on the theme of tragic frus-
tration, set in modern American backgrounds, in which
Oliver, King (Joe) *jazz. he experimented with different genres. His works include
The Emperor Jones (1920), The Hairy Ape (1922), All God's
Olivier, Laurence (Kerr) (Lord Olivier of Brighton) Chillun Got Wings (1924), Desire Under the Elms (1924), the
(1907-89), British actor, director, and manager, one of innovative Strange Interlude (1928), in which he attempted
the greatest actors of his time. As a classical actor he gave to create a dramatic technique using the *stream-
outstanding performances in the plays of Shakespeare. of-consciousness method, in a nine-act tragedy of frus-
He made some Hollywood films, including Wuthering trated desires, and his reworking of *Aeschylus in
Heights (as HeathcliflT) (1939) and Hitchcock's Rebecca Mourning Becomes Electra (1931). After he was awarded
(1940). After war service he returned to the Old Vic as the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1936 no new plays were
co-director (1944-9). He also directed, produced, and produced until the 1946 staging of The Iceman Cometh,
starred in three outstanding Shakespeare films Henry V which shows a gathering of failed dreamers who sym-
ONOMATOPOEIA 328
bolically portray the loss of illusion and the coming words and music belongs to the very end of the i6th
of death. A Long Days Journey Into Might (1956), an century. Drawing in part on the Italian ^intermedia or
autobiographical tragedy written in 1940, was the first musical interlude, its evolution is usually credited to a
of his posthumously produced and published plays. It group of poets, musicians, and intellectuals who met as
was to assure his reputation as the most important US a Society (the Camerata) in Florence from 1580. Among
playwright of his generation. their speculations was the use of music in Greek drama,
and it was in the hope of emulating ancient practice that
onomatopoeia, the use of words which seem to imitate opera (an abbreviation for opera in musica) was invented.
the sounds they refer to (whack, fizz, crackle, hiss); or The earliest surviving example, Eurydice (1600), has music
any combination of words in which sound echoes sense, by Guilio Caccini (c. 1545 16 18) and Jacopo Peri (1561-
such as 'The murmur of innumerable bees' (Tennyson). 1
633) The words (the libretto) were by Ottavio Rinuccini
.
This *figure of speech is often found in *poetry, sometimes (1562- 162 1 ). Written in a simple *monodic style that
in prose. avoided the confusions of *polyphony, these early operas,
performed in private theatres, were little more than
Op art, a type of abstract art that exploits certain optical dramas retold in melodic speech (recitative), interspersed
phenomena to cause a work to seem to vibrate, pulsate, with ballet. Monteverdi, the first opera composer of
or flicker. Many
of the devices employed by practitioners genius, made it into a cohesive art-form. His first opera,
of Op art are based upon the well-known visual illusions Orpheus (1607), uses recitative but supplements it with
to be found in standard textbooks of perceptual psycho- instrumental interludes, choruses, *arias (solo songs),
logy, and the Op artist seeks maximum geometrical duets,and ballets, thus enlisting a much greater variety
precision to evoke an exactly prescribed retinal response. of musical resources in the expression of drama and
The style developed in the mid-1960s, and leading ex- emotion while at the same time giving the overall structure
ponents include Victor *Vasarely and Bridget *Riley. a degree of genuine musical coherence. Over the next
few decades opera gained in popularity, and theatres
opera, a dramatic performance or composition of which designed specifically for opera began to be opened (the
music is an essential part. Although music has been used firstwas in Parma in 16 18). The traditions that Mon-
in with drama since the days of ancient
association teverdi had established in his work were carried on by
Greece, the idea of conveying a story entirely in terms of his pupil *Cavalli. Other composers, however, worked in
a more spectacular style, in which the emotional burden
of the opera was expressed in long arias, often with a da
Concert donne en Fhoneur de la
Panini's painting capo or reprise in which the singer could embellish the
naissance du Dauphin (1729) shows the elaborate scenic melody. In France opera took longer to gain popularity.
which were
effects at least as much
a part of baroque
The first major operatic composer was *Lully. He es-
opera as the music itself. Winches, gears, and ropes
contrived to show celestial clouds or the fires of hell,
tablished the tragedie heroique, with simpler librettos, more
while the stage was shaken by erruptmg volcanoes and choral writing, and a more restrained vocal style than in
underwater battles. Italian opera. Tragedie heroique, which grew out of the
329 OPHULS
early *opera-ballet and was derived ultimately from the his style favour of something more lyrical and
in
*ballet de cour, governed the style of French opera until restrained. By the end of the century most opera had
the middle of the i8th century. Meanwhile in Rome at abandoned any obvious division between aria and recit-
the beginning of the i8th century, a group of noblemen ative, replacing it with a more or less continuous musical
and dramatists sought to purify the operatic tradition, texture able to assume either function as the dramatic
writing a series of librettos on uplifting themes. The most situation required. This was, in effect, a logical com-
important librettist in this opera seria style was Pietro promise between German and Italian methods as suit- —
Metastasio (1698- 1782). Opera seria soon dominated most able for a *Massenet as it was for a *Korngold. In the
of the rest of Europe except for France, where *Rameau's same spirit of intelligent compromise, opera in the 20th
opera-writing was revitalizing the tragedie heroique. Some century has embraced many styles, from the *atonality
of the finest works in the opera seria style were written in of *Berg's Wozzeck (1925) to the *jazz of *Gershwin's
London by *Handel. Because opera seria librettos excluded Porgy and Bess (1935), the *impressionistic reticence of
any comic elements, alternative comic opera forms soon *Debussy's Pelleas et Melisande (1902) to the astringent
developed. Many of these forms were, strictly, ^operetta *Neoclassicism of *Stravinsky's The Rake' s Progress (1951).
rather than opera, but in Italy the more sophisticated And as an art-form there can be no doubt that it is as
opera buffa style was sung throughout, with a much greater alive as ever, and has enjoyed a spectacular growth in
variety of style and form than in serious opera. Change popularity in recent years.
in opera seria came in 1762, when *Gluck demonstrated
in Orpheus and Eurydice a series of 'reforms' suggested by opera-ballet, a spectacular, lyric form of theatre, in
the poet Raniero de Calzibigi. The da capo aria was which dancing and singing are of equal importance. It
dropped in favour of a variety of song-like structures that developed at the end of the 7th century out of the earlier
i
did not hold up the action so definitely; the orchestra court spectacles (see * ballet de cour), largely under the
was allowed to play a stronger role than that of mere influence ofJean-Baptiste *Lully, who took over the Paris
support to the voices; chorus and dance found an ap- Opera in 1672 and composed several successful examples
propriate place; and, above all, the plots were concerned of the form. It developed further in works like *Rameau's
with the drama of genuine human relationships. *Mozart, Les Indes Galantes i 735) and continued until the mid- 19th
(
too, was a reformer —not through conscious theory, for century. *Ballets were also used in other operatic forms.
he was quite happy to take the conventions of Italian Italian opera used dance for festive endings, and much
opera to a high point in Idomeneo as late as 1781 —
but of the grand opera in the 19th century had music
rather through the sheer force of his musical and dramatic especially composed for ballet sequences — the French
genius. In such operas as The Marriage of Figaro (1786) productions of Verdi's The Troubador, for example (1857
and Don Giovanni (1787) his understanding of human and 1894), and of Wagner's Tannhduser (Paris, 1861).
nature, and capacity to find music to express it, has Most opera houses have some kind of ballet company
proved unsurpassed. After Mozart the divisions between attached to perform these ballets.
opera seria and the various forms of opera buffa became
blurred. With the 19th century, opera began to show operetta, a light-hearted, small-scale *opera. Spoken
stronger national characteristics. Italian opera, in the dialogue is used to link the *arias and ensembles.' Oper-
hands of *Rossini, *Bellini, and *Donizetti, remained ettas range in complexity from simple plays-with-music
true to vocal melody (see *bel canto) and finally achieved its to works that involve most aspects of true *opera, other
apotheosis in the passionate dramas of * Verdi. Germany, than recitative (melodic speech). Among the notable
through the example of *Weber and responding to the composers of operetta are *Offenbach, Johann *Strauss,
spirit of * Romanticism, veered towards folklore and *Lehar, and *Sullivan. The German Singspiel, the Spanish
fantasy. It also laid greater emphasis on the role of zarzuela, the British ballad opera, and the French opera
the orchestra. This line of development culminated in comique are forms of operetta, though they all have
*Wagner's music-dramas, which dispensed with aria and specifically national characteristics.Similar also is the
recitative in favour of a seamless web of music, conceived musical comedy of the early 20th century and the present-
symphonically from a network of *leitmotifs. Wagner's day *musical, the difference being largely that of period
theory of music-drama was also an attempt to 'reform' style and the precise amount and weight of music in-
—
opera particularly the type favoured in France and volved.
exemplified in the works of * Meyerbeer. Known as
'Grand Opera', such works were replete with elaborate ophicleide, a keyed brass musical instrument invented
arias and ensembles, magnificent choruses, ballets, and by Halari in 181 7 as a bass key-*bugle to replace the
spectacular scenic effects. Their plots, usually on some *serpent (as the name, French-Greek for keyed serpent,
historical or quasi-historical event, were melodramatic suggests). It was widely used in orchestras and military
and sensational. Overt nationalism, reflecting folk music bands in the 19th century, but was eventually replaced
and folkloristic subjects, came to the fore in the second by the *tuba.
half of the century in composers from Russia (*Glinka,
*Musorgsky, *Borodin, *Rimsky-Korsakov and, to a Ophiils (Oppenheixner), Max (1902-57), German-
lesser extent, Tchaikovsky), and Czechoslovakia (*Sme- born French film director. Of his early German films the
tana, *Dvofak and, later, *Janacek). And at the end of best was Liebelei (1932), a tragic romance based on
the century a taste for realistic, low-life subjects, first Schnitzler's play. Anti-Semitism drove him first to France
manifest in Bizet's Carmen (1875), took root among Verdi's and then, in 1941, to the USA, where his films included
heirs and successors —
particularly *Mascagni and *Puc- Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948), a touching tale of
cini. In Germany, meanwhile, Richard *Strauss began infatuation set in turn-of-the-century Vienna; and two
where Wagner left off with music-dramas of an ex- untypical suspense films, Caught and The Reckless Moment
pressionist type [Salome, 1903-5) but gradually relaxed (both 1949). For the last phase of his career, in France,
ORATORIO 330
he returned to the past. La Ronde (1950), his most popular essential binding agent. The history of the orchestra
film, based on another Schnitzler play, was a series of in the19th century is largely one of expansion and
linked sexual encounters in which the same protagonist consolidation. Much of this was made possible by a
appeared in the first and last; Le Plaisir (1952), was based radical change or adaptation in the construction and
on tales by Maupassant. Lola Month (1955), his last (and playing mechanism of instruments to meet the acoustic
only colour) film, used his favoured flashback device to requirements of a larger auditorium. By the end of the
tell the story of the courtesan's decline. Ophiils's superb century a typical orchestra generally employed over 100
camerawork atoned for his sometimes novelettish plots. players as compared to the 40 or so that would have been
usual in the 1820s. In recent years composers have begun
oratorio, the religious equivalent of *opera, involving to specify unorthodox layouts in order to emphasize
stories usually adapted from the scriptures, set to music particular features of their music —
often conceived with
for solo singers, chorus, and orchestra, and designed to spatial or theatrical effects in mind. It is important to
be sung without scenery or costumes in a concert hall or remember that non-Western cultures have also developed
church. Oratorios originated in the plays given in the quite different, but equally sophisticated, orchestras of
Oratory of St Philip Neri in Rome during the second half their own. The Chinese court orchestra (see *Chinese
of the 1 6th century, and developed alongside opera after music), with its various forms of flute, drum, bell, and
1600. The first true oratorio was *Cavalieri's Representation zither, and the Javanese *gamelan ensembles of gongs,
of Soul and Body (1600). Later contributors to its de- bronze bars, and drums are but two examples.
velopment include *Carissimi, Alessandro *Scarlatti,
*Schutz, *Handel, *Haydn, *Mendelssohn, *Elgar, and orchestration, the art of scoring music for an *orchestra
Tippett. As oratorio developed, the chorus assumed more or band, or of arranging music that was originally
and more importance. This in turn led to the establish- composed for another medium. When writing orchestral
ment of amateur choral societies. Until the end of the music, composers think directly in terms of orchestral
18th century, oratorio was regarded as an alternative to sound. In this sense orchestration is an integral part of
opera (opera could not be performed during Lent). composition. Music conceived in terms of specific or-
chestral colour may lose much of its eff^ect when tran-
Orcagna, Andrea (Andrea di Clone) (r. 1308c 1368), scribed for different instruments. Orchestration assumed
Italian artist, painter, sculptor, architect, and admin- an increasing importance in the art of composition from
istrator. His only certain work as a painter is the the mid- 8th century onwards.
1
The Orchestra
18th-century orchestra (based on the Dresden opera orchestra 1767)
^ vioUis
piano
double basses
first violins CO cellos
conductor
organ, a keyboard musical instrument sounded by air knowledge of this device was lost, and instruments such
in pipes. On
small organs, from their invention in around as the large ith-century organ at Winchester appear to
i
250 BC in Alexandria to the medieval *portative organ, have produced a general roar, with all the pipes for
when *keys were depressed, tracker-rods moved per- any one key sounding all the time. When stops were
forated plates to admit air to pipes. In the 15th century, re-invented, in the 15th century, the disadvantage of the
further rods linked the keys through greater distances to tracker action was that as further ranks of pipes were
pallets (air reservoirs) at the foot of the pipes. Stops, added to increase or alter the sound, the action grew
which control which row of pipes sound, were used on heavier. The pneumatic lever, perfected before 1840,
the surviving Roman organ at Budapest in Hungary, but alleviated this problem, and the tubular-pneumatic
ORGANUM 332
Orwell, George (Eric Arthur Blair) (1903 50), British perfected by Ariosto, it used lines of eleven syllables; but
novelist and essayist. Born in Bengal, he served with the English version is in *iambic *pentameters. It was
the Indian imperial police in Burma (1922-7), which introduced into English by Wyatt, and later used by
provided material for his first novel {Burmese Days, 1934). Byron in Don Juan (1819-24) as well as by Keats, Shelley,
He resigned to escape the constrictions of imperialism and Yeats.
and worked in Paris and London in fairly severe poverty,
described in Down and Out in Paris and London (1933). His Ottoman art. The Ottomans emerged in the early 14th
next two novels {A Clergyman s Daughter, 1935; and Keep century inwestern Anatolia, and went on to establish a
1936) were followed by a visit to the
the Aspidistra Flying, vast empire with its capital in Istanbul. The finest early
north of England which resulted in his evocative account Ottoman architecture was built in Bursa and Edirne, in
of unemployment and working-class life ( The Road to western Turkey, the first capitals. Buildings such as the
Wigan Pier, 1937). His experiences fighting for the Re- Green Mosque in Bursa (1419-24) reflect the earlier
publicans in the Spanish Civil War intensified his political *Seljuq tradition of building, but have a more intimate
commitment and produced Homage to Catalonia (1938). character and more lavish use of interior tilework in a
He became increasingly a political writer, a democratic range of brilliant blues and greens. After the conquest of
socialist who avoided party labels. His two most popular
works were Animal Farm (1945), about
his political satires.
The potteries of the Anatolian lakeside town of Iznik
the failure of communism, and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), produced pottery and tiles which are perhaps the
a prophetic novel of one man's struggle against the best-known works of Ottoman art. Panels of tiles such as
totalitarianism and mechanistic society of the future. He this one, dating from the 17th century, were used, often
died of tuberculosis a few months after its publication. sparmgly, to highlight architectural features in mosques
His plain, colloquial style made him an effective journalist such as the mihrab, or occasionally in luxuriant profusion
tocover whole walls and rooms. (Victoria and Albert
and pamphleteer; his Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters
Museum, London)
appeared in 1968.
Ousmane, Sembene (1923- ), Senegalese novelist the overture thematically and atmospherically to the
and film director. His first novel, Le Docker noir (1956), opera that followed, but Italian composers were usually
reflects his experiences as a trade union leader in Mar- content to produce lively music that would silence the
seilles, while Les Bouts de bois de Dieu (i960) is based on audience's chatter, sometimes designing their overtures
the 1947 rail strike in French West Africa. Among other as a medley of the 'hit' tunes to come. In such examples
films, he has directed the screen version (1974) oi Xala, as Weber's Freischiitz (1823), the thematic link is carried
his *satire on the new African elite. to the point where the overture is virtually a musical
the middle section was fast and fugal, and the concluding and most productive of the great Latin poets who wrote
section was a moderately slow dance. This form was under Augustus. He gave up public life for poetry, but
known as the French overture. The other form, the Italian was exiled by the emperor in ad 8 to Tomis on the
overture, was established in the operas of Alessandro Black Sea. He wrote fluently, almost always in *elegiac
Scarlatti and followed a fast-slow-fast pattern; it began *couplets, which he brought to a new pitch of point and
*fugally. In both cases the alternative title 'sinfonia' was wit. He was fascinated by the theme of love, which he
335 PAINT
In the West, the pageant reached a peak of artistry with less music of great beauty and expressive power and
the procession held mBrussels m
1615 to mark a royal represents the last great peak of vocal *polyphony.
wedding. This detail of the pamtmg, Isabella's Triumph
by van Alsloot shows a mythical king of Africa palette, the flat board, usually rectangular, ovoid, or
surrounded by boys dressed as parrots or popinjays. In
addition to guilds and religious orders the cavalcade
kidney-shaped, with a hole for the thumb, on which
included giants, dragons, decorated floats, and figures artists arrange their paints ready for use. Palettes first
from classical mythology. (Victoria and Albert Museum, appeared in the 15th century; before this time individual
London) containers (sometimes shells) were used for mixing
colours. For *oil painting, mahogany is traditionally
considered the best material for palettes; for water-colour
and miniature painting, materials such as ivory and
*oil painting the medium is a vegetable oil; in *tempera porcelain have been used. The term 'palette' also refers
it egg yolk (or sometimes the whole egg); and in
is to the range of colours characteristic of an artist; Cara-
*water-colour the medium is usually gum arable, which vaggio has a dark or restricted palette, Monet a bright
is soluble in water. Water is also used in *fresco as the or rich palette.
liquid in which the pigment is suspended, but here the
medium is really the plaster to which the paint is applied. Pali literature, literature written in the north Indian
* Pasteldoes not use any medium as such, just gum or language of that name, comprising principally the Bud-
resin to hold the powdered pigments together. It is dhist canon. The teachings of the Buddha (6th century
sometimes classified as a paint but more usually as a Bc) were originally preserved orally, the canon known as
drawing material. Synthetic dyes were invented in 1856 the Tipitaka ('three baskets' of wisdom) established at
while modern technology has seen further important three great councils, the last under the Mauryan Emperor
developments including synthetic pigments. Ashoka's patronage c.250 bc. The Vinayapitaka ('The
Pitaka of Conduct') enshrines the rules of discipline for
Palaeolithic art *Stone Age art. the Buddhist order. The Suttapitaka ('The Pitaka of the
Sermon') contains the Buddha's sermons, including the
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (^.1525 94), It- most popular text in the entire canon, the Dhammapada
alian composer. He received his early training in Rome ('The Verses on Virtue'), the quintessence of the Buddha's
as a choirboy at Santa Maria Maggiore and by 1544 had teaching in 423 verses, and the *Jatakas. The Abhi-
become organist at the Cathedral in Palestrina (which dhammapitaka ('The Pitaka of Metaphysics'), later than the
may have been his birthplace). In 1555 he was admitted other two, comprises seven books of Buddhist philosophy.
to the pope's official musical chapel (Cappella Sistina), According to tradition, the Tipitaka was written down
but was forced to resign because he was a married man. during the ist century bc. Besides the canon and its many
Palestrina's immense output includes secular and religious commentaries, other important early Pali works from Sri
*madrigals, *motets, hymns, and many settings of the Lanka are the Milindapanha ('The Questions of Menan-
mass and the magnificat. Though his work has become der'), the Graeco-Bactrian King Menander's questions to
accepted as the model for diatonic, strict *counterpoint, the sage Nagasena on Buddhist philosophy, and the
pure of purpose and more genuinely 'religious' than that Mahavamsha ('The Great Lineage'), a historical chronicle
of his more adventurous contemporaries, it is none the relating Buddhism's spread to Sri Lanka.
. ,
337 PALLADIO
palindrome, a word (like 'deed', 'eye', or 'tenet') which and classical correctness of detail. There was a political
remains the same read backwards; or a sentence or
if as well as a stylistic dimension to the movement, for
verse in which the order of letters is the same reading Palladianism was associated with the Whig aristocracy
backwards or forwards, disregarding punctuation and (supporters of the House of Hanover) to whom the
spaces between words: 'Madam, I'm Adam'. Baroque style smacked of Roman Catholicism and the
deposed House of Stuart. In Britain Palladianism was
Palissy, Bernard (c. 1510-c. 1590), French potter. He is almost entirely confined to domestic architecture; interiors
renowned for his 'rustic wares', which were dishes and were often richly decorated compared with the sober
bowls ornamented with snakes, lizards, frogs, fish, and exteriors. Inherent in Palladianism was the notion that
foliage. Palissy was outstanding for the fineness of his architectural design should be governed by reason and
wares and for his rich polychrome *glaze colours. He was the application of rules; it thus tended to stifle indi-
brought to Paris in 1566 by Catherine de' Medici. He viduahty, but on the positive side it helped to spread a
died in prison, persecuted as a Protestant heretic. Little tradition of sound classical design throughout the country.
pottery survives from his own hand, but his work was In Britain Palladianism began to merge with the more
much imitated for some two centuries after his death. severe and archaeologically spirited *Neoclassicism in the
1760S, but at about the same time it was taken up in
Palladianism, of architecture based on the
a style America, where it enjoyed a long and fruitful popularity.
buildings and publications of the 16th-century Italian Thomas Jefferson, better known as the author of the
architect Andrea *Palladio. In its most general sense the Declaration of Independence and third President of
term 'Palladian' can be applied to any building inspired the USA, was one of the most distinguished American
by Palladio (for example, those of Inigo *Jones), but Palladian architects.
'Palladianism' usually refers to a movement that dom-
inated British architecture from about 7 5 to about 760
i
1
i
Palladio, Andrea (Andrea di Pietro) (1508-80), Italian
(1715 is a convenient symbolic starting-point as it was *Renaissance architect, born in Padua and active mainly
the year of publication of the first complete English in Vicenza. Through his buildings and his publications
translation of Palladio's Four Books of Architecture and of the Palladio has been probably the most influential figure in
firstvolume of Colen * Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus) Western architecture (see *Palladianism). He began his
During this period Palladio was admired by influential career as a stonemason, but in the 1530s he became a
figures such as Lord *Burlington and William *Kent, protege of Count Giangiorgio Trissino, a humanist poet
and the exuberant *Baroque style associated with Wren and scholar, who furthered his education and encouraged
(in his late years), Vanbrugh, and Hawksmoor gave way in him an intellectual approach towards architecture. (It
to one characterized by symmetry, methodical regularity. was Trissino who gave him the name Palladio, derived
from the Greek goddess of wisdom.) Palladio visited
Rome with Trissino twice in the 1540s, making a thorough
Holkham Hall m Norfolk, one of the grandest of Palladian
housesm Britain. was designed by William Kent for
It
study of Roman architecture; this bore fruit not only in
Thomas Coke, Earl of Leicester and was begun m 1734. influence on his own buildings, but also in his guide to
The large central portico is a particularly common monuments, The Antiquity of Rome 554)
the city's ancient ( 1
feature of the movement. which remained a standard guide for two centuries.
PALMER 338
Palladio's large output consisted mainly of palaces and period that it became a leading feature of interior design.
villas inand around Vicenza for the great families of the Wood panelling reached a peak of elaboration in the
region. His most famous building is the Villa Capra (or traceried panels of late medieval northern Germany and
Villa Rotonda), begun in 1566, which has a portico in the Low Countries. The linenfold pattern was invented
the form of a Roman temple front on each of its four in Flanders during the 15th century, a stylized imitation
sides. Palladio was the first to use the temple front in of curtaining. Panelling was usually of oak, pine, or
domestic architecture, and like other of his innovations figured hardwoods that could be laid in thin sheets. In
it soon became part of the standard repertory of archi- the 8th century oak was replaced largely by deal, and
1
tectural forms. Late in his career, Palladio also worked thereafter the painted panel predominated. In the 20th
much in Venice, designing the churches of S. Giorgio century many other woods and also synthetic materials
Maggiore (begun 1566) and II Redentore (begun 1576). have come into use.
In 1570 he published The Four Books of Architecture,
which contained illustrations of many of his buildings panpipes (or syrinx), a musical instrument, a series of
and helped to spread his fame. His buildings, elegant but tubes, each of different length, blown as *end-flutes or
vigorous, grand but human in scale, were regarded by via *ducts, usually fixed together in a raft or bundle.
many of his admirers as unsurpassable models. (The name derives from the myth of Pan and the nymph
Syrinx, who became a clump of reeds to escape him.)
Palmer, Samuel (1805-81), British landscape painter Some peoples, example the Lithuanians and the
for
and etcher. He had experienced visions from childhood, South African Venda, have a player for each tube. The
and hismeeting with William *Blake in 1824 intensified instrument is used world-wide, the bundle panpipe being
his mysticism. In 1826 he moved to Kent, where he was commonest Oceania, the raft being common elsewhere.
in
the central figure of a group of artists called 'the Ancients' The instrument plays an important role in the folk
who looked upon Blake as a figurehead. There he pro- music of the Andes (see * American Indian music), and
—
duced his greatest works landscapes charged with a sense in Romania, where country gypsy bands once used
of fecundity. Christian symbolism, and other-worldly the instrument, modern virtuoso players achieve great
beauty. In 832 what he called his 'primitive and infantine
1 popularity. The prevalence of the panpipes in con-
feeling' for landscape began to fade and by the end of temporary folk music is shown by Mozart's use of the
the decade, after returning to London in 1835, the instrument in his opera The Magic Flute.
break with his visionary manner was complete. His later
paintings were more conventional, but in his etchings pantomime, a British theatrical entertainment which
some of his early genius remained. derives its name (though
not its character) from the
Roman *pantomimus. Associated with Christmas, it de-
Pancatantra ('The Five Treatises'), a collection of veloped from the *harlequinade. Traditional fairy-tales
Indian beast-fables. They were composed by Vishnu- form the basis for a mixture of songs, dances, *slapstick,
sharman [c. 2nd century ad) to teach princes how to topical jokes, male and female impersonation, magic, and
act in war and peace, win and divide friends, and avoid spectacle.The word was also used for the *mimed Pierrot
impetuousness. Various later Sanskrit versions prove their plays of Jean-Gaspard Deburau, based on the commedia
continuing popularity. They influenced the *Jatakas and deWarte masque.
Western European literatures through the Arabic trans-
lation, Kalila and Dimnah. pantomimus, the name given to a performer popular
in Imperial Rome, who by movement and gesture alone
panegyric, a public speech or poem devoted to the represented the different characters in a short scene based
prolonged, effusive praise of some person, group of people, on classical history or mythology, sung in Greek by the
or public body (a government or army, for example). *chorus accompanied by musicians. The pantomimus wore
This branch of *rhetoric was particularly cultivated in the *costume of the tragic actor— a long cloak and a
ancient Greece and Rome. silken tunic— and a *mask with no mouthpiece, changing
it when necessary. As many as five masks could be used
panel, a painting surface of wood, metal, or other rigid in one scene. The art of the pantomimus dealt exclusively
substance, as distinct from *canvas. Until the adoption with tragic or clandestine passions, although unlike its
of canvas from the 15th century, nearly all movable rival the Roman *mime it was never coarse or vulgar.
paintings produced in Europe were executed on wood.
Varieties of wood used for panels included oak, poplar, papier mache (French, 'chewed paper'), a material
and pine. The panel was well seasoned and then coated made of pulped paper mixed with glue (and sometimes
with some material such as *gesso before it was suitable sand), which can be moulded when moist and hardens
for painting on. Other materials that have been used for when baked to form a strong but light substance that can
panels include copper (especially favoured for small-scale be polished and painted. It is used in a great variety of
work), slate, and millboard (compressed cardboard). In ways: for household objects such as trays and boxes; for
the 20th century artists have used plywood and other light furniture (sometimes inlaid with mother-of-pearl);
synthetic materials. for windowdisplays and theatrical decorations; for archi-
tecturalmouldings imitating plasterwork; and even as a
panelling, a decorative treatment of walls (and also building material. Papier mache is of oriental origin and
ceilings, doors, and furniture) consisting of a regular series became popular in the West in the 17th century.
of flat compartments of wood framed and linked together
by narrower (in width) but thicker (in depth) strips of Papua New Guinean music, the music of the eastern
wood so that they do not warp or split. Panelling was part of the island of New Guinea and many off-shore
used in ancient times, but it was not until the Gothic islands in the south-west Pacific. The main form is group
339 PARMIGIANINO
his extraordinarily elongated and tapering figures were velopment of amateur choral societies. Even major com-
influential in France as well as Italy. As well as religious posers were happy to write part-songs suitable for choral
pictures, he painted some superb portraits. competitions, while minor composers turned them out in
handfuls. The glee, a type of unaccompanied English
Parnassians, a group of French poets active after about part-song composed in the 17th, i8th, and 19th centuries,
i860. The name is taken from the title of a literary gave rise to new musical genres in Victorian times, such
magazine, Le Parnasse contemporain, first published in 866, 1
as the comic ensembles in light opera, the close-harmony
in which some of their poems appeared. Parnassian poetry folk-song arrangement, and the barber-shop quartet pop-
was the counterpart of scientific positivism deriving from ular in the American West of gold-rush days.
the theories of Auguste Comte, and *realism in the novel
as practised particularly by *Flaubert. It rejected the ex- Pascal, Blaise (1623-62), French writer and math-
treme lyricism and looseness in form associated with the * Ro- ematician. After a mystical experience in 1654 he aban-
mantics, stressing visual beauty captured through formal doned the scientific work on which his early renown was
perfection. Its subjects were typically landscapes, themes founded and withdrew to Port-Royal, the home of French
from Greco-Roman antiquity, or metaphysical spec- Jansenism, which taught the corruption of man and his
ulations frequently of a pessimistic nature. *Gautier's dependence upon divine grace for salvation. His major
theory of 'art for art's sake' and *Baudelaire's stress on work, the Pensees, consists of fragments intended for an
formal perfection can be seen as precursors of the move- apology for the Christian religion. These contain profound
ment, which was led by *Leconte de Lisle and numbered insights into the grandeur and misery of the human
Sully-Prudhomme (1839- 1907) and Heredia (1842 1905) condition, expressed in spare, incisive language.
among its adherents. The Parnassians were an early in-
fluence on *Mallarme, *Verlaine, and *Symbolist poetry. Pascoli, Giovanni (1855- 191 2), Italian poet and clas-
sical scholar, the major precursor of *modernism in
parody, a mocking imitation of the style of an artistic Italian poetry. A socialist sympathizer who preached
work or works, usually literary. Parody is related to political anarchy, he was imprisoned for some months in
*burlesque in application of serious styles to ridiculous
its 1879. Nature and simple things often provide his themes,
subjects, to its punishment of eccentricities,
*satire in but he draws from symbolism the suggestion of enigma
and even to *literary criticism in its analysis of style. and evanescence. His language spans the range from pure
Aristophanes parodied the styles of Aeschylus and Eu- sound (animal- and baby-talk) to the literary conventions
ripides in The Frogs, while Cervantes parodied medieval of lyric tradition. His Tamarisks (1891) is a collection
*romances in Don Quixote (1605). Poets in the 19th of delicate lyrics; his masterpiece. Songs of Castelvecchio,
Wordsworth and Browning, suffered
century, especially movingly evokes his tragic childhood and celebrates the
numerous parodies of their works. Max Beerbohm's A beauty of nature and family life.
Christmas Garland (19 12) is a celebrated series of parodies.
pas de deux, step or dance for two. The term usually of being fragile and easily dislodged from the paper. This
applies to dances for a man and woman. In Petipa's can be counteracted by using a fixative, though this
ballets the pas de deux follows a set order of double work reduces the brilliance of the colour. Pastel was used for
(where the man supports the woman in lifts, turns, and portraits in the i8th century and was revived in the late
balances) followed by solo variations and coda. In most 19th century by the Impressionists, notably Degas.
narrative ballets it expresses the relationship between
male and female characters and in *Ashton's ballets Pasternak, Boris (Leonidovich) (1890- 1960), Rus-
hands could be used for a complex and powerful metaphor sian poet and novelist. His early lyrics were full of bold
for love. It may also be a formal display of virtuosity, metaphors and images of nature; in the 1920s he wrote
where the man's strength and sensitivity are used to show long poems on subjects from revolutionary history. In the
off the ballerina's technique. 1930s Pasternak turned to translation, concentrating on
Shakespeare, Goethe, and contemporary Caucasian poets.
Pasek, Jan Chryzostom (c. 1636-c. 1701), Polish diar- During World War II he went back to *lyric poetry,
ist. A minor nobleman, in his Memoirs (written 1690-5) now simpler and more direct. In 1956 he finished the
he describes in lively, hyperbolic style both the important novel Doctor ^hivago, which was an account of the Russian
events and the everyday details of the years 1656 88. revolution and its aftermath as seen through the eyes of
the intelligentsia. Its publication abroad the following
Pasolini, Pier Paolo (1922-75), Italian film director, year caused a scandal. Pasternak was compelled to refuse
novelist, and poet. A Marxist who avoided using pro-
the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958 by the Soviet
fessional actors, he directed one of the most successful
government. His novel was published in the Soviet Union
films ever made about Christ, The Gospel According to St
only in 1988.
Matthew (1964). He also made two films based on Greek
tragedies, Oedipus Rex (1967) and Medea (1969); Theorem
pastiche, an artistic work of any kind composed from
(1968), about a young man's sexual relationships with elements borrowed either from various other artists or
his host family; and Pigsty (1969), partly concerned with
from a particular earlier model. The term can be used in
bestiality. His later work included three bawdy films
a derogatory sense to indicate lack of originality, or more
based on literary classics: The Decameron, The Canterbury and
neutrally to refer to works which involve a deliberate
Tales (both 197 1), and The Arabian Nights (1974). He was
playful imitative tribute to other artists. It differs from
also the author of grimly realistic novels describing the
*parody in using imitation as a form of flattery, not
sordid underlife of Rome in the 1950s.
mockery. The frequent resort to pastiche is an important
symptom of self-consciousness in the modern arts.
passacaglia *chaconne.
passion music, musical settings of the Passion or pastoral, a literary tradition derived from the *idylls of
sufferings of Christon the Cross, according to one Theocritus and the *eclogues of Virgil, fashionable in
of the four Gospels. Its origins may be found in Europe from the i6th to the i8th century. Pastoral
the medieval *mystery play, in which music played a literature describes the loves and griefs of musical shep-
significant part, and in the ancient Holy Week practice herds in an idealized Golden Age of rustic innocence;
of reading the Passion story in church in a more or less paradoxically, it is a highly artificial cult of simplicity.
dramatic fashion, the words of Christ being sung to The elaborate conventions of pastoral appear in Italian
*plainsong. Settings of the Passion received a special drama of the late i6th century, in Shakespeare's As Ton
impetus during the Reformation in the i6th century, Like It (f. 1599), in prose *romances like Sidney's Arcadia
when it became the custom to abandon Latin in favour of (1590) and Urfe's TAstree (1607-27), and in *lyrics like
ordinary language. Thus the Passion settings of Heinrich Marlowe's 'The Passionate Shepheard to his Love' (1600).
Schiitz are particularly important. Later examples, such A minor revival of pastoral poetry in the i8th century
as Bach's St John Passion (1723) and St Matthew Passion was superseded by the more realistic country poems of
(1729), tell the story with great dramatic intensity, using
Crabbe, Wordsworth, and Clare, although the pastoral
* elegy survived longer.
all the resources of chorus, *aria, ensemble, *chorale, and
*orchestra.
patchwork, needlework made of assorted small pieces
passion play, a religious play representing the life and of fabric sewn together at the edges to form a kind of
crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth. Performances of such cloth mosaic. This simple and economical method of
plays are recorded in Europe from the early 13th century. producing patterned textiles is both ancient and wide-
Some formed part of the cycles of * mystery plays, others spread. During the Renaissance, using silks and velvets
were performed separately, usually on Good Friday. as its raw materials, it was a sumptuous element in
The most famous example today is the Passionsspiel still ecclesiasticaland secular decoration. The technique is
performed by the villagers of Oberammergau in Bavaria more generally associated with *folk art, particularly
at ten-year intervals; this custom originated in a vow (since the i8th century) in the production of patchwork
made during an outbreak of plague in 1633. quilts, their cheerful, colourful patterns usuallyformed
from innumerable regularly shaped scraps of printed
pastel, a drawing or painting material consisting of a cotton. Patchwork of irregular shapes is sometimes called
stick of colour made from powdered *pigments mixed crazy patchwork.
with just enough resin or gum to bind them. Pastel is
applied directly to paper, and thus the colour as applied Pater, Walter (Horatio) (1839-94), British critic and
represents the final result —
no allowance has to be made essayist. His Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873)
for changes during drying. Pastel has the disadvantage contains essays on Botticelli and Leonardo, amongst
PATTERN POETRY 342
jp
si.^^
^ jg vy
mm -i--;
jgi
^MKii
War of Independence, and in 782 opened an exhibition
gallery (the first in the USA)
1
displaying his
of heroes of the Revolution. Several of Peale's children
were artists, the most important being Raphaelle
(1774-1825), one of America's finest still-life painters,
own portraits
343 PERGOLESI
Rembrandt (1778 i860), a gifted though uneven por- pentameter is the commonest English
stresses; the * iambic
traitist, and Titian Ramsay II (1799 1885), who con- *metre. Greek and Latin pentameters were *dactylic,
tinued his father's tradition as an artist-naturahst. The comprising two half-lines of two and a half feet each.
family was largely responsible for establishing Phil-
adelphia as one of the country's leading cultural centres. pentimento (Italian, 'repentance'), a term in art de-
scribing a part of a picture that has been overpainted by
Pearl *Gawain and the Green Knight, Sir. the artist but that has become visible again (often as a
ghostly outline) because the upper layer of pigment has
pediment, an architectural term applied to a low- become more transparent with age. Pentimenti can be of
pitched gable over the front of a and by
building great interest to the art historian, and they are often used
extension to similar forms used decoratively. The type was as an argument when the authorship of a painting is in
established in Greek temples, where pediments were often question, since evidence of second thoughts is much more
decorated with sculpture (the Parthenon at Athens is the likely to occur in an original painting than in a copy.
most famous example). The Romans employed pediments
which were segmental as well as triangular, and both Pepys, Samuel (1633 1703), English public official
types were revived during the Renaissance. In the Man- and author of the most notable diary in the English
nerist and Baroque periods it was common to use broken language. Interested in everything, Pepys had the gift of
or interrupted pediments for decorative effect. summing up a scene or a person in brilliant and arresting
sentences, and with complete honesty. The Diary is a
Peguy, Charles (1873- 19 14), French poet and essayist. record of his life in London from 1660 to 1669, when he
Many of his writings, for example the essays Notre palrie stopped writing to safeguard his eyesight. It describes the
(1905) and the poems Tapisseries (191 2- 13) and Eve restoration and coronation of Charles II, the Great
(1914), reflect his patriotic, socialist and, later, religious Plague, and the Fire of London. Written in Thomas
views. He was influenced by the philosopher Henri Shelton's Shorthand the Diary was not deciphered until
Bergson (i 859-1 941) in reacting against 19th-century 1825; the unexpurgated edition runs to eleven volumes
positivism (the theory that every rationally justifiable (1970-83).
assertion can be scientifically verified) in favour of a
dualistic philosophy. Peguy's *free verse form reveals him percussion instruments, all musical instruments that
as an heir of the *Symbolists. are struck. Many depend on a tensioned skin to sound;
others are of materials so hard and rigid that they sound
pencil, a writing or drawing instrument consisting of a as they stand. The former arecommonly called *drums,
slender rod of solid marking substance such as graphite a term also used for some of the latter. The latter include
(a form of carbon) encased in a cylinder of wood (or all the hard percussion instruments such as *xylophones,
less usually metal or plastic). Pencils of predetermined *cymbals, *bells, and many others, all of which are struck
hardness or softness were first produced in the 790s, by i directly, while others are struck indirectly, for example
the French scientist and artist Nicolas-Jacques Conte, some are shaken so that pellets or other objects strike
and it was from then that the pencil became the universal them or each other (*rattles) and some are scraped
drawing instrument it is today. Until the end of the i8th (ratchets, struck by tongues as they revolve, and the
century the word 'pencil' was often used for a brush, so *guiro, whose corrugations are struck by a rod). Also
'pencilling' could mean 'colouring' or 'brushwork' as well included among percussion are instruments that are
as 'drawing'. rubbed (*glass harmonica, etc.), and those that are
plucked (*jews harps, *sansas, etc.). Percussion players
Penderecki, Krzysztof (1933- ), Polish composer. in the orchestra are expected to cope with all these, and
He came into international prominence in i960 with his also with anything beneath the dignity of other musicians;
Threnody for of Hiroshima
the Victims —
a powerful work for thus they are responsible for whistles and many other
string orchestra which explored unusual and expressive minor instruments. There is an extremely large variety of
sonorities. His St Luke Passion (1965) marked a degree percussion instruments across the world. The majority are
of synthesis between tradition and experiment and an used to give rhythmic impulse to music, but a few, the
extension of his tendency towards ritual drama. Religious *talking drum for instance, are used for other purposes.
preoccupations also inform his operas The Devils of Loudun
(1968), Paradise Lost (1978), and The Black Mask (1986). Perez Galdos, Benito (1843 1920), Spanish novelist
Penderecki is one of the few avant-garde composers able and dramatist. A political and religious liberal, his first
to command the allegiance of a large public. major success came in 1873 with Trafalgar, the first of
forty-six historical novels, the National Episodes. In 1881,
penillion, traditional Welsh music-making, in which a having written four polemical novels, he began his major
singer improvises a poem makes use of existing words)
(or literary achievement, the twenty-four novels, Contemporary
as a *counterpoint to a well-known melody played on Spanish Novels, which are set almost exclusively in Madrid.
the harp. The harp always starts first with a plain Of these Fortunata andjacinla (1886-7) i^ his acknowledged
statement of the melody and then accompanies the voice masterpiece. From 1892 he achieved some success with a
with a set of improvised variations. Singer and harpist number of plays, among which Reality 1892) is important
(
(usually the same person) then end together. in the history of dramatic *realism in Spain.
pentameter, a verse line of five metrical units ('feet'). Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista (
1
710-36), Italian com-
In English poetry, this means a line with five strong poser. Despite persistent ill-health, he wrote assiduously
PERPENDICULAR STYLE 344
Some of the most notable work of the early Islamic period 92), both of the nth century. It became an important
is pottery (see * Islamic pottery). The emergence of the vehicle for works in religion, philosophy, history, and
*Seljuq dynasty (1055- 1256) marked the beginning of administration. Some of the greatest Islamic thinkers like
a period of remarkable building activity. The devastation al-Ghazah (1058-1111) and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-
of the Mongol invasions swept away the Seljuq rulers, 1037) wrote in Persian, as well as Arabic. Persian was
who were replaced by the Ilkhanid Mongol dynasty spread by the conquests of nomadic Turkish tribes from
(1256- 1 353), with its capital in Tabriz, in north-western Central Asia, who were converted to Islam and civilized
Iran. Painting drew on Chinese and traditional Islamic through contact with Iran. It became the language of
influences to develop the now familiar style of * Islamic culture far beyond its heartlands to an area stretching
miniature painting in works such as the marvellous from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) to northern and
Demotte Shahnamah, unsurpassed for the expressive central India. The decline of Persia after the Mongol
345 PETRARCH
invasions of the 13th century, and the weahhy patronage chitecture and is generally considered one of the first
of the Delhi suhanate and the Mughal empire, attracted *Mannerist buildings.
many poets to India, and an Indian style grew up,
characterized by complicated and obscure imagery. The Pessoa, Fernando (1888- 1935), Portuguese poet. He
Indian poet Bedil (Bidil) (i 644-1 721) is still popular in is best known for his Messages (1934), a *Symbolist
Afghanistan and Central Asia, and the great *Urdu poets interpretation of Portuguese history, and for the creation
Ghalib and Iqbal are also important poets in Persian. In of his three heteronyms, that is, poetic personalities who
modern times the Iranian world has become divided into express different facets of the poet's self: Alvaro de
new political entities. Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan Campos, Alberto Caeiro, and Ricardo Reis. Although
have developed national which draw on the
literatures and content, the poetry of the heteronyms
different in style
classical Persian heritage. Modern Iran has produced and of Pessoa himself is united by a common concern
the great novelist and short-story writer Sadiq Hidayat with the enigmatic nature of reality. Underlying all the
903-5
( 1 who is widely known through translations into
1 )
, writings of this predominantly intellectual poet are a
European languages. (See also *Arabic literature, *Sufi pervasive scepticism and uncertainty about existence and
literature.) identity, expressed in terms of paradox, indeterminacy,
and evocations of absence and loss.
Persian music *West Asian music.
Peterkiewicz, Jerzy (1916- ), Polish poet and nov-
perspective, a system for representing spatial recession elist. In his early work he drew on his peasant background,
on a flat or shallow surface. In Western art perspective, and since settling in London he has written poetry in
variously known as geometric, linear, mathematical, op- Polish, such as London Poems (1965); novels in English
tical.Renaissance, or scientific perspective, was developed 1959; Inner Circle, 1966); as well as radio plays.
{Isolation,
in Florence in the early 15th century by *Brunelleschi His translation of the poetry of Karol Wojtyla (Pope
and put into practice by artists such as Masaccio and John Paul II) appeared as Easter Vigil and Other Poems in
*Uccello. It utilizes such optical effects as the apparent 1979-
convergence of parallel lines as they recede from the
spectator to try to create in a picture an illusion of the Petipa, Marius (1818 1910), French dancer, cho-
same kind of spatial relationships that we see in the real reographer, and ballet-master. He performed in Europe
world, with objects appearing to diminish in size the and the USA before joining the Imperial Ballet at St
further away they are. Such perspective was one of the Petersburg in 1847. From 1862 to 1903 he created about
cornerstones of European art for almost five centuries fifty ballets for the Imperial theatres in St Petersburg and
after its invention. The art of primitive peoples and of Moscow. As his work matured it became the epitome of
some highly sophisticated cultures (for example, the * Classicism in ballet, synthesizing the best of the French,
ancient Egyptians and Chinese) tends to ignore or under- Italian, and Russian styles. His surviving works form the
play perspective. (See also *aerial perspective.) core of the Classical repertoire: Bayadere (1877), Sleeping
Beauty (1890), and Swan Lake (1895).
Perugino, Pietro (Pietro Vannucci)
1445- 1523),
(c.
and his idealized physical types influenced the young Carmen (1949).
*Raphael, who worked in his busy studio.
Petofi, Sandor (1823-49), Hungarian poet. He dis-
Peruvian art *South American Indian art. regarded contemporary literary conventions and wrote
on everyday rural themes in brief, vivid verse char-
Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481-1536), Itahan architect, acterized by colloquial language and variety of rhythm.
painter, and stage designer, active mainly in Rome, where He composed the revolutionary poem 'National Song'
he settled in 1503. He worked on St Peter's under (1848) and several epics. His poetry reveals the revo-
*Bramante, and became architect to the building after lutionary fervour which led him to join enthusiastically
*Raphaers death in 1520. Amongst High *Renaissance in the 1848-9 revolution in which, according to legend,
architects he ranks almost alongside these two great he was to lose his life.
contemporaries, but his style was very different soph- —
isticated and delicate rather than monumental and grave. Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) (1304-74), Italian poet
His work, indeed the greatest secular building of
finest and humanist. One of the earliest and greatest of modern
the High Renaissance, is the Villa Farnesina in Rome *lyric poets, he remains best known for his Canzoniere,
(1500- 1 1) which contains Peruzzi's masterpiece in paint- mostly *sonnets, written in vernacular Italian between
ing, Sala delle Prospettive, a brilliant piece of
the c. 1356 and his death, which includes the long series of
illusionistarchitectural painting that confirms early love poems in praise of Laura, an idealized woman
accounts of his skill in *perspective and stage design. His whose identity remains unknown. He was crowned Poet
lastwork, the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome Laureate in Rome in 1341. He was also important as a
(begun in 1532 and finished after his death), breaks leader, with his friend *Boccaccio, in the rediscovery of
consciously with the regularity of Renaissance ar- classical antiquity, rejecting medieval scholasticism and
PEVSNER 346
had major disadvantages: the calotype was based on pianoforte (piano), a *keyboard musical instrument
fibrous paper, and thus lacked detail; the daguerreotype with strings struck by hammers, so called because it
had no negative and was difficult to reproduce. William plays both piano (softly) and forte (loudly), unlike the
Scott Archer's wet collodion process, introduced in 1851, *harpsichord: plucking varies little in loudness because
used glass negatives to overcome both problems. It was the force of the pluck cannot be altered; striking can vary
also made available to all, free of patent restrictions or greatly. Bartolomeo Cristofori invented the first true
George Eastman's 1888 Kodak camera put
royalties. piano around 1700. It met with little success because
photography into the hands of the masses, depriving musical taste was unready for it and light stringing, all
that was then available, suits plucking but not hammer-
ing. Only after 750 did musicians prefer pianos to
1
gained the nickname 'cottage piano' because of its after the mid-century. Piano and mechanism types are
presence m so many rural homes. innumerable. Grand pianos always existed, but square
PIBCORN 348
pibcorn *hornpipe.
alternated between Paris and Barcelona. This time was a passionate commitment to life, and no artist has more
known as his 'Blue Period', when he took his subjects devastatingly exposed the cruelty and folly of his fellow
from the poor and social outcasts, and the predominant men or more rapturously celebrated the pleasures of love.
mood of his paintings was one of slightly sentimentalized
melancholy expressed through cold, ethereal blues. In piccolo, a sounding an octave higher
half-size *flute,
1904 he settled in Paris. The period from about 1905 to than written. Because played in the orchestra by a
it is
1907 is known as his 'Rose Period', when he favoured flautist, its development has paralleled that of the flute
pinkish colours and his favourite subjects included dancers save that it has rarely acquired the C-footkeys; its lowest
and acrobats painted in a less austere mood. From this note is normally the d" a ninth above middle C. There
concern with colour and mood he turned to the analysis is debate about whether the piccolo, a small *recorder,
of form, and with *Braque, whom he met in 1907, or a *flageolet was used in the Baroque period.
he created *Cubism, a movement that rejected the
naturalistic tradition of European art and revolutionized Picturesque, a term in English art and literature
painting and sculpture. In the 1920s he painted some of covering a of attitudes towards landscape, both real
set
his most solid and classical works (partly inspired by a and painted, that flourished in the late i8th and early
but at this time he also experimented with
visit to Italy), 19th centuries. It indicated an aesthetic approach that
*Surrealism. From about 1925 he began to make more found pleasure in roughness and irregularity, and the
violently expressive works, and this tendency culminated Picturesque came to occupy a position between the criti-
in his most famous painting, Guernica (1937) which ex- and the *'Subli-
cal aesthetic concepts of the 'Beautiful'
pressed his horror and revulsion at the German bombing me', having neither the serene order of the first nor the
of the Basque capital, Guernica. His sculpture, too, shows awe-inspiring grandeur of the second. Its most complete
his unrivalled powers of invention and as a graphic exponent in painting was Rosa while the landscape
artist (draughtsman, etcher, lithographer, lino-cutter, and architect 'Capability' Brown deliberately fashioned his
designer for *Diaghilev's Ballets Russes) he ranks among picturesque creations to evoke idyllic landscapes. In
the greatest of the century. His emotional range was as literature Mrs Radcliffe's works dwell frequently on the
wide as his technical abilities. His work is suflTused with Picturesque, and both Austen and Peacock mocked it in
349 PIPE AND TABOR
their writings. Although the excesses of the Picturesque (794-1 185). Its author, Sei Shonagon, served at court for
theory became a popular target for satire, its exponents over ten years and her notebooks contain a detailed
made a lasting contribution to our vision, and writers as account of life there through impressions, eyewitness
diverse as Dickens, George Eliot, and Henry James found accounts of events, ponderings, and diary entries. The
the term useful. Heian period was remarkable for the quantity of diaries
and other writing produced by women, but Sei Sh5nagon
Piero della Francesca (c. 1410-92), Italian painter. stands apart from these with her combination of sens-
Now regarded as one of the great Renaissance artists, itivity, aristocratic disdain of bad taste and bad form,
the obscurity into which he fell after his death reflects and occasional heartless ridicule of the lower orders.
the fact that he spent most of his life in his native Borgo
San Sepolcro (now Sansepolcro), a small and fairly Pindar (518-438 bc), Greek lyric poet. Of his various
remote town with no great artistic tradition. He also works there survive four books of *odes in honour of
worked elsewhere, however, notably at the splendid court victories won, chiefly by Greek rulers and aristocrats, in
of Federigo da Montefeltro in Urbino and in Arezzo, athletic contests. They are usually in the form of choral
where he painted his most famous pictures a series of — hymns, written in a grand style; the celebration of victory
frescos on the Legend of the True Cross (c. 1452-c. 1465) in is seen as a religious occasion. (See also *Greek lyric
the church of San Francesco. Piero was a slow and poetry.)
deliberate worker and his style has a solemn meditative
grandeur and an almost mathematical clarity of com- Pinero, Sir Arthur Wing
(1855- 1934), British dram-
position. The limpid beauty of colour and light in his atist. His first serious play. The Profligate 1889), concerned
(
paintings is also highly distinctive. Late in life he seems the double standards for men and women which became
to have given up painting and devoted himself to the a recurring theme for many of his plays, including Lady
study of mathematics and *perspective. Bountful (1891), the first of his 'social' plays, and his most
lasting success The Second Mrs Tanqueray (1893).
Piero di Cosixno (c. 1462-C.1521), Italian painter, one
of the most unconventional of the Florentine artists of the Pinter, Harold (1930- ), British dramatist. His highly
*Renaissance. He painted religious works and portraits, original voice first became apparent
in The Birthday Party
but is best known for a novel type of painting that he (1958), and many acclaimed plays followed,
critically
made his own — fanciful mythological scenes inhabited by including The Caretaker (i960). The Homecoming (1965),
fauns, centaurs, and primitive men. In these he showed Old Times (1971), Mo Mans Land (1975), and One for the
a poetical spirit and a marvellous talent for painting Road (1985). His gift for portraying, through realistic
animals. According to the biographer Vasari he was an dialogue, the many layers of meaning in language, pause,
eccentric character, who became a recluse in his later and silence, has created a style known as 'Pinteresque'.
years. *Andrea del Sarto was his pupil. His most recognizable themes are nameless menace, erotic
fantasy, obsession, jealousy, and mental disturbance. He
Pierrot, a stock character in the French and British has written successfully for radio, television, and the
theatres, based on the comic servant mask of Pedrolino in cinema. An accomplished actor, he occasionally performs
the *commedia deWarte, and featured in the * harlequinade. in his own plays.
Simple-minded and awkward, with a whitened face, he
wore a long-sleeved loose white garment with a ruff and piobaireachd music (Scots Gaelic, 'piping'; An-
floppy hat. Pierrot was transformed into a pathetic and glicized as 'pibroch'), the 'great music' of the Scottish
lovesick character by Deburau, the French *mime artist. Highland *bagpipe, contrasting with the 'small music',
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Pierrot troupes represented by military music, airs, and dances. It was
appeared as organized concert parties on the stage and developed from the early i6th century as a form of
on pier-pavilions. ceremonial music played at highland courts, clan gath-
erings, and battles, the names of the main classes —
pieta (Italian, 'pity'), a painting or other representation salute, lament, march, gathering —
reflecting this. In form,
of the Virgin Mary supporting the body of the dead piobaireachd comprises, a highly intricate theme (or ground,
Christ on her lap; other figures, such as St John the urlar) and variations on it, involving much elaborate
Evangelist or Mary Magdalene, may also be present. The ornamentation. The ancient *notation was canntaireachd,
theme originated in Germany in the early 14th century in which vocalized syllables represented notes and fig-
and it was more popular in northern Europe than in urations; this was replaced by staflT notation from the
Italy. The most famous of all pietas, however, is the early 19th century.
sculpture by Michelangelo in St Peter's in Rome.
pipa, the Chinese *lute, its shallow body shaped as
pigment, any substance used as colouring matter, par- an elongated half-pear. The short neck carries large
ticularly the finely ground particles that when suitably hump-backed frets, continuing on the belly as raised strips
blended with a medium form a *paint. Most pigments of bamboo. The four strings are plucked with the fingers.
are now manufactured synthetically, but were formerly The Japanese biwa, deriving from the pipa, retains
made from a variety of mineral, plant, and animal many of its 7th-century characteristics: two small crescent
sources; the brown colour sepia, for example, comes from soundholes, frets only on the neck, and being played with
the 'ink' of the cuttlefish, and ultramarine blue was a large *plectrum.
originally made from the semi-precious stone lapis lazuli.
pipe and tabor, the original one-man dance band, used
Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon, book of reminiscences
a throughout Europe from the 13th century. The pipe is
of the Japanese imperial court during the Heian period played with the left hand, and the *tabor, strapped to
PIPER 350
France and elsewhere, including South America, whither archaeologist, and architect. He was born in Venice but
it was carried by the conquistadores. worked for almost all his career in Rome, where he settled
in 1740. From 1745 onwards he published *etchings of
Piper, John (1903- ), British painter, graphic artist, ancient and modern Rome, known as the Vedute ('Views'),
designer, and photographer. During the 1930s he was and these works won him great popularity and in-
one of the leading British *abstract artists, but by the ternational fame. He often altered the scale of buildings
end of the decade, disillusioned with non-representational to make them look even grander than they really were.
art, he reverted to naturalism. His paintings concentrated His most original works are a series of etchings of
on landscape and architectural views in a subjective, imaginary prisons, a nightmare vision of claustrophobic
emotionally charged style that continued the English space and menacing voids. Although he was only a minor
Romantic tradition, but in the 1950s he became recog- figure as an architect, he had an important influence
nized as one of the most versatile British artists of his as a writer, championing the superiority of Roman
generation, noted for his designs for stained glass, textiles, architecture over Greek.
pottery, and for his book illustrations.
Pisanello (Antonio Pisano) (c. 1395-c. 1455), Italian
Pirandello, Luigi (1867- 1936), Italian novelist, short- painter and medallist. He worked mainly in Verona and
story writer, and dramatist. His recognition as an in- his successful career also took him to Rome and numerous
novator in modern drama came in 1921, when he wrote courts of northern Italy. Pisanello was the finest portrait
Six Characters in Search of an Author, a 'theatre within the *medallist of his period and arguably of the whole
theatre'. Together with Henry IV (1921) it presents the Renaissance. With *Gentile da Fabriano he is also re-
characteristic Pirandellian contrast between art, which is garded as the foremost representative of the * In-
unchanging, and life, which never remains still. His short ternational Gothic style in Italian painting, though few
stories were collected into Short Stories Through a Tear of his paintings survive. There are still, however, a good
(1922-37). By the time he was awarded the Nobel Prize many of his drawings in existence, those of animals being
for Literature in 1934 he had achieved a universal particularly memorable.
reputation. In his prose and plays he attempts to penetrate
the masks that people wear in society and lay bare their Pisano, Andrea 1290-C.1348), Itahan sculptor and
(f.
projection on the stage, and employed elaborate stage been codified by Pope Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) it
machinery. As Director of the West Berlin Freie is known Gregorian chant. Plainsong developed during
as
Volksbiihne from 1962 he produced several 'docu- the early years of Christianity under the influence of a
mentary' dramas, including Rolf Hochhuth's The Rep- great many musical sources, including those of the Jewish
resentative (1963). synagogue and ancient Greece. It consists of a single
melodic line, designed to be sung in unison and without
Pissarro, Caxnille (1830- 1903), French painter and accompaniment according to the free rhythms of speech.
graphic artist, one of the leading figures of the * Im- It is therefore written down without recourse to bar lines.
pressionist movement. The only artist who exhibited at It has its own system of *notation, employing a stave of
all eight Impressionist exhibitions, he was looked upon four lines, instead of the usual five, and the early form of
as an inspirational teacher. His large output consisted notation known as neumes. During the period of choral
mainly of landscape paintings, and when from about — *polyphony, plainsong was often woven into the fabric
—
1895 failing eyesight caused him to give up painting of new compositions in the form of a cantus jirmus (Latin,
out of doors, he produced many town views done from 'fixed' or 'given song'), which the other melodic lines
windows in Paris. His son Lucien Pissarro (1863- 1944) would move around and generally make reference to.
moved to London in 1890 and helped to introduce Even in its early days, however, plainsong was 'developed'
Impressionist and *Post-Impressionist art to Britain. by the addition of decorative features {melismata) and the
interpolation of new words and melodic phrases [tropes),
pitch, the height or depth of a musical note as perceived with the result that there have been many controversies
by the ear. The pitch of a note is measured by the number over the exact nature of its original form and the authentic
of vibrations that take place in a second when a suitable manner in which it should be interpreted. A similar and
vibrating medium is set in motion. The lower the note, equally important body of chant is attached to the
the fewer and slower the vibrations. This rate of vibration rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church, established at
is known as the frequency of the note. Most instruments Constantinople (the site of ancient Byzantium) in the 4th
are tuned to note A, set at an internationally agreed century. Byzantine notation, developed from the loth
concert-pitch of 440 Hertz (vibrations per second). It century, involves a series of conventional signs, rather
replaced the standard of 435 Hertz set by the French like shorthand symbols, which indicate *pitch, *rhythm,
government in 1859. Before that date pitches differed and dynamics (the gradations or amount of volume of
from place to place. Pitch can be notated in the form of sound). The Byzantine rite is widely practised throughout
a scale, or described by a series of letter-names (A, B, C, the Near East and in the Slavonic countries, including
D, E, F, G) or syllables (doh, ray, me, fah, soh, la, te, the Soviet Union.
doh). Many people have the gift of absolute, or perfect,
pitch; that is to say, they carry in their minds an accurate plasterwork, a general term for architectural decoration
memory of the prevailing concert pitch. Most people of walls and ceilings using a malleable material that
possess a sense of relative pitch and can relate notes to hardens when dry. Plaster consists essentially of lime,
each other by reference to a given note, {see p. Jj2) sand, and water, and in the type known as *stucco, the
commonest type for architectural decoration, powdered
pizzicato, an Italian musical term, usually abbreviated marble is added. Plasterwork, including the use of *fresco,
to pizz.,which indicates that the strings of instruments was highly developed by the Romans and was revived
that are normally bowed should be plucked with the during the Renaissance, when antique buildings were
finger. The term arco ('bow') indicates that the normal being excavated. Particularly fine plasterwork was made
in the Elizabethan period and in the 18th century, when
~
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^
f
^ J i
h
C" B" C B' C B c b c' h' c" h" c'" h'" c"" h"" c'
PLATERESQUE 352
Concert pitch A
27.5 hz. 55 hz. 110 hz. 220 hz. 440 hz. 880 hz. 1760 hz. 3520 hz.
i//////f/£f£I/jf////I///II/£/Ii/If//f
middle C
harp
violin
viola
Strings
cello
bass
soprano
contralto
voices tenor
baritone
bass
piccolo
flute
oboe
cor anglais
woodwind B'' clarinet
bass clarinet
bassoon
double bassoon
alto saxophone
trumpet
tenor trombone
brass French horn
bass trombone
tuba
WBBT- H«"fci4»U«>
organ
I
Plateresque, an architectural style found only in Spain England where she married the poet Ted *Hughes in
1
in the early i6th century, characterized by extremely 1956. Living alone in London after their separation in
lavish ornament, *Gothic, *Renaissance, and sometimes 1962, she committed suicide in the following year. Plath
Moorish in inspiration, unrelated to the structure of the published only two volumes of poetry in her lifetime, A
building on which it is used. The term literally means Winter Ship and The Colossus (both i960); Ariel (1965),
'silversmith-like', and carving
is sometimes so elaborate Crossing the Water (1971), and Winter Trees (1972) ap-
and fine that reminiscent of metalwork rather than
it is peared subsequently. She is best known for her death-
stonework. It is as much a sculptural as an architectural haunted 'confessional poetry', but her range was more
style, and some exponents practised both arts. extensive, and her technique more refined, than this term
suggests. Her novel The Bell Jar (1963), published under
Plath, Sylvia (1932-63), US poet and novelist. Born the pen-name Victoria Lewis, describes a student's mental
in Boston, she studied in the USA, later moving to breakdown. A
i
353 POE
Plato (f. 429-347 Bc), Greek philosopher and writer. Scotland 1850-7). These are in the severe *Greek Revival
(
After the execution of Socrates (399 bc), who exercised style at which he particularly excelled, but he also used
a profound influence on his whole Ufe, he is reputed to Gothic Revival, Italianate, and Scottish vernacular styles
have travelled widely, returning to Athens to set up the in his domestic and ecclesiastical architecture.
Academy (388 bc), where he taught until his death. His
dialogues vary greatly in length and scope and their playing cards, rectangular pieces of thin, stiff card (or
chronology continues to exercise Platonic scholars. Of more recently, plastic), marked with one or more symbols
especial literary interest are the Symposium, in which guests and used in various games, in fortune-telling, and in
at a party discuss love; the Protagoras in which virtue is conjuring. The origin of playing cards is unclear, in spite
equated with knowledge; and the Phaedo, where the of much serious research on the subject; they were
question of immortality is discussed and the conversations certainlyknown in Europe by the 14th century, and they
held on Socrates' last day are recorded. We also have the were used several centuries before this in China and other
Apology, which presents a noble defence of Socrates' life Eastern countries. The earliest cards made in Europe
and work. The dialogue form reflects the Socratic method were Tarot cards, which embody an obscure system of
of dialectic, in which question and answer lead to the occult philosophy, and are used in fortune-telling. A
truth by a process in which both speakers share; but Plato Tarot pack usually consists of 78 cards; the familiar
increasingly put long speeches in the mouths of his 52-card pack, with its division into 4 'suits', that is
disputants. A notable feature of some dialogues is the standard today originated in France in the i6th century.
poetic 'myth', a symbolic tale or *parable. The modern double-headed ('reversible') court cards
(king, queen, and jack) first appeared in 1827, again in
Plautus * Roman comedy. France. Early playing cards are often impressive mini-
ature works of art, and some 15th-century examples are
Playfair, William Henry 790-1857), Scottish archi-
(i
important documents in the history of *engraving.
tect, the son of the architect James
Playfair (1755-94).
He was the pre-eminent designer of public buildings in plectrum, in music, something used to pluck strings.
Edinburgh in his day. His most famous works include the Nowadays plastic plectra are standard, but in the Middle
National Monument on Calton Hill (in collaboration with Ages quills were used, probably goose for psalteries, lutes,
*Cockerell, 824 9, unfinished) and the National Gallery of
1
and similar instruments, and crow or birds of prey for
harpsichords. In India a wire thimble on the end of the
The fagade of the University of Salamanca (1514-29) is one finger plucks the sitar, in Japan and Korea false finger-
of the richest and most splendid examples of the
nails of ivory areused on koto and kayagum, and large
Plateresque style. Renaissance motifs and
wooden or ivory blades are used on the lutes there and
Moorish-inspired ornament are applied to a basically
Gothic framework. Candelabra, coats of arms, pilasters, in China. Large plectra were also used on ancient Greek
and portrait roundels are all part of the lavish scheme. lyres. With present-day guitars the plectrum is usually
called a 'pick'.
the great figures of American literature. After brief periods Tennyson, Robert Bridges, Cecil Day-Lewis, and Betje-
at University and military college he earned a living as man have been among later holders of the title, which at
a writer and magazine editor, first in the South and later present is held by Ted *Hughes.
in New York. He suffered throughout his life from poverty
and ill health, the latter exacerbated by the death of poetry, language sung, chanted, spoken, or written
his young he produced a
wife. In a brief literary career according to some pattern of recurrence which emphasizes
succession of classic horror tales, such as 'The Fall of the the relationships between words on the basis of sound as
House of Usher' (1839). He set the standard for the well as sense: this pattern is almost always a rhythm or
modern detective story in 'The Murders in the Rue *metre, which may be supplemented by *rhyme or
Morgue' (1841); and wrote poetry which, through *Bau- *aIliteration or both. The demands of verbal patterning
delaire, profoundly influenced the French * Symbolists. usually make poetry a more condensed medium than
In his essay 'The Poetic Principle' (1848-9) he indicates prose or everyday speech, often permitting unusual or-
his conception of poetic unity to be one of mood or derings of words within sentences, and sometimes in-
emotion, and especially emphasizes the beauty of melan- volving the use of special words and phrases ('poetic
choly. His novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym diction') peculiar to poets. Poetry is usually characterized
(1838) describes a sea voyage towards the Antarctic; by a more frequent and elaborate use of *figures of
in his mystical-scientific dissertation Eureka (1849) he speech, principally *metaphor and *simile. AU cultures
attempts to establish an all-embracing theory of cos- have their poetry, using it for various purposes from
mogony. sacred ritual to obscene insult, but it is generally employed
in those utterances which call for heightened intensity of
Poet Laureate, an honour given to a British poet who emotion, dignity of expression, or subtlety of meditation.
is appointed to write poems for state occasions and who Poetry is valued forcombining pleasures of sound with
receives a stipend as an Royal Household.
officer of the freshness of ideas, whether these be solemn or comical.
The term 'laureate' arose from the practice in medieval The three major categories of poetry are *narrative,
universities of crowning with laurel a student who had dramatic, and *lyric, the last being the most extensive.
attained a degree in rhetoric, grammar, and poetry. In
its early use the title 'laureate' was conferred upon pointillism, a technique of painting, used by the *Neo-
eminent poets; the poet laureateship follows the custom Impressionists, in which dots (French, points) or small
of kings and chieftains to appoint a court *bard. Ben touches of pure, unmixed colour are methodically applied
Jonson and Sir William D'Avenant (1638-68) were suc- to the canvas so that when viewed from an appropriate
cessively 'unofficial' poets laureate. Dryden was the first distance they seem to react together optically, creating
to be given the title officially in 1668. Wordsworth, more vibrant effects than if the same colours were
physically mixed together. *Seurat, the leading pioneer
and greatest exponent of the technique, preferred the
Seurat's Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande term 'divisionism'. The two terms are often used more
Jatte (1884-6) is the picture that prompted the critic Fehx or less interchangeably, but a helpful distinction is to
Feneon to com the term pointillism (French, 'pemture au regard 'divisionism' as the underlying optical theory and
point').The dots of colour may fuse m
the viewer's eye at
'pointillism' as the actual painting technique.
the appropriate distance, but it is more accurate to say
that they remain visible as optical vibrations, creating
something of the shimmering effect experienced in polemic, a verbal or written attack upon some opinion
strong sunlight. (Art Institute of Chicago) or policy, usually within a theological or political dispute.
355 POLONAISE
sometimes also in philosophy or *literary criticism; a made USA in the 1930s it was manifested
use of it. In the
controversial discussion. Notable polemicists in English in the work of the Living Newspaper, which like other
are Milton, whose Areopagitica (1644) attacks censorship, examples of political theatre used *documentary theatre
and Thoreau, whose 'Slavery in Massachusetts' (1854) techniques; and of the socially conscious Group Theatre.
berates upholders of the Fugitive Slave Law. The outstanding model of modern political theatre has
been the *epic theatre of Bertolt *Brecht. In Britain,
Polish literature, literature written in the Polish lan- *Theatre Workshop was often political, and *fringe
guage. Poland possesses the longest unbroken literary playwrights are frequently ideologically committed.
tradition of the Slavonic nations, dating from its con-
version to Christianity in 966. A few medieval Latin Poliziano, Angelo (Angelo Ambrogini) (1454-94),
chronicles, vernacular sermons, and Bible translations Italian humanist. One of the foremost classical scholars
from the 14th and 15th centuries have survived. From of the Renaissance, he was professor of Greek and Latin
c. 1520 the spread of humanism influenced the work of at the University of Florence, and wrote *elegies, *odes,
poets such as *Kochanowski, who wrote in both Latin and *epigrams in both these languages. His Italian works
and Polish. Of particular importance was the new em- include a poem in *ottava rima, Stanzas Begun for the
phasis by Mikolai *Rej and Lukasz Gornicki 1527- 1603) ( Tournament of the Magnificent Guiliano de' Medici (1475-8),
on the vernacular and on national culture. The 6oos were 1 and Orpheus (1480), the first secular drama in Italian,
turbulent years of contrasts. Numerous wars generated a characterized by melody and visual imagery of exquisite
fascination with the Orient, reflected, for example, in the beauty. His philological acumen, seen at its best in two
epics of Samuel Twardowski (c. 1600-60) and Waclaw collections of studies of textual problems (the first and
Potocki (1621-96), and in numerous memoirs (see second Miscellaneorum centuria), made him one of the
*Pasek), while Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (C.1613-C. 1693) founders of modern textual criticism.
was writing sophisticated occasional verse and Zbigniew
Morsztyn (c. 1628-c. 1690), a follower of Arianism, a polka, a traditional round-dance from Bohemia that
philosophy that denied the divinity of Christ, composed became popular in European ballrooms in the early 19th
profound and abstract religious writings. The election of century. It was in quick duple *time, with steps on the
King Stanislaw in August 1764 heralded a period of first three beats and a small hop on the fourth. The polka
enlightenment and educational reforms. The classical figures as a typical Johann Strauss dance, but is also
styles of writers such as *Krasicki were modified by the found in the concert music of Smetana and Dvorak. It
lyrical verse that anticipated the *Romantic movement. continues to be used in both folk and ballroom settings.
The partition of Poland (1772 95) engendered a con-
suming nationalism which found expression from the PoUaiuolo, Antonio 1432-98) and Piero (c. 1441-
(c.
1 820s in poetry and drama at home and in exile in who jointly ran a flourishing
C.96), Italian artists, brothers,
the work of *Krasihski, *Mickiewicz, *Norwid, and workshop in Florence. They are both recorded as being
*Slowacki. The romantic image of Poland's sufferings has painters, sculptors, and goldsmiths, though it seems prob-
dominated its literature to this day. The unsuccessful 1863 able that Antonio was the more accomplished and in-
uprising provoked reaction against romantic idealism and novative artist. The works associated with him reveal
encouraged a positivist approach that rejected religion an individual mastery of the nude figure in vigorous
and metaphysics, in order to expose the ills of a newly movement and a pioneering interest in landscape. He is
industrialized, changing society. The often didactic novels said to have anticipated Leonardo in dissecting corpses
of *Prus and *Orzeszkowa proved the most useful, in order to study the anatomy of the body. The most
popular genre. The positivist interest in science gave famous work associated with the brothers (it may well be
way in about 1890 to the Young Poland movement's a work of collaboration) is the large altar-piece of The
preoccupation with philosophy, folklore, the occult (Stan- Martyrdom of St Sebastian (1475).
islaw Przybyszewski, 1868- 1927), and art for art's sake.
This was combined with literary and linguistic ex- Pollock, Jackson (1912-56), US painter, a key figure
perimentation in the work of *Berent, *Irzykowski, and of the * Abstract Expressionist movement. His early work
*Lesmian. When Poland regained independence in 19 18 was figurative, but in the early 1940s he adopted an
many writers shed their role as the nation's conscience. abstract style noteworthy for its restless energy and sense
In the 1930s the fresh approach to literature of writers of the mysterious and primitive. In 1946 he began working
such as *Schulz, *Witkiewicz, and *Gombrowicz became with the canvas on the floor, the paint dribbled, splashed,
more surrealist, grotesque, and pessimistic. *Socialist or poured across it from all sides, creating a complex
Realism and political repression largely dominated post- network of patterns of immense vitality. During the 1950s
war literature. The current changing political climate of he often worked on a very large scale, sometimes using
the country is reflected in the writing of, for example, only black paint. In his last years he reverted to a more
Slawomir Mrozek (1930- ), Marek Hlasko (1934-69), formal, traditional technique. The public was at first
Tadeusz Konwicki (1926- ), Wieslaw Mysliwski shocked by his work, but his reputation is now secure as
(1932- ). (See also *Baltic literature.) the head of the generation of painters who enabled New
York to become the world's centre of avant-garde art.
political theatre, conscious use of the theatre to make
political statements. In its modern form it probably began polonaise, a stately processional dance, developed from
when actors staged political propaganda in factories its peasant origins by the Polish aristocracy during the
during the Russian Revolution of 191 7. With notable 17th century. In its stylized 18th-century version the
exceptions (such as Nazi Germany) it has supported the phrase-lengths are short, rhythmic, and repetitive, and
Left; it has played an important role in East European start always on the first beat of the bar. Though the
theatre, where playwrights such as Karel Capek have Polonaise was popular as one of the movements in the
POLYCLITUS OF ARGOS 356
Baroque dance *suite, a highly refined and much more Polynesian art, the art of the indigenous people of the
dramatic version was perfected by Chopin in the 1830s. Pacific Ocean islands of Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii
to New Zealand and to Easter Island. The earliest
Polyclitus of Argos iji. C.450-C.420 bc), one of the expressions of Polynesian art are the stamped geometric
most famous of Greek sculptors. No original works by designs on Lapita pottery, produced by the ancestors of
him survive, but several are known through Roman the Polynesians about 2,500 years ago. The Lapita art
copies. He is now best known for his Doryphorus (Spear principles of bands of repeating motifs divided into design
nude figure. This was
Carrier), a strongly built but lithe compartments persisted as each Polynesian island group
long regarded as a standard for male beauty. In antiquity developed its own distinctive styles of stone and wood
he was most renowned for his colossal statue in ivory and sculpture, bark-cloth, and body tattoo. Figures of gods
gold of Hera, sister and consort of Zeus in her temple in stone and wood became abstract, sometimes decorated
near Argos; ancient writers compared it favourably with with intricate surface patterns. Fine *feather-work and
*Phidias' statue of Zeus at Olympia. (See also *pro- elaborate lashing patterns were a feature in certain
portion.) islands. Song, dance, and oratory were developed to a
high degree. Many of these Polynesian arts did not survive
for very long after European contact.
The Doryphorus (Spear Carrier) by Polyclitus of Argos
is one of the most notable of ancient statues. The original, polyphony, music in which several strands of melody
dating from about 450 bc, has not survived, but it is are combined simultaneously. Polyphony looks at music
known through various copies. Harmony of proportion
in terms of the horizontal. Its opposite pole is homophony,
and mastery of anatomy were two of the overriding
concerns of Greek art, and this statue earned itself the which emphasizes the topmost melody, supported by
sobriquet The Canon (meaning 'rule' or 'measure'), since accompanying *harmonies. Monophonic music (*mon-
all other works could be measured against its perfection. ody) concerns itself with a single melodic line. The great
(National Archaeological Museum, Naples) polyphonic period is usually defined as from about 1200
to 1650, but polyphony has survived to the present day
as one of music's essential techniques.
and Peter Blake were the leaders. Pop art was generally
less aggressive than in the USA.
(usually fairly small) and a whole range of articles, great encouragement to secular portrait painters such as
including ink-stands, snuff-boxes, cane handles, and Holbein and the 17th century witnessed a glorious flower-
chamber-pots. ing of portraiture at the hands of such masters as Van
Dyck, Rembrandt, Rubens, and Velazquez. The i8th
portative organ, a small medieval *organ. None has century saw Britain's greatest age for the portrait, with
survived, nor has any detailed contemporary description, Hogarth, Gainsborough, Raeburn, Ramsay, Reynolds,
so that our only knowledge comes from the many medieval and Romney. Many excellent portraits have been in the
illustrations, all of which differ in various respects. The form of busts: Jean-Antoine Houdon (i 741 1828) was
portative organ had a small range and was light enough highly regarded and produced busts of many famous
to be carried, usually by a strap over the shoulder, while contemporaries, including Diderot, Lully, Rousseau, and
playing with one hand and pumping bellows at the back made busts of Fox and
Voltaire. In Britain Nollekens
or underneath with the other. It is generally assumed Photography posed a major threat in the 19th
Pitt.
that there was no air reservoir and that it therefore had century, but portraiture has survived, showing continued
to breathe like a singer between phrases. vitality in the work of such varied modern masters as
Jacob Epstein, Graham Sutherland, and Lucian Freud.
Porter, Cole (Albert) (1892- 1964), US composer. Born (See also *miniature.)
into a wealthy family, he studied at Harvard University
and gained experience by writing for amateur shows. He Portuguese literature. Early literature was in the form
moved to Paris in 191 7 and spent three years in the of love ballads collected in books called cancioneiros. This
Foreign Legion, then studied briefly with Vincent d'lndy form flourished at the court of Alfonso III from 1248, and
at the Schola Cantorum. International success came with was related to *Proven^al literature. Early prose in the
the *musicals Wake Up and Dream (1929), Gaj Divorce 14th century was based on Celtic legends and was in a
(1932), and Anything Goes (1934). A serious riding accident form similarto the Breton *lays. The 15th century saw
in 1937 led to a period of stagnation, from which he the establishment of an important tradition of historical
emerged in 1948 with his greatest musical, Kiss me chronicles, particularly in the writing of Fernao Lopes
Kate. His songs and lyrics admirably combine extreme (c. 1380-C. 1460). The origins of drama are found in the
sophistication with infectious memorability. work of * Vicente in the early i6th century. The poetic
tradition was continued by Francisco de Sa de Miranda
Porter, Katherine Anne (1890- 1980), US short-story (c. 1485 1558), who introduced many new poetic forms
writer and novelist. Her short stories collected in Flowering learned during a six-year stay in Italy. This Renaissance
Judas (1930), Pale Horse, Pale Rider (1939), and The flowering of poetry reached its height in the work of
Leaning Tower (1944) won her a critical reputation as a *Cam6es. Portuguese activity on the world stage was
stylist who handled complex subjects with economy while reflected in its literature; the tradition of historical writing
subtly penetrating the psychology of her characters. Her was continued in the works of such chroniclers as Gaspar
only novel. Ship of Fools (1962), on a passenger boat
is set Correa (c. 1495-c. 1565), who told of conquests in India.
travelling from Mexico to Bremerhaven in 193 1. It is an Meanwhile Bernadim Ribeiro (1482- 1552) wrote the
exploration of the German mind in the 1930s, and an pastoral novel The Book of the Young Girl, one of the earliest
*allegory of the relationship of good to evil, and the novels of European literature. Like Spain, Portugal had
voyage of life towards eternity. an important tradition of mystical writers, one of the
foremost being Frei Thome de Jesus (c. 1529-82). The
portico, architectural term for a large-scale porch, often 17th and 1 8th centuries witnessed the subjugation of
featuring columns supporting a pedimented roof, and Portugal by Spain culturally as well as politically, and
usually forming the principal entrance to a building. in literature the influence of *G6ngora was dominant.
They were used in Greek and Roman architecture, revived Nineteenth-century *Romanticism effected a new literary
during the Renaissance (notably by Palladio, who was flowering in Portugal, led by the poet and dramatist
the first to use the form in domestic architecture), and Almeida Garrett (1799- 1854), who concentrated on na-
thereafter became part of the general vocabulary of tional themes in such dramas as The Swordsmith ofSantarem.
architectural form. The term 'portico' can also be appHed The historical tradition was revived in the work of
to a walkway with a roof supported by columns. Alexandre Herculano (1810-77), while Jose Maria E9a
de Queiroz (1843- 1900) wrote novels in the *realist vein.
portraiture, the art of depicting likenesses of individual In the 20th century Portugal's foremost poet has been
people, particularly of the face. The earhest surviving *Pessoa, while the novel has been represented by J. M.
probably the faces painted on
portraits of individuals are Ferreira de Castro (1898 1974), author o{ Jungle (1930)
the surfaces of Egyptian sarcophagi. In the Western about his work in a Brazilian rubber plantation, and
world, portraiture was well known to the ancient Greeks Agustina Bessa Luis (1922- ), whose The Sibyl (1953)
and was developed by the Romans to become a major was a complex psychological study.
art-form, particularly the sculptured *bust. Portraiture
became virtually extinct during much of the Middle Ages, poster art, the designing of sheets to be printed in
reviving in the 15th century when, in both Italy and multiple copies and displayed in public as announcements
northern Europe, began to be included in
portraits or advertisements. Although printed notices of a type
religious compositions (showing the patron or .sometimes have existed since the 15th century, it was not until about
the artist) as well as appearing as individual works. In i860 that the poster as we know it today emerged,
Italy 15th-century portraits were often in pure profile, stimulated by improved printing processes, in particular
but Leonardo, Raphael, and Titian introduced much lithography, which made it possible to produce brightly
greater variety of pose and expression. The secularization coloured images cheaply and easily. The first great masters
of art in northern Europe after the Reformation gave of the art did their best work advertising the theatre, the
1 Porcelain and pottery in Europe and the USA 1
Coalport and Coalbrookdale mainly tableware; also floral decoration was a speciahty after several changes of ownership and
porcelain factory reproductions of Meissen and name, the factory continues work at
England (Shropshire) S6vres Stoke-on-Trent
founded c.1796
Copenhagen porcelain tableware, vases, statuettes varied has had a mixed history, but now
factory (Royal Danish (including reproductions of figures enjoys a high reputation; it was taken
Porcelain Factory) by the Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen) over by the Danish king in 1779 and
Denmark although sold by the Crown in 1868 it
founded 1774 still retains the name Royal Danish
porcelain factory
Delft potteries a huge range of useful and floral designs and chinoiserie Delftware was enormously popular and
Netherlands ornamental earthenware, usually predominate the terms 'Dutch Delft' is sometimes
17th century decorated in blue and white; tiles used to distinguish wares produced in
were particularly popular; also Holland from, for example, 'English
imitation Chinese red stoneware Delft'
Derby porcelain factory tableware and figures much influenced by Chelsea, by the 19th century there were several
England Meissen, and Sevres; simpler than porcelain factories in Derby, of which
founded c.1750 Chelsea the Royal Crown Derby Porcelain
Company (1877) still flourishes
Donlton Pottery and originally useful articles including employed a great many 'art potters' produced 'Barlow Ware', decorated
Porcelain Company sanitary wares; from the 1860s a to create wares specifically aimed with animals and other scenes, from
England (London) variety of decorative pieces at collectors early 1870 until c,1900
founded 1815
Dresden porcelain factory: See 'Meissen'
Faenza potteries maiolica Faenza is still an important centre of
Limoges pottery and Limoges is France's main centre for generally unremarkable, but the
porcelain factories porcelain production, specializing best 18th-century pieces are similar
France m tableware to simpler Sevres wares
first factory founded in 1736
Longton Hall porcelain various decorative and useful wares influenced by Chelsea and Meissen the first porcelain factory m
factory Staffordshire
England (Staffordshire)
c, 1750-60
Lowestoft porcelain factory tableware; also figures of animals generally fairly simple and
England (Suffolk) and children unpretentious
1757-0,1800
Porcelain and pottery in Europe and the USA
Typical products Stylistic features Other eommeiits
Marieberg pottery faience tableware exuberantly Rococo
Sweden
1758-88
Medici porcelain factory vessels of various kinds influenced by Chinese porcelain Medici porcelain is extremely rare;
(Florence)
Italy and by contemporary maiolica only about sixty pieces are known, but
1575-87 they include the earliest surviving
examples of porcelain (soft-paste)
produced in Europe
Meissen porcelain factory virtually every kind of porcelain varied, but most famous for its the first European porcelain factory and
Germany (Dresden) product exquisite Rococo pieces by common consent the greatest; it still
Minton's pottery and a wide range of products eclectic; made many high-quality Thomas Minton, the founder, is said to
porcelain factory imitations of historical styles; large have invented the willow pattern; the
England (Stoke-on-Trent) pieces such as fountains, rooms factory still flourishes
founded 1796 lined with tiles, etc.
Naples Royal Porcelain presentation dinner services; Rococo soon giving way to under Napoleon it was run by a French
Factory figures, including miniature antique Neoclassicism firm from 1807
Italy statues
1771-1821
Nevers potteries a wide range of faience products influenced by Italian and Chinese Nevers is still a pottery centre
France styles; noted for high-quality
first factory founded in 1 588 painting
Nymphenburg porcelain statuettes, tableware, boxes, cane early products include some of the still flourishes; known for the fineness
factory handles most refined Rococo porcelain and whiteness of its porcelain
Germany
founded 1747
Rockingham pottery and originally brown stoneware, then a used a brown glaze that
often
porcelain factory variety of wares became known as 'Rockingham
England (Swinton, Yorkshire) glaze'; the term 'Rockingham ware'
c, 1745-1842 may be given to any products that
have a similar glaze.
Rookwood pottery decorative objects, mainly vases simple, elegant, orientalizing
USA (Cincinnati) and jugs
founded 1880
Saint-Cloud pottery and a wide range of useful objects, pieces often have moulded
porcelain factory including tableware, boxes, etc. decoration and are sometimes
France mounted in silver
founded late 17th century;
closed 1766
StPetersburg Imperial luxury products made exclusively initially rococo, influenced by taken over by the state after the Russian
Porcelain Factory for the court Meissen, but soon becoming more Revolution of 1917
Russia classical
founded 1744
Sdvres porcelain factory high-quahty porcelain of all kinds always m the forefront of fashion the most renowned French porcelain
France factory; originally established at
founded 1738 Vincennes, in 1756 it was moved to
Sevres. Taken over by the king in 1759,
it became state property in 1793. The
factory moved to Saint-Cloud in 1876.
Staffordshire potteries virtuallyevery kind of useful and the region of Staffordshire known as
England ornamental pottery and porcelain; The Potteries, centred on
A group of potteries founded rather naive statuettes, including Stoke-on-Trent, continues to be the
from 17th century onwards contemporary figures and animals most important British supplier of
were a 1 9th century speciafity ceramics
Strasbourg pottery and a wide range wares
of faience use of enamel colours to decorate
porcelain factory imitating porcelain; it was only from faience was widely imitated
France 1752 to 1755 that porcelain was
1720-81 made at the factory
Valencia potteries Hispano-Moresque wares, quality declined after the 16th century,
Spain particularly large plates but Valencia is still a pottery centre
14th century onwards
'Vienna porcelain factory mainly figures and other decorative initially Rococo, then much more the second European factory (preceded
Austria items such as vases classical only by Meissen) to make hand-paste
1719-1864 porcelain
Wedgwood pottery tableware, vases, plaques, elegant and predominantly the most famous of English potteries;
England (Staffordshire) statuettes, busts; best known as Neoclassical still in family hands
M m
m
mwjWA
two most famous exponents being Toulouse-Lautrec and
Mucha, both of them at their peak in Paris in the 1890s.
Posters have continued to be used predominantly in the
service of commerce, but during World War I they
communicated political propaganda. Thereafter, posters
entered a boom period, advertising virtually every kind
of product, service, and event, some of the finest work
being done by well-known artists, including Paul Nash
and Graham Sutherland. Since World War II the com-
petition from radio and television and the dominance of
photographic images in advertising have reduced artists'
contributions to poster design, and the *typography and
style of posters has become the preserve of the commercial
graphic artist.
modernism: the minimalism of early works like Paxton's Public Services Building in Portland, Oregon (1980-2),
Salisfyin Lover (1967), which used only walking and a huge slab, the surfaces of which are enlivened by colour
sitting, was in contrast to the theatricality of Meredith contrastsand ornamental motifs. The term Post-
Monk, who used live and taped music, film, costumes, Modernism has also been extended to other forms of art
and props. This remains true of the genre, with movement and literature, describing works that reject the theories
ranging from *pastiche of other styles to contact and practices of modernism.
improvisation (see *Paxton), and the relaxed, fluid style
known as release. Postmodernism did not reach Britain post-painterly abstraction, a term applied to the
until the 1970s, when the X6 (later Chisenhale) Dance work of a generation of US artists who, although they
Collective was set up in London and American Mary painted in various styles, collectively represented a break-
Fulkerson began teaching at Dartington College of Arts. away from the spontaneity and subjectivity of *Abstract
London's Dance Umbrella Festival provided an early Expressionism. The new trend, which began in about the
performance platform, and from 1977 J^ew Dance mid-1950s and included artists such as Morris *Louis and
magazine was the British postmodern voice. Frank *Stella, was characterized by coolly planned and
clearly defined areas of unmodulated colour.
Post-Modernisxn, a term coined in the mid-1970s to
describe the reaction against the dogmatic and un- Potter, (Helen) Beatrix (1866-1943), Bridsh writer
compromisingly purist international style of the *Modern and illustrator of *children's books. She spent a lonely
Movement in architecture. The prophet of Post- and repressed childhood and youth in London, broken
Modernism is the US architect and critic Charles Jencks, only by annual visits to Scotland and the Lake District.
whose writings have essentially defined the movement. Her small books for children began with illustrated animal
Post-Modern architects, most of whom had received stories for the sick son of her former governess in 1893,
conventional Modernist training, sought to find a point and she published the first two, The Tale of Peter Rabbit
of conjunction between 20th-century technology and the (1901) and The Tailor of Gloucester (1902), at her own
traditional styles of the past, particularly classicism. In expense. These were followed by The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin
reaction to the Modern Movement,
austerity of the (1903), The Tale of Johnny Townmouse (191 8), and others.
architects returned to regionaland traditional sources, Written in deceptively simple prose, and imaginatively
introducing ornament, colour, and sculpture, often in a illustrated with her superb water-colour drawings, they
hybrid and 'jokey' manner. The archetypal example of reflect her love and knowledge of the countryside and
Post-Modern architecture is Michael Graves's Portland combine fantasy with humour. The Journal of Beatrix
Potter, written in code, was transcribed by Leslie Linder
(1966).
James Stirling's New
Building at the Staatsgalerie in
Stuttgart (1980-3), with its bold forms and strong colour pottery, articles, particularly vessels, made from clay
contrasts, is a striking example of Post-Modernisxn.
and baked hard. Pottery making is among the oldest and
Historical references are more subtle than many m most widely practised of all the crafts and probably
Post-Modernist buildings; the planning, for example,
reflects certain Roman ideas. Stirling later designed a originated independently in more than one place. The
Post-Modernist extension for the Tate Gallery in London. earliest known fragments date from about 7000 bc,
POULENC 364
and in their most primitive form pots were made from sicalelements together in a convincing collage, stood him
superimposed coils of clay, baked in open fires or perhaps in good stead in his chamber music and many song-cycles.
merely dried in the sun (processes still in use in many Such works as the opera Dialogues des carmelites (1957),
cultures today). The craft was revolutionized by the the Stabat Mater (1950), and the Gloria (1959) underline
invention of the potter's wheel, which probably came into the strength of his Roman Catholic faith as surely as the
use in the 4th millennium bc. In essence it is a spinning surrealistic opera Les mamelles de Tiresias (1947) confirms
disc (like a record turntable) usually activated by the the essential seriousness of his apparent frivolity. (See also
motion of the potter's feet on a crank; it freed both hands Les *Six.)
for shaping the clay and the rotary motion reduced the
muscular effort needed to shape the raw material to a Pound, Ezra (Weston Loomis) (1885 1972), US poet
light guiding touch. By the use of the wheel pots of regular and literary critic. After beginning an academic career
shape could be produced many times more rapidly than in the USA, Pound arrived in Europe as a writer strongly
by the older techniques of free-hand modelling or strip influenced by medieval troubadour and * Provencal
coiling. An enormously large number of different types poetry. He was later associated with the *Imagists,
of pottery is recognized, classified by material, shape, published translations from the Chinese in Cathay (1915),
decoration, and so on, but all pottery can be divided into and condemned the degradation of culture in modern
three basic categories: *earthenware, *stoneware, and civilization in Hugh Selwyn Mauberley (1920). He gave
*porcelain. (See also *studio potter; Bernard *Leach assistance to *Tagore, *Eliot, and *Joyce in the an-
Bernard *Palissy.) thologies and magazines that he helped to edit. From
19 9 onwards his work became dominated by the un-
1
Poulenc, Francis (Jean Marcel) (1899- 1963), finished Cantos, the last of which were published in 1969.
French composer. He made a name for himself with his They are verse collages filled with esoteric lore and
first published composition, the Rhapsodie negre (191 7). recondite theories that often seem pedantic and confusing,
The success of his Diaghilev ballet Les Biches (1924) yet they have had a tremendous influence on modern
established an international reputation, which was soon poetry. In 1924 Pound moved to Rapallo, Italy. He
confirmed by such works as the Concert champetre (1928) admired Mussolini, in whom he professed to find the
for harpsichord and orchestra, and the concertos for two 'heritage of Jefferson', and during World War II broad-
pianos (1932) and for organ (1938). Poulenc's gifts as a cast fascist propaganda which led to his internment by the
melodist and his capacity for bringing incongruous mu- Allies. He was found unfit to stand trial, and committed to
a New York mental hospital from 1946 to 1958. When
released, he went to live in Venice. He is now recognized
Poussin's Landscape with a Man Killed by a Snake as one of the most important and influential *modernist
(c. 1648). There does not seem to be a literary source for
writers.
the picture, and according to a contemporary
biographer, Poussin's subject is the effects of terror; the
shock of the man who discovers the body is conveyed in Poussin, Nicolas (c. 1594- 1665), French painter, re-
a zigzag to the woman with outstretched arms and the garded as the mainspring of the classical tradition in
fishermen beyond. (National Gallery, London) French painting. His early career in France was fairly
365 PRELUDE
undistinguished, but a turning-point came when he went intense relationships, and a strong sense of place. Powys's
to Rome in 1624; in the 1630s he gave himself up to the late writing concentrates on historical themes: the most
passion for the art and civiHzation of antiquity that was famous novel is Owen Glendower (1940), set in the land of
the guiding spirit of his work. The sensuous beauty of Wales which had become his home. Much controversy
Venetian painting, which had been a strong influence centres on his stature as a writer: some regard him as a
on his work, gave way to formal clarity and
early neglected major novelist, while others find his style to be
intellectual rigour, and he began to choose themes from contrived.
the Bible, classical history, or mythology that were heroic
or morally uplifting. In 1640 he was recalled to Paris by Praetorius, Michael (c. 1571-1621), German composer
Louis XIII to work on the decoration of the Louvre, but and writer on music. As a composer he was enormously
large-scale official work like this was not to his taste and —
prolific his sacred music, largely based on Protestant
in 1642 he returned to Rome
good. He preferred to
for hymns and ranging in style from the Venetian polychoral
work on fairly modest pictures for a small circle of highly manner (see *polyphony) to quite simple harmonizations,
cultured patrons whose interests matched his own. In the ran to over 1,000 works. Of his equally popular dance
late 640s he took up landscape painting, applying to it
1 music only the collection Terpsichore (161 2) has survived.
the same ideals of almost mathematical lucidity and He is best remembered for his treatise Syntagma musicum
order, helping lay the foundations for ideal landscape (1614-19), which contains much information about con-
painting for the next two centuries. In his last years, temporary instruments and performing styles.
when he had become something of a hermit, his style
changed, becoming less rational, and at times showing Pratt, Sir Roger (1620-85), Enghsh architect. He de-
an almost mystical poetic approach. His work was in- signed only a handful of buildings, all of which have been
fluential in shaping the official doctrines of the French either altered or destroyed. However, he ranks as the
Academy of Painting and Sculpture (founded 1648), and most talented and most influential of Inigo *Jones's
was an inspiration to *Neoclassical artists, and, later, to followers. His major work was Clarendon House in
*Cezanne, who said that he wanted 'to do Poussin again, Piccadilly (1664-7), London's first large classical house;
from Nature'. although it was demolished as early as 1683, it became
the model for country seats throughout Britain. The
Powell, Anthony (Dyxnoke) (1905- ), British nov- design shows Pratt's extensive continental travels, for
elist. A distinguished writer of social comedy, his initial although some of the detailing is inspired by Jones and
reputation as a satirist rests on five books, beginning with *Palladio, the steep roof and the architecturally treated
Afternoon Men (1931), which portray a seedy section chimney-stacks reflect French ideas.
of pleasure-loving London. A later sequence of twelve
autobiographical and satiric novels, A Dance to the Music Praxiteles (/. mid-4th century bc), with Phidias the
of Time (named after Poussin's painting), began with A most famous of Greek sculptors. Various works by him
Question of Upbringing 1951 and ended with Hearing Secret
( ) described by ancient authors are known through Roman
Harmonies (1975). The narrator, Nicholas Jenkins, paints copies, and a marble statue oi Hermes and the Infant Dionysus
a rich and detailed canvas of literary and artistic society, in the museum at Olympia is considered by many
against which is set the ruthless character of Kenneth authorities to be by his own hand. If this is so, it is the
Widmerpool, whose pursuit of power carries him from only surviving original by a Greek sculptor of the first
ludicrous beginnings to a position of sinister authority. rank. In antiquity his most famous work was the Aphrodite
of Cnidus, the first free-standing life-size female nude in
Powell, Michael (1905 90) and Pressburger, Em- Greek art. Praxiteles was a highly influential artist, the
eric (1902-88), British film-makers (the latter born in tenderness and intimacy of his work marking a decisive
Hungary), whose collaboration in writing, direction, and move away from the remote idealization of the style of
production created films of great individuality. Their first the previous century.
film. The Spy in Black (1939), was followed by films as
diverse as the wartime One of Our Aircraft is Missing Pre-Columbian art * Central American and Mexican
(1942); The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943), which art, *South American Indian art.
spans forty years in the life of its leading character; /
Know Where Fm Going (1945), a love story set in the predella, a term in art describing a subsidiary picture
Highlands of Scotland; A Matter of Life and Death (1946), forming an appendage to a larger one, especially a small
about a pilot's fantasies after a brain operation, notable painting or series of paintings beneath the main panel of
for its settings; and Black Narcissus (1947), a study of an altar-piece. Originally the step or platform on which
sexual repression in a Himalayan convent. The Red Shoes the altar was placed, predella panels usually relate in
(1948) is perhaps the most shown of all ballet films, while subject to the main picture above them —
if a particular
The Tales of Hoffman (1951) was based on Offenbach's saint is shown in the main panel, for example, there may
opera. After their partnership ended in 1956 Powell be incidents from his or her life in the predella. When
continued making films on his own. predella panels have been detached from their altar-piece
they can sometimes be recognized by their shape, which
Powys, John Cowper (1872- 1963), British novelist. is often (although not necessarily) very wide in re-
He grew up in the Somerset-Dorset countryside that had lationship to height.
a central place in his writing. His best-known novel is A
Glastonbury Romance (1932), in which Glastonbury and its prelude, a piece of music that acts as an introduction
legends exert a supernatural influence on the life of the to something else. Thus a *suite may commence with a
town. This was followed by Weymouth Sands (1934) and prelude, an *opera may begin with one, or a *fugue may
Maiden Castle (1936), both blending powerful characters. be preceded by one. In the 19th century the term was
PRE-RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD 366
used as a title for short piano pieces. Chopin, Debussy, thus in the popular imagination the term 'Pre-Raphaelite'
and Rachmaninov, among others, pubHshed books of conjures up the romantic, pseudo-medieval pictures pro-
preludes. duced by Rossetti and his followers such as *Burne-Jones.
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a small group of young Presley, Elvis (Aaron) *rock music.
English artists formed in 1848 who took their name from
their desire to revive the sincerity and simplicity of early Pressburger, Exneric * Powell, Michael.
The nucleus
Italian painting (before the time of Raphael) .
was formed by three fellow students — *Holman Hunt, Prevert, Jacques *Carhe, Marcel.
*Millais, and *Rossetti. They chose religious or other
morally uplifting themes; their desire for fidelity to nature Prevost d'Exiles, Antoine-Fran^ois, abbe (1697-
was expressed through detailed observation and the use 1763), French novelist and Roman Catholic priest. He is
of a clear, bright, sharp-focus technique. At first the chiefly remembered for his novel Manon Lescaut (1731),
group was bitterly attacked (their work was thought which recounts the descent of Des Grieux into vice under
to be not only unidealized but even sacrilegious in the influence of his love for the seductive but wayward
representing biblical characters as ordinary people), but Manon. Narrated in the person by Des Grieux
first
their fortunes improved after the critic *Ruskin publicly himself, it depicts the moral dissolution of contemporary
defended them in 1851. However, the group had virtually society and illustrates the cult of sensibility. Through his
disbanded by 1853, as the individual artists went their literary periodical Le Pour et Contre (1733-40) and his
separate ways, only Holman Hunt remaining true to the translations of * Richardson's novels, Prevost fostered the
original doctrines throughout his career. Although the vogue for English literature in 18th-century France.
group was small and short-lived, it had considerable His novel inspired Massenet's opera Manon (1884) and
influence, and curiously it was Rossetti, the least com- Puccini's opera Manon Lescaut (1893).
mitted to the Brotherhood's ideals, who continued the
name. His later work, mainly pictures of beautiful, lan- Priestley, J(ohn) B(oynton) (1894- 1984), British nov-
guorous women, is entirely diflferent from his original elist, dramatist, and critic. His many novels include The
Pre-Raphaelite pictures, but the name stuck to them, and Good Companions (1929), a *picaresque account of the life
of travelling performers, and Angel Pavement (1930), a
*realist novel of London office life. His best-known plays
This intensely spiritual picture, Beats Beatrix {1864-70), include his psychological drama with moral overtones,
was painted by Dante Gabriel Rossetti as a memorial to An Inspector Calls (1947), and his West Riding farce, When
his wife, Elizabeth Siddal, who died m
1862 from an We
Are Married (1938). His vast output ranged from
overdose of laudanum (possibly deliberate). It expresses travel works to the ambitious history of Literature and
Rossetti's love for her as a parallel to the Italian poet Western Man (i960).
Dante's love for the enigmatic Beatrice, his inspiration.
Such depictions of beautiful women
became a feature of
primary colours, in painting, those colours — blue, red,
the pseudo-medieval type of Pre-Raphaelitiszn that
Rossetti inspired. (Tate Gallery, London) and yellow — that cannot be made from mixtures of other
colours. Two
primaries mixed together form a secondary
colour, and yellow making orange, red and blue
red
making purple, and yellow and blue making green.
A related term is 'complementary colour'; blue is the
complementary of orange (made up of the other two
primaries), red is the complementary of green, and yellow
is the complementary of purple.
I
367 PROLOGUE
prixnitivisxn, a preference for the simpler existence of
'primitive' peoples as opposed to the artificialities of urban
civilization. Such nostalgia for lost innocence is found in
all ages, but especially in late 18th-century Europe, where
vilions, and Reynolds Stone) to work for them, and they First Symphony (the 'Classical', 191 7) charmed them
stimulated a revival of *wood-engraving for illustration. with its witty distortions of 18th-century practices. This
Private presses still exist, but the movement as such mixture of *burlesque and passion came to be a notable
was undermined by improved standards in commercial part of his style. Prokofiev left Russia at the outset of the
printing and *typography. 191 7 Revolution, moving first to the USA, to Paris in
1922, finally returning to the Soviet Union in 1936.
programme music, music which attempts to tell a Chief among his works are seven symphonies, six piano
story, evoke an atmosphere, or in some way illustrate a concertos and two violin concertos, together with such
non-musical event. The term originated with Liszt's operas as The Love for Three Oranges (19 19), The Fiery
*symphonic poems, though the practice of writing de- Angel (1923), and War and Peace (1943), and the ballets
scriptive music was established long before that, and Chout (1915), Romeo and Juliet (1936), and Cinderella
received a particular impetus from the needs of *opera (1944). Though certain works achieved great popularity,
to illustrate dramatic situations. Most programme music, for example the children's tale Peter and the Wolf (1936)
—
however even that of such a master of description as and the music for the film Alexander Nevsky (1938), he
—
Richard Strauss requires to be supplemented by some was not immune from Soviet criticism.
verbal clue (a title or a 'programme note') if its meaning
is to be plainly understood. Music that is not descriptive prologue, an introductory section of a play, speech, or
is said to be abstract. other literary work; also the name given to an actor
PROPORTION 368
speaking a set of introductory lines in a play. Chaucer's serve his mistress with chivalry and devotion. Among
'General Prologue' to The Canterbury Tales describes the important Provencal *chansons de geste is the long poem
various pilgrims before they tell their tales on the journey Girart de Roussillon. Through Eleanor of Aquitaine, wife
to Canterbury. of Louis VII, and her daughters, the values of courtly
love influenced * Chretien de Troyes and other writers of
proportion, a term used in the visual arts to describe northern France. The 14th century saw Provencal writing
the harmonious relationship of the parts of a work to in decline; the dramatic literature of the 15th and i6th
each other or of the parts to the whole. Often artists centuries consisted of mystery and miracle plays. In the
arrive at ideas of proportion intuitively, but there have 19th century a revival of interest was stimulated by
also been many attempts to discover or work out sys- *Mistral and the foundation of the Felibrige movement.
tematic rules governing it. The Greek sculptor Polyclitus
(5th century bc), for example, wrote his Canon, a treatise proverb, a short, popular saying of unknown authorship,
on a mathematical system of porportion, which he em- expressing some general truth or superstition. Proverbs
bodied in his statue the Spear Carrier, and Diirer was the are found in most cultures, and are often very ancient.
most profound student of proportion among the great The Hebrew scriptures include a Book of Proverbs. Many
artists of the Renaissance, publishing two books on the poets — notably Chaucer — incorporate proverbs into their
subject. In the field of architecture, Alberti, Palladio, and works, and others imitate their condensed form of ex-
Le Corbusier are among the many distinguished figures pression: Blake's 'Proverbs of Hell' in The Marriage of
who have been particularly concerned with theories of Heaven and Hell (1793) are, strictly speaking, *aphorisms,
proportion. Ideas about proportion have often been linked since they originate from a known author.
with notions of cosmic harmony, particularly in the case
of the *Golden Section. Prus, Boleslaw (Aleksander Glowacki) (1847- 19 12),
Polish novelist. He was a journalist and for nearly forty
Proust, Marcel 187 1- 1922), French novelist, essayist,
( years wrote sharp, witty Weekly Chronicles, revealing a
and critic, of Jewish descent. He is remembered as the talent for observation, and the compassion and scepticism
author of one of the greatest novels of all time, A la that informed subsequent works. The early didactic short
recherche du temps perdu (1913-27). Based on his own stories were followed by The Outpost (1886),
his first novel.
life told allegorically and psychologically, the central about failure and survival set in a Polish village. His most
character. Marcel, recounts his life-story from his child- important novel The Doll (1890), a portrait of Warsaw,
hood holidays with his well-to-do middle-class family in illustrates the need for positive action in a society tainted
Combray to the salons of the Parisian *fin-de-siecle elite, by romantic idealism. The plot centres on a successful
which he finally penetrates. The narrative, written in businessman, a scientist manque, who allows himself to be
seven sections, evolves on several planes at once. It destroyed by an obsessive love. After Emancipated Women
provides Proust with opportunities to discuss many (1893) Prus tbok ancient Egypt as the setting in which
themes, including love, art, and time's disintegrating to discuss the nature of state power, and the organic
action on society. Proust's preoccupation with the sub- structure and decay of society, in The Pharaoh (1897).
conscious, intuition, and memory owes much to the
influence of the *Symbolists, the philosopher Henri psalm, a sacred song or hymn. The term usually refers
Bergson and, later, the psychology of Sigmund Freud. to the Hebrew the biblical Book of Psalms,
verses in
The complexity of the subject is reflected in the long but sometimes attributed to King David. These psalms, not-
poetically resonant sentences for which the book is famous. ably in the English translation attributed to Miles Cover-
Recognition of the novel's qualities was not immediate: dale (c. 1488 1569) and found in the Book of Common
the first volume was rejected by publishers and printed Prayer (1662), have had an important place in Christian
at the author's expense. A revised version appeared in worship and in English religious poetry.
191 7. A P ombre des jeunes filles en fleur received the *Gon-
court Prize in 1920. Proust was actively involved, on the psaltery, a musical instrument, consisting of a flat
side of Dreyfus, in the Dreyfus case of 1897-9, t)ut in soundbox with strings (plucked with fingers or *plectra)
later life became almost a recluse, dedicating himself to running across it. It was widely used in the Middle Ages,
the completion of his great work. In Contre Sainte-Beuve from the loth century in the triangular shape of a harp
(1954) he explores his own literary aesthetic, defining the and, from the 13th century, in an isosceles trapezoid
artist's task as the releasing of the creative energies of shape with the non-parallel sides curving inwards. A later
past experience from the hidden store of the unconscious. version halved this, producing a shape identical, in
miniature, to the *harpsichord, which is a mechanized
Provenqal literature, literature from the Occitan- psaltery. In the 7th century a harp-like psaltery appeared
i
daughters of territorial lords played a prominent part. unfinished Turandot (performed posthumously in 1926).
Their poems extolled the ethic of *courtly love [amour Puccini's capacity to absorb contemporary musical ad-
courtois), which required the man, usually a knight, to vances and marry them to soaring vocal lines, deployed
369 PUPPETRY
Indian string puppets, now mostly used for the 'dance of important semi-operas: The Prophetess (1690); King Arthur
the dolls', are manipulated somewhat differently. (1691); The Fairy Queen (1692); The Indian Queen (1695);
*Shadow plays are another form of puppetry. Puppets, and The Tempest (c 1695); and one true opera, Dido and
which date back to Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt, Aeneas (1689). ^^ wrote nine odes for various occasions
are today most often encountered in Sicily, Eastern in the 1690s. In these, as in all his music, he showed
Europe, and the Far East. A form of puppetry used for remarkable technical skill and creative originality.
political *satire is seen on Western television, and puppets
are also used to provide children's entertainment. Purism, a movement in French painting flourishing
from about 1918 to about 1925. The founders and chief
Puranas ('Purana of the Blessed Lord'), collections of exponents were *Le Corbusier (better known as an
Hindu legends and traditions in Sanskrit. They are architect) and Amedee Ozenfant (1886- 1966), who was
regarded as divinely inspired texts, each glorifying a more important as a writer and teacher than as a painter.
particular god, but are also encyclopedias of secular as They thought that *Cubism had developed into a facile,
well as religious knowledge. Most were composed by ad decorative style and advocated a return to its original
looo, but with many additions later. The most popular clarity and order, to create an art in tune with the
is the Bhagavatapurana ('Purana of the Blessed Lord'), Machine Age. The paintings they produced in line with
containing the life of Krishna. this doctrine were predominantly *still lifes painted in—
light, clear tones. Although Purism was short-lived and
Purcell, Henry (1659-95), English composer, organist, the art to which it gave rise was rather arid, it had a
and singer. The most outstanding member of a family of considerable influence in the field of design.
musicians, he trained as a chorister of the * Chapel Royal.
Purcell contributed many splendid *anthems to the Pushkin, Aleksandr (Sergeyevich) (1799 1837),
Chapel Royal services and wrote many elaborate choral Russian poet, novelist, dramatist, and short-story writer.
odes and welcome songs for royal occasions. His personal Coming from an impoverished noble family, he received
taste, however, was more for the theatre and he wrote the most privileged education available and moved in
incidental music for many plays, together with five the highest Russian literary circles in his youth. He made
his name with the romantic tale in verse Ruslan and
John Closterman made this chalk drawmg of Purcell in Lyudmila (1820). He balked at the civil service career for
1695, the year of the composer's early death at the age of which his education had trained him, and his rebel-
36. Six years earlier Purcell had written the opera Dido liousness and sympathy with what was to become the
and Aeneas, thus mtroducmg the operatic tradition to Decembrist movement led to exile from both Moscow
Britain. He was a prolific composer, but only a fraction of
his music is widely known, and there are many riches to
and St Petersburg (now Leningrad) (1820-6). During
be found among the little-performed songs, odes, and this period he wrote a series of Byronic tales, including
church music. (National Portrait Gallery, London) The Gypsies (1827). His novel in verse, Eugene Onegin, the
fountainhead of the Russian tradition, was published in
1833. He introduced Shakespearean features into the
Russian drama in Boris Godunov (published 1831, staged
1870). Money problems harassed Pushkin throughout his
adult life, especially after he married in 1831. He turned
to prose partly for commercial reasons, and produced a
series of masterpieces, including The Tales of Belkin (1830),
The Queen of Spades (1833), the historical novel The
Captain's Daughter (1836), and a non-fictional history of
the Pugachov rebellion (1834). The four Little Tragedies
(1830) are the culmination of his dramatic works in verse.
In The Bronze Horseman (1833) he dramatically embodied
the central problem of the individual and the state in
Russian history. Pushkin drew together the achievements
of 18th-century Russian literature, added his invigorating
knowledge of French neoclassical writing, creatively ab-
sorbed contemporary *Romantic influences (notably
*Byron and *Scott), and developed what has remained
the classic Russian verse style: clear and melodious,
passionate but controlled, highly regulated in form, rel-
atively unadorned, and sparkling with humane wit. He
remains, unchallengeably, Russia's national poet, pro-
foundly influencing Russian cultural life, and providing
dramatic settings for operas by Musorgsky, Tchaikovsky,
and others.
Q
Qajar art * Persian art.
qin 'koto.
putto (from the Latin, putus, boy, child), a representation Quasimodo, Salvatore (1901-68), Itahan poet, critic,
of a chubby, naked child, sometimes winged, in a work and translator. A powerful voice on modern social issues,
of art. Putti have been a frequent motif of decorative art his volumes of poetry include Water and Land (1930) and
since classical antiquity and often occur in paintings of Day after Day (1947). His dry, sophisticated style is at
the Renaissance and Baroque periods. They derived from times expressed in abstruse symbolism and overlaid with
a type of figure used in ancient art to represent Eros, the Surrealist intonation, which in his later poems changes
Greek god of love, and a putto has often been used in to simpler language and concrete imagery. He was
pictures to represent his Roman
counterpart, Cupid. awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1959. Between
More commonly, however, putti are anonymous sub- 1930 and his death, Quasimodo translated many Greek
sidiary figures pictured attending classical gods or the tragedies, poems from the Latin, plays by Shakespeare
Virgin Mary. and Moliere, and the poetry of e. e. cummings and Pablo
Neruda.
Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre (1824-98), French
*mural painter. His influence on younger contemporary quatrain, a verse *stanza of four lines, rhymed or (less
artists was important, and he was respected by artists often) unrhymed. The quatrain is the most commonly
pursuing very different aims. His simplified forms, rhyth- used stanza in most European languages. Most *ballads
mic line, and use of non-naturalistic colour to evoke the and many *hymns are composed in quatrains in which
mood of the painting appealed to both the *Post- the second and fourth lines rhyme (ABCB or ABAB). A
Impressionists and the *Symbolists. different *rhyme-scheme known as the 'envelope stanza'
(ABBA) was used by Tennyson in In Memoriam (1850).
Pynchon, Thomas Ruggles (1937- ), US novelist The rhyming four-line groups which make up the first
and short-story themes
writer. His three novels share such eight or twelve lines of a *sonnet are also known as
as the between political power and in-
relationships quatrains.
dividual paranoia, history and the present, modern love
and modern death. V (1963) is set in New York in the quattrocento, a term (Italian 'four hundred') applied
1950s, and in various European cities at critical moments to the 15th century (the 1400s) in Italian art.
in the The Crying of Lot 4g (1966) in
20th century;
California in the 1960s;and Gravity s Rainbow (1973) in Quechua *South American Indian literature.
London and northern Germany towards the end of World
War n, with the leading characters converging in search Queen Anne style, a term applied to an English
of the V2 rockets. Like all Pynchon's works, the mood architectural style considered typical of the reign of Queen
moves from black humour to lyricism, and the dream-like Anne (1702-14), or more loosely of the period c. 1660-
fantasy is marked by labyrinthine interconnections until c.1720. It is a style mainly of domestic architecture,
the reader is uncertain about what is 'real' and what is characterized by a Dutch-influenced use of red brick in
imagined. Slow Learner (1984) collects short stories largely basically rectangular designs,
sensible, straightforward,
written in the 1950s. out of which the *Georgian style grew. In the late 19th
QUERCIA 372
quilting, a type of needlework in which two layers of Rachel (Elisa Felix) (1820-58), French actress. Born to
fabric are stitched together, usually with a soft, thick
poor Jewish parents, she was discovered as a street-singer,
substance such as wool between them. The stuffing pro- and from 1838 led a series of important revivals of
vides insulation for warmth, and the stitching holds it Corneille's works at the Comedie-Fran^aise. A specialist
evenly in place as well as providing an opportunity for in tragic roles — notably in Racine's Phedre she was —
artistic expression. Quilting is an old traditional craft that
acclaimed as the greatest actress of her day, and toured
has been popular in most European countries since the widely before her early death from tuberculosis.
Middle Ages. The practice is also widely used in Asia and
in the Muslim regions of Africa. It has been largely a Rachxnaninov *Rakhmaninov, Sergey.
*folk art and is still practised in parts of Britain and the
USA. Apart from its most familiar role in making bed Racine, Jean (1639-99), French dramatist. His first
coverings, it has also been used for warm, light clothing, successful play, Andromaque, was published in 1667. It was
and in the Middle Ages quilted garments were sometimes followed by seven tragedies culminating in Phedre (1677).
worn underneath armour to prevent chafing from the Racine most characteristically draws his inspiration from
metal. In Britain in the 17th and i8th centuries there *Greek literature, though in Britannicus 1669) and Berenice
(
was also a vogue for more sophisticated quilted garments. (1670) he competed directly with *Corneille by using
Roman and political themes usually associated with his
Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus) (ad c.35- great rival. He also wrote Esther 1 689) and Athalie 1 69 1 )
{
(
c.100), Roman *rhetorician. Born in Spain, he spent some sacred dramas intended for performance by the girls at
years in Rome practising advocacy and teaching the art the school of Saint-Cyr. Racine's protagonists, reflecting
of public speaking. His learning and experience are both a Jansenistic and a Greek view of man, are the
distilled in Training of an Orator, which survived as an victims of their fate, and, unlike Corneille's heroes, cannot
admired textbook in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. dominate their passions by an exercise of will. Also
unlike Corneille, Racine was content to write within the
Qu. Yuan (C.340C.278 bc), China's first known poet. Qu constraints of the rules of composition (see * tragedy)
is traditionally credited with the authorship of Songs of which were increasingly being imposed on French drama.
the South {Songs ofChu), a collection of elegiac poems from
Chu, one of the Warring States. It is quite likely that he racket, a small double-reed musical instrument pro-
wrote On Encountering Sorrow {Li Sao), an *allegory in ducing low notes. A series of bores drilled in one piece of
which a spiritual quest represents the search for recog- wood or ivory are linked together by channels carved in
nition of statesmanlike virtues. His death by drowning the end caps, so that a single tube zigzags up and down,
when he heard that Chu had been overthrown by the compressing a long tube into a short space. Renaissance
rival Warring State of Qin is still commemorated in rackets were cylindrically bored like *crumhorns.
China at the Dragon Boat Festival. The genre of poetic
writing created by Qu Yuan was cultivated for more Radcliffe, Ann (b. Ward) (1764- 1823), British novelist.
than five centuries. She was the leading exponent of the *Gothic novel. Her
373 RAMEAU
plots are wild and improbable, but the raptures and mention the remarkable Rhapsody on a Theme of Pa-
terrors of her characters are compelling and she was an ganini (1934) and the Symphonic Dances (1940), fully
expert at maintaining suspense. Her novels in this mode deserve the place they hold in the popular repertory.
include The Romance of the Forest (1791), The Mysteries of
Udolpho (1794), and The Italian (1797). raku, a type of Japanese pottery invented in Kyoto in
the 6th century specifically for the tea ceremony. Raku
1
Raeburn, Sir Henry(1756- 1823), British portraitist. vessels are made of lead-glazed earthenware and are
He painted directly on canvas without preliminary-
to the moulded by hand rather than thrown on a potter's wheel.
drawings, and his vigorous, bold handling could be Some have simple decoration, but generally they depend
extremely effective in conveying the character of rugged for their effect on irregularity of shape, expressing the
Highland chiefs or local legal worthies. He painted some individuality of the maker's hand, and on beauty of
sensitive portraits of women and had a penchant for colour and texture. Colours of the *glazes include red,
vivid and original lighting effects; at times, however, his green, and cream. The word raku means 'enjoyment' or
technical facility degenerates into empty virtuosity. 'felicity', and a seal bearing this word was impressed on
highly poetic in spirit. Its great age came to an end with period include Glen Tetley, John Chesworth, Robert
the influx of European influence from about 1800. North, *Bruce, and *Alston. Alston became the
company's artistic director and changed its name to
Rakhmaninov, Sergey (Vasilyevich) (1873- 1943), Rambert Dance Company in 1986.
Soviet composer, conductor, and pianist. Among his
important works are the Second Symphony (1907), the Rameau, Jean-Philippe (1683-1764), French com-
symphonic poem The Isle of the Dead (1909), and the poser. He book of harpsichord pieces
published his first
choral symphony The Bells (19 13). The chaos following in 706, and further volumes followed when he settled
1
the 191 7 Revolution forced him to leave Russia for in Paris in 1723. Rameau divided his time between
Scandinavia; he later (1919-20) began a highly successful composition and writing on the theory of music. His
career in America as a concert pianist. Rakhmaninov's compositions include keyboard *suites, church music,
music represents one of the high points of *Romanticism. chamber music, a series of *operas, including Castor el
The three symphonies and four piano concertos, not to Pollux (1737) and Dardanus (1739), and *opera-ballets,
RAMSAY 374
including Les Indes galantes (1735) and Les Fetes cTHebe Raphael (RaffaelloSanzio) (1483- 1520), Italian painter
(1739). To meet the demands of his day, every act in and architect, the artist in whose works are found the
Rameau's stage works contains a substantial most complete expression of the ideals of the High
divertissement, affording opportunities for many and varied *Renai.ssance. He was highly precocious and was prob-
dances. ably *Perugino's junior partner. From 1504 to 1508
Raphael lived mainly in Florence, where his work became
Ramsay, Allan (1713-84), British portrait painter, more sophisticated under the influence of *Leonardo and
active mainly in London, where he was the outstanding *Michelangelo. Many of his most famous paintings of the
portraitist from about 1740 until the rise of *Reynolds in Virgin and Child belong to this period. In 1508 Pope
the mid-i750s. Partly trained in Italy, he brought a Julius II called him to Rome, where he was to remain
sophisticated cosmopolitan air to British portraiture, es- for the rest of his life. He immediately embarked on a
pecially in his portraits of women, which have a French highly prestigious papal commission — the fresco dec-
grace and sensitivity. In the 1760s he gradually gave up oration of a series of rooms (the Stanze) in the Vatican.
painting, turning to scholarly and literary pursuits. In the first room, the Stanza della Segnatura, he painted
one of his greatest works. The School of Athens (i 509-1 1),
Rao, Raja (1909- ), Indian novelist and short-story which shows an imaginary gathering of the most famous
writer. His first novel, Kanthapura (1938), looks at the philosophers of antiquity in a magnificent architectural
impact of the Independence movement upon a small setting. Effortlessly combining grandeur and gracefulness,
South Indian village. The Serpent and the Rope (i960) traces it isconsidered a supreme masterpiece. For the rest of his
the spiritual quest of a young Brahmin and his French career Raphael was in such demand that much of his
wife. His stories have been collected in The Cow of the work, particularly his great decorative schemes, was done
Barricades (1947) and The Policeman and the Rose (1978). with the aid of a team of assistants. The quality of his
own workmanship in his later years is generally best seen
Raphael's The School of Athens ( 1 509-1 1 ) shows a in his portraits, in which he rivals Leonardo in subtlety
gathering of the most famous ancient philosophers (Plato, of characterization. He also enjoyed considerable status
pomtmg upwards, and Aristotle are in the centre) and as an architect, succeeding *Bramante as architect to St
symbolizes the rational pursuit of truth. Previously
Peter's in 15 14. Despite his premature death at the age
Raphael had worked on a fairly small scale, and the
assurance with which he turned to the most grandiose type of only 37, Raphael was enormously influential in his
of decorative pamtmg was astonishing. (Vatican, Rome) lifetime and for centuries afterwards.
—
375 REALISM
Rauschenberg, Robert (1925- ), US artist, regarded realism, the artistic representation of some aspect of
as one of the most important figures in the move away everyday life (usually in painting, cinema, drama, or the
from the *Abstract Expressionism that dominated US art novel) in such a way as to produce a convincingly lifelike
in the late 1940s and early 1950s. In the mid-1950s he effect. Artists cannot simply reproduce or reflect reality;
began to incorporate three-dimensional objects into what they have to select and shape, achieving an illusion of
he called 'combine paintings'. His work has included fidelity to life by excluding any idealized, supernatural,
theatre design and choreography and involvement in melodramatic or escapist elements in favour of a 'neutral'
*happenings, and he has been interested in combining depiction of ordinary people in unremarkable sur-
art with new technological developments. roundings. In the broad sense, realism is a characteristic
of many writers and artists, *Defoe and *Vermeer, for
Ravel, (Joseph) Maurice (1875- 1937), French com- instance, before the 19th century, but the novels of
poser. His piano study Jeux d'eau 1901 and the orchestral
( ) *Balzac and the paintings of *Courbet helped to inspire
song-cycle Sheherazade (1903), established his importance a self-consciously realist trend in late 19th-century French
as a composer. Though influenced by *Debussy, *Satie, culture, which spread to the rest of Europe and the USA
and *Stravinksy, Ravel's music had its own personality and developed into *naturalism. The novels of *Flaubert,
part * Impressionistic, part *Neoclassical, always me- notably Madame Bovary (1857), George *Eliot, and
ticulously wrought and orchestrated with brilliance. It *Tolstoy, and the plays of *Ibsen and *Shaw usually
includes the ballets Daphnis et Chloe (1912), La Valse show the best features of realism. In the 20th century,
(1920), and (1928); the one-act operas
Bolero Heme L realism tended to be eclipsed by various movements,
espagnole (1909) L' Enfant et les sortileges (1925); songs
and *Cubism, * Expressionism, *Modernism, and others,
and song-cycles; piano and chamber music (including the which challenged the conventional reproduction of ex-
four-handed Mother Goose Suite (1910) for children, later ternal reality. In Italy, however, an important group
orchestrated); and two piano concertos (1930, 193 1), the of 'neo-realist' film-makers such as *Rossellini had a
first being for hand only.
left world-wide impact from the late 1940s with their use of
REBAB 376
skin belly. reeds are so called because they vibrate freely to and fro
in a closely fitting slot; unlike all other reeds they are
rebec, a bowed musical instrument of the Middle Ages sounded both by blowing and sucking. Single reeds are
and Renaissance. The body was carved and hollowed either a tongue cut in a tube of cane, attached at one
from a solid block of wood, with a thin belly of spruce end, as on some *bagpipes and *zummaras, or a slip of
or similar wood laid over the hollow. The back was cane attached to a mouthpiece, as on *clarinets and
normally rounded, so that the instrument looked like an *saxophones. The tongue beats against the body of
elongated half-pear. In the Renaissance rebecs were used the tube, and the slip of cane against the edges of the
principally for dance music, with a family of sizes. The mouthpiece. Double reeds for *oboes and *bassoons are
three-stringed treble was the most important, and was two slips of cane beating against each other. On many
one of the ancestors of the violin. Rebecs still exist today *shawms, double reeds are flattened pieces of plant stem,
as folk instruments, especially in Eastern Europe. so that the two sides beat against each other. With all
reeds, the vibrations of the reed are transmitted to the
recitative opera. column of air inside the instrument, which then produces
a musical sound. The art, and difficulty, of playing reed
recorder, a musical instrument, a *duct-flute. The instruments is first to make a reed that responds as desired
recorder is a special form of *flageolet, with, in the Re- to the player's breath and which suits the instrument on
naissance, one thumb- and eight finger-holes, the lowest which it is to be used, and then to control that reed's
being duplicated to be accessible to either little finger. vibration so that the sounds produced are musical, and
Renaissance recorders were in one piece and, initially, not squeaks and squawks. The type of reed used is often
cylindrical in bore. By the late i6th century the inversely immaterial. Even though we conventionally call oboes
conical bore, narrowing towards the foot, had been and bassoons double-reed instruments, single reeds, at-
377 REMARQUE
tached to miniature clarinet-type mouthpieces, can be to help with his portraits. Anxious to make photographs
used on them, and have been since the early igth century. like paintings, he began to construct them by combining
The behaviour of *wind instruments is controlled by the several negatives in one painstakingly assembled print:
shape of the bore, not by the type of reed. his most famous example. The Two Ways of Life, used
over thirty negatives, showing sixteen nude or semi-nude
Regency style, a term applied to the style of archi- models. Later he concentrated on simpler pictures, mostly
tecture, decoration, costume, and so on, in Britain as- whimsical and sentimental but occasionally surprisingly
sociated with the time when the future George IV was straightforward and modern.
Prince Regent (1811-20); by extension the term is also
used of the period of his actual reign (1820-30) and more relief, a term in art applied to sculpture that projects
loosely for the first three decades of the 19th century. from a background surface rather than standing freely.
There was in fact no one style during this period; According to the degree of projection, reliefs are generally
*Neoclassicism (Greek rather than Roman in inspiration) classified as high [alto relievo), medium {mezzo relievo), or
was predominant, but there were also strains of *Gothic, low [basso relievo or bas relief). The name rilievo stiaccialo
*Rococo, Egyptian, and Chinese (see *chinoiserie) in- is given to a form of very low relief (like drawing in
fluence, and the building most closely associated with the stone) associated particularly with Donatello. The reverse
Prince Regent himself, Nash's remodelling of the Royal of relief is *intaglio, in which the design is incised and
Pavilion at Brighton (1815-21), is in an exotic Indian sunk below the surface of the block.
style. Common to all the visual arts of the period,
however, was a feeling of elegance and refinement. religious drama *liturgical drama; *morality plays;
* mystery plays; * passion plays.
Reger, (Johann Baptist Joseph) Max(ixnilian)
(1873- 9 16),
1
German composer. He wrote large-scale Remarque, Erich Maria (Erich Paul Remark) (1898-
works for the organ (for example, chorale fantasias and 1970), German novelist. Remarque gained fame and
the Fantasia and Fugue on B-A-C-H Op. 46), which with All Quiel on the Western Front (1929,
critical prestige
both rely on and extend the traditions of *Bach. filmed 1930), a novel which records the sufferings of war
His output of diverse compositions shows a consistent with laconic understatement, from the perspective of the
attempt to combine contrapuntal discipline with a re- common soldier. Criticized for its underlying pacifism,
newal of the classical-romantic traditions of *Brahms, the novel was one of the books publicly burnt by the
and to strengthen the combination with his own bold Nazi regime in 1933. A sequel, The Road Back (1931),
harmonic and melodic ideas. depicts the disillusionment of ex-soldiers unable to adjust
to post-war society and the collapse of Germany in 1918.
reggae *popular music.
Reich, Steve (Michael) (1936- ), US composer. His The foremost exponent of the Regency style m
work at the San Francisco tape music centre (1964 5) architecture was John Nash, whose most ambitious work
and the study of West African and Balinese music helped was the development of Regent's Park m London. Park
Crescent (begun in 1812) was the first part of his scheme
mould his concept of *minimal music, in which the repe-
to be built. What we see today is only half of Nash's
tition of short phrases in a simple harmonic field creates
original plan, for he intended that the crescent should be
a hypnotic effect far removed from traditional Western doubled to form a circus which would have been even
procedures. Drumming (1971) and The Desert Music for larger than Wood's Circus m Bath.
chorus and orchestra (1984) are typical of his style.
Later novels, written in exile, reflect the life of the refugee (and drew and etched) virtually every type of subject,
or depict the struggle for survival during World War II: making original contributions in each. He was the greatest
A Time to Love and a Time to Die (1954), and under the teacher of his day, many illustrious artists training with
conditions of the concentration camp Spark of Life (1952). him. After his death his name remained well known, but
it was only in the Romantic period that he was recognized
Rembrandt Harxnensz van Rijn (1606-69), Dutch as one of the supreme masters of all time.
painter, etcher, and draughtsman, his country's greatest
artist. He was born in Leiden and worked there until Renaissance (French, 'rebirth'), a term applied to an
c.
1 632, when he settled permanently in Amsterdam. There intellectual andartistic flowering that began in Italy in
he married the wealthy Saskia van Uylenburgh (whom the 14th century, culminated there in the i6th century,
he immortalized in many tender portrayals) in 1634. and greatly influenced other parts of Europe. The notion
From the 1640s, however, his work, especially in religious of a rebirth refers to a revival of the values of the classical
painting, became more introspective and searching. In world (though an interest in the Latin classics had begun
1642 Saskia died, and in the same year he painted his as early as the 12th century). The concept was used as
most celebrated work, popularly known as The Night early as the 15th century, and was systematically de-
Watch, which transformed the traditional Dutch portrait veloped in the i6th century by *Vasari. He held that art
convention into a dramatic presentation of his sitters. His had declined in the Middle Ages, had been set on its true
work continued to grow in depth of feeling and freedom path by *Giotto, and had reached its greatest heights
of technique and in his last self-portraits, the culmination with *Michelangelo. The ideal of the 'Renaissance man'
of an incomparable series that began some forty years {uomo universale) arose out of the concept that man was
earlier, he faces his hardships and losses (his mistress limitless in his capacity for development whether physical,
Hendrickje Stoffels died in 663 and his son Titus in 1 668)
1 social, or artistic. The idea was brilliantly characterized
with dignity and no trace of bitterness. As remarkable as by *Alberti, himself an architect, painter, scientist, poet,
the depth of his work is its great range; most 17th-century and mathematician, and in *Leonardo da Vinci. *Bru-
Dutch painters were specialists, but Rembrandt painted nelleschi is considered the first Renaissance architect; out
of his interest in Roman remains he created buildings
that could be compared with the finest ancient examples.
This picture, The Return of the Prodigal Son, is undated, Other major architects included *Alberti, *Bramante,
but It IS believed to be one of Rembrandt's last works, regarded by contemporaries as the most successful ar-
and It conveys such tenderness and poignancy that it can chitect of the High Renaissance, and *Palladio. In sculp-
stand as a kind of spiritual testimony, summing up his
ture, the beginnings of the Renaissance are sometimes
unsurpassed depth of feehng and humanity. The art
traced as far back as Nicola *Pisano in the late 14th
historian Kenneth Clark described it as 'a picture which
those who have seen the original m
Leningrad may be century, because it was known that he was influenced by
forgiven for claiming as the greatest picture ever Roman sarcophagi. However, it was *Donatello in the
painted'. (Hermitage, Leningrad) early 15th century who thoroughly assimilated the spirit
of ancient sculpture rather than simply borrowed motifs
from it. *Ghiberti, Michelangelo, and others revealed
new possibilities of expression that had been unknown to
antiquity. In painting it is harder to define the Re-
naissance in terms of antique influence because very little
classical painting has survived. From classical writings it
is known that painters excelled in fidelity to nature, and
*pavans of this period stand as testimony to the creative and the years between about 1420 and 1540 are largely
powers of the dancing masters, whose role began to grow dominated by Franco-Flemish composers who benefited
in power and importance during this period. from the opportunities provided by the rich Italian courts.
These men were mainly responsible for the evolution from
Renaissance music (C.1320-C. 1690). New forms of a three-voice courtly song style to the freer Italian
musical *notation in Europe described around 1320 by madrigal (from about 1530) and related genres in other
Philippe de Vitry (1291 1361) in France and Marchetto languages, mostly in four or more voices, bringing soph-
da Padova in Italy provided one of the clearest turning- isticated music to a far wider public. Along with this last
points in the history of music. With their techniques men development came the rise of written instrumental music:
such as Guillaume de *Machaut, Jacopo da Bologna {Ji. the earliest substantial repertory of independent idiomatic
1340-60), and Francesco Landini (c 1325-97) composed instrumental music was for the lute, starting just before
a range of music, particularly secular *polyphony for a 1500; but there is also a considerable repertory of in-
courtly culture, that expressed emotions and moods quite strumental part-music from the i6th century, the sur-
RENGA 380
viving printed sources evidently aimed at a growing me', and a visit to Italy in 188 1-2 inspired him to seek
amateur market. Sacred music, whicli had experienced a a greater sense of solidity in his work. His figures became
decline in the 14th century, appears to have received a grander and more formal and he often turned to subjects
new stimulus in the 1420s from the English repertory and from classical mythology. In the 1890s Renoir began to
particularly *Dunstable whose music was widely admired suflfer from rheumatism, and from 19 12 he was confined
on the Continent and influenced the most resourceful and to a wheelchair, but he continued to work until the end
fascinating genius of 15th-century music, *Dufay. The of his life, and in his last years also took up sculpture,
major achievement of the later Renaissance in music is directing assistants to act as his hands. Renoir is perhaps
the polyphonic mass cycle: after some hesitant starts, this the best-loved of the Impressionists, for his subjects-
tradition really began around 1450 at the hands of Dufay; pretty children, flowers, beautiful scenes, above all lovely
in the next generation it was further evolved by *Josquin —
women have instant appeal, and he communicated the
Desprez, perhaps the most glorious and pure composer joy he took in them with great directness.
of the Renaissance: and the tradition continued through
to the lOO-odd masses of *Palestrina. repertory theatre, strictly a theatre staging a repertoire
of plays in rotation, rather than a single play. The system
renga, one of the forms of *Japanese poetry. The earliest was once adopted in all theatres, but became unpopular
renga date from the 12th century and generally have a with the advent of the touring company and the long
set number of verses. They are unusual because the run. Unsuccessful efforts were made in Britain at the
stanzas are mostly composed by several poets in group beginning of the 20th century to revive it, but the term
session. The greatest renga master was Sogi 142 i- 1508).
( came merely to signify a theatre that presented its own
By the Tokugawa period (1603 1867), when *Ihara was productions for limited runs. In the 1950s and 1960s
writing, a comic form, the haikai no renga, had become many repertory theatres were turned into civic theatres
popular, and from its opening stanza, the hokku, emerged funded by local authorities, some of which were then
the *haiku, of which *Bash6 was the master. closed during the more stringent economic climate of the
1980s. 'True' repertory is still staged by the Royal
Reni, Guido (1575- 1642), Italian painter. He trained Shakespeare Company, the National Theatre, and sea-
with the *Carracci family in his native Bologna and sonal theatres in Britain, and by subsidized theatres on
inherited their tradition of clear, firm draughtsmanship. the Continent of Europe and elsewhere. Repertory in the
His graceful classical style was also much influenced by USA, where it is called 'stock', followed a similar course,
the work of *Raphael and by ancient art, which he saw beginning with the Dallas Theater Center in 1959; by
on the several visits he made to Rome. After Ludovico the 1980s there were regional theatres in over two-thirds
Carracci's death in 16 19 Reni became the leading painter of US states.
in Bologna, running a large and prosperous studio whose
products (mainly religious works) were sent all over Repin, Ilya
(Yefixnovich) (1844 1930), Russian
Europe. His contemporary fame was enormous and in painter. He joined the 'Wanderers' (Peredvizhniki) an ,
the 1 8th century many critics ranked him second only to influential association of young painters in revolt against
Raphael. He is now particularly admired for his subtle the Academy, inspired with ideas of bringing art to the
beauty of colouring. people, who formed the *Realist movement in Russia.
Of his later works two became particularly popular: Ivan
Renoir, Jean (1894- 1979), French film director, son of the Terrible with the Body of his Son (1885), and Cossacks
the Impressionist painter Auguste Renoir. Though he Defying the Sultan (1891). He was a fine painter and
made was established
several silent films, his reputation colourist, but what chiefly appealed to his contemporaries
in the sound era by films such as Le Crime de Monsieur was the exciting subject-matter of his pictures. With the
Lange (1936), in which publishing workers form a co- introduction of a Socialist Realism (see *Social Realism)
operative. The Lower Depths (1936), from Gorky's play, in 1932 Repin became established as the model and
and La Bele humaine (1938), a melodrama about a hom- inspiration for the Soviet painter.
icidal engine-driver. The short, country-based Une parlie
de campagne (1936) was not released until 1946. His two Repton, Humphry (1752- 181 8), English landscape
masterpieces, however, were the pacifist La Grande Illusion gardener, the successor to 'Capability' *Brown as the
(1937), about prisoners of war, and La Regie dujeu (1939), acknowledged leader of his profession. His reconstructions
which cynically portrays the French upper class during were less sweeping than Brown's and in his later career
a country-house weekend. Of his five American feature he used regular bedding and straight paths close to the
films the best was The Southerner 1945). The River (1950),
(
house, but his parks were carefully informal, as Brown's
shot in India and his first colour film, was beautiful; but were. Repton worked for some time in collaboration with
his subsequent French films, such as French Can-can (1955), John *Nash and occasionally acted as an architect himself;
never equalled those of the 1930s. two of his sons, John Adey Repton (1775- 1860) and
George Repton (1786- 1858), were also architects. A
Renoir, (Pierre) Auguste (184 1- 19 19), French * Im- talented Repton was in the habit of
water-colourist,
pressionist painter. He started his career as a painter in making views with flaps, which the client could lift to
a porcelain factory, gaining experience with the light, make a direct comparison between his park in the 'before'
fresh colours that later distinguished his work. In the and 'after' state. (See also *garden art.)
early i86os he formed lasting friendships with other
artists, notably *Monet, who were to form the nucleus of requiem, the Roman Catholic *mass for the dead,
the Impressionist group. He began to achieve success as beginning with the Introit Requiem aeternam dona eis Domine
a portraitist in the late 1870s, but by this time he thought ('Give them eternal rest, O Lord') sung while a priest
that he had 'travelled as far as Impressionism could take approaches the altar for the Eucharist. The text follows
381 REYNOLDS
the main outline of the normal mass, but omits the more
joyful sections (the Gloria and Credo) and includes the
13th-century sequence Dies irae, dies ilia (Latin, 'Day of
wrath, day of judgement').
rapid industrialization. The Peasants (1902-9), an epic poses from classical statues and Renaissance paintings.
RHAPSODY 382
His ideas on art were presented in the Discourses that he are grouped is accent: certain notes are stressed more
delivered to students at the Royal Academy between strongly than others. Regular two-, three-, and four-beat
1769 and 1790, which are regarded as being among the groupings are common in Western music, but irregular
classics of art criticism. As a portraitist Reynolds is patterns, such as five (3 + 2, or 2 + 3) and seven (3 -|- 2 -|- 2,
renowned for his penetrating characterization and for his 2-f 3-I-3, 2 + 2 + 3), ^^^ equally possible, and are quite
remarkable versatility. common in the music of other cultures. Melodies almost
invariably involve note-lengths that are different from
rhapsody (in music), usually a work in one continuous the basic beat. Additional rhythmic interest occurs when
movement which is fairly free in structure and has the a strong accent is placed on a normally weak beat,
quality of emotional enthusiasm that is implied in our an effect known as syncopation, which
is one of the
day-to-day use of the word. It is often used to describe characteristics of jazz. Innon-Western music rhythm has
works based on a selection of folk-songs, as in Liszt's always played a much more subtle and complex role,
Hungarian Rhapsody, or Vaughan Williams's Norfolk often involving many simultaneous layers of motion and a
Rhapsody. very fluid rate of change. Some contemporary composers,
such as Messiaen and Stockhausen, have been profoundly
rhetoric, the use of stylized verbal forms for the most influenced by this sophisticated approach to rhythm, and
persuasive effect in public speaking or in writing. Al- it may be said that 20th-century Western composers
though distrusted by Plato, rhetoric was regarded fa- have treated rhythm with a freedom unknown since
vourably by Aristotle and was cultivated as an important instrumental music became associated with regular dance
art and science in antiquity, notably by Cicero. It was patterns in the late i6th century.
an essential element of medieval university education,
and involved the elaborate categorizing of *figures of rhythm and blues, the style of music which grew out
speech together with the arts of memory, arrangement, of the * blues tradition as it developed among black
and oratorical delivery. Although the use of the formal musicians in the northern industrial cities of the USA in
device of rhetoric has been discredited to the point that the 1950s and 1960s. The typical 'R & B' band was made
it is considered to be pointless ornamentation, it remains up of a rhythm section (drums, bass, electric guitar, and
an important technique in the tradition of political and piano), and a leading player (either vocalist or guitarist),
religious public speaking. often with the support of a vocal backing group. Many of
the leading performers achieved international recognition,
rhyme, the identity of sound between syllables or words, such as B. B. King and Muddy Waters (both guitarists)
usually at the end of verse lines, but sometimes (in and Ray Charles and Chuck Berry (vocalists). Rhythm
'internal rhyme') within the same
Normally the last
line. and blues was a significant influence on the early de-
stressed vowel and all sounds following it make up the velopment of rock and roll (see *rock music).
rhyming element: this can be a monosyllable {\ove j 2ihove),
known as 'masculine' rhyme, or two syllables (as in the Ribera, Jose de (i 591 -1652), Spanish painter, active
'feminine' rhyme -whether / together), or even trisyllabic for all his known career in Italy. He settled in Naples (at
{sing tome / bring to me). Rhyme is not essential to poetry: the time a Spanish possession) in 1616 and remained
many languages rarely use it, and in English it finally there for the rest of his life, becoming one of the most
replaced *alliteration as the structuring principle of verse successful painters in the city. In his early career he is
only in the late 14th century. Some poets use 'eye-rhyme', usually classed as a follower of *Caravaggio, but although
in which the spellings of two words match, but the sounds he used a similar strong * chiaroscuro his work is markedly
no longer do (love / prove). Others, especially in the 20th individual, especially in its vigorous, scratchy brushwork.
century, have used 'half-rhyme' or 'slant rhyme', where He gradually moved away from his dark Caravaggesque
the vowels do not match (love / leave). early style, and his later works are often rich in colouring.
Ribera specialized in religious works, but he also painted
Rhys, Jean (Ella Gwendolen Rees Williams) (c. 1890- mythological scenes and a few portraits. He was an
1979), British novelist. Her early novels, including Postures accomplished etcher and one of the finest draughtsmen
(1928; reprinted as Quartet in 1969), are usually set in of his day. His work is distinguished by its emotional
Paris, where she lived for many years. Voyage in the Dark force and sincerity, whether he was painting a harrowing
(1934) is a first-person account of a chorus-girl and Good martyrdom or a scene of tender devotion, and was
Morning, Midnight (1939) is the story of a middle-aged influential not only in Italy but also in Spain, where
woman seeking consolation in her relationship with a much of it was exported.
gigolo. After some years of silence she published Wide
Sargasso Sea (1966), drawing on her childhood in Do- Ricci, Sebastiano
(1659- 1734), Italian decorative
minica and Jamaica and presenting the life of the mad painter. generally considered a member of the
He is
Mrs Rochester from Jane Eyre, which assured her fame. Venetian School, but he travelled extensively in Italy
and elsewhere before settling in Venice in 171 7. His
rhythm, the aspect of music that is concerned with wanderings were a reflection not only of the demand for
*time. Notes cannot be said to be long or short unless we his work but also of his vigorous love life, for his illicit
can measure them against some basic unit of time. This affairs often compelled him to move in haste and once
unit of steady time is the beat. It may
proceed at any almost resulted in his execution. Not surprisingly, his
speed, but it is always regular. It or may not be
may work sometimes shows signs of carelessness, but he had a
audible. Beats are commonly grouped in patterns of twos gift for vivid, fresh colouring, and his career was important
and threes, or some combination or multiple thereof This in spreading knowledge of Italian decorative painting.
grouping is shown in notation by bars, each containing Little of the decorative work he did in England survives,
the same number of beats. What tells us how the beats but there are examples at Chelsea Hospital and Bur-
—
383 RIMSKY-KORSAKOV
lington House (now the Royal Academy). He often Montrealer who, despite his nastiness, takes hold of the
worked partnership with his nephew Marco Ricci
in reader's interest and even understanding. Richler's gift
(1676-1730), who was primarily a landscape painter. for outrageous and funny satire reached surreal heights
in The Incomparable Atuk 1963) and Cocksure 1968). Later
( (
Richardson, Henry Handel (Ethel Florence Rich- novels include St Urbains Horseman (1971) and Then and
ardson) (1870- 1946), Australian novelist, resident in M'ow (1980).
Britain from 1904. Her novel The Getting of Wisdom
(1910) is based on her Melbourne schooldays. Her most Riley, Bridget (1931- ), British painter and designer,
ambitious work, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony, is a trilogy the leading British exponent of *Op art. Initially she
comprising Australia Felix (191 7), The Way Home (1925), worked in black and white, but she turned to colour
and Ultima Thule 1929), about the marriage and madness
( in 1966, by which time she was already gaining an
of a doctor, based on her father. international reputation. Her work shows a complete
mastery of the effects characteristic of Op art, particularly
Richardson, Henry Hobson (1838 86), the out- subtle variations in size, shape, or placement of units in
standing US architect of his generation. He trained in a pattern. She often works on a large scale, with the aid
Paris at the Ecole des *Beaux-Arts and under Henri of assistants.
*Labrouste, and after returning to the USA in 1865 he
embarked on a highly successful and prolific career Rilke, Rainer Maria (1875- 1926), Austro-German
although he died fairly young he had a long and varied poet, born in Prague. The keynote of Rilke's work is
list of major buildings to his credit. His style was eclectic, 'inwardness', his poetry allowing the poet to explore his
based particularly on the *Romanesque, but he reacted inner self and explain the mysteries of life. New Poems
against the trivialities of historical revivalism and his (1907-8) are masterpieces of objective penetration, in
works typically have a massive, rugged strength and great which pictorial and visual objects are opened up as the
individuality. The best known include Trinity Church, poet immerses himself in their essence and enhances them
Boston (1872-7), and Sever Hall, Harvard University with inner awareness. In the 1920s Rilke published the
(1878-80). Richardson was a highly influential figure: ten Duino Elegies. An intricate network of imagery and
McKim and White (see *McKim, Mead, and White) symbolism offering a panorama of human existence, the
were among his pupils, and *Sullivan greatly admired Elegies, begun in 19 12, explore and affirm mankind's role
him. in the world. The grandeur of the Elegies is replaced in
the fifty-five Sonnets to Orpheus 1923) by a serenity of style
(
Cockerel (1907); three symphonies; and the brilhant or- produced twenty-six volumes, ranging from narrative
chestral suite Sheherazade (1888). verse (including an Arthurian trilogy) to lyrics. Perhaps
best known for his character portraits, he remained
Rivera, Diego (1886- 1967), Mexican painter, the most essentially a Victorian writer in style and philosophy.
famous figure in the revival of monumental *fresco
painting in the 20th century. He spent the years 1907 to Robinson, Henry Peach (1830- 901), British photo-
1
best work shows his breathtaking vigour and formidable century was applied to the kind of rugged stonework used
skill. There are examples of his murals on public buildings in grottoes and fountains, but from about 730 was used
1
in Mexico City in addition to a museum of his work. of the more extravagant flights of the *Rococo style, and
rocaille is now sometimes used more or less as a synonym
Robbia, Luca della (c. 1399- 1482), Italian sculptor. of Rococo.
In his lifetime Luca had the reputation of being one
of the leaders of the *Renaissance style in sculpture, Rochester, John Wilxnot, 2nd Earl of (1647-80),
comparable to *Donatello, but he is now mainly re- English poet and satirist, a leading member of a group
membered as a pioneer of coloured glazed terracotta as of 'court wits' surrounding Charles II. The complexity of
a sculptural medium. In particular he invented a type of his poems gives him a good claim to be one of the last
representation of the Virgin and Child shown half-length important *Metaphysical poets, and with his social and
in white on a blue background that proved highly literary verse satires he was one of the first of the
popular. The technical formula, which seems to have *Augustans. An original and powerful satirist, he wrote
been kept a secret in the family workshop, soon became scurrilous *lampoons, dramatic prologues and epilogues,
the basis of a flourishing business. Unfortunately, Luca's and miscellaneous poems such as the self-dramatization
successors tended to sentimentalize his warm humanity. of 'The Maim'd Debauchee' and 'Upon Nothing'.
Robbins, Jerome (1918 ), US dancer, choreo- rock-crystal carving, the creation of small decorative
grapher, and director. He studied ballet and modern objects from rock-crystal, a colourless, transparent variety
dance, and danced in *Broadway musicals. In 1940 he of quartz that is found in many parts of the world. It
joined the *American Ballet Theater, choreographing his resembles glass, but it is harder, retains a polish better,
first ballet. Fancy Free, to Bernstein's music in 1944. His and does not cloud with age. It was much used in the
humorous send-up. The Concert (1956), and the abstract, ancient world (Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Middle
waltz- and mazurka-based work Dances at a Gathering East) for jewellery and for various types of drinking
(1969), are typical of his ballets. He worked with *New vessels and ornaments. Since then, the chief flowering of
York City Ballet from 1949 to 1959 and again from 1969. rock-crystal carving has been in Renaissance Italy and
He collaborated with *Bernstein on his most famous Bohemia. has also been much used in the Islamic world
It
musical, West Side Story, in 1957. He choreographs mainly for faceted bowls, goblets and chess pieces, for example.
in a character-dance style using modern jazz, show dance, Much early Islamic crystal work found its way to Europe
folk, and social dance elements within a ballet framework. and was mounted and extensively used by the Church.
In Mughal times in India, rock-crystal vessels were
Robeson, Paul (Paul Bustill) 898- 1976), US singer,
( 1
encrusted with jewels and decorated with typical Mughal
actor, and political activist. The son of a former slave, flower motifs symmetrically repeated.
Robeson was initially renowned as as actor. He made his
concert debut in 1925 singing black spirituals. With rock music (originally rock and roll), a * popular music
his rich and sonorous bass-baritone *voice, he won form originating in the USA in the 1950s. Rock and roll
international fame in the London production of the grew out of the black *rhythm and blues music, which
musical Show Boat (1928), singing 'Ol' Man River'. As in the mid-1950s was being taken up by white *country
an actor, his characterization of the title role in Othello musicians such as Bill Haley, Buddy Holly, and Elvis
(1943) set an all-time record run for a Shakespeare play Presley. Rock around the Clock (1955) by Bill Haley and
on Broadway. Ostracized for his left-wing political views the Comets, was the first rock and roll record to achieve
in the 1950s, he did much to further the interests of black mass popularity. Within a year of its release rock and
Americans, but his visit to the Soviet Union in 1963 as roll was a near-universal language among young people.
an avowed communist aroused much controversy. Both black and white musicians achieved commercial
recognition, although white artists were generally more
Robinson, Edwin Arlington (1869- 1935), US poet. successful. However, by the early 1960s, the initial ho-
His first collection. The Torrent and the Night Before, mogeneity of rock and roll was being replaced by plur-
appeared in 1896. After Captain Craig (1902), The Town alism. The US music industry was producing pop music
Down the River 1910), and The Man Against the Sky
( ( 1916) that grafted rock and roll elements on to Tin Pan Alley
he became established as a popular poet, and in all songs. In 96
1 Bob Dylan brought out an album of
1
385 RODGERS
personal songs that spearheaded a new school
satirical, that of Die Wies by *Zimmerman and Vierzehnheiligen
of urban folk or protest music. Huge audiences were (1743-72) by *Neumann, the Baroque qualities of spatial
drawn to music festivals at which *folk singers such as variety and of architecture, sculpture, and painting work
Joan Baez took part. In Britain in the early 1960s there together in a breathtakingly light and exuberant manner.
was an explosion of musical talent: groups such as the In Italy the greatest exponent of the Rococo style was
Rolling Stones and The Who played music that drew *Tiepolo, who also helped to carry it to Spain. In Britain
heavily on rock and roll and black American music. The the style was confined mainly to the applied arts, such as
first of these groups to gain international recognition was furniture and silversmithing, but aspects of it can be
the *Beatles. In the mid-sixties a new style emerged, seen in the painting of *Hogarth, for example, or of
harsher and more heavily electric in sound. The Animals *Gainsborough, whose delicacy of characterization and
in Britain and the Byrds, Jefferson Airplane, and The sensitivity of touch are thoroughly in the Rococo spirit.
Grateful Dead in California, were early performers of Rococo lasted longest in Central Europe, where it flour-
what came to be known as rock music. Initially the music ished until the end of the i8th century, but in France
was associated with the drug culture and social protest, and most of the rest of Europe the tide of taste began to
but by the 1970s rock was part of the music establishment. turn against it in the 1760s. By then it was coming to be
The late 1970s saw the emergence of a sub-genre of rock, considered frivolous, and it was ousted by the severe and
punk, which caught some of the raw energy of rock and serious *Neocla.ssical style.
roll but did not have such a wide appeal, being largely
a British phenomenon. Within a few years punk had Rodgers, Richard (Charles) ( 1902-79), US composer.
given way to new wave bands such as Talking Heads, who A largely self-taught musician, he began by writing for
used synthesized sounds and Afro-Caribbean rhythms in amateur shows, but only found his metier in 1918, when
their music. In the late 1980s videos and compact discs he teamed up with the lyricist Lorenz Hart (1895- 1943).
have become as important as records and tapes in Hart's mordant wit admirably offset Rodgers's lyricism
promoting and disseminating rock music. Through a and together they achieved work of great charm and
broadening of its definition and an assimilation of sophistication, including On Tour Toes (1936), Babes in
musical styles, rock has become the predominant form of Arms (1937) and, most daring of all. Pal Joey (1940). In
popular music.
Rocky Mountain School * Hudson River School. The pulpit m the church of Die Wies (1745-54) in Bavaria
by Dommikus Zimmerman sports curves and
Rococo, a style of art and architecture that emerged in embellishments everywhere m a way typical of Rococo
France inabout 1700 and spread throughout Europe in art. Like many of the outstanding Central European
churches of its period, Die Wies is fairly straightforward
the 8th century. It was characterized by lightness, grace,
1
partnership with Oscar Hammerstein II (1895 ig6o), RoUand, Romain 1866- 914), French novelist and
(
1
Rodgers enjoyed even greater success with Oklahoma essayist. He is remembered for the novel Jean-Christophe
(1943), Carousel (1945), The King and I (1951), and The (1906 12), originally published by *Peguy, which tells,
Sound of Music 1 959)
{ through ten volumes, the life-story of a German composer.
It provides an opportunity for RoUand to treat many
Rodin, Auguste (1840- 191 7), French sculptor, one of favourite themes, including music, the moral collapse of
the greatest and most influential artists of his period. In cultivated society, and the worth of ordinary uneducated
1878 he caused a sensation with his first major work, The people. Early in World War I he lived in Switzerland,
Age oj Bronze, a male nude which seemed so realistic that from where he wrote his famous essay on pacifism,
he was accused of having cast it from a live model. His Au-dessus de la melee (1915). He was awarded the Nobel
reputation established, Rodin was commissioned by the Prize for Literature in 19 16.
state in 1880 to make a bronze door for a museum of
decorative arts. He never finished the huge work The — Roxnains, Jules (Louis Farigoule) (1885- 1972), French
Gates of Hell —in a definitive form, but he poured some novelist, dramatist, and poet. His works are the illustration
of his finest creative energy into it, and many of its nearly of his theory of unanimisme, according to which mankind
200 figures formed the basis of famous independent achieves its fullest expression in the group rather than
sculptures, notably The Thinker and The Kiss. The ex- the individual. His views emerge first in La Vie unanime
aggerations and distortions of the anatomy and the rough (1908), a collection of poems, and later in Knock (1923),
'unfinished' quality of the modelling, factors that help hismost successful play, about a doctor who persuades a
create great intensity of expression, are taken further in healthy village community that it is in reality ridden with
some of Rodin's public monuments, which were often so illness. Les Homines de bonne volonte (1932-47), his most
radical that they caused furious controversy. Although memorable work of fiction, paints, through twenty-seven
the literary and symbolic significance that he attached to volumes, an essentially optimistic picture of French society
his work has been out of keeping with the conception of between 1908 and 1933.
'pure' sculpture that has predominated in the 20th
century, his influence on modern art has been immense, Roman art, the art of the Roman Empire from f.6th
for single-handed he rescued sculpture from a period of century bc to c.^xh. century ad. *Etruscan art and the
stagnation and made it once again a vehicle for personal later stage of *Greek art were the most important of the
emotions. He was also a prolific draughtsman, some of various roots from which Roman art sprang. Amongst its
his later drawings being powerfully erotic. greatest achievements is architecture. The great advance
of Roman over Greek architecture is in the use of
Rodrigo, Joaquin (1901- ), Spanish composer. Blind the *arch and the *vault. These were first used in
from the age of 3, he studied in Valencia (1920-3) and engineering constructions such as bridges, aqueducts, and
with Paul Dukas in Paris (1927-32). His Concierto de viaducts, and were later used in palaces, theatres, and
Aranjuez ('939) for guitar and orchestra is written in a other buildings. Roman buildings were usually laid out
simple, colourful 'Spanish' style that has earned it the symmetrically on either side of an imaginary central
status of a modern popular classic. Rodrigo has also line or axis. The curving walls and vaulted ceilings of the
composed concertos in a similar style for piano, violin,
cello, flute, and so on.
The Colosseum m Rome (ad 70-82) is the most
stupendous smgle monument of Roman art and still
Roethke, Theodore (1908-63), US poet. His first
evokes awe because of its sheer size and complexity. It is
collection. Open House (1941), contained intense lyrics, a vast ellipse m shape, and it had seats for some 50,000
already marked by the plant imagery of growth and spectators at the gladiatorial contests for which it was
decay that pervades all his poetry. In The Lost Son (1948), built.
than realistic social observation, especially in American which the lover enters a garden where he strives to gather
works like Hawthorne's The Blithedale Romance (1852). a beautiful rose, that is, to win the heart of his beloved.
The poem, which was left uncompleted when the author
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Chinese novel, a died, embodies the aristocratic ethic of courtly love found,
rousing narrative based on the division and war of the for example, in the work of * Chretien de Troyes. It was
Three Kingdoms period (ad 220-80) and characterized continued some forty years later by Jean de Meung
ROMAN ELEGY 388
*Catullus' passionate poems, some hardly more than ations from region to region, but Romanesque was the
*epigrams. The main writers of such poetry were Tibullus first European style to achieve a truly international
and Propertius, who both wrote largely in the 20s bc. currency, which distinguishes it from the *Carolingian
Tibullus explored both heterosexual and homosexual and *Ottonian styles of the post-Roman period. The
passion, but Propertius concentrated on a single mistress, most obvious characteristic of the Romanesque style in
Cynthia. Propertius subsequently turned from the love architecture was a massiveness of scale. Improved building
elegy toless personal and more national poetry. When techniques, a church that was recovering from a period
*Ovid took up the genre in his Amores, he treated it with of decline and corruption, the development of more
some flippancy: man is now a predator, not a brooding elaborate liturgical practices (which required more chap-
introvert, woman not the stern mistress but the cunning els and larger choirs), and the foundation of monastic
orders resulted in ecclesiastical buildings that were more
complex and ambitious than those of preceding centuries.
Pisa Cathedral with its baptistry and campanile (the Architects looked to Roman buildings to solve the ques-
leaning tower) is one of the most important monuments of tion of how to build stone ceilings or *vaults over the
Italian Romanesque art. The decorative arcades and large spaces they created. Initially barrel vaults (built
pilasters of the marble exterior characteristic of Pisan like a tunnel) were used, but these were eventually
style were probably inspired by Roman and Florentine
supplanted by rib vaults, which instead of being of solid,
buildings, but it has been suggested that there was
Armenian influence on the building, since Pisan ships heavy masonry utilized a skeleton-like framework of
were transporting crusaders and pilgrims to the Holy intersecting arches (ribs) with a comparatively thin and
Land at the time of its construction. light infilling of stone between them. This invention, first
—
389 ROMANTICISM
appears to have no direct Greek ancestor. The term salura was upon freedom of individual self-expression: sincerity,
seems to imply a medley of diverse materials, and Roman spontaneity, and originality became the new standards
satirists are themselves highly diverse. A form known as in the arts, replacing the decorous imitation of classical
'Menippean' satire combined prose and verse. Petronius' models favoured in the i8th century. Rejecting the
Satyricon brought this type close to the *Greek and Roman ordered rationality of the *Enlightenment as mechanical,
novel. Lucilius (d. 1021 bc), under the republic, named impersonal, and artificial, the Romantics turned to the
and savaged contemporaries, and from then on most emotional directness of personal experience and to the
satire was written in *hexameter verse. *Horace attacked boundlessness of individual imagination and aspiration.
vices rather than individuals, while later *Juvenal, be- Increasingly independent of the declining system of aristo-
ginning from the evils of imperial Rome, increasingly cratic patronage, they saw themselves as free spirits
took the human lot in general as his subject. Styles differ expressing their own imaginative truths rather than
ROMNEY 390
adorning the household of a noble master. Several found the early 20th century, embracing divergent styles ranging
a new audience among an expanding middle-class public from the almost classical purity of *Brahms to the lavish
eager for emotional sustenance and sensation, and ready sentimentality of *Tchaikovsky. More a matter of mood
to hero-worship the artist as a genius or prophet. The than of technique, Romanticism involved closer alliances
restraint and balance valued in 18th-century culture was between music and poetry, in the song-cycles of Schubert
abandoned in favour of emotional intensity, often taken and *Schumann, in the rise of 'programme music' (illus-
to extremes of rapture, nostalgia (for childhood or the trating a story, as in *Berlioz's Symphonie Fantaslique,
past), horror, melancholy, or sentimentality. Some but— 1830), in the 'symphonic poems' of *Liszt, and ultimately
not all —Romantic artists cultivated the appeal of the in the grandiose 'music-drama' of *Wagner. Using in-
exotic, the bizarre, or the macabre; almost all showed a creasingly enlarged orchestras, composers sought an ex-
new interest in the irrational realms of dream and tended range of feeling, stretching tonal harmony to its
delirium or of folk superstition and legend. The creative limits. The new concert-going public which acclaimed
imagination occupied the centre of Romantic views of the virtuoso performers Paganini (violin) and Liszt
art, which replaced the mechanical rules of conventional (piano) gave rise to the new form of the concert overture
form with an organic principle of natural growth and (for example, ^Mendelssohn's Hebrides, 1832), while
free development. Romanticism drew some of its energies church music and chamber music declined in importance.
from the associated revolutionary movements of demo- The nationalist feeling discerned in *Chopin's Polish
cracy and nationalism, although the 'classical' culture of mazurkas and Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies became more
the French Revolution actually delayed the arrival of pronounced in *Dvofak's use of Czech folk music and in
French Romanticism, and an element of conservative the group of Russian composers known as The *Five. The
nostalgia is also evident in many Romantic artists. The grammar of music was subject to great pressures by these
emergence of Romanticism can be attributed to several developments. Old dissonances became acceptable as new
developments in late 18th-century culture, the most harmonies. The concept of * tonality grew weaker, and
significant being the *Slurm iind Drang phase of German by the end of the century radically new ways of explaining
literature, the influential *primitivism of Jean-Jacques musical structure were being sought. In dance the move-
*Rousseau, the cult of sensibility, the *Gothic novel, the ment was influential in the mid- 19th century and con-
taste for the *Sublime and * Picturesque in landscape tinues into the 20th. The Romantic ballet emerged in La
gardening and tourism, and the revived interest in *bal- Sylphide(1832), with its lyrical and ethereal qualities.
lads and old *romances (from which Romanticism takes Typical features of Romantic ballets are the reference to
its name). The immediate inspiration for the first self- folk-tales, pastoral scenes, and potent symbols. Giselle
—
declared Romantics the German group including the (1841), the climax of the Romantic vision, demonstrates
—
*Schlegel brothers and *Novalis was the transcendental an unbridgeable gap between belief in simple happiness
philosophy of Kant and Fichte, which stressed the creative and the brooding disasters of unrequited love. In the
power of the mind and allowed nature to be seen visual arts, the boundaries of Romanticism stand out
as a responsive mirror of the soul. This new German less clearly: the 18th-century taste for natural 'wildness'
thinking spread via *Coleridge to Britain and via Mme of mountain scenery and for 'picturesque' ruins preceded
de *Stael to France, eventually shaping American any clearly identifiable Romantic school of painting.
*Transcendentalism. English Romanticism had emerged Indeed there is no unique Romantic visual style as
independently with *Blake's then little-known anti- such, only a strong adherence to personal vision, not-
Enlightenment writings of the 790s and with the land-
1 ably in *Turner's use of light and colour, and in the
mark of * Wordsworth's 1800 Preface to Lyrical Ballads. sombre symbolic landscapes of *Friedrich. The controver-
Romanticism thus began as a literary movement, but sial French artists *Gericault and *Delacroix stood out
achieved a sustained influence on music and a less distinct as Romantics with the violent energy of their paintings;
impact upon painting (see below). By the 1830s the both admired the quieter Romantic landscapes of *Con-
movement extended from *Pushkin in Russia to *Poe in stable. Other significant Romantic artists include *Fuseli,
the USA. * Martin, and the poet-engraver Blake. The nostalgia of
In literature, Wordsworth in England and *Hugo in the *Pre-Raphaelites and of the *Gothic Revival in
France declared an end to the artificiality of older architecture may also be seen as Romantic.
conventions. *Lyric poetry underwent a major revival
led by Wordsworth, *Keats, *Pushkin, *Leopardi, Roxnney, George (1734 1802), British painter. His
*Heine and others; narrative verse took on a new lyricism, finest works are probably his portraits of young people,
but the theatre tended towards the sensationalism of where his delicate colour sense and elegant line were used
melodrama. *Hoff~mann and *Poe pioneered the tale of to good effect. In about 1781 he became infatuated with
terror while the *historical novels of *Scott, *Manzoni, Emma Hart, later Lady Hamilton, whom he painted
*Hugo, and *Cooper combined bold action with nostalgic many times in various guises. Romney failed in his
sentiment. The astonishing personality of *Byron provided ambition to paint grandiose literary and historical sub-
de *Musset, *Lermontov, and other admirers with a jects.
model of the Romantic poet as tormented outcast. The
growing international cult of Shakespeare also reflected rondo, a musical form in which a main section returns
the Romantic hero-worship which, in the writings of several times during the course of the movement. In
*Carlyle and * Emerson, became a 'heroic' view of history between these recurring sections are passages of con-
as the product of forceful personalities like Napoleon. In trasting material. The main section always returns in the
music, a continuous Romantic tradition can be traced same and is supplied with a memorable tune. Rondo
key,
either from *Beethoven (a Romantic hero, although form thus an extension of * ternary form, the ABA
is
predominantly classical in style) or from *Weber and pattern being developed into an ABACADA
shape. A
*Schubert through to *Mahler and Richard *Strauss in more sophisticated version involves the repetition of
—
5 ,
391 ROUAULT
contrasting section B, thus giving a pattern (ABACABA) at the Royal Academy schools and in 1848 formed the
which is a cross between ordinary rondo and *sonata * Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with two fellow-students,
form. The rondo was frequently used as a cheerful last Holman *Hunt and *Millais, and four other young men.
movement in s)niphonies up to the time of Beethoven. When the Pre-Raphaelites were bitterly attacked, Ro.ssetti
withdrew from exhibiting his work, and in the 1850s he
Ronsard, Pierre de (1524 85), French poet. He was turned to water-colours, mainly of romantic medieval
a leading figure inthe group of poets known as the subjects, with which he was highly successful. In the 1860s
Pleiade, and probably worked with *Du Bellay on his he returned to oils and concentrated on sensuous pictures
Defense el illustration de la langue Jranqaise (1549), which set of beautiful women, his models including Jane Morris,
out the group's programme for poetic reform. This sought wife of William Morris. Rossetti's poems (published in
inspiration through an imitation of Greek and Roman 1870), like his paintings, are often about women and
literature which sometimes resulted in poetry that was love, and at the time they were attacked as obscene.
erudite, even obscure. Ronsard was an ambitious poet,
writing in many different forms and styles; at his best, he Rossini, Gioachino (Antonio) (1792- 1868), Italian
achieves a purity of lyricism in which he typically celeb- composer. The son of theatre musicians, he began his
rates the beauties of nature or the brevity of love and professional career with the one-act comic *opera The
life. Among his most famous poems are Mignonne, allons Bill of Marriage (1810). He established his reputation in
voir si la rose from the early Odes (1550-3) and Quand vous 18 3 with two operas, the and the comic
tragic Tancredi
1
serez bien vieille from the later Sonnets pour Helene (1578). The Italian Girl in Algiers. He was soon famous throughout
Europe, writing nearly forty operas in all, including The
Rosa, Salvator (1615-73), Italian painter and etcher, Barber of Seville and Otello (1816), Semiramide (1823), and
active mainly in Rome. He was a flamboyant character William Tell (1829). Hl-health and disillusion led to
a poet, actor, and musician as well as an artist and in — semi-retirement in 1836, after which he wrote only salon
the 1 8th and early 19th centuries, when his fame was at pieces and such works as the Stabat Mater (1842) and the
its height, he was held up as one of the great role models Petite Messe solennelle (1863).
of *Romanticism, the artist as a rebel against society. He
painted various subjects, but he is best known for the Rostropovich, Mstislav (Leopoldovich) (
1
92 7- )
Rossellini, Roberto (1906-77), Italian film director. the Russian-born soprano singer Galina Vishnevskaya
He is best known for his two superb neo-realist films: (1926- ). Rostropovich is also a brilliant operatic and
Rome, Open City (1945), about the Nazi pursuit of a symphonic conductor.
Resistance leader, and Paisan (1947), six episodes during
the Allied recapture of Italy. The third film in the trilogy, Roth, Philip (1933- ), US novelist and short-story
Germany, Year ^ero (1947), set in occupied Berlin, was less writer. His first collection. Goodbye, Columbus (1959), set
successful. All three were
acted mostly by non- the pattern for a succession of novels featuring observation
professionals and shot in authentic locations. Rossellini of Jewish-American mores and contemporary sexuality
also made four feature films with Ingrid Bergman (191 in a flip, personal style, culminating in the popularly
82), to whom he was married for a time: Stromboli (1949), successful Portnoys Complaint (1969), a man's confessions
Europa '5/ and Voyage in Italy (both 1952), and Joan of to his psychoanalyst.Later works, such as ^uckerman Bound
Arc at the Stake (1954). Neither these nor his other later (1985) and The Counterlife (1987) show him broadening
films matched his earlier masterpieces. his range impressively.
Rossetti, Christina (Georgina) (Ellen Alleyne) Rothko, Mark (1903 70), Russian-born US painter,
(1830 94), British poet. She was the sister of the painter one of the outstanding *abstract artists of his period. He
and poet Dante Gabriel * Rossetti and contributed poems was largely self-taught, and during the 1930s and 1940s
(including 'The Dream') to The Germ, the periodical of he went through phases influenced by * Expressionism
the *Pre-Raphaelites. A devout High Anglican, her work and *Surrealism before turning to complete abstraction
ranges from poems of fantasy and verses for the young to and developing his own highly individual style from about
ballads, love lyrics, sonnets, and religious poetry. It was 1947. His mature pictures, which are often very large,
noted for its technical virtuosity and short, irregularly feature rectangular expanses of colour arranged parallel
rhymed lines. A sense of melancholy pervades her work to one another, usually in a vertical format. The edges of
with recurrent themes of delayed or frustrated love and the shapes are softly uneven, giving them a hazy, floating,
of resignation ('Grown old before my time') as in 'A gently pulsating quality that produces an effect of serene
Dirge' and 'When I am dead, my dearest'. Among her calmness and contemplation. His late works tend to be
best-known works are 'Up-hill', 'A Birthday', The Prince's very sombre in colour, perhaps reflecting the state of
Progress and other poems (1866), and the anthology Goblin depression that led to his suicide. (See also *colour field
Market (1862), which has been variously interpreted as painting.)
religious *allegory or sexual symbolism.
Rouault, Georges ( 187 1- 1958), French painter,
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (1828-82), British painter graphic artist, and designer. In his youth he trained in
and poet. Born into a highly cultured family he studied a stained-glass workshop, an experience which was to
ROUBILIAC 392
creating a memorable and instantly recognizable gallery a heroic grandeur then unknown north of the Alps. In
of social types, satirizing the manners, morals, and oc- 1609 he became court painter to the Archduke Albert
cupations of English society. Although his humour was and the Infanta Isabella, the Spanish regents in the
generally bawdy or boisterous, his technique as a water- Netherlands, and he was soon inundated with work. He
colourist was deft and fresh, and in spite of his huge was able to handle the flood of commi.ssions from all over
output he maintained a remarkable overall quality. Europe only because he ran such an efficient studio,
employing artists of the calibre of van *Dyck as his
Royal Academy of Arts, London, the national art a.ssistants. He painted virtually every type of subject, and
academy of Britain, founded 1768 with the aim of
in designed tapestries, book illustrations, festival decorations,
raising the status of the artistic professions and arranging sculptures, and architectural work. He visited England
exhibitions of works attaining an appropriate standard of in 1629-30 on a diplomatic mission and was knighted by
excellence. The Academy succeeded in improving the the art-loving Charles I, who commissioned from him the
economic and social status of artists, reflecting the prestige seriesof ceiling paintings glorifying the reign of his father
enjoyed by its first President, Sir Joshua *Reynolds. Until James I in the Banqueting House in London, the only
the late 19th century it was the most influential art one of Rubens's large decorative schemes that is still in
institution in Britain, but it then came under attack as the position for which it was painted. Although his career
a bastion of orthodox mediocrity opposed to creative was played out on an international stage, Rubens also
innovation, and the *New English Art Club was set up painted deeply personal pictures, particularly of his two
to challenge its domination. The Academy still enjoys beautiful wives and the children they bore him. His
considerable prestige, however; its annual summer ex- dynamic and colourful style had an overwhelming effect
hibition is a popular social event, and it regularly or- on Flemish contemporaries, and his posthumous
his in-
ganizes historical exhibitions of the highest quality. fluence has been enormous and widespread.
Royal Ballet, Britain's national ballet company. It Rubinstein, Anton (Grigorevich) (1829 94), Rus-
began as the Vic-Weils Ballet in 1931 under the direction sian pianist and composer. Touring and studying in
of *de Valois and with the encouragement of Lilian Europe from 1840, Rubinstein settled in St Petersburg
*Baylis. By 1946 it had moved from Sadler's Wells (1858) where he founded the Conservatory in 1862. He
Theatre to the Royal Opera House and in 1956 was
granted a royal charter. Under de Valois and later
*Ashton the company and its school were responsible for This self-portrait of Rubens with his first wife, Isabella
establishing British ballet, and the lyrical British style. Brant, the daughter of an eminent Antwerp lawyer, was
almost certainly painted to mark their marriage in 1609. It
With a repertoire grounded in the 19th-century classics
gives a marvellous picture of the artist on the threshold of
it has staged numerous works by British choreographers
a career of unprecedented productivity and international
and nurtured dancers like *Fonteyn, Antoinette Sibley, success — handsome, vigorous, and dashingly
and Anthony Dowell. The latter now directs the company. self-confident. (Alte Pmakothek, Munich)
toured the USA (1872-3) and visited Britain several times. Turkey, and lived most of his life in Konya, where he is
One of the greatest pianists of his day, his playing compared buried. His best-known works are his collection o{ ghazals
with that of * Liszt, Rubinstein was a prolific composer, or sonnets known as the Divdn-i Shams-i Tabrizi, named
although only the Melody in F for piano is remembered. after the dervish or Muslim devotee who inspired them,
and his huge poem called the Masnavi-yi ma'navi, which
Rublyov, Andrey 1360- 1430), Russian painter. He
(c. expresses the philosophy of Islamic mysticism or Sufism
is the most famous of all *icon painters, but there is little through stories.
secure knowledge of his life or works. His masterpiece is
the celebrated icon of the Old Testament Trinity (Abra- Runge, Philipp Otto (17771810), German painter
ham's three angels, c. 1411). In its gentle lyrical beauty and draughtsman. As a *Romantic artist he was of a
this marks a move away from the Byzantine tradition, mystical turn of mind and used his work to express
and other icons in a similar style have been attributed to notions of the harmony of the universe through symbolism
Rublyov. He is also known to have painted murals, but of colour, form, and numbers. He was also an outstanding
none of his authenticated works in this field have survived. portraitist, painting in a rigid, sharp, and intense style.
Rudolph, Paul (191 8- ), one of the leading post-war Rushdie, (Ahmed) Salman (1947- ), Indian-born
US architects. He was a pupil of *Gropius at Harvard, British novelist. His firstnovel, Grimus (1975), explored the
and his early buildings reflect*Bauhaus ideas, but he world of fable and folk-tale, from which the imaginative
came todevelop a more independent sense of form, flamboyance of his later work draws its strengths. His
treating his buildings sculpturally and attempting to find prizewinning Aiidnight's Children (1981) views the de-
an individual approach appropriate to each building's velopment of modern India through the eyes of a tele-
function. His best-known work is the Art and Architecture pathic child born at the very moment of Independence.
Building at Yale University (1958-64) in *Brutalist con- Shame 1983) is a fabulous satire on Pakistan's ruling elite.
(
crete. His other work has included urban planning, Following his non-fictional account of Nicaragua, The
houses, embassies, and government and civic buildings. Jaguar Smile (1987), his novel The Satanic Verses (1988),
an ambitious fantasy on good and evil and on the migrant
Ruggles, Carl (Charles) Sprague 1876- 971), US
( 1
experience, gave rise to an international crisis when
composer. After studying music at Harvard (1903-7), Muslim protesters from Bradford to Srinagar burned
and working as a teacher and conductor, he settled in copies of the book, charging Rushdie with blasphemy
New York. The masterly *atonal *polyphonic style of his against the Prophet Mohammed. The novel was banned
best work is exemplified by the orchestral piece Men and in several countries, and Rushdie was forced into hiding
Mountains (1924). He wrote relatively little; his work was in 1989 when the Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini
idiosyncratic and fiercely independent, like that of * Ives. pronounced a death sentence against him as a blasphemer.
Ruisdael, Jacob van (c. 1628-82), Dutch landscape Ruskin, John (1819-1900), influential British critic and
painter. He came from an artistic family (Salomon van art theorist, also a talented water-colourist. His literary
Ruysdael was his uncle) and began painting mature and output was enormous and he had a remarkable hold over
distinctive works when he was still in his teens. His output public opinion, as he showed when he defended the
included scenes of watermills and windmills, forests and *Pre-Raphaelites in 185 1. Although Ruskin worshipped
grainfields, seascapes and winter landscapes; he could beauty for its own sake, he thought that art, in particular
conjure poetry from a virtually featureless patch of dune- as expressed in the *Gothic style, could be a means of
land as well as from a magnificent panoramic view. The solving social problems, and in the second half of his life
emotional force of his work distinguishes him from most he devoted himself much to philanthropic work (using
of his contemporaries; as with Rembrandt, a landscape his inherited fortune) and to writing on economic and
for Ruisdael was not simply the depiction of a particular political questions. His eloquence in linking art with the
place, but a vehicle for expressing emotional qualities, daily life of the workman had affinities with the views of
ranging from the subtlest suggestions of mood to a sense William * Morris, and he defended the older school of
of tragic grandeur. Ruisdael's influence on landscape craftsmanship against the new aesthetic in mass pro-
painting was resounding, not least in England, where he duction that followed the Industrial Revolution.
was revered by Gainsborough and Constable.
Russian art, the art and architecture of Russia and,
rumba (rhumba), a *Latin American dance with a strong- since 1921, of the Soviet Union. Russian art originated
ly African character; it is basically in | metre, with synco- among the Slav-speaking people who settled in the 7th
pated and broken rhythms played with strong percussive century ad in the great central plain contained by the
effect. The Cubans adapted the original African dance rivers Dnieper and Volga. In the i.oth century the Slav
into a ballroom dance called the danzon, and with the rulers adopted Christianity, which from then on was to
general outflow of Latin American music to North America form the core of the nation's culture, inspiring its art and
and Europe, the modern rumba came into vogue in New directing its thought. Russia in the loth century centred
York about 1931, the most popular and typical composi- round the principality of Kiev, its satellite city, Novgorod,
tion to which it was danced being 'The Peanut Vendor'. and several minor towns. Its people, strongly influenced
by *Byzantine art, built churches and monasteries and
Rumi, Jalal al-Din (1207-73), called Maulana or adorned them with scenes from the scriptures painted on
Mevlana, Persian poet and founder of the MevlevT or the interior walls of religious buildings as well as upon
'whirling' dervishes, a Muslim mystical order who are individual panels and *icons. In architecture, the
famous for their meditative dance. He was born in Balkh churches had, like their Byzantine models, three aisles
(in modern Afghanistan), but was taken as a child to and a dome; but the Russians soon began experimenting
395 RUSSIAN ART
Kasimir Malevich's Women Harvesting (1912) dates from the 6th century, contacts with the West resulted in a
1
one of the most remarkable periods of Russian art, when greater variation in style, and foreign and national
pamters and sculptors were m a ferment of revolutionary forms were combined with remarkable felicity. Palaces,
ideas. It is one of a number of peasant subjects m which
fortifications, and churches of delightful imaginativeness
Malevich created a highly individual style by combining
traditional Russian themes with influence from Western
sprang up throughout the land. Among the most pic-
modernism, specifically the 'tubular' forms of Fernand turesque were those which re-created the native wooden
Leger. (Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam) pyramid style of building in stone and wood. The medieval
style of religious painting came to a sudden end when
Peter the Great (1682- 1725) Westernized Russia and
with the shape of the dome until, in the 12th century, transferred his capital from Moscow to St Petersburg
they had evolved the characteristic onion shape. The (now Leningrad). Since Russian artists could not instantly
more important churches had several domes, although produce the secular, Westernized art Peter desired, foreign
usually not more than three or five, and perhaps as many artists from Holland, Italy, Germany, and France were
as five aisles. The arts necessary to the decoration of a employed; in the i8th century an alien art was grafted
church, such as embroidery, metalwork, carving, and on the national, and in its turn was absorbed and
bookbinding, also flourished, and followed the Byzantine developed. Crafts, on the other hand, were little in-
style. The Mongol occupation of Russia (mid-i3th-end fluenced by Western ideas, but retained their original
14th century) arrested the growth of Russian art. It flamboyance, their intricacy of pattern and their medieval
revived during the 15th century, when the most important forms. Up to the present century, the Russian countryside
centre of art was Novgorod. Among other architectural was enlivened by the harmonious colours used to offset
innovations was the wooden 'iconostasis' (stand for icons), the splendid carving of door jambs and window surrounds,
a screen to separate the altar in the apse from the body garden gates and farm carts, domestic utensils, furniture,
of the church. This served as an additional incentive to and toys. In the 19th century artists threw their skill into
artists, who were called upon to paint icons for its the social battle for reform, producing numerous paintings
decoration; and throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, with a moral message. This movement was rejected at
religious paintings of outstanding quality were produced, the turn of the century by a group of artists, known today
for example the work of Andrey *Rublyov. In Novgorod, as 'The W^orld of Art' group, which set out to revive
the rigid Byzantine style gave place to a gentleness artistic quality under the banner of 'Art for Art's Sake'.
inspired by slight contact with Italian art. The devotional They created many paintings of fine quality, and made
fervour of the age expressed itself in an elongation of the their influence felt in every branch of art, though perhaps
figures, a delicacy yet forcefulness of colour, and a flowing most forcefully on the stage, particularly in ballet, and
line which gave an emotional quality to the paintings. In book illustration. In the early 20th century
in the field of
RUSSIAN LITERATURE 396
Russian painters, sculptors, and theatre designers were in metaphysical search with a rediscovery of the real world
the vanguard of *abstract art, most notably in the in the late Symbolist and post-Symbolist Russian poets
movements called *Constructivism and *Suprematism. born between 1880 and 1895 brought about an un-
All forms of innovative art, *Futurism, for example, precedented flowering of poetry; this creative ferment
flourished in Russia during the first years after the continued through the 1920s. During the Symbolist period
Revolution, but later the state disapproved of ex- *Gorky and other prose writers had kept alive the classic
perimental art and encouraged *'SociaIist Realism' —
the tradition of *Social Realism, and it was this tradition
didactic depiction of subjects which expressed the aims that was drawn upon when Soviet literature, with its
and ideals of Communism. More recently, the trends in mandatory doctrine of Socialist Realism, was created
Soviet art have reflected those in the West. along with the bureaucratization of literature in the
1930s. The imposition of Party controls led to a new
Russian literature, literature written in the Russian specifically Soviet literature, centred in the novel but
language. From its beginnings in the late loth century extending to drama and children's literature, whose task
until the i8th it was largely the written record of the was to give artistic embodiment and
to the Party's goals
doctrines and official views of the Eastern Orthodox interpretations. However, was always pitted
literary talent
Church. It used a literary language, Church Slavonic, in creative tension against political dogma, as in the work
that was distinct in many ways from the vernacular. It of *Mandelshtam, Anna * Akhmatova, and *Bulgakov,
was largely anonymous and conventional, deriving from whose novel. The Master and Margarita remains probably
and depending on Byzantine models: writings about the best-known work of that period. Since the Revolution
church leaders, hagiography (saints' lives), chronicles, there has been an unbroken tradition of unofficial writing,
fables, and tales. It was probably the late 12th century sometimes 'self-published' {samizdat), sometimes sent
that produced the much debated work of Old Russian abroad for publication, and sometimes simply hidden
literature, the epic The Lay of Igor's Campaign. From the until favourable times come along ('writing for the draw-
baptism of Russia in 988 until the invasion of the Tartars er'). Soviet literature was revitalized with the Khrushchev
in 1237, the centre of literary activity was Kiev. From 'thaw', which began after 1956 and lasted until the
then until the supremacy of Moscow in the i6th century, mid-1960s and saw the flourishing of the work of writers
literary works were created that reflected the military such as *Yevtushenko. Poetry played a particularly im-
struggle of the various principalities against the Mongols portant role in this revitalization; in the form of guitar-
and other invaders. The Renaissance had no profound accompanied song it survived in a vigorous manner.
cultural effect on contemporary Russia. Secular literature, Under Brezhnev, oflicial literary policy was tightened
notably satirical tales, began to appear in the 17th when it became apparent, principally through the *Sol-
century. It was only with the foundation of St Petersburg zhenitsyn case, that dissident writers could not be silenced.
(now Leningrad) and the impact of the European *En- Increasingly, they were exiled from the USSR. The
lightenment in the i8th century that modern literature Leningrad poet Joseph *Brodsky, who has been resident
began. The i8th century saw the introduction, following in the USA since 1972, is generally considered to be the
French and German models, of neoclassical literature, most important to have emerged in the Soviet Union since
with its public, didactic intent and ordered hierarchy of World War II. During the Brezhnev years a deepening
genres. * Lyric poetry developed furthest, but longer stagnation and increasing polarization into official and
poems and verse-drama were also prominent; the first underground streams developed; the latter including
attempts at the novel and short story appeared. A vital some interesting experimental poetry. The policies of
role was performed by *Lomonosov, who attempted to Gorbachev since 1985 have led to a revitalization of
systematize poetic diction. The important Russian
first literary life, with many previously banned works, in-
poet was *Derzhavin, whose civic concerns did not cluding those by emigres, being permitted publication.
obscure his personal passions. The i8th century saw the Russian literature has throughout been distinguished by
first attempts to collect the oral legacy of Russian folklore. its concern for social issues, acting in many ways as
The satirical play, Wit Works Woe (1822) by Aleksandr an alternative to religious, philosophical, and political
Griboyedov (1795- 1829) created a gallery of now pro- debate. Above all, it has furnished a series of heroes by
verbial characters and some of the most oft-quoted reference to whom the nation has observed and defined
lines in the Russian language. In *Pushkin's work are its character.
contained the seeds of subsequent developments in all the
genres of the 19th and early 20th centuries. His wide use Ruysdael, Salomon van 1600-70), Dutch landscape
(c.
of folklore and of the living language brought literature painter, active in his native He was one of the
Haarlem.
within reach of a much wider public, while *Lermontov most prolific of Dutch painters, specializing in calm,
introduced a darker and more passionate note. Both poets atmospheric river scenes painted in subdued colours, a
were influenced by western * Romanticism. After this, style which was much imitated.
verse went into a long decline, the novel emerging as the
leading and most characteristic genre of the national Rysbrack, John Michael (1694- 1770), Flemish-born
literature. Of formative influence on later writers were sculptor. He settled in England in about 1720 and in the
the short stories and novels of *Gogol. The novels of 1730S was the leading sculptor in the country, the high
*Tolstoy, *Dostoyevsky, and *Turgenev brought Russia point of his career being the monument to William III
to the forefront of literature and remain its greatest (1735) in Queen Square, Bristol, generally regarded as
contribution. The scale and scope of realistic composition one of the finest equestrian statues made in England.
was refined by * Chekhov in his short stories and dramas, From about 740 he began losing ground to rivals such
i
which rank among the masterpieces of European liter- as *Roubiliac. He was a prolific artist, with a vigorous
ature. Poetry became pre-eminent with the rise of the and dignified style. His output included tombs, statues,
*Symbolists in the 1890s. The combination of their portraits, chimney-pieces, and architectural features.
,
397 SAINT-EXUPERY
S
in
acterized by further developments in miniature painting
to a style more expressive than the pure work of *Bihzad.
The greatest period of Safavid art, however, was under
Shah Abbas (1587- 1628) who was responsible for a spate
of building in the new capital of Isfahan. Round a large
central polo ground he built a series of delicately imposing
Saarinen, Eero (1910-61), Finnish-born US architect. new buildings, including the Masjid-i Shah (161 2) with
He settled in the USA in 1923, when his father, the its turquoise dome covered in arabesque designs, and the
architect Eliel Saarinen (1873
1950), emigrated. EHel elegant pavilion of the Ali Kapu, from which the court
Saarinen's outstanding building is Helsinki Railway Sta- watched polo games. Under the Safavids the art of
tion (1910-14). From 1937 the two worked in partnership, the * miniature became ever more refined and elegant.
their buildings including the General Motors Technical Naturalistic drawings of individual figures became pop-
Center at Warren, Michigan (1948-56), in a *minimalist ular, marking the beginning of the decline of miniature
rectangular glass-and-steel grid style. In the early 1950s, painting which gradually lost its vigour and slipped into
Eero began to experiment in a
after his father's death, decadence. The Safavids excelled in the textile arts,
highly individual manner, developing a sculptural style, weaving exquisitely fine *carpets in floral and arabesque
using forms suggestive of organic growth. His masterpiece designs, *silks, and velvets with elaborate designs such as
isthe TWA Terminal Building at Kennedy Airport, New hunting scenes.
York (1956-62), with its curving roof suggesting a bird
in flight. Other works included the US Embassy in saga, the Norse name for various kinds of prose tales
Grosvenor Square, London (1955 61). composed in medieval Scandinavia and Iceland and
written down from the 12th century to the 14th. These
Sachs, Hans (1494- 15 76), German poet and the most usually tell of heroic leaders, early Norse kings or 13th-
famous of the Meistersinger (see *minstrel), commemorated century bishops, or of the heroic settlers of Iceland in the
especially in Wagner's opera The Mastersingers of Nurem- gth and loth centuries; others, like the Vqlsunga saga,
berg. In 1509 he took up the trade of cobbler. For some relate earlier legends. The emphasis on feuds and family
years he wandered around Germany, but finally settled histories in some famous sagas like Njdls saga has led to
in Nuremberg in 15 16, becoming an influential and the term's application in English to any long story
honoured member of the guild of German amateur spanning two or more generations, as in Galsworthy's
singers, largely artisan. The movement preserved strict The Forsyte Saga (1922).
artistic codes and encouraged a spirit of competition.
Sachs acted as 'marker' or judge of the competitions on St Denis, Ruth (Ruth Dennis) (1879- 1968), US dancer,
many occasions. He wrote a large number of poems and choreographer, and teacher. She developed an oriental-
songs, as well as verse-dramas based on Latin models and inspired form of modern dance performed in exotic
Shrovetide plays, or moralizing dramas, to educate the costumes. She experimented with 'music visualization',
populace. He did much to advance the Reformation in in which dancers' roles were linked to the sound of
Nuremberg and, through the guild's influence, elsewhere With Ted *Shawn she started the
individual instruments.
in Germany. Denishawn school and company, a major training
ground for the next generation of modern dancers,
sackbut, the English name, used from the 15th to the including *Humphrey and *Graham.
1 8th centuries, for the * trombone, which is Italian for
large trumpet. Today the word, derived from the French Sainte-Beuve, Charles-Augustin (1804-69), French
saqueboule ('pull-push'), is used to distinguish earlier mod- literary historian and critic. He is remembered for his
els of trombone from later instruments. The sackbut ability to bring to life the authors and texts he studied,
originated in the mid- 1400s as an improvement of the which he interpreted in their intellectual and historical
medieval slide trumpet with the slide moved from the context. Notable among his works are the Causeries du
mouthyard to the front bow. It became an important lundi (1849-69), Port-Royal (1840-59), and Chateaubriand
et son groupe litteraire (1861). He helped to establish the
bass instrument in the Renaissance; especially for ac-
companying voices and for tower music (music played *Romantic movement, whose literary predecessor he
from the tops of church and town-hall towers, and from found in *Ronsard, and accepted only grudgingly the
balconies), as well as for processional music with cornetts doctrine of *realism, associated with the *Goncourt
and shawms. brothers, which led literature away from Romanticism.
Sa'di, Muslih al-Din (1202-92), Persian poet. He was Saint-Exupery, Antoine de (1900-44), French aviator
born and he died in Shiraz, but lived an eventful life and writer. His novels, Courrier-Sud (1928), Vol de nuit
with much travel. He wrote highly admired ghazals or 93
( 1 Terre des hommes
1 )
,
939) and Pilote de guerre
( 1 ,
942) ( 1
sonnets that were reproduced in several divans, collections are based on his own adventures as an airline and
of poetry. He also wrote two famous and influential war-time pilot. In each, the plane becomes an instrument
works, the Gulistdn or Rose Garden (1257) and the BUstdn which, in moments of danger, brings the pilot a knowledge
or Garden (1258). The latter is in verse and the former of himself and a sense of his responsibility to others. Here,
in verse and rhyming prose; both are written in an as in Le Petit Prince (1943), a children's fable for adults,
admirably restrained and lucid style. Both are didactic comfortable materialism is shunned in favour of a wider
works teaching through stories, and have greatly in- humanism. Saint-Exupery disappeared on what was to
fluenced Turkish and Urdu literatures. have been his last wartime reconnaissance mission.
SAINT-GAUDENS 398
Saint-Gaudens, Augustus (1848- 1907), US sculptor. Salinger, J(eroxne) D(avid) 1919 ), US short-story
(
Born in Dublin, he was taken to the USA as a child and writer and novelist. His small literary output of one novel
studied in Paris and Rome. Returning to the USA in and thirteen short stories was mainly written in 1948-9;
1874 he scored a major success with his Admiral Farragut since the 1960s he has spent his life in seclusion in New
Monument (1878-81) in Madison Square Park, New Hampshire. His best-known work, The Catcher in the Rye
York, and thereafter assumed a leading position among (195 1
a *picaresque novel that involves a teenager,
), is
US sculptors. His position in the history of American Holden who escapes from his sheltered world
Caulfield,
sculpture is important: his warmly naturalistic style in order to seek adventures in New York; its authentic,
turned the tide against *Neoclassicism and made Paris, teenage idiom, and its rejection of the 'phoney' adult
rather than Rome, the artistic Mecca of his countrymen. world, made it a symbol for the honesty and purity of
youth caught in a world of banality and hypocritical
St Ives School, a group of British painters who con- conformity. His remaining fiction is largely concerned
centrated their activities in the Cornish fishing port of St with the sensitive Glass family at odds with their ma-
Ives. Popular with painters from the late 19th century, terialistic world: For Esme —
with Love and Squalor (also
it was only after Barbara *Hepworth and Ben *Nicholson called Nine Stories, 1953); the double novella Franny and
settled there in 1939 that a colony of artists was estab- ^ooey (1961); and the jointly published Raise High the
lished. Apart from a general interest in painting landscape Roof-Beam, Carpenters, and Seymour: An Introduction (1963).
in an abstract vein, the artists of the St Ives School had
little in common. The studio potters Bernard *Leach and Salon, the name given to the official exhibition of
Michael Cardew (1901-83) were also based for some time members of the French Royal Academy of Painting and
at St Ives. Sculpture, held in 1667 and thereafter annually or
first
:i4^fcS
SANCHI 400
*Mauryan art) in the 3rd century bc and was later Sanskrit literature, the early literature of the Indian
enlarged. It is enclosed by a stone railing with four richly sub-continent. begins with the pantheistic hymns and
It
carved gateways erected in the ist century ad. The sacrificial formulae of the Aryan invaders of India (t. 1500
sculpture depicts the previous lives of the Buddha, animal Bc), handed down in compendia (sarnhitd) called *Vedas.
life, grotesques, and brackets in the form of female These were interpreted in relation to the forces of nature
tree-spirits. Later structures include a *Gupta temple. in prose commentaries called the Brdhmanas ('Ex-
planations of Brahman') (c. 1000-700 bc) and Arariyakas
Sand, George (Aurore Dupin, Baronne Dudevant) ('Forest-treatises') (c. 700-600 bc). In the Upanishads ('Ses-
(1804-76), French novelist and political journalist. Her sions imparting secret knowledge') (600 bc and later)
early works are *Romantic in inspiration: lyrical, pas- ritual exegesis became philosophical speculation, iden-
sionate, and ardent in the cause of equality for women. tifying dtman, man's individual
with Brahman, the
soul,
Her protest against social conventions and class re- World-Spirit. The 5th-century bc grammarian Panini
strictions can be found in novels such as Consuelo ( 1842-3). codified the language of these later Vedic texts into
401 SANSOVINO
years inRome, where he moved in the circle of *Bramante absurdity may be despair, but man may, by an act of
and *Raphael). His most famous work is St Mark's will,choose a life which is truly free and authentic.
Library (begun 1537), one of Venice's most glorious sights Political involvement may follow, as it did for Sartre in
and an inspiration to Palladio, his successor as the city's his stormy relations with the Communist Party. This is
leading architect; as a sculptor he is best known for the the experience of the central characters in his novel La
colossal figures of Mars and Neptune (commissioned Nausee 1938) and one of his best-known plays,
( Les Mains
1554) on the staircase of the Doge's Palace. sales His other works include fiction: Le Mur
(1948).
(1939) and Les Chemins de la liberie (1945-9); pl^ys: Les
santur, a musical instrument, the Persian *dulcimer, Mouches (1943) and Huis clos (1943); and an auto-
used over much of the Near East and India, probably biography, Les Mots (1963). He declined the Nobel Prize
deriving from European dulcimers in the 17th century. for Literature in 1964.
Multiple courses of thin metal strings pass across bridges
resembling chess pawns, one row one-third of the way Sassanian art * Persian art.
across the soundboard, the shorter string lengths a fifth
above the longer, the other a quarter of the way, with Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni) (c. 1392- 1450), Italian
the shorter lengths two octaves above the longer. The painter. His work continues the traditional values of the
strings are struck with light wooden beaters. The santur *Sienese School in its beautiful colouring and elegant
is an important solo and ensemble instrument wherever line, but he was also influenced by the *International
it is found, including China (see *yangqin). Gothic style and by contemporary Florentine de-
velopments. These influences he combined into a personal
Sappho (/?. early 7th century bc), greatest of the early style, expressive of his mystical imagination. His most
Greek poets. Born on the island of Lesbos, the
lyric important work was the St Francis altar-piece (1437-44);
fragments of her poems that have survived are written in seven panels from it are in the National Gallery, London.
her local dialect. She wrote in a great many metres, one
of which, the Sapphic, has been called after her. Her Sassoon, Siegfried (Lorraine) (1886- 1967), British
poems are characterized by passion, a love of nature, poet and prose writer, known for his anti-war poetry and
simplicity of style, and control of line. The longest (seven fictionalized autobiographies. He enlisted in World War
stanzas) is an invocation to Aphrodite over her love for I and was seriously wounded in France. He published his
a young girl. She influenced many later writers, among anti-war poetry, The Old Huntsman 191 7) and Counterattack
(
them Catullus, Ovid, and Swinburne. (1918), while he was still in the army. He was sent to a
military sanatorium where he met Wilfred *Owen, whose
saraband ^suite. works he published after Owen was killed at the front. A
strong attachment to the countryside is seen in his
sarangi, a musical instrument, the principal *fiddle of post-war works, notably his semi-autobiographical trilogy
north Indian classical music. The body, carved from a beginning with Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man (1928).
block of wood, has a skin belly. The three bowed gut
strings are stopped with a fingernail from the side, often Satie, Erik (Alfred Leslie) (1866- 1925), French com-
with a glissando from note to note, so that the sarangi poser. His genius lay in his ability to use extremely simple
matches, and frequently accompanies, singers. There are means, often involving repetition, to produce works of
up to thirty-six metal sympathetic strings. The bow is great originality. He also made use of snatches of music-
held underhand, the hair tensioned with the fingers. hall songs, jazz, and objets trouves such as typewriters
and a was admired and championed by
revolver. Satie
Sargent, John Singer (1856- 1925), US painter. He *Cocteau; they collaborated on a provocatively un-
was born in Florence and in 1885 settled in London, but conventional ballet, Parade (1924). His work had a lib-
retained his American citizenship. His style is remarkable erating influence on later composers.
for the lush fluidity of his brushwork, based partly on his
admiration for Old Masters such as Hals and Velazquez. satire, a mode of writing which exposes the failings of
The elegance of his work brought him unrivalled success, individuals, institutions, or societies to ridicule and scorn.
and his portraits convey the glamour and opulence of Satire is often an incidental element in literary works
high-society life with bravura. He loved painting land- which may not be wholly satirical, especially in *comedy.
scape water-colours and devoted much of his energy to Its tone may vary from tolerant amusement, as in Horace,
ambitious allegorical murals in the Library and Museum to bitter indignation, as in Juvenal and Swift. Various
of Fine Arts in Boston. In World War I he was an official forms of literature may be satirical, from the plays of
war artist. Jonson and Moliere and the poetry of Chaucer and Byron
to the prose writings of Rabelais and Voltaire. The models
Sartre, Jean-Paul (1905 80), French novelist, dram- of *Roman satire, especially the 'formal' verse satires of
atist, and philosopher. His name is synonymous with Horace and Juvenal, inspired some important imitations
existentialism, a philosophy which acclaims the freedom by Boileau, *Pope, and Johnson in the greatest period of
of the individual human being, and which he shared satire, the 17th and i8th centuries, when writers could
with his companion, the writer de *Beauvoir. Different appeal to a shared sense of normal conduct from which
emphases exist within existentialism, and Sartre and vice and folly were seen to stray. Among modern novelists
*Camus quarrelled over points of interpretation. Sartre's Waugh and Achebe are noted for their use of satire.
view, enunciated in two essays, L'Etre et le neant (1943)
and U
Existentialisme est un humanisme (1946), is atheistic: saung-gauk, a musical instrument, the Burmese arched
there is no intrinsic meaning to life; the only certainty is harp, the only surviving Central and southern Asian
the fact of human existence. An initial reaction to life's *bow harp, whose history goes back several millennia.
403 SCALE
The table is deerskin and there are, today, up to sixteen in military and dance bands, from which it became
strings tensioned with cord twined round the neck. important in the more recent jazz combinations and to
a lesser extent in popular music.
saxhorn, a family of valved brass musical instruments,
from sopranino in B\} to subcontrabass in E|7, invented by saz, the long-necked *lute of Turkey, the Balkans, and
Adolphe Sax from 1845 onwards. This was the first much of Central Asia. The body is small, shaped like a
homogenous family to include cornet, tenor, baritone, half-pear though often with a sharp keel at the back,
and tuba, and although the smaller instruments were either carved from a solid block of wood or built up in
made in trumpet shape, eventually all were made
initially staves. Instruments vary in length from 50 cm (1.5 ft.)
upright like tubas. The smallest is seldom seen today, and to 150 cm (4.5 ft.), with strings in single or multiple
the next two were replaced by cornets, but from the E^ courses. Some, such as the Greek *bouzouki, have been
tenor downwards, the saxhorns are the mainstay of brass extensively modernized. The saz was known in Europe
and military bands. (See also *flugelhorn.) from the 17th century or before.
saxophone, a single-reed musical instrument of conical scale, a series of musical notes arranged stepwise in
bore made, usually, of brass, and invented by Adolphe ascending or descending order of *pitch. The precise size
Sax in about 1842 by combining a clarinet mouthpiece of these steps can vary, as can the permutation of
with approximately the tubing and key work of an *ophi- their order. The number of possible scales is therefore
cleide.Saxophones were originally made in two sets, from considerable. Scales are arbitrary — the convenient co-
sopranino to contrabass, in F and C for orchestral use dification of musical material as used at any given
and in Ej? and B\} for military bands. Today, however, only time and place in the history of music. Western music
the latter set is seen. The saxophone has been used in recognizes two pitch differences: a large step, the tone,
well-known British works and in pieces by many German and a half-step, the semitone. Other cultures recognize
and French composers. It has proved extremely popular even smaller steps, but for some reason the Western ear
is not readily able to accept them. The Western scale is
Scales which proceed in seven steps (five tones and two counterpart; Frithiofs Saga (1825), based on an Old
semitones) are diatonic scales. These are reckoned major Norse theme, earned him a European reputation. The
and minor according to the sequence of tones and metaphysical poet Erikjohan Stagnelius (1793- 1823) is
semitones (for variations in the exact tuning of the now considered the most notable of the Swedish Roman-
intervals see *temperament). Each step of the diatonic tics. Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804-77), ^^o lived in
scale is identified by a diflferent name and an appropriate Finland but wrote in Swedish, established himself as the
roman numeral, as in the example below, in D major. national poet of Finland with his Tales of Ensign Stdl
(1 848) The prose writer Carl Jonas Love Almqvist 1 793-
.
(
m —a
I II III IV V VI VII
1866) moved from Romanticism to Realism with his
novel Sara Videbeck (1839), where his liberal views met
with public controversy. Together with his other radical
prose works and lyric poetry this earned him a reputation
tonic mediant I dominant leading as one of Sweden's leading authors. Hans Christian
note
sub- *Andersen's tales put Danish literature on the world
supertonic dominant submediant map, and the late 19th century was the high point of
Scandinavian literature in modern times. * Ibsen and
The relationship between different pitches may also be *Strindberg were key figures in the development of
described numerically, from unison to octave, through modern drama, while the Danes Jens Peter Jacobsen
second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. The starting-note (tonic) (1847-85) and Henrik Pontoppidan (1857- 1943; Nobel
of each scale is used to identify the *key it represents and Prize for Literature 191 7) and the Norwegians Alexander
therefore its * tonality. Scales that are not tonal include Kielland (1849 1906) and *BJ0rnson produced realistic
the five-note pentatonic scale, found in Western folk prose works full of local colour and social criticism. The
music as well as non-Western music; the whole-tone works of authors like *Hamsun and the Symbolist poet
scale, which has six pitches; and the many varieties of and prose writer Sigbjorn Obstfelder (1866- 1900) an-
seven-pitch scales known as *modes. ticipated the modern psychological novel. In the 1890s
the neo-romantic *Fr6ding was the outstanding poet.
* Modernistic poetry in Scandinavia was heralded by
influential Finnish poets (writing in Swedish), notably
Edith Sodergran (1892- 1923), but the outstanding mod-
ern poets were the Swedes Gunnar Ekelof (1907 68) and
Harry Martinson (1904-78; Nobel Prize for Literature
1974). Scandinavia has produced a number of excellent
prose writers in modern times, including *Lagerlof and
*Blixen. William Heinesen (1900- ) and Jurgen-Frantz
Scandinavian literature, the literature of Norway, scansion, the analysis of poetic *metre in verse lines,
Sweden, Denmark, the Faeroe Islands, and Iceland (see by displaying stresses, pauses, and rhyme patterns with
also *Finnish literature). The Icelandic *sagas, for cen- conventional visual symbols. The simplest system, known
were written down by Christian
turies transmitted orally, as graphic scansion, marks stressed syllables (' or ),
scribes between the 12th and 14th centuries and depict unstressed syllables (" or "), divisions between metrical
in part the myths and legends common to all Germanic units or 'feet' and major pauses or 'caesuras' (||) in
(|),
peoples. Among the best known are EgWs Saga (probably a verse line, determining whether its metre is *iambic or
written by *Snorri Sturluson, 1230) and NjaWs Saga,
c.
*dactylic, and how many feet make up the line. For
written by an unknown poet in the later 13th century. example, If rnu|sic be the food of love, play on
| |
||
In Iceland and to a lesser extent Norway, *skaldic and (Shakespeare, Twelfth Might). Scansion also analyses the
Eddie poetry (*Edda) flourished at the same time. The rhyme scheme in a poem or *stanza, giving alphabetical
medieval ballads of Denmark rank high in the European symbols to the rhymes: AABB, ABCB, or ABAB in most
tradition, though none were printed earlier than 1591. *quatrains, AABBA in limericks, for instance.
The literary renaissance flowered in Denmark in the i8th
century with the comedies of the Norwegian-born Ludvig Scarlatti, (Pietro) Alessandro (Gaspare) (1660-
*Holberg. The works of the poet and musician Carl 1725) and (Giuseppe) Doxnenico (1685 1757), Itahan
Michael Bellman (1740-95) combine realism with hu- composers. Little is known of Alessandro's early career
mour in a rhythmic, lyrical language; his Fredmans Epistles until his opera Appearances May Deceive achieved success
(1790) and FredmavLS Songs (1791) remain popular in in Rome (1679). He moved to Naples (1684- 1702) as
Scandinavia to the present day. Adam *OehlenschIager maestro di cappella (director of music) to the Viceroy,
was Denmark's greatest Romantic poet, while Esaias continuing his career as a successful *opera composer. A
Tegner ( 1 782- 1 846) was long considered to be his Swedish brief return to Rome, where opera was frowned upon by
,
405 SCHOENBERG
the Vatican, led to the composition of *oratorios and dramatic. Part of his ode To Joy (1785) was set to music
*cantatas —though he was able to write what is considered by Beethoven in his Ninth Symphony (1824).
to be his operatic masterpiece, Mithradates Eupator ( 707), 1
for Venice. His last years were divided between Naples Schinkel, Karl Friedrich 78 - 84 ( 1
German archi-
1 1
1 )
,
and Rome, but his operas were by then seen as old- tect, painter, and designer, active mainly in Berlin.
fashioned and were less successful. Scarlatti's operas Schinkel was the greatest German architect of the 19th
helped establish the da capo *aria and the Italian century, a brilliant exponent of both the *Greek Revival
sinfonia form of the *overture. Although Alessandro's son and the *Gothic Revival styles and also of a functional
Domenico also composed operas and sacred music, he style free from historical associations. Until 8 5, however, 1
1
is remembered for over 500 one-movement keyboard when he gained a senior appointment in the Public Works
*sonatas. They were written during his time in Lisbon Department of Prussia (from which position he effectively
(1719 28) as harpsichord teacher to the Infanta Maria redesigned Berlin), he worked mainly as a painter and
Barbara, or later in Madrid (1728-57), whither he stage designer. His paintings are highly *Romantic land-
followed the Infanta on her marriage to the Crown Prince scapes, somewhat in the spirit of *Friedrich, although
of Spain. He was admired as one of the foremost virtuosi more anecdotal in detail, and his stage designs rank
of the day, and his sonatas stand as models of ingenious, among the greatest of the period, combining the clarity
imaginative keyboard writing. and logic of his architectural style with a feeling of
mystery and fantasy. Schinkel's major buildings include
scat singing *jazz, *mouth music. the Altes Museum in Berlin (1822-8) and the Nicolai
Church in Potsdam (1829 37).
scenery, theatrical *set design, *stage machinery.
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von 767-1845), and his
( 1
scherzo (Italian, 'joke'). A light-hearted, fast-moving brother Friedrich von (1772- 1829), German scholars
musical movement, which succeeded the *minuet as the and critics, who exercised a major inffuence on German
standard third movement in *symphonies and *sonatas. *Romanticism. Together with the Brothers *Grimm, they
Scherzo-like movements can be found in Haydn's music, stand at the beginning of the study of *art history,
but it was Beethoven who established the scherzo's sym- literature, and of comparative philology, arguing that an
phonic validity. Like the old minuet and *trio, the scherzo understanding of art is impossible without knowing its
usually has a contrasting middle section —
the symphonic history. The translations of Shakespeare for which August
movement becoming a scherzo and trio. The term has Wilhelm was partly responsible are still used on the
also been used to describe various lively kinds of music, German stage. Friedrich's History of Ancient and Modern
as in Monteverdi's Scherzi musicali for voices, and Chopin's Literature (1815) reviews European literature from the
one-movement piano scherzos. Old Testament to his own day, reflecting his notion of
the inseparability of a nation's intellectual, spiritual,
Schiele, Egon (1890-1918), Austrian painter and political, and economic development.
draughtsman. He was influenced by *Klimt and *art
nouveau, but soon developed a distinctive style char- Schnitzler, Arthur (1862- 193 1), Austrian dramati.st
acterized by aggressive linear energy and nervous intens- and novelist. His psychological dramas dissect *fin-de-
ity. His best-known works are his drawings of nudes siecle Viennese life, with its sexual repressions and social
(including self-portraits), which have an explicit and disillusion. The interior monologues of the narratives
disturbing erotic power. He died when he was beginning Lieutenant Gustl 1900) and Miss Else (1924) draw a picture
(
to achieve international acclaim, and has since been of self-deceit, social time-serving, and the inferior role of
recognized as one of the greatest *Expressionist artists. women, while the episodic structure of the dramas Anatol
( 1 893) and the cycle often dialogues Reigen ( 900) (filmed 1
Schiller, (Johann Christoph) Friedrich von 759- ( 1 as La Ronde) confirm duplicity as a way of life.
1805), German poet, dramatist, and historian. Rebelling
against his training as a military physician, he composed Schoenberg, Arnold (1874- 195 1), Austro-Hungarian
a series of plays beginning with The Robbers i 78 whose (
1 )
,
composer. Apart from early violin lessons and, later,
terse, impassioned prose and melodramatic theme have advice from Zemlinsky, Schoenberg was virtually self-
close affinitieswith the *Sturm und Drang movement. taught. Almost from the beginning his music met with
Appointed house poet to the Mannheim Theatre, his play opposition and throughout his life he was obliged to teach
Love and Intrigue (1783) was written in realistic idiom and in order to earn a living. Early works, such as the sextet
with a strong element of contemporary social criticism. Transfigured Night (1899), Songs of Gurre (1900), and the
The historical verse-drama Don Carlos ( 787), intertwining
i
symphonic poem Pelleas and Melisande 1 903) were written
( ,
the personal passions of individuals and the fate of nations, in the shadow of *Wagner's chromaticism, but a gradual
marks a new phase in his development. As Professor of increase in dissonance, as in the First Chamber Symphony
History in Jena from 789 Schiller continued his study
i (1906), coupled with the very free, almost *Im-
of history, writing his History of the Thirty Tears War (179 1-3), pressionistic treatment of harmony and melody in such
as well as a treatise on aesthetics, Naive and Sentimental works as the Five Orchestral Pieces (1909), and excursions
Poetry (1795-6), and of the philosophy of Kant, all of into * Expressionism as in the theatre-piece Expectation
which led him, encouraged by *Goethe, to his final 909) and The Lucky Hand ( 1 9 1 3) forced him to conclude
( 1 ,
post in Berlin. He moved to Paris, and later (1934) to simple dances to such masterpieces as the 'Wanderer'
the USA, taking American citizenship in 1941. Fantasy (1822) and the later sonatas. Schubert's nine
symphonies show a similar range of development, be-
Schreiner, Olive (Emilie Albertina) (1855- 1920), ginning in 1 81 3 with works that are indebted to *Haydn
South African novehst. She is best known for The Story of and * Mozart and proceeding to a form and manner that
an African Farm (1883), a tragic novel of feminist protest is entirely his own in the B minor 'Unfinished' Symphony
set in the veld in which she grew up. Two other novels. (1822) and the 'Great' C major Symphony of 1828. His
From Man to Man (1927) and Undine (1929), appeared chamber music culminates in the 'Trout' Quintet (1819),
after her death. Her political views are expounded in the Octet (1824), the String Quartet 'Death and the
Woman and Labour (
1
91 1
) Maiden' (1824), and the sublime String Quintet (1827).
Schubert's music epitomizes the point in time at which
Schubert, Franz (Peter) (1797- 1828), Austrian com- classical restraint and moderation was turning towards
poser. After singing in the choir of Vienna's Imperial the poetic sensibilities of *Romanticism, and he thus
Court Chapel he trained as a teacher. His songs (over provides a link between the music of the i8th and 19th
600, which developed the *Lied as a Romantic art-form) centuries.
and his keyboard music attracted a circle of artistic friends
who did much encourage and sustain him after he had
to Schulz, Bruno (1892 -1942), Polish short-story writer
abandoned teaching in 1819. He wrote in all forms, but and artist. He died in the ghetto of the provincial town
it is his songs, piano music, symphonies, and chamber described in Cinnamon Shops (1934) and Sanatorium Under
music that have claimed the greatest attention. The songs of the Hourglass (1937). His rich prose transformed
the Sign
range from simple tunes with simple accompaniments images of his Jewish childhood into a world at once
(The Wild Rose, 1815) through tunes with descriptive macabre and magical.
accompaniments (The Trout, 181 7), to elaborate settings
in which piano and voice combine to present a drama in Schumann, Robert (Alexander) (1810 56), German
miniature (The Erl King, 1823). Such song-cycles as composer. Though compositions date from 1822,
his first
Winter's Journey (1827) and The Beautiful Miller's Daughter it was not until he began to take piano lessons from
(1823) embrace a whole world of emotion. Equally Friedrich Wieck (1829), whose daughter Clara (1819-
remarkable is his keyboard music, which ranges from 96) he was to marry, that composition became a serious
preoccupation. He was equally attracted to literary work,
founding a periodical, The New Journal (1834), as a
A sketch by Montz von Schwmd of his friend Schubert vehicle through which to fight musical philistinism. In
{centre) and companions. Barely two generations 1840 he was finally able to marry Clara and his happiness
separated Schubert from Mozart, but they witnessed the released a flood of songs, including the magnificent cycles
end of traditional patronage by the Church and the
nobility; Schubert enjoyed a freedom from both
Woman's Love and Life, Poet's Love, and Song-Cycles (all
establishments that earlier composers had been denied. 1840) Symphonies followed from 84 and then chamber
. 1
1 ,
(Stadtische Galerie, Munich) music. Fits of depression, however, soon began to interrupt
his creativity. In 1854 he attempted suicide, and was
placed in an asylum for the rest of his life. Clara
Schumann, a remarkable pianist and very capable
composer, lived on to support their children and cham-
pion his music. Though Schumann's four symphonies
(184 1, 1846, 1850, 851), Piano Concerto (1845), and
1
Passions, and the German Magnificat (1671). instrumental parts, starting at the top of the page with
the woodwind family and moving downwards through
Schwarzkopf, Elisabeth (1915 ), Pohsh-born Ger- brass, percussion (voices if needed), and strings. A mini-
man soprano singer. After her 1942 Vienna debut as ature score is a full score in reduced format. A vocal
Zerbinetta in Strauss's Ariadne on Naxos, Schwarzkopf score, of an opera or choral work, shows the voice parts,
remained there in coloratura (see *voice) roles until 1948. with the orchestral accompaniment compressed into a
She created the role of Anne Trulove in Stravinsky's The piano version for rehearsal purposes. (See also *notation.)
Rake's Progress 1951 ), and is famous for Strauss roles such
(
as the Marschallin in Rosenkavalier. A superb interpreter Scorel, Jan van (1495- 1562), Netherlandish painter.
of *Lieder, Schwarzkopf, together with her husband, the From 1 5 19 to 1524 he made a tour of the Mediter-
artistic director Walter Legge, conducted master-classes ranean area, in the course of which he became influenced
in interpretation at the Juillard School in New York in by Italian art. He was the first artist to bring a mature
1976. understanding of Italian *Renaissance art to the Nether-
lands and on his return his countrymen immediately
Schwitters, Kurt (1887-1948), German *Dadaist artist ranked him among their leading artists. He also worked
and writer. He is best known as the inventor of Merz, a for the courts of France, Spain, and Sweden. His work
nonsense word he gave to a form of art made from refuse, included religious pictures and portraits, but most of his
and numerous other forms of *collage. In 1937 he great altar-pieces have been destroyed. He was highly
emigrated to Norway, then after the German invasion he influential, his pupils including *Mor.
fled to Britain in 1940 and lived there for the rest of his
life. His major surviving work is an unfinished sculptural Scott, Sir George Gilbert 181 1-78), British architect.
(
composition (what he called a Merzbau— 'Merz building') A leading advocate and exponent of the *Gothic Revival,
in the Hatton Gallery, Newcastle upon Tyne. Sir George was enormously prolific. As well as designing
many new buildings, he restored a great number of
science fiction, a prose story which explores the prob- medieval churches, including Westminster Abbey and
able consequences of some improbable or impossible several cathedrals. Although he was a dedicated medieval
transformation of the basic conditions of human (or scholar, he was severely criticized by many for the
intelligent non-human) existence. This transformation ruthlessness of his work, in which the medieval fabric was
SCOTT 408
Pancras Station and Hotel (1868-74) in London. He was Last Minstrel (1805), a metrical romance, was followed
the head of an architectural dynasty, among the members by others, including Marmion (1808) and The Lady of the
of which were his sonsGeorge Gilbert Scott 1837-97) ( Lake (18 10), containing many of his best-known songs.
and John Oldrid Scott (1842- 19 13) and his grand- In spite of the popularity of his verse-* romances Scott
sons Adrian Gilbert Scott (1882- 1963) and Sir Giles recognized his limitations as a poet and found in the
Gilbert Scott (1880- 1960). The last-named designed *historical novel a means of expressing his talent for vivid
Liverpool Anglican Cathedral, Battersea Power Station characterization, his wide erudition, his humour, and his
(1930-4), and the 1924 and 1935 models of the standard realisticportrayal of Scottish life. The best known of the
General Post Office telephone box. novels are Waverley (1814), Guy Mannering (181 5), The
Antiquary (181 6), Old Mortality (1816), Rob Roy (1818),
Scott, Sir Walter (i 771-1832), British novelist, poet, The Heart of Midlothian (18 18), Ivanhoe (1819), Kenilworth
historian, and biographer, the first British novelist to (182 ), and Redgauntlet (1824), all published anonym-
1
for their colour and richness of imagery. In the Fenian items. More luxurious articles, such as walking-sticks and
cycle, which became prominent in f. 1330, the poet sings riding-whips, were also made. Scrimshaw was mainly
of nature and love in * ballad-form, and the Fenian made in the 19th century, and chiefly by American
legends have survived to modern times. The earliest sailors.
extensive anthology of heroic tales and ballads written
in literary Gaelic was The Book of the Dean of Lismore, sculpture, the branch of art concerned with the pro-
compiled in the Strathclyde region between 1412 and duction of three-dimensional representational or abstract
1526, and containing works by Scottish and Irish authors objects. Techniques used include *stone-carving, *wood-
from 3 10 to 1520. After the rise of Presbyterianism in
1
carving, and bronze *casting, as well as the production
Scotland in the i6th century, Scottish Gaelic evolved a of pottery and porcelain figures. In the history of Western
separate literature. Popular songs in stressed *metres have art sculpture reached a zenith in the work of the ancient
survived from the early 17th century. These are the work Greek sculptors * Praxiteles, *Phidias, and *Scopas. Dur-
songs or walking songs used as an accompaniment to ing the medieval period sculpture, much of it ecclesiastical,
manual labour. The 17th century saw the high point of was largely anonymous, with sculptors rising to prom-
Scottish Gaelic literature. Some
of the poetry and prose inence again during the Renaissance. In Florence during
of the period has been preserved in the Black and the Red this period *Donatello and *Michelangelo were the
Books of Clanranald wrhien by members of the MacMhui- outstanding innovators, and later *Bernini's style epi-
rich bardic family, whose work spans nearly 500 years tomized the sculpture of the high Baroque. *Canova and
from the 13th century to the i8th. Among the best-known *Thorvaldsen in the i8th century were the two most
poets of the 17th century were Mary Macleod (c. 1615 prominent exponents of a coolly intellectual Neocla.ssical
c. 1706) and the blind harper, An Clarsair Dall. Gaelic style. In the 19th century the major figure was *Rodin,
printing in the i8th century, greatly influenced by the whose expressive style owed much to the realist movement
first Scottish Gaelic book of secular poetry, Resurrection of in sculpture. The development of modern sculpture was
the Ancient Scottish Tongue 75 1 by Alexander Macdonald,
( i ) greatly influenced by *African sculpture, with its super-
produced valuable collections of poetry and social satire. natural orientation and its intention to portray the spirit
Little literature appeared in the 19th century, but a or feeling instead of producing a naturalistic depiction.
20th-century movement to free Gaelic poetry from its Important figures in the modern movement include
traditional conventions has kept the medium alive in the *Epstein, *Moore, and *Hepworth. Other artists rejected
works of writers such as Sorley MacLean (191 1- ). carving and modelling altogether and the movement
towards constructions, led by * Picasso and the *Con-
screen, a term used in various ways in the arts to structivists, set the style for much modern work in the
describe certain types of partition used to rail off a field. *Gabo and *Calder examined the possibilities
space or separate one part of a room from another. In of *kinetic art such as *mobiles, while the minimalist
architecture it refers mainly to grilles across the front of movement has pared works down to their basic geo-
chapels, or to the partition separating the chancel of a metrical forms, and other sculptors have experimented
church (usually accessible only to the clergy) from the with the use of different materials, particularly various
nave — the rood-screen. Both types may
be richly decor- metals and more recently vinyl and plastic. Overall,
ated. More loosely, the term can refer to any low or post-war sculpture has been characterized by a multitude
pierced wall over or through which one can see. A of styles and techniques and an absence of closely defined
distinctive form of screen was the Spanish 16th-century movements. (See also *Buddhist art, *Central American
reja ('grille') and chapels, constructed in
in sanctuaries and Mexican art, *Chinese art and architecture, *Hindu
two or more with spindled balusters of hammered
tiers, art, *Japanese visual arts.)
iron. Screens are associated with Islamic, Chinese, and
Japanese art (folding screens were used in China more Sculthorpe, Peter (Joshua) (1929 ), Australian
than 2000 years ago) and were often decorated by composer. Using Aboriginal folklore as a reference point
distinguished painters. and the music of Bali as an inspiration, he has attempted
to create a specifically 'Australian' music. This is best
Scriabin, Aleksandr (Nikolayevich) (1872-1915), evinced in such pieces as the four orchestral Sun Musics
Russian composer and pianist. His elaborate orchestral (1965-7) and Sun Music for Voices (1966). More recent
works were intended to reveal the mystical, quasi-religious works include the opera Rites of Passage (1974).
theories in which he had become involved. These include
Le Divin poeme (his Third Symphony), completed in 1904, scumble, a thin layer of opaque or semi-opaque paint
Le Poeme de r extase (1908), and Promethee, le poeme du lightly dragged or skimmed over a previous layer of
feu (1910) —
all notable for their languorous harmonies, another colour in such a way that the lower layer is
sumptuous orchestration, and general atmosphere of sen- only partly obliterated and shows through irregularly.
suous abandon. Mysterium, planned as an ultimate syn- Together with the use of *glazes, scumbling allows a
thesis of art and belief and intended to herald a period range of textural and colouristic effects that ensured *oil
of cosmic regeneration, never came to fruition. paint's dominance over other media. Similar effects can
now be obtained with *acrylic. Scumbling is also used in
scriiTishaw, a general term for any kind of craft work pencil, chalk, or monochrome drawing to soften the lines
made on board ship by sailors as a leisure activity, and by rubbing with a stump, etc.
by extension for similar pieces made elsewhere. Scrimshaw
includes carving on bone, ivory, shells, and wood, but Scythian art, also called Steppes art, the art of the
the most popular type is engraving on whale's teeth. Scythians, a nomadic people originally from Central Asia
Practical objects included boxes, games-pieces, im- who formed an empire centred around the area north of
plements for embroidery and knitting, and many other the Black Sea (now in the Soviet Union) that lasted from
SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO 410
This silver vase-handle in the form of a wild goat typifies Segovia, Andres (1893 1987), Spanish guitarist. Al-
the vitality of Scythian art. It is part of a collection though he studied in Granada, Segovia was largely
known as the Oxus Treasure, found in 1877 on a bank of Following
self-taught. his 1924 Paris debut, he toured
the Oxus River (now the Amudarya River) m Kataghan
becoming the central figure in the revival
province m Afghanistan. This was part of Bactria rather internationally,
than the Scythian empire, but Scythian goods were of interest in the guitar as a classical instrument. *Falla
widely dispersed through trade. (British Museum, and *Rodrigo composed works for him, and Segovia
London) himself transcribed pieces by Bach, Handel, Couperin,
and Rameau.
the 7th to the 2nd century bc. Their art centred on Seifert, Jaroslav (1910-86), Czech poet. After a short
the lavish burials accorded their kings and chieftains. phase of writing 'proletarian poetry' and proclaiming his
Numerous tombs have been excavated, and in some of belief in an approaching communist revolution, Seifert
them objects such as textiles have been preserved by turned to poetry freed from all social and moral precepts,
freezing. The finest treasures found in them are objects and became an exponent of *Dada and *Cubism {On the
worked in gold showing vigorous animal designs, in which Waves of the Wireless, 1924). In his later poetry, celebrating
real or mythical beasts are portrayed. In south-eastern the joys and beauty of the world, his perspective deepens
Scythia they often employed Greek craftsmen to produce and his final volumes express with resignation the mel-
and drinking vessels, revealing
exquisite pieces ofjewellery ancholy of passing life. He was awarded the Nobel Prize
Greek and Scythian life. The Scythians themselves worked for Literature in 1984.
in bone, leather, wood, bronze, iron, gold, electrum, and
silver. Manyof their decorated forms are geometric in Seljuq art. The Seljuqs were a dynasty with origins
design, conveying symbols of magic. Practically all are of among the Turkic tribes of Central Asia who ruled
superb craftsmanship and compelling force. in Iran and part of Anatolia (1055-1256). They were
distinguished particularly by their architecture, which
Sebastiano del Piombo (c. 1485- 1547), Italian painter. was usually of patterned brick, with heavily ornamented
He was a pupil of Giovanni *BeIlini, and his early work facades sometimes enhanced by turquoise tilework. In the
was strongly influenced by *Giorgione. In 151 he moved
1
superb Friday Mosque at Isfahan in central Iran, the
to Rome, where he remained for the rest of his life. He harmonious work of the smaller dome chamber (1088)
became a friend of Michelangelo, under whose guidance well illustrates their mastery of the transition between the
Sebastiano's work became grander in form whilst losing square base to the circle of the *dome above. The Seljuqs
much of its sensuous beauty of colouring and brushwork. developed the tomb tower, which was sometimes circular,
sometimes polygonal, and topped with a conical roof
—
His late work portraits as well as religious pictures
This remained an important architectural form for the
has a sombre grandeur: after Raphael's death in 1520 he
was the leading portraitist in the city. next three centuries in Iran, Central Asia, and Asia
Minor. A branch of the dynasty known as the Seljuqs of
secondary colour * primary colour. Rum established itself in Anatolia in the 13th century.
Its architecture is related to that of the eastern Seljuqs,
Seferis, George (Georgios Stylianou Seferiades) (1900- but was built predominantly of stone, with elaborately
71), Greek He was born in Smyrna, whose de-
poet. carved flat facades decorated with stylized *calligraphy,
struction in 1922 (in the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish arabesque, and floral patterns or, occasionally, with
.
411 SERMON
paired birds or grotesque animals. The Seljuqs left a without repetition, and formed into a 'note row'. The
remarkable network of fortress-like caravanserais (inns note row, transposed if necessary, or used in inversion or
built around a large court) for the use of travellers along backwards, and so on, therefore becomes the source of
the major trade routes of Anatolia. the composition. The notes may be used melodically or
harmonically, but a strict sequence must be maintained.
Seneca the Younger (Lucius Annaeus) (c. 1-65AD), It is the order that confirms their identity. Thus, notes 3,
Roman and statesman. Born in Spain, he spent
writer
5, and 7, may be heard simultaneously or consecutively,
much of his life in Rome, rising to political power under but not before notes 4 and 6 have been sounded. Many
the young Nero. He left nine tragedies on mythological composers have found Schoenberg's theory inspiring, but
subjects, and a satire on the deification of Claudius, but not all have applied it with the same rigour.
he is most notable for his prose works: 124 letters; the
Natural Questions, a treatise on natural science; and a series Serlio, Sebastiano (1475- 1564), Italian architect and
of essays on philosophical topics, full of point and wit, all architectural theorist, active in France from 1540. He
marked by an *epigrammatic style that uses *rhetoric to worked as consultant on the building of the palace of
recommend Stoic principles. Fontainebleau, but is of very minor account as an
architect. His importance stems rather from his influential
Senghor, Leopold Sedar (1906- ), Senegalese poet treatise. Architecture, published between 1537 and 1551,
and politician. The leading poet of French-speaking with other parts appearing posthumously. It was the first
Africa, he evolved the concept o{ nigritude in the 1930s, architectural publication designed as a highly illustrated
stimulating awareness of African culture as part of the handbook rather than a learned and it was used
treatise
anti-colonial movement which he represented in the French as a pattern-book by craftsmen
over Europe, playing
all
National Assembly after the war. He was the first Pres- an important part in spreading the *Renaissance style.
ident of independent Senegal ( 959-80) His collections of
1
.
The many editions published included an English trans-
lyrical poetry include Chants d' ombre (1945) and Nocturnes lation in 161 1
(1961).
sermon, a public exposition of religious (usually Chris-
Sennett, Mack (Michael Sinnott) (1880- 1960), known as a 'homily'. As a literary form,
tian) doctrine, also
Canadian-born US film producer and director, known the sermon was developed by Origen and Chrysostom in
as the 'King of Comedy'. He was the inspiration behind the 3rd and 4th centuries, becoming a highly elaborate
the Keystone Company from its foundation in 19 12 until art in the Middle Ages, when it stimulated the emergence
191 7, developing the use of *slapstick in crazy, irreverent of vernacular (non-Latin) literatures. The outstanding
short films almost always involving a final chase, and later homilists in English were Donne, Lancelot Andrewes
introducing the legendary Keystone Kops. He worked
with notable comedians such as *Keaton and Mabel
Normand 1894/5- 1930). ^^ leaving Keystone he con-
(
Hariri's Magama? (assemblies ofentertaming dialogues), a
tinued to make short comedy films but his reputation collection of tales of an elderly stranger called Ibn Zayd,
waned in the sound era and he made no films after 1935. was a bestsellerm the medieval Islamic world. The
miniature shown here is from a 13th-century manuscript
of the Maqamat from Baghdad, a rare survival of the
sepia, a brown, semi-transparent pigment made from Seljuq art of the book, providing a vivid and satirical
the ink of cuttlefish and other marine creatures, used for view of contemporary life. (Bibliotheque Nationale, Pans)
ink drawings and in washes. It was used by the Romans,
but period of greatest popularity was the late i8th
its
(1555-1626), and John Henry Newman (1801-90) in Sessions, Roger (Huntington) (1896 1985), US com-
England, and Jonathan Edwards in Massachusetts, USA. poser. His early works were influenced by ^Stravinsky,
The techniques of *allegory and *rhetoric cultivated in but with the Violin Sonata (1953) he adopted *serial
the Christian sermon tradition influenced many writers techniques. His most important contribution to American
from Langland and Chaucer to Emerson and Thoreau. music was the series of eight symphonies composed be-
tween 1927 and 1968. He wrote extensively and with
serpent, a wooden horn with finger-holes, built in penetration on various aspects of music, and was an
sinuous shape. Serpents were used in churches to support influential teacher.
the bass voices from around 1600, and in military and
other wind bands from about 740, by which time three
1
set design, design of the settings for theatrical pro-
keys had been added for chromatic notes. As orchestras ductions. Early productions had no sets, but in the Roman
grew larger, the serpent was introduced, and it appears theatre (and possibly the Greek) rotating triangular
in scores up to the middle of the 19th century, after which prisms, periaktoi, were sometimes used, each surface of
it was replaced by the *tuba. It survived, often locally which represented a particular setting. In Renaissance
made, in church bands and other amateur circles almost Italy the periaktoi were made larger and more numerous,
to the end of that century. eventually being renamed lelari, and the new invention
of * perspective painting was used by Peruzzi (1481-1537)
Sesshu 1420- 1506), Japanese painter, considered his
( in painting scenery. Buontalenti (1536- 1608) used lelari
country's foremost master of suiboku-ga or ink painting. with a painted backcloth. The English artist Inigo *Jones
A Zen Buddhist monk, he studied at Zen monasteries incorporated these changes in his *masques, which were
during a visit to China (where he was held in high regard) performed against elaborate backcloths ranging from the
in 1467 8. Although he was influenced by *Chinese art, fancifully wild to the formality of gardens, palaces, and
Sesshu's work was less ethereal, his brush-strokes showing colonnaded streets. He also introduced movable flats
great strength and angular vitality. He began a tradition (painted canvas-covered timber frames) which could be
of Japanese landscape painting based on observation used in pairs (known as wings or shutters), and the 'set
rather than meditative evocation, and he also painted scene', which had to be 'set' in advance and was invisible
flowers and portraits. Although best known for the vigour to the audience behind a pair of shutters until they
of his style, he also worked in a softer manner. (See also opened. 'Set' and 'flat' scenes (in which the flats slid on
*Japanese visual arts.) and off" in view of the audience) alternated in Britain
until the end of the 19th century. The public theatres
resisted Inigo Jones's reforms until after the Restoration,
The Teatro Olimpico m Vicenza, begun by Andrea and it was only under David *Garrick that scenery began
Palladio m 1580 and completed after his death by his to look attractive. In the 19th century architectural
pupil Vmcenzo Scamozzi, was an attempt by one of the authenticity was increasingly demanded, and the box-
greatest architects of the Renaissance to re-create the set, with three walls and a ceiling, was introduced. It
theatre of the Romans. The permanent set design superseded the wings and painted backcloth, at least in
represents an urban scene and achieves a striking sense the non-musical theatre. Later in the century came 'built
of recession by sloping the backstage parts upwards to
stuffs, three-dimensional replicas of objects such as rostra
enhance the perspective effect. The use of perspective
was the major innovation of the Renaissance period in and porches. The insistence of the Parisian Theatre Libre,
theatre design. founded in 1887, on giving a literal rendering of real life
413 SHAKESPEARE
helped to liberate the stage from the artificial prettiness shadow plays, a form of * puppetry in which shadows
of an earlier epoch. This in turn gave way, especially in are cast on a screen. The flat, jointed figures, usually
France and Germany, to more symbolic, stylized scenery, worked from below by wires or bamboo rods, pass
imaginatively lit by the new electric *lighting. Gordon between the screen and the source of light. The shadow
Craig *Meyerhold, *Piscator, *Stanis-
(1872- 1966), play began in the Far East, in China, India, and par-
lavsky, and *Reinhardt were influential, and Robert ticularly Indonesia where it is known as wayang, but
Edmond Jones (1887- 1954) and Norman Bel Geddes shadow plays are also performed in present-day Malaysia,
(1893- 1 958) led the USA to the forefront of scene design. Cambodia, and Thailand. The highly stylized shadow
Visual artists like *Picasso, *Braque, *Chagall, *Gris, puppets are intricately cut from leather and mounted on
and *Matisse engaged in set design in the early 20th sticks. Performances can last all night and are conducted
century, under the auspices of the ballet impresario by a skilled master puppeteer (daland), who manipulates
*Diaghilev. Later 20th-century developments, such as the the puppets before a light to cast shadows on a screen,
—
revolving stage and composite setting in which several and speaks the dialogues of all the different characters as
scenes could appear together, at different levels —
greatly well as providing the narration. In Indonesia stories based
increased the possibilities for set designers, who also on the * Mahdbhdrala and *Rdmdyaria are popular and
benefited from new materials such as plastics and metal often performed. Sometimes local and contemporary
alloys. New methods of staging such as theatre- references are incorporated into the performance, and
in-the-round and the use of non-theatrical spaces such as the shadow play has at various periods been used as a
galleries and streets, have posed problems, but are now propaganda tool and a means of disseminating gov-
accepted as part of the wide range of options (still ernment policy. In Turkey the shadow play, known as
including the box-set) open to the modern designer. (See Karagdz, was a popular form of theatrical entertainment,
also *stage machinery.) with stock characters based on the various ethnic types
of the Ottoman empire. Shadow play was brought suc-
Seurat, Georges (1859-91), French painter, the cessfully to the West, and the Palais Royal in Paris showed
founder of *Neo-Impressionism. His aim was to sys- Les Ombres Chinoises for over seventy years until 1859. The
tematize the method of juxtaposing colours in order to famous shadow play The Broken Bridge, which originated
achieve the kind of vibrant effects that the * Impressionists in Paris, was also known in London; the shadow play (or
had arrived at intuitively, and the method he evolved Galanty Show) survived there almost into the 20th
was to place small touches of unmixed colour side by century, usually in adapted Punch and Judy booths.
side on the canvas, a technique known as *pointillism, Lotte Reiniger (i 899-1 981) adapted the techniques of
producing an effect of greater luminosity than if the shadow plays for television and the cinema.
colours had been physically mixed together. The first
picture in which he fully established his new method was shahnai, a musical instrument, the *shawm of Indian
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1884-6), folk and classical music. Instruments vary from a cone
which was shown at the final Impressionist exhibition in made by stepping pieces of bamboo into each other to
1886 and established him as a leader of the avante-garde. the true conical instrument of classical players. Techniques
Tragically, he died from meningitis while still a young vary similarly, for folk players have the reed wholly in
man. Seurat's work was highly influential, but his fol- the mouth, whereas classical players now lip it like oboists.
lowers rarely approached his skill, and still less his level
of inspiration, in applying his theories. Shaker furniture, a distinctive type of wooden furniture
made in the USA in the late i8th and 19th centuries by
Seven Wonders of the World, the seven most spec- members of a Christian sect popularly known as the
tacular man-made structures of the ancient world, the 'Shaking Quakers' or 'Shakers' (they were so called
earliest extant of which dates from the 2nd century
list
because they trembled when filled with religious ecstasy).
and pyramids of Egypt (see *Egyptian art);
includes: the The sect was founded in Britain in 1 747 and was es-
the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (see *Babylonian art); tablished in America in 1774. Many of the men were
the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (see *mausoleum); the woodworkers and they soon began making furniture
temple of Diana at Ephesus in Asia Minor, built in 356 commercially. Its style reflected their plain, austere way
Bc; the Colossus of Rhodes, a huge bronze statue of the of life and high ideals of integrity: forms are strong,
sun-god Helios, sculpted in 250 bc; the statue of Zeus at simple, and functional, without any ornament; materials
Olympia (see *Greek art); and the Pharos of Alexandria, are of excellent quality; and craftsmanship is impeccable
a lighthouse built c.250 bc. but undemonstrative. It soon gained, and has retained,
a high reputation.
Sezession, a general name for several rebel art asso-
ciations in Germany. During the last decade of the 19th Shakespeare, William, (1564 1616), English dram-
century many of the more advanced German artists atist and His
poet. works, translated and performed
found impossible to exhibit their works through the
it
throughout the world, have made him the most celebrated
traditionally minded organizations. Hence they 'seceded', and most quoted of English writers. He was born in
and organized their own exhibition. The first group was Stratford-upon-Avon, the son of a glover, and in 1582 he
formed in Munich in 1892 and was followed by the married Anne Hathaway, who bore him three children.
Berliner Sezession, founded by *Liebermann in 1899. He is known to have been active in the London theatre
When a number of younger painters were rejected by the by 1592, but nothing is recorded of his earlier education
Sezession they founded their own Neue Sezession in 19 10. or working life. As an actor and playwright he worked
The Vienna Sezession, founded by *Klimt in 1897, was for the Lord Chamberlain's Men (known from 1603 as
concerned with the applied arts and architecture as much the King's Men), the leading company which from 1599
as with painting. occupied the Globe Theatre, of which Shakespeare was
SHAKUHACHI 414
(1898), which was banned for its frank treatment of the nose while blowing from the cheeks.
prostitution. His theory of the power of human will is
discussed in Man and Superman (1903). He wrote more Shawn, Ted (i 891 -1972), US dancer, teacher, and
than fifty plays including John BuWs Other Island (1904); choreographer. He first toured in 1914, when he met
Major Barbara (1905) featuring his heroine as a Major in and married Ruth *St Denis with whom he started
the Salvation Army; The Doctor's Dilemma (1906), a satire Denishawn, the dance company and school for *modern
on the medical profession; his most popular play, Pygmalion dancers. He championed the cause of the male dancer
(19 1 3, later adapted as the musical and film Aiy Fair
Lady), a human comedy about love and class; Heartbreak
House (1920), the spiritual flounderings of the war- ItIS likely that the shawm evolved m the Middle East
generation; Back to Methuselah (1921), five linked plays during the early years of Islam, A version of it may still
be heard m Asia and North Africa today. The instrument
which comprise a parable of creative evolution; and Saint
shown m this detail from the 'Mary, Queen of Heaven'
Joan (1923), an investigation of people's reaction to panel (c. 1485) would have been played at state balls, on
heroes. Discussion is the basis of his plays and his great ceremonial occasions, and before the hunt. (National
'Shavian' wit, his unorthodox views, and love of paradox Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
convinced his audiences that mental and moral passion
could produce absorbing drama. His other works include
The Quintessence of Ibsenism (1891) revealing his debt to
Ibsen;- The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Cap-
italism (1928); and his letters, collected in several volumes.
He was an active member of the Fabian Society, editing
and contributing to Fabian Essays in Socialism (1889), and
campaigned for many causes, including women's rights,
electoral reform, and reform of the English alphabet. He
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1925.
with his all male company. He is known for his teaching shellwork, decorative work using shells. In Melanesia
and on the *Delsarte system.
writings, particularly those and Micronesia shells have been used for articles of
He also promoted dance by founding Jacob's Pillow, the personal adornment, for decorating ceremonial masks,
US dance festival. and for inlaying articles such as bowls. Some North
American Indian tribes have used shells for similar
Sheffield plate, metalware made of copper coated on purposes and also for wampum — polished shells strung in
one or both sides with a layer of silver, the two metals sashes or belts and used as money or ornaments. Because
being fused by heat. This process for producing a cheap of its resemblance to the female genitals the cowrie shell
substitute for solid silver was invented in the early 740s i
has been used, from prehistoric times and in many parts
by Thomas Boulsover, a Sheffield cutler, who made small of the world, as a fertility symbol (in *amulets, for
items such as buttons and snuffboxes with it. From about example). Cowrie shells have also been used as currency.
1760 it was used for a much wider range of domestic In the West shells have long been collected for their
wares, such as teapots, candlesticks, and urns. It was beauty or curiosity value, and they have occasionally
manufactured in many places in* Europe and also in the been used to form or decorate small ornamental objects.
USA and Russia, but Sheffield retained the reputation The art of carving *cameos from shells began in Italy in
of producing the highest quality goods. From about 1840 the Renaissance and reached great heights in the work
Sheffield plate was rapidly superseded by electroplating, of Giovanni Sabbato fl. 1873-83), who spent ten years
which was less attractive but cheaper. carving a shell with an allegory of England's greatness at
sea.
Shelley, Mary WoUstonecraft (i 797-1 851), British
novelist. She was the second wife of * Shelley, whose works Shen Fu {Jl. late 1 8th early 19th century), Chinese
she edited after his death, and daughter of the advocate autobiographer. He was born in Suzhou and worked as
of women's rights, Mary *Wollstonecraft, and the philo- a clerk in the civil service. In 1809 he wrote Six Records
sopher William Godwin. Her novels, notably Frankenstein: of a Floating Life, a revealing memoir, unusual in Chinese
or The Modern Prometheus (1818), in which the monster literature. It provides deep insights into the traditional
describes his rejection by society and resentment towards Chinese family and marriage, the role of the courtesan,
his creator, are influenced by Godwin's ideas and take and the lower ranks of the civil service.
up many of the themes of the *Gothic novel. The Last
Man (1826) is set in the future, amongst the ruins of Sheraton, Thomas (i 751- 1806), British cabinet-maker
civilization. Among her highly readable travel books is and furniture designer. No furniture by his own hand has
History of a Six Weeks' Tour (181 7), in which she recounts
the continental tour that she undertook with Shelley
following their elopement.
A design for a cabinet from the 1802 edition of Thomas
Sheraton's The Cabmet-Maker and Upholsterer's
Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792- 1822), British poet and Drawing Book. Sheraton said his book was 'intended to
social and political thinker. He was expelled from Oxford exhibit the present state of furniture, and at the same time
University for circulating The Necessity of Atheism (181 1; to give the workman some assistance m the manufacturing
with T. J. Hogg), a pamphlet attacking religious belief part of It' The elegance of form and dehcacy of ornamenta-
.
His early philosophy on the perfectability of man is tion seen m this piece are characteristic of his style.
been identified, and his fame rests on his pubUcations, O'Connor. The leading 19th-century short-story writers
the most important of which is The Cabinet-Maker and were Pushkin, HoflTmann, Poe, Maupassant, and Chek-
Upholsterer's Drawing Book (1791-94). The designs were hov. In the early 20th century, outstanding authors
much used by furniture-makers in Britain and America, included Kaflia, Babel, Joyce, Mansfield, Maugham,
and Sheraton's name has come to be used as a label for Lawrence, and Borges. Prominent among their successors
the prevailing style in furniture around 1800 (simple in are Calvino and Singer.
outline, delicate and light), just as *Chippendale's name
is applied to the style of half a century earlier. Shostakovich, Dmitry (Dxnitriyevich) (1906 75),
Soviet composer. His career was a struggle between his
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (Butler) (i 751 -181 6), natural inclination towards the new musical styles of
Anglo-Irish dramatist and Whig politician. The most Western Europe and the demands of a Soviet policy
celebrated of his plays are The Rivals (1775), with Mrs that required music to be readily comprehensible and
Malaprop (see *malapropism) among its characters, and optimistic. In 1936 his opera The Lady Macbeth o/Mtsensk,
The School for Scandal (1777), both comedies of manners which had enjoyed great success in 1934, was attacked
combining wit and elegance. In 1777 he was elected to for its unacceptable modernism. He withdrew a fourth
Johnson's Literary Club. He wrote many more plays, symphony and commenced a fifth. This proved acceptable
including A Trip to Scarborough (1777), and The Duenna and highly popular (1937), and he was reinstated as the
(1775), both musical plays. He was elected to Parliament foremost Soviet composer. In 1948 he again came under
in I780, where he proved himself to be a brilliant orator attack, and lost his Moscow professorship. Shostakovich
and held senior government posts. In 8 3 he was arrested
1
1
wrote in two idioms: one simple and readily accessible,
for debt and three years later he died in poverty. the other complex and deeply personal. His output
includes fifteen symphonies (1924-71) and fifteen string
Shijing Chinese *Confucian scrip-
('Classic of Poetry'), quartets (1935-74); ^n the strength of these alone he
anthology of Chinese poetry. Known as the
ture, the first must be judged one of this century's greatest composers.
'Book of Odes' or the 'Book of Songs', it is a collection
of folk-songs about love, marriage, and war, and hymns showboat, a floating theatre which travelled down the
for festivals, sacrifices, and hunting, 305 poems in all. USA, bringing entertainment to areas newly
rivers of the
Legend holds that Confucius himself edited the poems, colonized. The first true showboat was launched about
which date back to between 100 and 600 bc. The literary
1 183 It travelled annually down the Ohio and Mississippi
1 .
form of the Shijing has exercised a profound influence on from Pittsburgh to New Orleans, giving mainly one-night
Chinese poetry, stressing the lyrical rather than the stands. Showboats became extremely popular and spread
narrative element of composition. to other rivers, mostly staging *melodrama and comedy;
usually they were pushed by tugs and had three decks.
sikhara, in Indian architecture, a pyramid-like super- They disappeared during the Civil War but later returned,
structure above the central shrine of a temple, built to being destroyed eventually by the Depression, the cinema,
resemble a mountain in reference to the mountain home and the opening of more polished city theatres.
of the gods. Often there are subsidiary towers of the same
design attached at the sides. Sikharas are associated with Sibelius, Jean (Julius Christian) (1865- 1957), Finn-
northern India; in southern India a smaller, squatter ish composer. In 1892 the success of his patriotic choral
structure crowns the sanctuary. symphony Kullervo established him as Finland's leading
composer. There followed a series of orchestral works,
Shnitke, Alfred (Garriyevich) (1934- ), Soviet including A Saga (1892), the four Lemminkdinen tone-poems
composer. He was one of the first Soviet composers to (including 'The Swan of Tuonela', 1893), the First Sym-
explore *serialism. Later works have proved eclectic in phony (1899), and nationalist works such as Karelia
style: most noteworthy are the four violin concertos ( 1957) (1893) and Finlandia (1899). His reputation rests mainly
and four symphonies (1972-84), written in a powerful, on seven symphonies 1899- 1924) and his Violin Concerto
(
know it flourished in the magazines of the 19th and early commonplace (often sordid) life with a penetrating but
20th centuries, especially in the USA, which has a unmalicious eye. In 191 he founded the * Camden Town
1
particularly strong tradition from Irving to Flannery Group and later belonged to the London Group, which
SIDDONS 418
brought together the Camden Town Group and the mosaic-like patches of pure colour (as opposed to Seurat's
*Vorticists. mostly of seascapes. In 1899 he published
pointillist dots),
D' Eugene Delacroix a neo-impressionisme, in which he upheld
Siddons, Sarah Kemble) (i 755-1 831), British tra-
(b. the idea of painting with scientific precision.
gedienne, sister of John *Kemble. Though her en-
gagement as an actress by David *Garrick in 1775 was Signorelli, Luca (c. 1441-1523), Italian painter. His
unsuccessful, she returned to London in 1782, and was finest works are in Orvieto Cathedral, where he painted
soon acclaimed as a great tragic actress. Her roles included a magnificent series of six frescos illustrating the end of
Constance in King John, Belvidera in Otway's Venice the world and the Last Judgement (1499- 1504). In these
Preserved, Zara in Congreve's The Mourning Bride, and grand and dramatic scenes he displayed a mastery of the
above all Lady Macbeth. She was beautiful and dignified, nude in a wide variety of poses.
had a rich, resonant voice and an amplitude of gesture;
Reynolds painted her as The Tragic Muse (1784). Sikh literature. The principal work is the Adi Granth
(Tirst Book'). This contains some 6,000 hymns, mostly
Sidney, Sir Philip (1554-86), English poet, statesman, composed by the Sikh leaders or Gurus, from the founder
soldier, and courtier. His heroic prose *romance the Nanak (i469-i_539) down to the fifth Guru Arjan, who
Arcadia (1590) is an intricately plotted narrative, with compiled the Adi Granth inEmphasizing the Sikh
1604.
poems and pastoral *eclogues in a variety of verse-forms. belief in the absolute oneness of God, the Adi Granth also
Astrophel and Stella 59
( 1a series of witty and impassioned
1 )
, contains verses by other saint-poets regarded as Nanak's
*sonnets and songs of unhappy love, is considered one of spiritual precursors, from both Hindu *Bhakti and Islamic
the finest Elizabethan examples of this genre. In his *Sufi literature. The tenth and last Guru Gobind Singh's
Defence of Poesie (1595) Sidney wrote the most notable works are collected in the Dasam Granth ('Book of the
work of Elizabethan *literary criticism, upholding the Tenth Guru'). After his death, the spiritual authority of
above philosophy and history as a
superiority of poetry the Guru was henceforward vested in the Adi Granth itself,
means of teaching virtue. He was a notable patron of which is the focus of worship in the Sikh temple and
scholars and men of letters, and more than forty works central to all Sikh ceremonies. The popular Janam-sdkhis
by English and European authors were dedicated to him. ('Birth-testimonies') contain anecdotes and legends about
A member of parliament for Kent, he died fighting for Guru Nanak, while the Rahitndmas ('Books of Conduct')
the Netherlands against Spain, and was mourned in preserve the traditions of the Khalsa, the baptized Sikh
Spenser's elegy 'Astrophel' (1595). brotherhood instituted by Guru Gobind Singh.
Sienese School, the artists, and particularly the paint- silhouette, a term in art to describe an outline image
ers,of Siena, who flourished most distinctively in the 14th in one, solid, flat colour, giving the appearance of a
century, a period when Siena rivalled its neighbour
Florence in artistic splendour. From the 12th century
Portraits of the first five Sikh Gurus from a 19th-century
until 1555 (when it became part of the Grand Duchy of manuscript of the Dasam Granth. Upper left is Sikhism's
Tuscany) Siena was a rich independent republic. The founder Guru Nanak, author of many hymns m
the Adi
most famous of Sienese painters and the founder of the Granth, and upper right his successor Angad Das,
painting was *Duccio, whose decorative
city's tradition in inventor of Gurmukhi, the distinctive script used Sikh m
beauty of and colour influenced his contemporaries
line
literature (seen here m
the central roundel). Lower left
the third Guru Amar Das, who reformed marriage and
and successors profoundly. Duccio's grace and charm
death ceremonies and forbade suttee, and lower right
were continued most memorably by *Simone Martini, a Ram Das, who founded Amritsar, the Sikhs' holy city.
friend of Petrarch, who spread Sienese influence as far as Bottom centre is the fifth Guru, Arjan, who compiled the
France. The other outstanding Sienese masters of the Adi Granth m1604. (British Library, London)
14th century were the *Lorenzetti brothers Pietro and
Ambrogio, who worked in a mixture of decorative fantasy,
brilliant use of colour, and minute observation which was
to characterize the * International Gothic of the end of
the 14th century, the style in which the Sienese played
such an illustrious part. In sculpture the leading figures
in Siena's great period (although he was not Sienese by
birth) were Giovanni *Pisano, who (working also as
architect) masterminded the richly decorated facade of
the cathedral, and Jacopo della *Quercia.
the moth bombyx mori, and made from it. Silk was
fabric
discovered by the Chinese (see * Chinese decorative arts),
who jealously guarded the secret of its manufacture (or
sericulture), exporting it along the Silk Road —
a caravan
route of some 10,000 km. (6,000 miles) to Iran, Rome,
and Byzantium. The sophistication of early Chinese silk-
weaving has been ascertained from fragments found on
bronzes from the Shang period (i 8th- 12th centuries bc).
Later Chinese weaving was influenced by the designs of the
silk-weaving industry (using imported raw silk) of Sas-
sanian Iran, which were usually repeating motifs of paired
heraldic animals or emblems in roundels. In the later
Roman empire silk, first introduced in the ist century
BC, was a luxury commodity. The Byzantine government
established a monopoly of silk-weaving staffed by her-
editary workers, with designs based on Sassanian work.
According to legend, in about 500 ad two disguised
monks smuggled silkworm eggs out of China, allowing
the Byzantines to produce silk themselves. Sericulture in
western Anatolia was continued by the Ottoman Turks,
whose state manufactories produced kaftans and velvets
ornamented with floral and arabesque designs. In Iran
silk-weaving blossomed to great heights under the Safa-
vids. Shah Abbas established workshops in Isfahan pro-
ducing *carpets, cloth, and velvets, with naturalistic
designs such as hunting and court scenes based on styles The sumptuous and highly decorated forms of this
seen in *miniature painting. The Muslim conquerors of Spanish ewer, dating from about 1560, are typical of the
Spain established sericulture there by the gth century, silverware of the period, when there was a great love of
virtuosity. The grotesque handle is particularly striking
specializing in veil-like fabrics with tapestry borders
and elaborate, reflecting influence from Italy (Philip II
decorated in Arabic calligraphy and other silks with brought many Italian artists and craftsmen to Spam to
Sassanian-type motifs. By the 14th century sericulture was work on the Esconal, his huge palace near Madrid).
established in Italy, with Venice and Florence producing (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
magnificent velvets in crimson and gold. In France, Tours
and Lyons were early centres of silk-weaving (by the
mid- Gth century), but Louis XIV's minister Colbert
1 great certainty of purpose and hand. Silverpoint first
reorganized the industry in the 17th century, stipulating appeared medieval Italy and was particularly popular
in
that new patterns be produced twice yearly to stimulate in the 15th century. Diirer and Leonardo da Vinci were
demand for fashionable items. Huguenots leaving France perhaps the greatest exponents of the medium.
to escape religious persecution established the major
silk-weaving centre in England at Spitalfields, London. silverware, articles made of or plated with silver. Like
(See also * weaving.) gold, has been highly prized since ancient times, valued
it
for its beauty, its scarcity, and the ease with which it can
silk-screen printing, a colour * printing process based be worked. In its pure state silver is harder than gold,
on stencilling. The 'silk screen' is a fine mesh through but still too soft to be used for metalwork, so it is
which colour can be brushed or squeezed on to paper usually alloyed, generally with copper. Among the earliest
beneath, and the design is created by masking off" parts discoveries of gold and silver plate is the treasure from
of the screen, either by means of cut-out shapes or by the site of Troy c.2000 bc. Between 1000 and 300 bc the
using a lacquer that is impervious to the paint. The Phoenicians produced high quality plate, most of which
process, which originated in the early 20th century, has was decorated by embossing or engraving, and the Ro-
been widely used for commercial textile printing, but in mans too valued silver plate highly from the 2nd century
the 1930s it was developed as an artists' medium. Andy BC. The influential Anglo-Saxon school (7th century ad)
Warhol has been the most noted exponent. produced artefacts such as the Ormside Bowl, made of
silver and copper gilt (see *gilding), and ornamented
silverpoint, a method of drawing using a fine silver with cursive interlacings of a Celtic character. During the
rod, pointed at one end, on prepared paper. Other Middle Ages in western Europe the Church was the main
—
metals copper, gold, lead —
may be used, but silver is patron and much metalwork was done in monasteries.
the most common. It produces an attractive fine grey During the Renaissance Italian craftsmen predominated,
line that oxidizes to a light brown. The strength of tone particularly *Cellini, though *Brunelleschi too began his
can hardly be varied at all and the technique demands career as a silversmith. Florentine silversmiths provided
SIMENON 420
a remarkable altar frontal for San Giovanni, Florence. took their inspiration from the design of the Byzantine
In Spain and Portugal much ecclesiastical silver was church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and are worthy
produced, advantage being taken of the immense quantity successors in their vast domed grandeur. Among the finest
of silver reaching Spain from the New World. A silver-gilt are the §ehzade Mosque (1548) and the Mosque of
processional cross made in Barcelona in the late 15th Suleyman the Magnificent in Constantinople (1550-7)
century is typical: the upright and arms are modelled and the Sultan Selim Mosque at Edirne (1569-75), the
with scrolling foliage interspersed with shaped plaques building that Sinan himself considered his master-piece. In
depicting religious scenes. In France the building and accordance with the requirements of Muslim worship for
equipping of the palace of Versailles from c. 1660 stim- a large open prayer space, Sinan aimed to centralize the
ulated silversmiths to produce suites of solid silver furni- interiors of his mosques beneath a unifying dome. On the
ture, while the reputation of French craftsmen in the exteriors cascades of smaller domes descend around the
manufacture of domestic silverware spread throughout main central dome to create a graceful yet sturdy sil-
Britain was responsible for the invention of *Sheffield Sinatra, Frank *crooning.
plate, a substitute for solid silverware. After the industrial
revolution, the encroachment of mass-production tech- Sinclair, Upton (Beall) (1878- 1968), US novelist. A
niques led to poorly made pieces by many companies. prolific writer, Sinclair first came to public attention with
The *Arts and Crafts Movement persuaded some artists The Jungle (igo6), which exposed the corruption of the
to return to hand-crafting in the 20th century, though meat-packing industry in the Chicago stockyards. He
machine-made silver has been predominant. tended to centre each of his subsequent novels, up to
World War II, on a different area of American society,
Siznenon, Georges 1903-89), Belgian-French novelist.
( achieving the best results in works like King Coal (191 7).
He is known for his *detective novels built around the In the 1940s he wrote a series often novels with Lanny
character of the Parisian Inspector Maigret, though he Budd as hero, covering US and European history from
has also written psychological novels of a more literary 19 1 3 to 1945. He became a socialist as a young man, and
nature. His characters belong to the drab world of the in 1906-7 was involved in the experimental commune,
lower middle classes which is evoked through character the Helicon Home Colony, in New Jersey. An influential
and mood rather than visual description. Among the figure in the Democratic Party, a large body of pamphlets
many Maigret titles may be noted Le Chien jaune (1936) and studies testifies to his political beliefs.
and Maigret aux assises 960) Simenon's autobiographical
( 1 .
novel. Pedigree (1948), provides an important key for sinfonia *overture, *symphony.
understanding his work. His total output includes more
than 200 novels published under his own name and more Singer, Isaac Bashevis (1904- ), US short-story
than twice as many under 17 pseudonyms. writer and novelist writing in Yiddish. Born in Poland,
the son of a rabbi, he followed his elder brother, the
simile, an explicitcomparison between two different Yiddish novelist Israel Joshua Singer (1893-1944) to
things, actions, or feelings, using the words 'as' or 'like': the USA in 1935. He became a journalist writing in
'I wandered lonely as a cloud' (Wordsworth). A very Yiddish for the New York Jewish Daily Forward, which
common *figure of speech in both prose and verse, simile also published his fiction. His work began to appear in
is more tentative and decorative than *metaphor. The English translations from 1950 with The Family Moskat,
'epic similes' of Homer and other epic poets are sustained which realistically presents the degeneration of a Jewish
comparisons of two complex actions, for instance the family in Warsaw from the turn of the 20th century to
charging of an army and the onset of storm-clouds. World War II. His stories are generally even more
esteemed than his longer fiction, portraying more pun-
Simone Martini (c. 1285- 1344), Italian painter of the gently the lives of curious characters in their ghetto
*Sienese School. Probably trained in *Duccio's circle, he settings in situations marked by fantasy and humour. He
developed further the use of outline and colour which was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1978.
characterize Duccio's work. His earliest surviving work
The Virgin in Majesty (13 15) is painted in a sumptuous Singspiel *operetta.
yet delicate Gothic style. Elegance and grace mark his
Annunciation (1333), perhaps his finest work. Simone Sisley, Alfred (1839-99), British * Impressionist painter
worked in Avignon from 1340 to 1341 and his style working in Paris. Like Monet, Sisley devoted himself
greatly influenced French Gothic imitators. almost exclusively to landscape, but his work was much
less varied. Apart from a few visits to England he rarely
Sinan (c. i489-f.i588), Turkish architect. Sinan is the travelled, and most of his pictures are of scenes in and
most illustrious figure in Islamic architecture and the only around Paris. The best are among the most lyrical and
one whose fame has spread to the West. He was the chief gently harmonious works of Impressionism, delicate in
architect of the emperor Suleyman the Magnificent at touch and with a beautiful feeling for tone. Sisley spent
the time when the Ottoman empire (see *Ottoman art) the last years of his life in poverty.
was at its peak and his output was prodigious his —
autobiography credits him with more than 300 build- sistruzn, a musical instrument, a *rattle either with bars
ings. They include mosques, palaces, schools, tombs, sliding in a frame or with discs or plates sliding on bars.
caravanserais, hospitals, and fortifications (he began his Sistra were widely used in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia,
career as an artillery officer and engineer in the Ottoman and Rome, and were especially associated with the Isis
army). His best-known buildings are his mosques, which cult. They survive today in the Ethiopian Coptic Church.
'
421 SKIDMORE
Sistrum is also a class name for any rattle with sliding tensibly a lament for a young lady's sparrow, but also a
elements. lampoon on the liturgical office of the dead; Speke Parrot
and Collyn Clout (c.1521), both satires containing attacks
sitar, one of the most important musical instruments of on Cardinal Wolsey and on the dangers of the new
the classical music of the northern Indian sub-continent, learning of the humanists; The Tunnyng of Elynour Rummyng,
a long-necked lute with four main plucked strings and a vigorous description of tavern low-life; and Magnyfycence,
three plucked as a rhythmic *drone; twelve sympathetic a political satire and the first secular *morality play in
plucked occasionally. The strings can be pulled
strings are English. His favourite metre, with short lines based on
sideways along the curved metal frets, varying the pitch natural speech rhythms with two or three stresses and
up to a fifth. The strings vibrate on a flat area of the quick, recurring rhymes, is known as 'skeltonic'.
bridge, which enriches the sound. A bass sitar, the surbahdr,
is also often used. The sitar was created as a conflation Skidxnore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), US archi-
of the Persian setdr and the Indian *vind. tectural firm established inChicago in 1936 by Louis
Skidmore (1897 1962) and Nathaniel Owings (1903-84);
Sitwell, Dame Edith (Louisa) (1887 1964), Sir John Merrill 1896- 1975) joined the partnership in 1939.
(
(Francis) Osbert (Sacheverell) 1892 1969), and Sir( It has since become one of the largest and most distin-
Sacheverell (1897-1988), English writers and poets.
Edith's reputation as an eccentric stylist was confirmed
by her public performance, in 1925, of Faqade, a poetic This painting by Jacques-Emile Blanche shows Les Six
entertainment with music by William *Walton and her (from left to right): Milhaud, Auric, Durey (conducting),
own verses in syncopated rhythms. She wrote a novel, Tailleferre, Poulenc, and Honegger (seated). Jean
and some poems of emotional depth about the London Cocteau, the noted French writer, championed their
music and its attempt to create a style free from German
blitz and the atom bomb [Street Songs, 1942; and The
influence. He wrote of the group that they were 'six
Shadow of Cain, 1947). Her works reveal a regret at the friends whose pleasure it was to meet and work together.
passing of the aristocratic age and its splendours, and in It was never a school but a movement. That is why I am
1955 she was received into the Roman Catholic Church. proud of always having been its spokesman.
Her brother, Osbert, produced many volumes of poetry
(some sharply satirical in tone), travel works, and prose
memoirs which convey with nostalgia the portrait of a
vanished age, and give a vivid account of their eccentric
father. The youngest brother, Sacheverell, is best known
for his books on art, architecture, and travel. He also
wrote volumes of verse, mainly in traditional metres
(including An Indian Summer, 1982). All three encouraged
the *Modernist writers (notably Pound and T. S. Eliot).
Edith, as editor of the magazine Wheels, which introduced
the poems of Wilfred *Owen, became the outspoken
enemy of the ^Georgian poets, whom she regarded as
philistine.
guished architectural firms in the world with branches in of *ballad, myth, and folk-tale. A Slovak nationalist
various American cities. The major works of include SOM revival against the Magyarization of the country gained
some of the most famous American skyscrapers since the momentum in the 19th century, and modern literary
1950s, including Lever House in New York (1952), an Slovak was eventually codified in 1840 by Ludovit Stur
elegant slab in the tradition of * Mies van der Rohe, and (1815-56). It found its voice in the romantic poetry of
the Sears Tower in Chicago (1974), the tallest building Janko Krai (1822-76), the *epic ballads of Jan Botto
in the world. The firm has done much work in Islamic (1829 81), and the *lyric verse of Andrej Sladkovic
countries. Most of its work has been in the sleek tradition ( 1820 72), who was also instrumental in the establishment
of the *Modern Movement. of a Slovak national theatre (1841). Thereafter Slovak
literature developed closely along the lines of *Czech
Skryabin, Alexander *Scriabin, Aleksandr. literature, embracing *realism. In the 20th century Slovak
verse found expression in the lyric poetry of Jan Smrek
Skvorecky, Josef (1924- ), Czech-Canadian nov- (1898 and the patriotic verse of Andrej Zarnov
)
elist. An
important writer in post-war Czechoslovakia, he (1903 ), who inspired a whole generation of Slovak
settled in Toronto after the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion writers. Since the Communist take-over of the country
of his country. His novels, written in an ironic style * Socialist Realism has prevailed, although alternative
combining the tragic and the comic, are about writers experimental literary genres are expressed, especially in
and musicians who celebrate freedom through art. In the theatre and on film.
English translation they include Afm6';7y^r'.r/*ai/( 1975), The
Bass Saxophone gyj), The Swell Season (1982), The Engineer
{ I
Slowacki, Juliusz (1809-49), Polish poet. His work
ofHumanSouls{ig8'^), and Dvorak in Love (1986). progresses from romantic tales. The Father of the Plague-
Stricken (1839), to a baroque style, Mazepa (1840) and a
slapstick, knockabout *comedy based on falls (through final mystical phase, Salomea's Silver Dream (1844), which
the traditional banana skin or other means), the impact was to influence deeply the Polish * Symbolist movement.
of messy food on faces, and other physical mishaps. The He analysed the national struggle in the drama Kordian
word derives from the bat, or lath, used by Harlequin in (1834); exile in the prose poem Anhelli (1838); and
the *harlequinade to beat his adversaries' backsides. conflicting elements in the Polish character in the tragedy
Slapstick was used by the *clown and in the *music-hall, Lilla Weneda (1840). King-Spirit (1847) is a historical vision
and was also popular in films. It still survives, notably in of reincarnated forces in man which shape history.
*pantomime and in occasional films.
Smart, Christopher (1722-71), British poet. A pre-
slip, term in pottery manufacture for a clay paste diluted cursor of *Blake and *Clare, he is remembered for A Song
to the consistency of cream. It may be the product of the to David 763), a vivid poem celebrating David as author
( i
final washing of the clay which is undertaken to remove of the psalms, the creation of man, and the incarnation
impurities and render it suitable for use. The shaped of Christ. His work was little regarded until the 1920s,
vessel after drying may be dipped in a bath of slip and but his reputation as an original poet was confirmed by
then burnished to render it watertight as, for example, the publication o{ Jubilate Agno (1939), which with an at
in African domestic pottery. Slip is used for decoration times child-like penetration, celebrates the creation in a
of pottery in three main techniques: the design may be verse-form based on Hebrew poetry. He sufTered from
painted on the body of the vessel in slip of a different religious mania and during i 759-63 was in a home for
colour or the slip may be 'trailed' on to the body from a the insane; he died in a debtors' prison.
nozzle as in black-glazed 'Cistercian' ware, which is
decorated in white slip patterns; the whole or part of the Smetana, Bedfich (1824 84), Czech composer. Born
body may be covered with slip and the design then drawn in Bohemia, he was decisively influential at a formative
with a pointed tool in the liquid slip so that the different stage of his nation's self-awareness, and established vir-
colour of the body shows through; or, as with glaze, the tually single-handed a style of national opera. Success
design may be painted on the body in liquid wax which came with the nationalist operas The Brandenburgers in
when dried and hardened 'resists' or repels the application Bohemia and The Bartered Bride, both first performed in
of the slip, thus leaving 'negative' areas of design. In the 1866. Subsequent operas, such as Dalibor (1867) and
19th century clay for earthenware was united with a Libuse (1872), and the cycle of *symphonic poems Md
creamy mixture of powdered flint and the mixture was vlast ('My Fatherland') (1874 9), continued to explore
technically known as 'slip'. nationalist, folkloristic themes. His last years were clouded
by deafness and finally insanity.
slit drum, a musical instrument made from a wooden
log hollowed through the slit or, when the slit is very Smirke, Sir Robert (1780- 1867), British architect. He
narrow as on the Aztec teponaztli, from the back, which began designing country houses in a medieval
his career
is then closed with a wooden plate. One lip is often style, but turned mainly to public buildings and became
thicker than the other to produce different pitches for England's most dedicated and distinguished exponent of
*talking drums. Sizes vary from those held in one hand to the *Greek Revival. His masterpiece is the British Mu-
those round the dancing grounds on Malekula, Melanesia —
seum in London (1823-46) huge, majestic, and austere.
more than 2 metres (6 ft.) high. Some are used for musical (The famous domed reading-room in the centre of the
purposes and others for signalling. Modern composers museum was built to the design of his brother— Sydney
have included them in orchestras, often called log drums. Smirke (1798 1877) — in 1854-7.) Smirke was renowned
for his reliability and his soundness in constructional
Slovak literature, the literature of the Slovak-speaking matters (he pioneered the use of concrete foundations
part of Czechoslovakia. This is based on an oral tradition and of cast-iron beams).
423 SOCIAL DANCE
Smith, Stevie (Florence Margaret Smith) (1902-71), Icelandic saga and mythology. He probably wrote EgiPs
British poet and novelist. She was brought up in the Saga (c. 1230), the first novel-length saga, describing the
suburbs of London, where she lived most of her life with heroic exploits of the Icelandic poet Egil Skallagrimsson
an aunt, and which inspired some of her poetry. She wrote (f.910-990). Snorri's St Olafs Saga was modified and
Novel on Yellow Paper ( 1936), in a *stream-of-consciousness incorporated into his Heimskringla (c. 1230), a history of
stylebut is best remembered for her witty, caustic, and the kings of Norway from prehistoric times up to 1177.
enigmatic verse illustrated by her own drawings, including Snorri became the most powerful chieftain in Iceland,
those contained in A Good Time was Had By All (1937), but his political scheming led to his assassination.
Not Waving But Drowning (1957), and the posthumously
published The Collected Poems of Stevie Smith (1975). Snow, C(harles) P(ercy) (1905 80), British novelist.
He is best known for his sequence of eleven novels. Strangers
Smollett, Tobias (George) (i 721 -71), British comic and Brothers (1940-70), which includes The Corridors of
novelist and dramatist. His first novel, a *picaresque Power 1963) and other fictional studies of life in the Civil
(
story. The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748), drew on Service and in the scientific community.
his experiences as a naval surgeon's mate. His only
non-fiction work. Travels through France and Italy (1766), Soane, Sir John (1753- 1837), British architect, the
reflects his fascination with cruelty and squalor. The creator of a highly individual, quirky brand of *Neo-
Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) is about a young man classicism. His reputation was made in 1788, when he
seeking a fortune in a ruthless world, but the hero of won the public competition for a new Bank of England
Ferdinand Count Fathom (1753) is a confidence-trickster, (1788- 833), but the building has been substantially
1
and his novel makes early use of *Gothic horror. The altered. Soane had a long list of work to his credit, mainly
epistolary novel The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771) public buildings, country houses, and houses in London.
is a more subtle work, with more word-play, less cari- His style is characterized by unusual spatial arrangements,
cature, and a great deal of realistic detail. particularly in the use of shallow domes, and a paring
away of the decorative vocabulary of classical architecture
Smythson, Robert {c. 1 535 1 6
1 4)
the outstanding Eng-
, to an almost diagrammatic simplicity. At his death he
lish architect of the Elizabethan period. All his buildings left to the nation the marvellously eccentric house he
are country houses, among them such masterpieces as built for himself in Lincoln's Inn Fields, London (1812-
Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire (1580-8), and Hardwick 13), to form Sir John Soane's Museum. (See also *Greek
Hall, Derbyshire (1591 7)- His style was virile and Revival.)
.self-confident, with bold massing and often a castle-like
emphasis on height and rugged silhouette. His son John social dance, a dance-form with roots in *traditional
Smythson (d. 1634) was also an architect, his major and *community dances which became increasingl)'
differentiated from court dances during the later medieval
work being Bolsover Castle (c. 1612-34) in Derbyshire.
This splendid, romantic building is more consciously and early Renaissance period. In the early 20th century
medieval in feeling than Robert Smythson's work and ballroom dances proliferated, with *jazz influences from
initiates the tradition of the 'sham castle'. North America and imports from Latin America, such
as the *tango, *samba, *cueca, and *rumba. In the 1920s
Snorri Sturluson (i 179- 1 241), Icelandic poet, histor- 'animal dances', such as the turkey trot, the bunny hug,
ian, and statesman. His Prose Edda (c.1220) is a handbook and the foxtrot were popular: the latter remains as a
on *skaldic poetry as well as a treasure-house of ancient classic ballroom dance alongside the quickstep and, from
SOCIAL REALISM 424
earlier times, the *waltz. The Hndy hop, jitterbug, and become a work in several separate movements, similar to
jive were highly athletic couple dances from the *big
all the suite. Such sonatas came in two varieties: the sonata da
band era of the 1930s and 1940s. The 1950s and 1960s chiesa (Italian, 'church sonata'), some of whose movements
*rock and roll impact on teenage culture and the growth were of a more serious nature, and the sonata da camera
of discos and clubs generated an alternative social scene. (Italian, 'chamber sonata'), whose movements followed
The 1970s influences were Afro-Caribbean music and dance patterns. These types merged and their movements
heavy rock. Distinct dance styles, 'body popping', 'ro- acquired the structural sophistications of the i8th century
botics', and 'break dancing' emerged. In turn these to become the three- and four-movement sonatas of
reappear as source material in *modern and *postmodern Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The development of the
dances. sonata thus follows that of the *symphony.
Social Realism, a term applied to 19th- and 20th- sonata form, the musical structure usually employed
century art that makes overt social or political comment, for first movements of *sonatas, ^symphonies, and allied
generally through scenes taken from seamy or depressing works, and frequently found as the basis for other move-
aspects of contemporary life. It is to be distinguished from ments. It evolved during the early part of the i8th century
Socialist Realism, the name
given to the officially from the *binary form and achieved its classic shape in
approved style in the Soviet Union and some other the works of Haydn, Mozart, and their contemporaries.
Socialist countries which, far from implying a critical —
The basis of the form is *key relationship the acceptance
approach to social issues, involves toeing the Communist that contrasted key areas, identified by separate themes,
Party line in a traditional academic style. may be set in conflict and ultimately reconciled by a
restatement of all the thematic material in the main key
soliloquy, a dramatic speech uttered by one character of the overall structure. The form proceeds in three stages.
speaking aloud while alone on the stage, revealing inner First is the exposition, in which two main themes are set
thoughts and feelings to the audience. Soliloquies often out in closely related but contradictory keys a first —
appear in plays in the age of Shakespeare. A poem subject (or subjects) in the tonic (main) key of the
supposedly uttered by a solitary speaker, like Browning's movement, followed by a second subject (or subjects) in
'Soliloquy of the Spanish Cloister' (1842), may also be a related key (the dominant in major keys and the relative
called a soliloquy. Soliloquy is a form of *monologue, major in minor keys). The two 'subjects' are usually
but a monologue is not a soliloquy if (as in the *dramatic distinguishable from each other, though on rare occasions
monologue) the speaker is not alone. they can be identical. What matters is the contrast of key
A frequent practice is to make the second subject
area.
solxnization, a system of *notation whereby the musical more lyrical than the first, which is likely to be vigorous
notes of the diatonic *scale are designated by syllables and emphatic. This section is usually repeated, and then
and manual signs. The system was introduced by Guido flows directly into the second, development section, in
d'Arezzo in the ith century, but is more familiar as the
i
which the material is worked in free fantasia, modulating
'Tonic sol-fa' Curwen in 1853.
system, established by John through various keys, but finally leading to a third
The tonic sol-fa syllables are: doh, ray, me, fah, soh, la, recapitulation section, in which the original thematic
ti, doh. material is restated entirely in the main (tonic) key of
the movement. A *coda may provide a more decisive
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (Isayevich) (1918 ), ending. Sonata form reigned supreme until the principles
Russian novelist and historian. He served in World War of *tonality were challenged at the end of the 19th
II, and was imprisoned from 1945 to 1953 for criticizing century.
Stalin. He became famous with his short novel about a
forced-labour camp in the Stalin era. One Day in the Sondheim, Stephen (1930- ), US composer and
(1962), published in the literary
Life of Ivan Denisovich lyricist. He made his first reputation as the lyricist of
periodical Novy Mir. Two autobiographical novels. The Bernstein's West Side Story (1957), but proved himself an
First Circle and Cancer Ward, completed after Khrushchev's equally talented composer in A Funny Thing Happened on
fall from power (1964), were published abroad in 1968. the Way to the Forum (1962), Anyone can Whistle (1964),
A three-volume history of the Soviet forced-labour system. Company (1970), Follies (1971),^ Little Night Music (1973),
The Gulag Archipelago, appeared abroad (1973-8) and the Pacific Overtures (1976), and Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber
firstpart of a monumental account of Russia between of Fleet Street (1979). His achievement has been to raise
1914 and the Revolution, now called The Red Wheel, in the musical almost to the status of opera by means of a
1974. Solzhenitsyn was awarded the Nobel Prize for fully integrated score and stories of serious purpose and
Literature in 1970. After being charged with treason and psychological insight.
exiled from the Soviet Union in 1974 he moved to the
USA. In the atmosphere of glasnost official attitudes to sonnet, a *lyric poem
of fourteen *iambic *pentameter
his work softened and his Gulag Archipelago began to be lines French, eleven in
(or lines of twelve syllables in
published in serial form in a journal from 1989. Italian). Originating in Italy, the sonnet was established
by Petrarch as a major form of love poetry, and adopted
sonata, a musical work in several movements for piano, in France and England in the late i6th century. Sidney,
or for piano and one other instrument. The term was first Spenser, and Shakespeare wrote outstanding sequences
used in the i6th century to describe any music played of sonnets, while Donne and Milton extended its subject-
by instruments, as opposed to the *cantata, which was matter to religion and politics. Keats, Wordsworth, and
sung. During the 7th century instrumental works divided
i Baudelaire revived the form in the 19th century. The
into five or more contrasting sections were known as rhyme-schemes of the sonnet follow two basic patterns:
sonatas, but by the early i8th century the sonata had the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet comprises an 'octave' of
425 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN ART
two *quatrains, rhymed ABBAABBA, and a 'sestet' transported in numbered sections. By the time South
usually rhymed CDECDE or CDCDCD, with a 'turn' in American nations began winning their independence in
the poem's argument between octave and sestet (although the early 19th century the flamboyant *Baroque style
Milton and some other poets dispensed with this). The had generally given way to a more sober *Neoclassicism.
English or Shakespearian sonnet comprises three quat- Since this time. South America's most original con-
rains and a *couplet, rhymed ABABCDCDEEEFGG, tribution in the arts has been in architecture and town
delaying the 'turn' until the final couplet; a variant of this, planning, above all in the building of the new Brazilian
the Spenserian sonnet, rhymes ABABBCBCCDCDEE. masterminded by the architect Oscar
capital, Brasilia,
*Niemeyer. (See also *South American Indian art.)
Sophocles (<:. 496-406 Bc), Greek writer of *tragedies.
Seven out of 123 plays survive, but only two can be dated South American Indian art, the art and architecture
securely. His introduction of a third actor allowed greater of the native inhabitants of South America, particularly
complexity of plot and fuller depiction of character in in the period before the Spanish conquest in the i6th
*Greek theatre. Less bombastic than *Aeschylus and century. In artistic terms the vast area of South America
more formal than *Euripides, he was skilful in portraying divides into two fairly clear zones: firstly, the central
character and evoking pathos. Aristotle considered the Andean and adjacent Pacific coastal area, which is now
plot of Oedipus Tyrannus (c.429), based on the Oedipus mainly within the modern state of Peru; secondly, all
legend, in which the hero gradually finds out his own the other areas. These include the northern Andean
guilt, a perfectexample of tragedy. Sophocles' heroes are civilizations of Colombia, such as the Tairona, Quimbaya,
characteristically larger than life and deeply obstinate. and Muisca, all known remarkable metalworking
for the
The plays are wonderfully varied, and even the attitude techniques, particularly in goldwork, and the vast tropical
to the gods is hard to generalize. Sophocles portrays most notably the Amazon. In this latter area
forest areas,
human characters caught in cruel dilemmas and often remains of earlier art-forms, but contemporary
little
bound by previous oracles, but unlike Euripides he rarely Indian societies still exhibit a rich variety of creativity in
makes any protest against the divine order of the world their vast wood-framed dwellings (which embody in their
which might seem to be causing such suflTerings. design the symbolic order of their respective commu-
nities), magnificent featherwork, and a rich abstract dec-
Soufflot, Jacques-Germain (1713-80), French archi- orative art. The pre-eminence of the central Andean
tect, major pioneer of *Neoclassicism. His archi-
a cultures has been emphasized by the relatively cool and
tectural training was mainly in Rome (173 1-8), where dry climate of the region, which, unlike other areas, has
he acquired a thorough knowledge of the antique (he been favourable to the preservation of more fragile works
visited Italy again in 1749 51). Soufflot's major work is of art. Andean civilization is associated above all with
the huge domed church of Ste Genevieve in Paris (1757- the Incas, who, by the 15th century, had established a
90), which during the Revolution of 1789 and its after- far-flung empire linked by a road system that was superior
math was secularized as a monumental burial place for even to that of the Romans. Before this time there was
national heroes and renamed the Pantheon. It brought no cultural unity in the Andes; rather, different styles
a new classical purity to French architecture, although and traditions developed in various river valleys and
there is a feeling of typically Parisian elegance in the
slim proportions. Soufflot's design has been considerably
altered, notably in that the windows have been filled in,
South American Indian art is distinguished for its
creating a starker feeling than he intended. metalwork, particularly m gold. This Chimu ceremonial
water pot is typical of 12th-13th-century Peruvian work.
soul music, a development of *rhythm and blues, Three figures representing deities surmount the arch.
dating from the late 1960s. Primarily the music of black (Private collection)
American performers (white performers' versions being
known as blue-eyed soul), it combines the driving rhythms
of *rock music with the emotional fervour of gospel songs
and *blues. The style is characterized by an impassioned
improvisatory delivery by featured vocalists (for example,
Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Otis Redding, James
Brown), or saxophonists (for example, Grover Wash-
ington Jr.), and vocal devices such as sudden shouts, sobs,
and cries.
sousaphone *tuba.
plateaux. There was often influence between them, but with fact in this tradition, however, and little is known
this was made more difficult by the great natural barrier for sure about the origins of the Incas. Their great
of the mountains. There were settled communities before period lasted only about a century, from c. 1438, when
2000 BC, but the earliest distinct Andean culture, called Pachacutec (or Pachacuti) became ruler, until 1532, when
Chavin, flourished from about 900 bc to about 200 bc. Francisco Pizarro landed and assumed power virtually
It is named after the great ruin of Chavin de Huantar unopposed. Pachacutec and his son Tupac (or Topa)
in the north-eastern highlands of Peru, which includes a have been compared to Philip of Macedon and his son
large temple complex built with well-cut stone blocks and Alexander the Great as conquerors, for under them the
decorated with relief carvings. The Chavin people also Incas established the greatest empire of ancient America;
produced pottery, goldwork, and textiles, all of which at its peak it stretched more than 4,025 km (2,500 miles)
were to be developed to extremely high levels of artistry north to south, from the present-day border of Colombia
in the Andes. Weaving, indeed, is a field in which Peru and Ecuador to central Chile. The state was highly
has a tradition that is unexcelled anywhere in the world; regimented, and the Incas were among the greatest
llama wool and cotton were the main materials. Probably builders and engineers in history, their achievements
the most remarkable textiles were those made in the being all the more remarkable for having been achieved
Paracas culture, named after the Paracas Peninsula, without the knowledge of the wheel. In major buildings
about 161 km (100 miles) south of Lima. This culture, they used immense (sometimes irregularly shaped) blocks
which began at about the same time as the Chavin culture of stone, cut with superb precision and fitted together
and lasted until about ad 400, is divided into two main without mortar. Many of their great walls are still visible
phases: Paracas Cavernas, so-called because the dead in the city of Cuzco (formerly the Inca capital), where
were buried in caverns; and the later Paracas Necropolis, they have often been used as the foundations for later
when the dead were buried in cemeteries ('necropolis', buildings; in the nearby fortress of Sacsahuaman some of
Greek 'city of the dead', or cemetery). In the Paracas the stone blocks are estimated to weigh over 100 tons.
Necropolis culture corpses were wrapped in sumptuous The most famous Inca site, however, is Machu Picchu, set
burial cloths, many of which have survived in good in remote mountains about 80 km (50 miles) north-west of
condition in the dry soil. The range and brilliance of the —
Cuzco the site, which was unknown to the Spaniards,
colours are remarkable, and the stylized human, animal, was not re-discovered until 191 i. Its precipitous setting
and mythological creatures have immense vigour. Of the makes it perhaps the most breathtaking archaeological
other Andean cultures that flourished before the Incas site in the world. Apart from stonemasonry, the Incas
the best known are the Mochica and the Chimu. The also excelled at *weaving, which continues to hold pride
Mochica culture, which flourished from about 200 bc to of place among the traditional crafts of the Indians of
about AD 600, is named after the great archaeological site Peru, who still make up about half the population of the
at Moche on the coast of northern Peru. This includes country.
the remains of the 'Pyramid of the Sun' (the name is
modern and its exact purpose is uncertain), a vast South American Indian literature, South American
structure of sun-dried mud bricks; although badly eroded, literature before the Spanish conquest in the i6th century.
it is the largest ancient building in South America. Historically a clear division separates the native literature
The warlike Mochica people also built fortifications and of South America that stems from the Andean highlands
carried out hugely ambitious irrigation schemes. Their and the former Inca empire, Tahuantinsuyu, from that
genius was expressed most forcefully in pottery, however, which belongs to the great forest lowlands of the Orinoco,
for their jugs in the form of realistic portraits of heads Amazon, and Parana. A comprehensive account of Ta-
mark the high point of Pre-Columbian ceramics. The huantinsuyu is given in Guaman Poma's New Chronicle and
Mochica culture was once known as Early Chimu, but Good Government (c. 1613), which claims to be transcribed in
there seems to have been a long interlude between the part from Inca records. These were kept in a distinctive
decline of the Mochica and the rise of the Chimu in medium of literacy, the knotted cord known as the quipu
about 1200. Until it was absorbed in the Inca empire in in Quechua, the language of the Inca. Quechua is the
about 1470, the Chimu culture was the dominant force language of what must once have been a whole cycle of
in northern Peru. The capital was at Chan Chan, the Inca kingship plays, as well as adaptations of such
ruins of which are near the Pacific coast about 483 km European motifs as the Faust legend. Another, less ortho-
(300 miles) north of Lima; the city, built of mud bricks, dox, view of Tahuantinsuyu, which combines politics with
had a well-planned layout, with a sophisticated irrigation evolutionary history in the style of the Central American
system, and is estimated to have had a population of manuscript, Popol vuh, occurs in the 16th-century Huaro-
chiri narrative. From the lowlands, there have slowly
200,000 or more. Apart from civic design, the Chimu
excelled particularly at metalwork, notably in gold and come to light over the centuries cosmogonical narratives,
silver. The Incas have much in common with the Aztecs
among them the Ayvu rapyta or Origin of Human Speech,
of Mexico: they emerged at about the same time, quickly of the Tupi-Guarani, the language group which once
established a mighty empire, and then totally succumbed
extended from the Amazon to Paraguay (where Guarani
Spanish Much more is known about continues to exist as a literary language); the Desana
to the conquistadores.
narratives of the north-west Amazon; and the Carib
the Incas than about any of the earlier cultures of South
creation cycle published in the 1970s under the title
America, for although they had no system of writing (the
Maya were the only Pre-Columbian people who had), Watunna.
a great deal of their oral tradition was recorded by
contemporary Spanish chroniclers. 'Inca' means 'king' or South-East Asian dance. There is a tremendously
'prince', and the Incas saw their history in terms of the strong and varied dance tradition in South-East Asia
succession of rulers from the foundation of a dynasty in reaching back over 1,000 years. Performance arts are
about 1200. Myth and royal propaganda became mixed usually found in combination in dance-dramas, masked
427 SPANISH LITERATURE
plays,and *puppet shows, often using plots from the South-East Asian musical instruments. Two im-
*Hindu epics. Folk dances in the region are exceptionally portant solo instruments o( the region are the kkden, a
widespread and numerous, and in most areas there is popular *mouth-organ consisting of up to eighteen bam-
a strong court dance tradition. Major influences on boo pipes, each with a metal reed, capable of playing
South-East Asian dance have come from India and China. chords, *drones, and melodies simultaneously, and the
*Indian dance has provided flexed, open leg positions, Burmese *saung-gauk, a fourteen-string arched lute em-
head movements, and an extensive
sliding side-to-side ploying complicated modes and tunings and intricate
vocabulary of hand and finger gestures. Chinese influence playing techniques, u.sed to accompany songs (kyd).
is most apparent in Vietnam, where the hat boi borrows Throughout South-East Asia music accompanies all the
heavily from Chinese opera. Slow tempos, controlled theatrical arts, such as mask plays, puppet-shows, and
movements, and extensive use of hand and arm gestures operas. Of ancient origin, many genres were intended to
characterize much South-East Asian dance. Hand ges- placate the spirits of nature; later, dramatic texts from
tures, copied originally from the Indian *mudras, have foreign sources, such as Hindu epics, were also used. The
been altered greatly, and the bent back finger positions music consists of singing and instrumental ensembles of
of Thailand and neighbouring countries are unique to varying sizes. Examples are the zat-kyi, Burmese court
the area. Dances may be abstract, as in the Javanese dance-dramas accompanied by the hsaing-waing ensemble;
bedaja court dances, or part of spectacular dance-dramas, the traditional Laotian mawlum genre, combining tales
such as those of Indonesia and Thailand. (See also from the Hindu epic Rdmdyana with Laotian folk tales
*South-East Asian music.) and performed by a vocalist and khden player; and the
classical Thai dance-dramas dating from the 5th century,
1
South-East Asian music, the music of a vast and lakhqn nai (for women) and Khon (masked mime for men),
diverse region comprising the Philippines, Borneo, In- both accompanied by the pi phdt.
donesia, and the mainland countries of Burma, Thailand,
Kampuchea, Laos, Vietnam, and Malaysia. The main- Southey, Robert (1774- 1843), British poet and bio-
land countries have been much influenced by Chinese grapher. He is remembered as one of the three 'Lake
culture and Buddhism, while other influences have been Poets' of the *Romantic movement, although his poetry
region as a whole. These are: gapped *scales (i.e., ones known for his comic-grotesque verse and ballads. As
using intervals greater than a whole tone); extended *Poet Laureate from 18 13, he was mocked for abandoning
compositions with repeated sections; 'heterophony', where the republicanism of his youth. His prose style is both
variations of the basic tune are played by different easy to read and clear, a quality best seen in his Life of
instruments simultaneously; 'rhythmic stratificiation', in Nelson ( 1 8 1 3) His A Vision of Judgement ( 1 82 1 ) disparages
.
which the different instruments in an ensemble have Byron, who had lampooned him in Don Juan (1819).
different levels of activity, from busy xylophones to
infrequent punctuations of large gongs; and melodic Soutine, Chaim (1894 1943), Lithuanian-born painter
percussion instruments, for example *xyIophones, tuned who settled inFrance in 191 3 and became one of the
*drum chimes, and *gongs, organized into ensembles. leading * Expressionists in Paris. His style is characterized
Orchestras or gong-chime ensembles consisting of gongs by thick, convulsive brushwork, through which he could
express tenderness as well as turbulent psychological
(often arranged into sets, with cases and frames brilliantly
painted and intricately carved), one or more drums,
states. Portraitsand landscapes were among his favourite
subjects, and he also painted some powerful pictures of
xylophones, metallophones (percussion instruments con-
taining tuned metal bars struck with mallets), flutes,
animal carca.sses. His influence can be seen in the work
of Francis *Bacon, one of his great admirers.
oboes, and string instruments, exist in various com-
binations and sizes (see *Indonesian music). In Thailand
the principal gong-chime ensemble is the pi phdt, a large Soyinka, Wole (1934- ), Nigerian dramatist, novelist,
and consistently loud ensemble including the *pT (a and poet, winner of the 1986 Nobel Prize for Literature.
shawm), which gives the ensemble its name. Quieter His first novel. The Interpreters (1965), captures the ideal-
groups include the mahori and khri^ang saT, which use ism of young Nigerians regarding the development of a
fiddles, zithers, and flutes. The pin peat is the Kampuchean new Africa. In prison for pro-Biafran activity during
orchestra similar to pT phdt, used in religious ceremonies 1967-9, he produced increasingly bleak verse and prose:
and to accompany shadow plays and dance-dramas. The Madmen and Specialists (1970), and his second novel, Season
smaller phleng khmer ensemble plays for traditional folk of Anomy (1973). A brighter period followed with Death
occasions. The kulintang, a gong-chime of .seven to twelve and the King's Horseman (1975), which embodies his post-
gongs, gives its name to the gong-chime orchestra of the Biafran cultural philosophy, enunciated in Myth, Literature
southern Philippines and northern Borneo, while in the and the African World (1976), of the need for the distinct
northern Philippines ensembles of flat gongs, gangsa, are aesthetics of Africa and Europe to cross-fertilize each
common. The most Burmese orchestra is
characteristic other. His collection of poems, Mandela's Earth (1989), is
the hsaing-walng, the main instrument of which, of the suff"used with despair at the rootlessness of modern man.
which instead has orchestras of string and wind instru- In 13th century a learned, clerical art emerged,
the
ments, influenced by the Chinese. examples of which are the poem Book of Apollo and the
SPARK 428
religious poetry of Gonzalo de Berceo (f. 1 195-c. 1268). turned to fiction in the 1950s, following her conversion
The outstanding work of the 14th century was the poem to Roman Catholicism. Her novels show a preoccupation \
Book of Good Love of Juan Ruiz (c. 1283-^.1350). The late with the question of good and evil; many have the
14th century, and especially the 15th, saw the growth of quality of a parable or a fable. They include Memento
the *ballad [romanceros) tradition in Castilian, collected Mori (1959); The Ballad of Peckham Rye (i960); The Prime
from the mid- 1 6th century. The 15th century witnessed of Miss Jean Brodie (1961) (stage and film versions 1966
the emergence of a courtly tradition, exemplified in the and 1969 respectively); The Abbess of Crewe (1974); The
poetry of Lopez de Mendoza, the Marques de Santillana Mandelbaum Gate (1965); and A Far Cry from Kensington
(1
398- 458) and Juan de Mena ( 4 1 -56) The influence
1
,
1
1 .
Montemayor (1519-61) is a major *pastoral romance. eccentric who painted his own
inner vision and created an
*Cervantes, who also wrote plays and poetry, is the extremely distinctive style. His works include landscapes,
outstanding prose writer of the period. His Don Quixote is nudes, and portraits, but he is best known for his paintings
considered the forerunner of the modern European novel. on themes from World Wars I and H and for religious
Religious experience dominates the writing of the great subjects. Christianity was a living reality for Spencer, and
*Mystics, St Teresa of Avila and St John of the Cross. he set his biblical scenes in Cookham in Berkshire, the
The theatre was dominated by the names of Lope de village where he was born and spent most of his life. His
*Vega and Tirso de Molina (1580- 1648) and later by figures have a dumpy, sometimes awkward quality, but
*Calder6n de la Barca. The later 17th century, the they are vividly observed and convey deep human feeling.
age of Spain's decline, is characterized by a movement Spencer's best-known work is probably the series of murals
towards exaggerated forms of writing, for example in the commemorating his experiences during World War I in
poetry of *G6ngora and *Quevedo. Apart from the the Oratory of All Saints in Burghclere, Hampshire,
dramatist Leonardo Fernandez de Moratin (1760- 1828), painted in 1927-32.
the 1 8th century was unremarkable. Mariano Jose de
Larra (1808-37), ^^^ satirist, is the first major figure of Spender, Sir Stephen (Harold) 909- British poet
( 1 )
,
the 19th century, followed by the *Romantic poets, for and critic. He was in many ways representative of the
example Jose de Espronceda (1808-42) and Jose Zorilla 'new writing' of the 1930s, with its political awareness
(1817-93), author of the seven-act melodrama Don Juan and attempts to integrate modern industrial images into
Tenorio (1844). The impressionistic prose and poetry of the language of poetry, but his own talents were essentially
Gustavo Adolfo Becquer (1837-71) represents the peak for personal and introspective poetry. Poems (1933) in-
of 19th-century poetic achievement. Among the major cluded 'The Pylons', which gave the nickname of 'pylon
novelists of the period, who together are representative poets' to himself and his friends and contemporaries,
of *realism and *naturalism in Spain, are *Alas y Ureiia *Auden, *Isherwood, and *MacNeice. He modified his
and * Perez Galdos. The early 20th century in Spain is political stance as co-editor o^ Encounter (1953 69) and in
dominated by the *Generation of '98 and the modernista his critical works, such as The Creative Element (1953). His
movements (see *modernism), which break radically with autobiography World within World was published in 95 1 1
*Garcia Lorca. After the Spanish Civil War (1936-9), Calendar in 1579, a series of *eclogues which heralded the
many writers went into exile, while within Spain the most English literary renaissance. Spenser laments the death
important writers were the novelist Camilo Jose Cela of his patron. Sir Philip *Sidney, in his elegy 'Astrophel'
Trulock (1932- Nobel Prize-winner 1988) and the
;
(f. 59 -5); in 'The Ruines of Time' (1591), he creates an
1
1
dramatists Alfonso Sastre (1926- ) and Antonio Buero *allegory which also laments the decline of patronage
Vallejo (1892- 938). The ending of General Franco's
1
and the neglect of literature. His greatest work. The Faerie
regime in 1975 heralded a new burst of creative activity. Queene (1590-6), is a heroic and epic allegory in intricate
(See also *Latin American literature.) eight-line stanzas. The fairy queen or Gloriana signifies
Glory in the abstract and Queen Elizabeth I in person.
Spark, Muriel (Sarah) (b. Camberg) (1918- ), The allegory is varied, drawing on pagan myths. Christian
Scottish-born novelist, dramatist, and poet. She began doctrine, and medieval and contemporary story, legend,
her literary career as an editor, poet, and biographer and and folklore. Spenser celebrated his courtship of Elizabeth
429 STAGE MACHINERY
Boyle, his second wife, in his *sonnet sequence Amorelti became widely known after the publication of the col-
(1595) and his marriage to her in his greatest *lyric lection Slave Songs of the United States (1867). Elements of
Epithalamion (1595). spiritual music went into the creation of *jazz, while in
the black churches spirituals began to be replaced by
Spielberg, Steven ( 947-
1 )
US film director. He first
,
gospel music (see *hymns) at the end of the 19th century.
attracted attention with his television film Duel (1971), a
tense thriller in which a motorist is harassed by a truck Spohr, Louis (1784- German composer. From
1859),
driver. He had great box-office success with his film Jaws 1822 he directed the orchestra of the court theatre in
(1975), and with Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), Kassel. Spohr's considerable output includes fifteen violin
about extra-terrestrial visitation. After his only failure, concertos, nine symphonies, and much chamber music.
ig4.i (1979), his successes continued with two Indiana Among his thirteen operas Jessonda 1823) made the most
(
Jones films, Raiders of the Lost Ark 1981 and Indiana Jones
( ) lasting impression.
and the Temple of Doom (1984), and with E.T. (1982), a
tale of a solitary extra-terrestrial marooned on earth. He Sri Lankan art, the art and architecture of Sri Lanka
then turned to an adaptation of Alice Walker's book The (formerly called Ceylon). Buddhism was introduced to
Color Purple (1985), about the tribulations of a black the island in the 3rd century BC, and although Hinduism
woman, and Empire of the Sun (1987), based on J. G. also made inroads. Buddhism has remained the prevailing
Ballard's prize-winning novel. religion to this day and has been the primary inspiration
for Sri Lankanart. With the exception of royal palaces,
spinet, a musical instrument, usage from the
in English almost has been religious. *Stupas, some of very
all art
17th century, it describes a small wing-shaped domestic great size, and monasteries are the most typical archi-
version of the *harpsichord, with strings running diag- tectural forms. Wood was originally the most common
onally away from the keyboard. However, spinet was building material, but later stone and brick were used.
earher used to mean the * virginals and sometimes the Buildings were often ornamented with sculpture, but the
harpsichord itself As with the virginals there was only most grandiose examples of Sri Lankan sculpture are vast
one rank of strings, and normally only one keyboard. figures of the Buddha carved from rock faces; the most
Spinets were made in large numbers from the mid- 17th famous is the 12th-century Reclining Buddha at Po-
century almost to the end of the 18th, for many houses lonnaruva (the capital of Sri Lanka at the time), which
had no space for a harpsichord. The name has been used is about 14 metres (46 ft.) in length. Beautiful small
recently for a small piano. bronzes are also a feature of this art. Of Sri Lankan
painting, the most important remains are 5th-century
spiritual, a religious song of the black peoples of the cave frescos at Sigiriya depicting voluptuous celestial
southern states of the USA, but probably derived from nymphs. Sri Lankan art dechned from the 13th century,
the evangelist hymns of the white settlers. The words when the island was invaded from the mainland, and
serve a double purpose: as a temporary distraction from further from 1505, with the arrival of the Portuguese,
the pains of slavery, and as a heartening, subversive who were followed by the Dutch and British. (See also
symbol of defiance through identification with the biblical *Buddhist art.)
Israelites escaping from the tyranny of Egypt. Spirituals
Sri Lankan literature *Dravidian literature, *Tamil
literature.
By the age of 30 Steven Spielberg had become one of the
most famous film directors alive. His second big success, staccato term used as
(Italian, 'detached'), a musical
Close Encounters of the Third Kind, about an
an instruction duration of the
to players to shorten the
extra-terrestrial landing m America, was based on his
own screenplay and showed his mastery of special written note. It is indicated by a dot placed over the
effects. note-head. A crotchet played staccato has the duration
of a quaver. The term 'staccatissimo' indicates a note of
even shorter duration.
be seen at this time. Giacomo Torelli (1608 78) invented size were made up of several panels so treated, and these
the carriage-and-frame devices which moved scenery by were set in a framework of iron ('armature') that served
means of carriages beneath the stage; he also pioneered the not only as a support against wind pressure, but also to
machine plays which speciahzed in elaborate mechanical accentuate the main lines of the design of the window.
effects. Philip de Loutherbourg (1740- 181 2), who worked The period from roughly 1150 to 1250 was the greatest
for David *Garrick, was especially adept at reproducing age of stained glass: colours were strong and simple,
climatic effects and the illusion of natural phenomena designs were bold and fresh, and the feelings conveyed
such as fire and volcanoes. The * Elizabethan theatre were lofty and awe-inspiring. The cathedrals of Can-
introduced an upper balcony from which machinery and terbury and Chartres, for example, have superlative glass
actors could be lowered, as well as a cellar with trapdoors from this period. From the 15th century stained glass
leading on to the stage. This device continued to be used tended towards a greater pictorialism, imitating the effects
in the 19th century, when a grid, constructed above the of oil painting, and this trend reached its height in the
stage, permitted scenery to be 'flown'. The revolving stage 1 8th century, when some artists painted on glass more or
was introduced in Germany in 1896. In the modern less as they would on canvas. With the *Gothic Revival
theatre whole stages can be moved into the wings and in the 19th century there came a return to medieval
instantly replaced by new sets, and individual sections of principles, and William *Morris and his associates (not-
a stage can be raised or lowered. ably *Burne-Jones) were among the foremost designers
in this spirit. In the 20th century many noteworthy artists
stained glass, glass that has been given translucent have designed stained-glass windows, in both figurative
colour in any of various ways, used particularly for and abstract veins, among them *Chagall, *Matisse
creating pictorial designs in church windows. The art (notably at Vence in the South of France), and John
began in the serviceof the Christian Church and is of *Piper in England.
Byzantine origin, but in its most characteristic de-
velopment and its highest achievements it is essentially Staxnitz, Johann (Wenzel Anton) (1717-57), and
an art of Western Christendom, practised most splendidly Carl (Philipp) 745- 80 ), German composers of Bo-
( 1
1
1
in the west and north of Europe as an adjunct to Gothic hemian origin. As father and son they were the most
architecture. Its early history is obscure, and the first outstanding members of an important musical family.
surviving complete windows —
in Augsburg Cathedral Both worked as and composers at the court of
violinists
—
C.I 050- 1 150 show an art already nearly perfect in tech- the Elector of Mannheim (see * Mannheim
Palatine
nique. Medieval windows are generally made up of School), and were deeply involved in the development of
hundreds of small pieces of glass of varied colours and the *symphony from its early, three-movement suite
shapes held together by strips of lead. Windows of any form to the integrated four-movement plan that became
standard at the end of the i8th century.
Chartres Cathedral has the finest array of medieval stamping tube, a musical instrument usually made
stained glass m the world. The cathedral was begun in from a length of bamboo closed by a node at the end
11 94 and most of the glass was put m postion between
which is stamped on the ground. The sound is mostly
1215 and 1240. This example is the rose window of the
that of the contained air and the pitch of the tubes is
north transept; in the centre is a roundel of the Virgin and
Child, and converging on this are images of angels, controlled by their length. Long, narrow gourds, the
doves, kings, and prophets, together with quatrefoils shantu, open at each end, are stamped on the thigh by
bearing the royal fleur-de-lys symbols of France. women in Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa; a hand partly
over the end varies the pitch like * talking drums. Wooden
tubes with a constricted waist are stamped into water as
water drums in New Guinea.
of 'method acting', in which the actor attempts a thorough produced works (mainly beach scenes and seascapes)
identification with the character portrayed, through a that are remarkable for their great freshness and subtle
preparatory course of improvisations and other exercises. handling of light. After about 1895 Steer's work became
more conventional and more closely linked with the
stanza, a group of verse hues with a set pattern of *metre English tradition of landscape painting. In the late 1930s
and *rhyme which is repeated throughout a poem, failing sightcaused him to give up painting.
each stanza having the same number of hnes. Stanzas,
sometimes loosely referred to as 'verses', are usually Steichen, Edward Jean (1879- 1973), US photo-
separated by spaces in printed poems. The commonest grapher, born in Luxembourg. When Steichen studied
stanza is the *quatrain; Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Spenser painting in Paris, he was already an accomplished photo-
introduced stanzaic patterns of greater intricacy. grapher and took a striking series of pictures of Rodin.
Back in the USA, he at first concentrated on landscapes,
stave *notation. fashion, and portraits, turning to commercial and ad-
vertising work some years later. He retired in 1938, but
Stead, Christina (Ellen) (1902-83), Australian novel- re-emerged to become a war photographer in World War
ist. Brought up in Sydney, she spent most of her life in
II as he had been in World War I. In 1947 he was
Britain and the USA, where she was briefly a Hollywood appointed director of the Photography Collection at New
screenwriter. Her best-known work. The Man Who Loved York's Museum of Modern Art, assembling in 1951 the
Children (1940), is a vivid study of American family life. influential exhibition The Family of Man.
Other novels, including Seven Poor Men
of Sydney (1935),
House of All Nations (1938), and Cotter's England (1967), Stein, Gertrude (1874- 1946), US novelist, auto-
reflect her left-wing and feminist views. biographer, and poet. In Paris, where she lived from
1903, she became a patron and friend of modern painters,
steel band, a type of percussion ensemble, originating including Picasso and Matisse, and a mentor to the
in the West Indies, comprising instruments made from American *lost generation of writers, among them
discarded oil drums. One end of the drum is beaten down Hemingway and She herself had developed
Fitzgerald.
to form a basin, and areas of it are beaten up into domes. an innovative style which featured repetition and abnor-
Each section produces its own note when tapped, and is mal syntax and punctuation. Her works include Three
then tuned by further beating with a hammer. There Lives (1909), the stories of two German servant girls and
are six basic types of drum: the rhythm pan, which has an unhappy black woman; Tender Buttons (1914), ex-
two sections; the melody pan, which has twenty-five; the perimental verse studies without conventional logic or
second pan, with fourteen sections; the cello pan, with grammar; and the rambling fictional history The Making
nine; and the bass pan with five. Bands composed of a of Americans (1925). Most accessible is The Autobiography
set of steel drums are capable of amazing versatility,
of Alice B. Toklas (1933), memoirs written as if by her
playing music ranging from *calypso and carnival music secretary and friend.
to arrangements of Western classical pieces.
Steinbeck, John (Ernst) (1902 68), US novelist and
Steele, Sir Richard (Isaac BickerstaflT) (1672- 1729), short-story writer. His most memorable works are con-
Irish-born essayist, dramatist, and politician. He edited cerned with the rural poor of his native California: In
several periodicals; with *Addison he started the thrice- Dubious Battle (1936) is an account of a strike by fruit-
weekly periodical The Tatler in 709, and together they
1 pickers; Of Mice and Men (1937) is a novella about two
founded the journal The Spectator, in which the character migrant farm labourers who represent the tragedy of a
Sir Roger de Coverley first made his appearance (171 1- class that yearns for a home, of which it is perpetually
12). He was elected to Parliament as a Whig in 17 13, deprived. In The Grapes of Wrath (1939), the great
but his pamphlet The Crisis (1714), in favour of the American novel of the Depression, he unfolds the tale of
Hanoverian succession, led to his expulsion from the a refugee family from the dust bowl, migration to
its
House of Commons for 'seditious writing'. He wrote California, and the struggle to find work under an almost
several popular plays, including the sentimental comedy feudal system of agricultural exploitation. Later works
The Conscious Lovers (1722). His attacks on *Restoration include East of Eden (1952), a family saga, using the
drama, his praise of tender domestic and family life, and theme of Cain and Abel in a story both symbolic and
his own reformed dramas did much to create an image realistic of man's struggle between good and evil. He was
of polite behaviour for the new century. awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1962.
Steen, Jan (c. 1625-79), Dutch painter, best known for Stella, Frank (1936- ), US painter, one of the leading
his humorous *genre scenes, warm-hearted and animated members of the group of 'Post-Painterly Abstractionists'
works that have given him deserved popularity. Steen who reacted against the subjectivity of *Abstract Ex-
worked in various towns, including his native Leyden, and deliberately
pressionism. His paintings are often large
—
where in 1672 he opened a tavern many of his pictures avoid any personal quality in workmanship; some of his
represent drinking scenes. His work was widely imitated. early pictures were all black, but others have used flat
bands of bright colour. In the 1960s he began using
Steer, Philip Wilson (1890- 1942), British painter. shaped and notched canvases, and in the 1970s he
With *Sickert (his friend and exact contemporary), Steer experimented with paintings that included cut-out shapes
was the leader in his generation of those progressive in relief
British artists who looked to French artists, in his case
Degas and * Monet, for inspiration. He trained in Paris Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) (1783- 1842), one of the
in 1882-4, and in the late 1880s and early 1890s he leading 19th-century French novelists. His two major
STERNBERG 432
Sterne, Laurence
(1713-68), Irish-born novelist and
humorist. A
pastor in Yorkshire from 1738, his first major
novel, Tristram Shandy (1759-67) achieved enormous pop-
ular success. Its relegation of the story to a subordinate
position and its frequent digression by the narrator make
it a forerunner of 20th-century psychological fiction. His
Although he won Puhtzer and Nobel Prizes, John and The Auroras of Autumn (1950). The Man with the Blue
Steinbeck was modest about his talent: 'A couple of years Guitar (1937) and Notes Toward a Supreme Fiction (1942)
ago', he wrote, '1 realized that I was not the material of
are important long poems. All his works show a deep
which great artists are made And since then I have
. . .
been happier simply to do the work and take the engagement in experience and art, and a concern with
reward ... for a day of honest work.' the contrast between reality and appearance. Since the
publication o{ Collected Poems ( 1954), his stature as a major
poet has been increasingly recognized.
novels, Le Rouge et le noir (1830) and La Chartreuse de
Parme (1839), are realistic portrayals of society, the former Stevenson, Robert Louis (Balfour) (1850-94), Scot-
depicting France under the restored monarchy, and the tish novelist, poet, and travel-writer. His widespread
latter the intrigues of the Italian court in around 1820. travels found expression in many of his works, including
The heroes of both works embody his philosophy, known Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes (1879), describing a
as beylisme, according to which fulfilment lies in the pursuit tour in France. Treasure Island (1883), begun as a game
of pleasure and the cult of energy. They mock the with his stepson Lloyd Osbourne, recounts the adventure
constraints and hypocrisy of conventional society, pro- story of Jim Hawkins and Long John Silver. The book
moting his own anti-clerical and anti-monarchical stance. brought him fame, which increased with the moral
Stendhal is aligned with the *Romantic movement in the *allegory The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde 886) ( 1
emphasis which he places on individualism, and his early and his Scottish romances Kidnapped (1886), Catriona
work of criticism, Racine el Shakespeare (1823), echoes the 893) and The Master of Ballantrae
( 1 ,
889) an exploration
( 1 ,
grapher, was finally most important for his role in popular that many Dutch artists of the period con-
—
shaping the art of photography particularly pictorialist centrated on narrow specialities such as pictures of fish
—
photography in 20th-century America. or of tables spread for a banquet. Some so-called 'vanitas'
paintings preserved an emblematic meaning reminding
Stijl, De (Dutch, 'the style'), the name of a group of the spectator of the vanity of earthly pleasures, perhaps
Dutch artists founded 191 7 and of the journal they
in as a convenient pretext for the display of sensuous riches.
published to set forth their ideas. The artists involved, In France still life was regarded as the lowest branch of
the most famous of vs^hom was *Mondrian, sought laws painting —the mere exercise of technical skill, with no
of equilibrium and harmony that would be applicable to intellectual content —
and in spite of the masterly achieve-
life and society as well as art, and their style was one of ments of *Chardin in the i8th century, it was not until
austere abstract clarity. Their ideas had considerable the late 19th century that it began to be accorded a
influence between the two World Wars, but more on status equal to that of other subjects. *Cezanne was a
architecture and design (notably at the *Bauhaus) than particularly influential figure, for he used still life as one
on painting and sculpture. of the principal means for his revolutionary investigations
into pictorial structure. Following Cezanne's example,
still life, painting (or less often another pictorial
a many modern movements (*Fauvism and
the leaders of
representation such as a drawing, photograph, or mosaic) *Cubism, among others) have given still life a prominent
of inanimate objects such as flowers, fruits, musical place in their work, as it was an ideal subject for
instruments, or dead game. Still life was practised in the experimenting with form and colour. Still life finally
ancient world, and examples of it survive in Pompeian came into its own with the new aesthetic attitude of
murals and in Roman mosaics. It was never more than 20th-century art which regards a picture not primarily
a subsidiary element in Christian medieval art, but during as the reproduction of something in nature outside itself,
the same centuries the painters of China and Japan but as the creation of a new disposition of shapes and
developed the most subtle understanding of certain aspects appearances.
of the inanimate world, particularly in paintings of
bamboo. As an independent subject, still life began to Stirling, James (1926- ), British architect. His prac-
develop in the West in the i6th century, the earliest dated tice has been particularly concerned with institutional
'pure' still life being the Dead Bird (1504) by Jacopo de' and university buildings and his buildings have often
Barbari, a Venetian painter working in northern Europe. been the subject of controversy. Most notably his History
It was in the Netherlands in the 17th century that still-life Faculty Library at Cambridge University (1964-7) has
painting entered its golden age, the subject becoming so suffered from so many problems, including water pen-
etration and falling tiles, that the university tried to sue
the architect and considered demolishing the building.
Chardin was the greatest painter of the 18th
still-life Stirling'swork has been highly varied stylistically and
century. His early works usually depict simple groups of
recently he has worked in the spirit of *Post-Modernism,
food and a few household objects, but m
the 1760s he
as in the Staatsgalerie New Building in Stuttgart (1977-
turned to a grander type, of which this picture. The
Attributes of the Arts (1766) is a splendid example. 82) and the Clore Wing at the Tate Gallery in London
(Minneapolis Institute of Arts) (1980-7), housing the Turner collection.
STOCKHAUSEN 434
Stockhausen, Kazlheinz (1928- ), German com- baked clay. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age period
poser. He became acquainted with music in
*serialist is well represented in northern and western European
Darmstadt (1951) and began working with *Messiaen in culture from about 8000 to about 3500 bc. Culturally
Paris in 1952. In 1953 he became co-director of the and technologically it remained in many ways analogous
West German Radio studio for *electronic music. These to the Palaeolithic period. Mesolithic art in the Baltic
experiences, together with his analysis of *Webern's region includes geometric patterns and stylized human
serialism, led him to evolve a theory whereby every figures engraved on bone and antler, and animal figures
element in music (pitch, intensity, duration, timbre, and carved in amber, sometimes as pendants. The art as-
—
even position in space) might be serialized as can be sociated with the Neolithic or New Stone Age period in
seen in such works as Momente (196 1-4). He then explored Europe (5000 to 2500 bc) was characterized by important
the possibilities of random selection in the performance advances in technology; this was the period when settlers,
of musical materials, adding to this the exploration of who were farmers, learned how to weave, plait straw,
spatial variety in the placing of performers. Electronically and polish stone tools. Pottery began to be made by hand,
engineered works, such as the successful Song of the Young usually decorated by simple techniques of impressing and
Men (1956), led him to think of music as a universal incising. Another important feature of Neolithic culture
unifying agent. This grandiose vision ultimately gave rise is its megalithic building and monumental structures used
to a massive cycle of seven quasi-operatic 'ceremonies', for ritual purposes, such as the menhirs (single upright
designed to be performed on consecutive days under the stones), stone circles, and dolmens (chamber tombs).
general title Light, begun in 1977 and launched in 1981 Some of the megalithic tombs include decorated stones,
with Thursday from Light. carvings of spirals or owl-like stylized faces: these, and
some of the architectural details can be found as far apart
Stone Age art, the art-forms developed during the first as the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines. (See also
known period of human culture in Europe, characterized *Bronze Age art.)
by the use of stone implements. Similar cultures with
broadly similar phases of art have occurred at different stone-carving, the art of making sculpture by cutting,
periods in other parts of the world. The earliest known incising, or abrading rock. The term can embrace the
artefacts in Europe date from c. 50,000 years ago during delicate carving of pebbles at one extreme and the use of
the Palaeolithic period (Early Stone Age) and are of two enormous natural outcrops of rock (as in some Indian
main kinds: decorated or ornamental objects, usually temples, such as those at *Mahabalipuram) at the other.
small, directly associated with the stone and bone in- Large-scale carving of descriptive scenes in *relief was a
dustries of the period (such as perforated bone or tooth memorable feature of *Assyrian and *Egyptian art. A
pendants), and engravings and paintings, often very great variety of stones have been used, some prized for
sophisticated found on the walls and ceilings of caves their beauty, others for their durability,and some for the
(see *cave painting). Sculptures, silhouettes, reliefs, and ease with which they can be worked. Some of the most
engravings all occur. They include the so-called Venuses, —
durable and attractive stones such as granite or basalt
statuettes of women, often pregnant; they are found as are extremely difficult to carve, but they were much used
far apart as Brassempouy in western France and on Lake by the Egyptians, for example. Other stones, for example
Baikal in the Soviet Union and are made of many alabaster, are so soft and easily marked that they are
materials including stone, ivory, and occasionally even suitable only for indoor work. There are two methods of
approach to stone-carving, known as indirect and direct
carving. In indirect carving the sculpture is first made in
another material (usually a cast from a clay model) which
The most remarkable example of Stone Age art may be is then transferred into stone. The direct method involves
the Lascaux cave paintings, shown here. Of the animals sculpting the piece of stone directly into shape. For many
represented, the most notable are the bulls, some of them artists this has meant that the process of carving releases
over life-size. The paintings were remarkably well
the shape latent within the block of stone. Michelangelo
preserved when discovered in 1940, but deteriorated so
rapidly after becoming a tourist attraction that the cave wrote that 'the greatest artist has no conception which a
had to be closed to the public in 1963. single block of marble does not potentially contain within
its mass, and only a hand obedient to the mind can
435 STRAUSS
by other plays, which disclose a talent for pastiche, a poser and conductor. His conducting career began with
metaphysical wit, and a strong theatrical sense. They the Meiningen Court Orchestra (1885) and brought him
'mc\udt Jumpers (1972), a parody of academic philosophy; important posts in the *opera houses of Munich, Weimar,
Berlin, Bayreuth, and Vienna. His music made its tri-
Travesties (1974), a satire on political life and par-
liamentary misdemeanours; Every Good Boy Deserves Favour umphal way through a series of magnificent *symphonic
poems, including Don Juan and Death and Transfiguration
(1977), about a political dissident in a Soviet psychiatric
hospital; Professional Foul (TV, 1977), set in Prague, which (1889), Till Eulenspiegel (1895), Thus Spoke ^arathustra
dramatizes the stifling of free intellectual exchange; and (1896), Don Quixote (1897), and A Heroic Life (1898); and
The Real Thing (1982), a marital tragi-comedy. two equally splendid *programme symphonies, Domestic
Symphony (1903) and An Alpine Symphony (1915). Using
Stowe, Harriet (Elizabeth) Beecher (181 96), US 1
and expanding upon a *Wagnerian vocabulary, these
novelist and essayist. Her first novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin works took the art of musical description to unprecedented
heights. His third opera, Salome (1905), took that vo-
(1852), was a powerful, if sentimental, indictment of
slavery which gained an enormous readership. Lincoln cabulary to extremes of dissonance, as did Elektra (1909),
called her 'the little woman who made the book that the beginning of his long and fruitful collaboration with
made the great war'. Her second novel, Dred (1856), the poet and librettist Hugo von *Hofmannsthal. Both
showed the demoralizing influence of slavery upon whites. operas represented a degree of dramatic and musical
* Expressionism from which the suave manner of his later
Subsequently she wrote a series of novels describing life
in New England. Her fictional essay My Wife and / 87( 1
operas, beginning with Rosenkavalier (1911), seemed like
1
defended woman's right to a career. a retreat into comparative convention. Despite the mag-
nificence of much of his later music, including the operas
Strachey, (Giles) Lytton (1880 1932), British bio- Ariadne on JVaxos (191 2, revised 1916), The Woman without
grapher and critic. He was a member of the *Bloomsbury a Shadow (191 8), Arabella (1933), and Daphne (1938),
Group, advocating both in his words and his life its faith Strauss's genius seemed to mark time. But the shattering
in tolerance. His Eminent Victorians (1918) is a landmark experience of World War H led to a remarkable 'Indian
STRAVINSKY 436
summer' of creativity, in such works as the opera Capriccio tirelesssearch for a musical language appropriate to the
(1942), the Metamorphosis for strings (1945), and the Four 20th century he now turned to *serialism, evolving his
Last Songs ( 1948). own unmistakable version in such works as the Canticum
Sacrum (1955) and the ballet Agon (1957) —
ritual still
Stravinsky, Igor (Fyodorovich) (1882 197 1), Rus- finding its place in Threni (1958) and the Requiem Canticles
sian composer. In 1909 his orchestral fantasy Fireworks (1967)-
attracted the attention of *Diaghilev, who, as director
of the Ballets Russes, commissioned a ballet score. The straw-work, the use of the stalks of various forms of
Firebird 1910). Its success made Stravinksy world famous.
( grain to create small decorative objects and articles of
His ballet score Petrushka (191 1) projected thematic household use. The craft is of inestimable age, but it
folk tunes against a background that was harmonically was certainly highly developed by the 7th century. In
1
astringent and rhythmically exciting. Notoriety came England it was stimulated in the early 19th century by
with his third Diaghilev ballet score, Le Sacre de printemps French prisoners from the Napoleonic Wars who were
(1913). Its savage, irregular, repetitive rhythms, extreme particularly skilled at it. The most familiar type of work
dissonance, and erotic subject-matter seemed to many to in the medium is the corn dolly —
a symbol of the harvest.
herald the end of civilized music. The disruptions of The tradition of making these stems back to the ancient
World War I and the Russian Revolution of 191 7 led world, when an image of the corn goddess or some other
Stravinsky to settle in Paris and re-think the basis of talisman was woven from the last sheaf to be reaped, and
his art. His music now entered a *Neoclassical phase, carefully preserved to ensure an abundant crop the
becoming economical and stripped of all romantic rhet- following year. Other items of straw-work include screens,
oric. Such works as the ballet Apollon-Musagele adapted fans, and jewellery, and it has also been used to create
to a *commedia deWarte scenario (1928) and the *opera decorative effects on the surface of furniture.
The Rake's Progress with a libretto by W. H. Auden
and Chester Caiman (1951), the Symphonies of Wind stream of consciousness, a method of representing
Instruments (1920), the Concerto 'Dumbarton Oaks' the mental processes of fictional characters as a continuous
(1938), and the Symphony in C (1940), are typical of blending of sense-perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and
this period. The importance of ritual in his music can be memories, as if they were recorded directly without the
In this painting 'Herzog August the Younger and his They are usually tuned to a *scale in the key in which
family' (c. 1645) a consort of stringed instruments, bass the instrument is to be played.
and tenor viols mthis case, are accompanied by a central
figure at the harpsichord. (Braunschweigisches
Stroheim, Erich von (1885- 1957), Austrian-born US
Landesmuseum)
actor and director. Of the nine films he directed and
scripted (or co-scripted), all but the first two suffered
Usually this is a box (*violins and *guitars, etc.), but it from studio interference, largely because of their ex-
may be a board (some *zithers and *pianos), or the travagance and excessive length. The first three. Blind
player's mouth (some * musical bows), and some modern Husbands (19 18), The Devil's Passkey (1919), and Foolish
instruments have complex electrical amplification Wives (192 ), were witty comedies of adultery. His other
I
systems. There are many ways of making a string vibrate. films include Greed (1923), originally seven hours long;
The simplest, and oldest, is plucking it, pulling it until The Merry Widow (1925); The Wedding March (1926); and
the string's tension overcomes its or the *plectrum's Queen Kelly 1928), which was halted when only one-third
(
elasticity, and it snaps back with enough energy to create finished, and never shown in the USA. What remains of
a sound. Another is striking it (*dulcimers and pianos). Stroheim's films reveals superb visual detail and great
A third is stroking it with a *bow (violins, etc.), or a sexual sophistication. He was forced to end his career as
wheel (*hurdy-gurdies). A fourth is blowing it (*aeolian it began, playing stiff-backed Prussians, notably in
harps). A fifth, only possible with steel strings, is with Renoir's La Grande Illusion (1937), but received critical
electromagnets (some electronic instruments). A string's acclaim for his performance in Sunset Boulevard (1950).
pitch is determined by its length, mass, and tension. To
avoid the resonator twisting under unequal string tension, Stuart, James
(1713-88), English architect. Better
it is desirable for all the strings to be at nearly the same known 'Athenian Stuart' because of his earnest de-
as
tension. This is achieved by varying either the length or votion to Greek architecture, he is noted for the measured
mass of the strings, or both. There are limits to the views and drawings of Greek buildings he published with
practicable length of strings, and on instruments with a Nicholas Revett (1720- 1804), another architect with
great many, such as pianos, some must be longer than whom he visited Athens in 75 to 753. The first volume
i 1 i
others, but if all were the same mass, the bass strings of their Antiquities of Athens appeared in 1762 and is
would be impossibly long. Therefore the mass is varied regarded as a key document in promoting the *Greek
by using different thicknesses of string and by covering Revival.
some with wire. The strings of violins must obviously all
be the same length, and only their mass and tension Stubbs, George (1724- 1806), English animal painter
differ. Once it vibrates, the pitch of the string can be and engraver, regarded as the greatest of all horse
varied. The normal way is by shortening the vibrating painters. In 1776 he achieved great success with his book
length by stopping it part-way along. Another, as on The Anatomy of the Horse, which was the result of eighteen
some Indian instruments, including the *sitar, and the months of dissecting and drawing horses. He was soon in
blues guitar, is by altering the tension of the string while demand as a painter, particularly for 'portraits' of horses
playing. Many stringed instruments have sympathetic with their owners or grooms, though he also painted
strings, always of wire, which provide special background many other animals, including such exotic species as a
resonance by sounding when the playing strings sound. moose, a rhinoceros, a kangaroo, and a zebra, and
STUCCO 438
and structurally innovative, the plays frequently criticize wrote many witty and intimate verses and two memorable
contemporary social and political conditions in ex- travel essays in literary Chinese entitled 'Red ClifT. He
travagant terms, for example, *Goethe in The Sorrows of also has a reputation as a notable calligrapher.
Young Werther ( 1 774) and * Schiller in The Robbers ( 1 78 1 )
,
longing for the rose, and the wine goblet of intoxicating as Stravinksy, revived the term in something of its original
joy were employed. Amongst the earliest Sufi poets was form.
the Arab woman saint Rabi'a (d. Hoi), while the most
famous early mystic was al-Hallaj, martyred in 1022 for Suk, Josef (1874- 935), Czech composer and violinist.
1
his ecstatic cry 'I am the Absolute Truth', who expressed His early works were influenced by *Dvofak (whose
in rhyming Arabic prose and poetry the transcendence daughter he married), but he later developed a more
of God, using symbols such as that of a moth approaching complex harmonic and *polyphonic style, sometimes near
a flame in which it is burnt to express the idea of union to *atonality. His works include orchestral and chamber
with God. One of the most important Sufi theorists was pieces, the most highly regarded being his Serenade in £[?
Ibn Arabi (i 165-1240) whose prolific writings in poetry for strings (1892) and the String Quartet in Bj? (1896).
and prose dwell on the revelation of inwardness, or God,
in the created world. His contemporary Ibn *Farid was Sullivan, Sir Arthur (Seymour) (1842- 1900), Irish-
the author of a small number of exquisite Arabic odes, born British composer. Success came with a suite of
which include a scene comparing human life to a *shadow incidental music to The Tempest 1861 and the impressive
( )
play. Mystical imagery has so thoroughly influenced 'Irish' Symphony in E minor (1866). Even greater success
Persian lyrical poetry that there is often debate as to followed with the *operettas he wrote for Richard D'Oyly
whether the verse of poets such as *Hafiz, *JamT, and Carte's Savoy Opera Company in collaboration with
*Sa'dT is mystical or erotic. The greatest of the Persian the librettist Sir W(illiain) S(chwenk) Gilbert (1836-
mystical poets is *RumT, expressing the power of love in 191 ). Starting as parodies of serious opera, they soon
1
Under him Suznerian art had one of its richest powers of the unconscious mind by overcoming the
flowerings. Several statues and sculpted heads of him dominance of reason. The group's objectives were partially
exist; they are carved m very hard stone and typically anticipated by *Dadaism, a more extreme movement
show him with an aspect that combines serenity with which flourished between about 191 6 and 1922. Andre
strength. *Breton, the main founder and theoretician of Surrealism,
said its purpose was 'to resolve the previously con-
tradictory conditions of dream and reality into an absolute
coloured, white, black, purple, dark blue, red, silver, or reality, a super-reality'. Within this aim it embraced a
gold, each stage of the building being a different colour. number of different and not altogether coherent doctrines
The main temples and buildings of the city clustered and techniques, and in spite of Breton's efforts to hold
round the foot of the ziggurat. These buildings had the movement together there was little unity among the
wooden beams, which sometimes supported vaulted roofs, Surrealists, defections, expulsions, and personal attacks
and they also used the arch and dome. The Sumerians being a feature of the group. Many of them drew liberally
decorated their facades with columns and bands of bit- on Freud's theories concerning the unconscious and its
umen, into which were inlaid lapis lazuli, shell, and relation to dreams, but the ways in which they gave
mother-of-pearl. They also made mosaics by setting
fine expression to these theories varied greatly. *Dali and
variously coloured cones into clay or bitumen. Inlay work other artists painted in a scrupulously detailed style to
similar to the mosaics is found on many smaller objects give a hallucinatory sense of reality to scenes that make
such as boxes, lyres, and gaming boards. The Sumerians no rational sense; while artists such as Max *Ernst
made jewellery of the most delicate gold and silver work. experimented with relinquishing conscious control al-
They made models of animals in copper, sometimes together (automatism). Surrealism became the most
hammered over a bitumen core. Their craftsmen made widely disseminated and controversial aesthetic move-
pottery on a wheel, and sometimes coloured their pots ment between the wars, spreading not only throughout
deep purple in geometric and other designs. They knew Europe, but also to the USA, where many artists migrated
the art of writing from 3300 bc or earlier, and made seals during the war years. With its stress on the marvellous
for use on the clay tablets which were their writing and poetic, it offered an alternative approach to *Cubism
material. The seals were carved with a scene from some and various types of abstract art, and its methods and
religious myth or with a picture of the owner's protecting techniques continued to influence artists in many coun-
441 SWIFT
tries.It was, for example, a fundamental source for Sweelinck, Jan Pieterszoon (1562- 162 1), Dutch
*Abstract Expressionism. composer and organist. He was taught by his father and
succeeded him as organist at the Oude Kerk, probably
Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of (c. 1517-47), English in 1577. Sweelinck's compositions include some 250 vocal
poet and soldier. He fought in the war with France works (madrigals, chansons, motets, and settings of the
(1543-6), but on his return was charged with high psalms and canticles) and about 70 for keyboard (some
treason, and was executed, aged 30, on the orders of in the free toccata and fantasia forms, and some in the
Henry VHI. Most of Surrey's poetry was probably form of variations). His achievement is one of the high
written during his confinement at Windsor in his early points of late Renaissance composition in northern
twenties, but was not published until 1557. Like his friend Europe, and he was much admired as a teacher.
*Wyatt, he followed Italian models, especially * Petrarch,
but his *sonnets were in the English form which he Swift, Jonathan ( 1 667- 745) Anglo-Irish poet,
1 , political
appears to have invented. His major innovation was his journalist, and theforemost satirist in the English
use of *blank verse in his translation of Virgil's Aeneid language. He divided his time between England and
Books II and IV. His most enduring poems are his love Ireland and was ordained as an Anglican priest in 1694.
lyrics in *stanza form and his fine *elegy on Wyatt. His earliest works were his *satires, the mock-heroic Battle
of the Books (1704), on the controversy between 'Ancient
Sutcliffe, Frank Meadow
(i 853-1 941). British photo- and Modern Learning', and A Tale of a Tub (1704), on
grapher. Sutcliffe spent most of his adult life in the seaside 'corruptions in religioun and learning', directed with
town of Whitby, taking subtle and picturesque views of special vigour against the Roman Catholic Church. His
the town, its fishermen and other inhabitants, and the most celebrated work, Gulliver's Travels (1726), a fantasy
nearby countryside. A regular contributor to Amateur tale of travel in imaginary lands, is a powerful satire on
Photographer, as well as other magazines and newspapers, man and human institutions. 'A Modest Proposal' (1729)
Sutcliffe was admired all over the world, though he rarely in the format of a letter of advice, in which he suggests
left Yorkshire. He was for almost the last two decades of that the children of the poor should be fattened to feed
his life curator of the Whitby Museum, which still owns the rich, is regarded as his masterpiece of satiric prose.
his original negatives.
Sutherland, Graham (1903-80), British painter, Joan Miro was the most subtle and poetic exponent of
graphic and designer. Up to 1930 he worked
artist, Surrealism and his work is always unpredictable: m 1933
mainly on *Neo-Romantic landscape etchings, influenced he wrote 'It is difficult for me to speak of my painting, for
It IS always born m a state of hallucination, provoked by
by the vision of Samuel *Palmer. In the 1930s he painted
some shock or other, objective or subjective, for which I
highly subjective landscapes and during World War II
am entirely unresponsible,' This picture, Women and
he was an official war artist, portraying the effects of Bird in the Moonlight (1949), reflects his fascination with
bombing in views of ruined and shattered buildings. Soon the theme of night, the time of silence and dreams. (Tate
after the war he took up religious painting, his most Gallery, London)
famous work being the design of the immense tapestry of
Christ in Glory (completed 1962) in Coventry Cathedral.
As a portrait painter he did oils of some of his famous
contemporaries, including a notorious portrait of Winston
Churchill (1954), which was so hated by the sitter that
Lady Churchill later destroyed it. Sutherland's other
work included the design of ceramics, posters, stage
costumes, and decor.
During his last years in Ireland he wrote some of his most from an apt title, or a detailed programme note, a
famous tracts and characteristic poems, including Verses considerable vocabulary of musical pictorial devices was
on the Death of Dr Swift (1739), in which he reviews his built up over the years. By the time of Richard *Strauss,
life with pathos and humour, and Conversations (1738), music was able to convey a truly amazing amount of
satirizing the stupidity and contrived wit of fashionable narrative and description. Even so, composers found it
society. essential to give such pieces a convincing musical structure
over and above the 'programme'. Thus Strauss's Till
Swinburne, Algernon Charles (1837- 1909), British is in * rondo form, while his Don Quixote is a
Eulenspiegel
poet and critic, associated with the *Pre-Raphaelites. His theme and *variations. Many composers made use of
great metrical skill is shown in Atalanta in Calydon (1865), Liszt's 'metamorphosis-of-themes' principle, whereby
a poetic drama in classical Greek form. Poems and Ballads themes are subject to variation in keeping with the
(1866) shows an open contempt for Christianity (notably idea they are supposed to represent, while the entire
in 'Hymn to Proserpine') and celebrates the masochistic composition is ensured a sense of symphonic coherence
delights of flagellation and pagan sexual freedoms (es- by being derived from a limited number of musical ideas.
pecially in the hymn 'Dolores'). Much of his poetry *Wagner's use of the *leitmotif derives from Liszt's
centres around the idea of liberty: in A Song of Italy (1867) invention. The
introduction of the term 'tone-poem' in
and Songs before Sunrise (1871) he uses an astonishing the latter part of the 19th century was as much a matter
variety of verse-forms, often attempting the mostcomplex of taste as anything, though it is appropriate to works
Greek and French *metres. As a critic he contributed to that depict a generalized 'atmosphere', as distinct from
the revival of Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, and his storytelling pure and simple, such as Bax's Tintagel. (See
studies of Blake and the Brontes helped to establish their also *programme music.)
later appreciation.
symphony, an extended musical work for *orchestra,
swing *jazz. usually in four contrasted movements. Derived from the
Latin symphonia, the word was used in the i6th century to
Symbolism, a movement which flourished particularly describe works in which voices and instruments 'sounded
in France 1880s and 1890s, based on the belief
in the together'. In the 17th century it was applied to in-
that the function of art is not simply to describe but to —
strumental sections in an opera most importantly the
suggest, by means of symbols, the transcendent reality introductory *overture ('sinfonia'). Beginning as an ex-
behind the surface appearance of things. In literature it tended fanfare, the overture took on the contrasted-
had its origins in the work of Baudelaire and developed movement characteristics of the dance *suite, as in the
partly in reaction to the naturalism of writers such Italian and French overtures. Such pieces provided the
as Foremost among the Symbolist poets were
Zola. model for purely concert works, constructed on a some-
*Rimbaud, *Verlaine, and *Mallarme, who, to varying what larger scale and involving four separate movements.
degrees, abandoned the constraints of rhyme, form, and Each movement developed its own characteristics. The
metre in favour of liberated or free verse in which rhythm first movement became an energetic *sonata form often
and musicality were stressed. Symbolist drama was writ- preceded by a slow introduction; the second was slow
ten by *Maeterlinck, *Claudel, and *Jarry, whose work and lyrical, a simple *aria form or a theme and variations;
anticipated the ideas of the *Surrealists. In art the the third was a dance movement (invariably a *minuet
Symbolist movement reacted against the naturalistic aims (later *scherzo) and trio); while the fourth was a light-
of the *Impressionists. Its artists believed that colour and hearted *rondo or sonata form. This pattern, gradually
line in themselves could express ideas, and preferred gaining in overall proportions, intellectual weight, and
suggestion and evocation to direct description. Styl- thematic subtlety, remained standard throughout the
istically, Symbolist artists varied greatly: *Moreau, for 19th century. The development of the symphony is
example, painted exotic pictures of great richness, whereas inextricably linked with that of sonata form and the
*Puvis de Chavannes's murals are pale, serene, and whole concept of *tonality. Many composers contributed
melancholy. Religious feeling of an intense, mystical kind to this development, Haydn and Beethoven outstandingly.
was a feature of the movement, but so was an interest in The 19th century saw the introduction of *programmatic
the erotic and the perverse —
death, disease, and sin elements (through Berlioz), and a move towards creating
were favourite subjects. Although chiefly associated with an even greater sense of unity between the movements
France, Symbolism had international currency and such through shared thematic material — the 'cyclic' sym-
diverse artists as *Burne-Jones and *Munch are regarded phony. At the same time there was a gradual loosening
as part of the movement in its broadest sense, while in of formal structures, paralleling the general weakening of
literature its influence was widespread, extending to classical *tonality. Following the example of Beethoven's
Russia, where it stimulated a revival of poetry in the Ninth Symphony (1823), some composers (such as Men-
early 20th century in works by such figures as *Blok and delssohn and Mahler) introduced voices into their sym-
*BeIy. phonies, some (Vaughan Williams, Britten) writing
symphonies entirely for chorus and orchestra. The sym-
symphonic poem, a musical term first applied by phony has remained perhaps the greatest of all challenges
* Liszt one-movement
to orchestral works constructed to a composer's skill and imagination.
according to symphonic principles, but with the ad-
ditionalpurpose of being descriptive of some real or syncopation *rhythm.
imaginary story or event. The symphonic poem was very
much the outcome of the *Romantic period's desire to Synge, (Edmund) J(ohn) M(illington) ( 187 1- 1909),
imbue music with 'meaning' and emotion. Though few Irish poetic dramatist, a key figure in the * Irish Literary
could achieve this end without at least some prompting Revival. He based his first plays. In the Shadow of the
443 SZYMANOWSKI
—
be evident his music became extremely ornate, highly
chromatic, and voluptuous. This exotic quality was further
enhanced by the brilliance and colour of his orchestration,
as in the Third Symphony ('The Song of the Night',
1916), the First Violin Concerto (19 16), and the opera
King Roger (1924). Later works, such as the Slabat Mater
(1926) and the Symphonic Concertante for piano and
orchestra (1932), drew on folk sources.
Castle)
T
tabla, a pair of finger-played *kettledrums, the main
centuries) does the same, though with numbers instead
of letters. 'German' lute tablature has no staves at all,
but a different letter symbol for each intersection of string
and fret on the instrument. German keyboard tablature
(14th- 1 8th centuries) simply gives the letter-names of the
notes to be played; and other forms of keyboard tablature
achieve the same by other means (including numbers).
accompanying instruments in the classical music of the In all these systems the rhythm was indicated by symbols
northern Indian sub-continent, with an extremely elab- placed above the score. Tablatures used for wind instru-
orate technique. The right-hand drum, tabla, a cylindrical ments can be found in non-western sources back to
kettledrum made of hollowed wood, is tuned to the the gth century, and survive today in the abbreviated
tonic of the raga; the left-hand drum, bdya, a metal or notations used for chords on the guitar and electronic
occasionally pottery bowl, is untuned, the pitch being keyboard instruments.
controlled by pressure with the heel of the hand in
performance. Both have a patch of tuning paste on tableware, the cutlery, glasses, plates, and other items
the drumhead to eliminate the out-of-tune overtones so used while eating a meal. From ancient times much
audible on European drums. outstanding craftsmanship has been bestowed on such
articles, and often their ornamentation has alluded to the
tablature, forms of musical *notation that do not use foodstuffs with which they were designed to be used; the
the new standard staves and varied note configurations, pottery of Bronze Age Crete, for example, was often
but tend to be more directly concerned with indicating painted with representations of marine life. Illustrations
where the player puts his fingers. Thus 'French' lute in medieval manuscripts show that elaborate and costly
tablature (i5th-i8th centuries) normally has a six-line tableware was used at banquets at this time, and during
stave on which each line represents one course (pair of the Renaissance distinguished artists sometimes designed
strings), adding a letter to show where the left-hand finger articles for use at table — the most famous example is
In stave notation the Imes represent actual notes, whereas of France. Apart from the articles actually used in eating
in tablature they represent the strings of the instrument, and drinking, there were also ornamental centrepieces
while the letters indicate the position of the left-hand and vases for flowers. From the i6th century the kind of
fingers relative to the frets. In this example of an ayre by formal table-setting with which we are familiar today
Thomas Campion published m 1601 the stave notation for ,
p r p r r-p r-p r
tambourin, scored in Bizet's U Arlesienne (1872), is much
larger. The Basque tambourin de Beam a string drum,
=^^ES±S •y?!
is
"t.
P
'bi-rt t(
P P I
«c
Expressionism in that it strove to be spontaneous and
,
f c
'
"s,-]
>« e' rf
instinctive, but tachiste paintings are more elegant and
less aggressive than their US counterparts.
. ."> a
the difficult period in Latin history following the death *waisted drums, whose pitch is variable, or pairs of
of the emperor Augustus in ad 14. He saw it as the *kettledrums, are often used. Throughout Africa, and
historian's function to record virtue and ensure that vice elsewhere, *slit drums and other instruments, such as
was denounced by posterity, and to this end he created paired bells, horns, and whistles, are also used. Only
memorable as the events he records: condensed,
a style as when linguists realized the importance of pitch tones in
rapid, and incisive. *Gibbon admired Tacitus more than African languages was the efficiency of the so-called 'bush
any other ancient historian, and his own biting, epi- telegraph' understood.
grammatic style comes closest in English to the Latin of
his exemplar. Tallis, Thomas (c. 1505-85), English composer. In 1543
he became a Gentleman of the *Chapel Royal, and
Tagore, Rabindranath (1861-1941), Bengali writer. remained in royal service for the rest of his life. In 1575,
Born into a leading family of the Bengal renaissance, in partnership with William *Byrd, he was granted a
his earliest works appeared in his brother's magazine, monopoly in music printing. He was brought up in the
Bhdvafi ('Eloquence'). His long creative life produced over Roman Catholic tradition, and his early music includes
1,000 poems and 2,000 songs (frequently set to his own settings of the Latin liturgy, often on a grand scale. After
music), introducing new metres and prose-poems into the accession of first Edward VI and then Elizabeth I,
*Bengali literature. Gitdnjali ('Song Offerings'), his famous Tallis composed excellent English anthems for the An-
collection of mystical lyrics, appeared in 19 10. Tagore's glican church. The *motet Spem in alium for forty voices
own English translations of these established him in the combines inspired virtuosity with feeling and imagination.
West, and in 191 3 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for His masterpieces are settings of the Lamentations of
Literature. He wrote some forty plays and of his eight Jeremiah — dark-hued, harmonically rich, and extra-
novels the most important is Gord ('White'), contrasting ordinarily emotional works which can compare with the
orthodox and modern Hinduism. Tagore's were the first finest music ever written for Holy Week. The Mulliner
true short stories in Bengali, making Bengali prose style Book 1560) contains examples of his keyboard music,
(c.
more colloquial and less classical. His many essays and as well as arrangements of part-songs by him.
letters reveal his political and social views and humanistic
philosophy. He later achieved fame as a painter and Talman, William ( 1650- 719), English architect.
1
He
educationalist, founding his international university at was the outstanding designer of country houses in the
Shantiniketan. 1680S and 1690S before being eclipsed by Vanbrugh. His
most important work was carried out at Chatsworth
Takexnitsu, Toru (1930- ), Japanese composer. House in Derbyshire, where he rebuilt the south and
Mainly self-taught, Takemitsu has been influenced by east fronts (1687-96) with designs revealing a thorough
those Western composers whose music has something in knowledge of continental styles that brought a new
common with Japanese art — in particular an economy of *Baroque splendour to the English country house.
line, a delicacy and sophistication in the deployment of
orchestral and harmonic colouring, and the exploration tambourin * tabor.
ensembles, but some incorporates Japanese musical in- ature cymbals in the frame to add a jingle. It was used
struments. in the Middle Ages and as a folk instrument. It came
into the orchestra from the military band in the 19th
Talbot, William Henry Fox (1800-77), British in- century, to give an Arab, Spanish, or Italian flavour;
ventor of photography. Talbot began experiments to later it became an instrument in its own right. It is widely
preserve the images seen in a camera lucida (like the camera used, sometimes with a snare across the head instead of
obscura, a device for projecting views on to a flat surface) the jingles, in North Africa, the Middle East, and the
in 1833. His first 'photogenic drawings' were 'photograms' Indian sub-continent, and was used in ancient times in
(silhouettes of objects placed on photo-sensitive paper), Greece, Mesopotamia, and ancient Israel.
but he soon progressed to photographs 'from nature'.
Unlike the daguerreotypes of *Daguerre, Talbot's calo- tambura, an Indian long-necked plucked musical in-
types, as they were soon called, produced negatives from strument with four strings. The strings are tuned to the
which positive prints were made. They were thus in many tonic and other important notes of the raga. They are
ways the true precursors of modern photography. never stopped but are plucked to produce a continuous
*drone, essential in Indian music as a permanent reference
Tale of Genji, Japanese prose work of the ith century.
i point for both players and listeners.
This long work — over 1,000 pages in translation — is often
considered to be the masterpiece of Japanese literature. Tamil literature, the principal *Dravidian literature.
It tells of the life and loves of a prince, Genji, and the has the oldest unbroken literary tradition of any living
It
man presumed to be his son. Murasaki Shikibu, a court Indian language, beginning in the earliest centuries ad.
lady, is usually credited with its authorship. The first texts are a grammar, Tolkdppiyam ('The Ancient
Poem'), and over 2,000 verses of love and war collected
Tale of Heike *Japanese literature. as Ettuttokai ('Eight Anthologies') and Pattuppdttu ('Ten
Songs'), representing an ancient bardic tradition quite
talking drums, those used to imitate speech. Especially unlike the Sanskrit. The collection of proverbs Tirukkural
in tonal languages, whose patterns of high and low tones ('The Sacred Maxims') (ad f.500) is regarded by Tamils as
control the meaning of words, drummers can imitate tone 'the fifth Veda'. From the 6th century Sanskrit influence
and rhythm of words to transmit messages. In West Africa is seen in epic romances such as The Lay of the Anklet,
TAM-TAM 446
describing a nobleman's passion for a courtesan. *Bhakti two sections of equal length. There is a stylized tango in
literature first flourished in Tamil with the mystical *Stravinsky's T Histoire du soldat, and the dance has found
hymns to Shiva and Vishnu of the Nayanmar and Alvar its way into the works of British composers such as
Tamil prose tradition in the 17th and i8th centuries, exponent of North Indian or Hindustani classical music.
but the first Tamil novel, Vetanayakam Pillai's The Life His musical genius first flowered in Gwalior and he was
of Pratapa Mudaliar, a moralistic tale of south Indian life
brought to Akbar's courts in Agra and Fatehpur Sikri,
only appeared in 1879. The first modern Tamil poet was where he was an honoured member and one of the
Subrahmanya Bharati (1882- 192 1), who through his celebrated 'jewels' of the court. Legends about Tansen's
essays also broadened the scope of Tamil prose. Short musical achievements abound; even details about his life
stories were first successfully attempted by V. V. S. have assumed legendary proportions. As well as being
Aiyar 188 1- 1925). In both classical and modern Tamil
(
remembered as a matchless vocalist, Tansen was also an
literature drama has been comparatively undistinguished. exponent of the bin (a stringed instrument).
tazn-tam gong. Tao Qian (365-427), one of China's major poets, the
greatest of the Six Dynasties period (ad 222-589). He
Tange, Kenzo (191 3- Japanese architect. He is one
),
was a daoist recluse, whose poetry, which describes the
of a group of architects who, mainly inspired by *Le pleasures and pains of rural life, is written in a plain style
Corbusier, brought Japan into the mainstream of modern which influenced many poets who came after him. He
architecture after World War
while retaining a feeling
II used several verse-forms, exploring a variety of genres for
he built a series of town
for national tradition. In the 1950s lyrical expression. He is best known for a story, mostly
halls and other civic buildings using exposed concrete in in prose, which can lay claim to being the most famous
the *Brutalist manner, but with his pair of sports halls in China: the 'Peach Blossom Spring', which tells how a
for the Tokyo Olympic Games (1964), buildings with fisherman lost his way and stumbled into a Utopia which
dynamic, sweeping curves, he entered into a more original he was never able to find again.
phase. From about the same time Tange has received
prestigious commissions from outside Japan, and his tapestry, a term that is often loosely applied to any
influence has been spread by his teaching (notably at heavy ornamental fabric used as a wall-hanging, but
Tokyo University, where he was professor for several which more correctly signifies a hand-woven textile in
years), as well as by his buildings. which the design is formed by lengthwise threads (wefts)
inserted over and under the vertical threads (warps)
Tang Xianzu (1550- 16 16), Chinese dramatist of the according to the requirements of colour; the design is thus
Ming dynasty (1368- 1644). Famed for the delicate sens- an integral part of the material, rather than something
itivity of his poetry, he is considered to be one of China's superimposed on it. Although tapestries are most often
greatest playwrights. Of his five plays, his masterpiece is used for wall-hangings, they have also been used as
The PeonyPavilion, the tragic account of an aristocratic upholstery fabrics; the usual materials for the warps are
girl who
reaches beyond the constraints of her family in wool, linen, or hemp, and wool is also the most common
an attempt to find her identity, and whose love for a material for the wefts, although silks and even silver and
young scholar triumphs over death. gold threads have been used for richer effects. The weaver
generally worked from a full-size coloured drawing called
Tanizaki Jun'ichiro (1886- 1965), Japanese novelist. a cartoon. Although the technique was known in the
His early romantic works gave way to concern for social ancient world, the early history of tapestry is obscure.
conflict, but always with strong erotic themes. His story From the late 14th century of a continuous tradition can
The Tallooer (19 10) tells of the effect of a spider tattooed be traced in Europe with important developments in
on the body of a beautiful girl, the autobiographical Some Paris and the Franco-Burgundian territories, and from
Prefer Nettles (1928-9) deals with marital breakdown and then tapestries were an essential part of medieval interior
the clash of traditional and modern culture in Japan, and decoration. They continued to be popular until well into
The Makioka Sisters 1957) examines social trends through
( the 8th century, when they began to give way to cheaper
1
the decline of a once powerful family, based on those of coverings such as *wallpaper. Tapestries have been woven
the author's wife and his own. in every continent, the silk tapestries of Asia (see *Chinese
decorative arts) being particularly fine. In Europe, France
tanka, one of the forms of *Japanese poetry. The tanka has the richest tradition in the art, with particularly
isa short poem of thirty-one syllables in five phrases of well-known factories at Arras, Aubusson, Beauvais, and
five,seven, five, seven, and seven syllables respectively. Paris (the *Gobelins manufactory). In the 20th century
It contrasts with the longer *renga and has been the leading artists of the *Modern Movement, including
dominant form in classical Japanese poetry from the 7th Matisse, Braque, and Picasso, used tapestry as a medium,
century to the present century. From it sprang both renga while one of the most ambitious tapestries of the century,
and *haiku. 'Christ in Glory', was designed in 1962 by Graham
Sutherland for Coventry Cathedral in Britain. (See also
tango, a *Latin American couple dance in duple time *Brussels tapestries, *weaving.)
that evolved in the late 19th century in the poorer districts
of Buenos Aires and was later exported to North America tar, a Persian and Causcasian long-necked plucked lute
and Europe. It has a characteristic halting, repeated with a small double-lobed body shaped rather like a
rhythmic figure in the accompaniment, and consists of figure eight, with three double courses of thin metal
447 TAYLOR
strings. The setdr (meaning three strings) is found more Tatlixi, Vladimir (Yevrafovich) (1885- 1953), Rus-
widely over Central Asia and, like the *saz, has a small sian painter, designer, and maker of abstract construc-
pear-shaped body; it was the origin of the Indian *sitar tions, founder of * Constructivism. After seeing
the
under the Mughals. The same name, but aspirated as tar, *Cubist pictures by Picasso in Paris in 191 3, he began to
is also used for a large *frame drum in much of the Arab produce highly original constructions made from a variety
world and Malaysia. of everyday materials, including glass, wire, and wood.
After the Russian Revolution of 191 7 he supported the
Tarkovsky, Andrei (Arsenevich) (1932-86), Rus- demand for socially oriented art (see *Socialist Realism),
sian film director. He was one of a group of young directors and in 1 9 1 9 he was commissioned to design the monument
who rejected the constraints of *Socialist Realism in to the Third International Communist Congress, which
the post-Stalin era, and
works were often attacked by
his was to be held in Moscow in 1921. This huge structure,
the Soviet His first film, Ivans Childhood
authorities. a sloping open-work tower planned to be bigger than the
(1962), describes a childhood disrupted by the Nazi Eiffel Tower, was never built, but it is recognized as the
invasion of Russia during World War H. This was outstanding symbol of Soviet Constructivism.
followed by a mere six films, the most famous of which
is Andrei Rublev (1966), set in medieval Russia and offering tattooing, the decoration of the human body with
the story of an icon-painter set against the 200-year long permanent patterns made by pricking the skin and
strife between Russians and Tatars. His other major work inserting pigment. The practice is ancient (tattoos have
is the science fiction film Solaris (1971), which explores been found on Egyptian mummies of about 2000 bc) and
the theme of the conflict between the spiritual and the is known in virtually every part of the world. Apart from
material, and was shot in black and white. Other films itsdecorative purpose, tattooing has been practised for a
included Mirror (1975), an account of his own childhood; variety of reasons: in some cultures it has ritualistic
Stalker (1978), another science fiction film; Nostalgia significance in puberty or maturity rites; it has been
(1983); and The Sacrifice (1986), which won the special believed to have talismanic powers against disease or ill
grand prize at Cannes. luck; and it has been employed to mark criminals and
persecuted groups. Among many peoples tattooing has
Tartini, Giuseppe (1692- 1770), Italian composer and been regarded as a sign of manliness and courage,
musical theorist, who helped to establish the modern style but among others it is considered effeminate. To the
of violin bowing and defined a set of principles, published Polynesians it is a mark of wealth and social prestige.
in 1767, of musical ornamentation and harmony. Most Tattooing went out of favour in Europe with the advent
of his career was passed in Padua, where he founded an of Christianity. At the time of the conquest of America
influential school of violin playing in 1728. He composed tattooing was extensively practised by the Indians of
more than 100 violin concertos and sonatas, including North and Central America and by some peoples, mainly
the 'Devil's Trill', and concerti grossi, as well as the Art in the tropical areas, of South America. Tattooing was
of the Bow (a set of thirty-eight variations on a gavotte carried to its highest level of technical and artistic per-
by Corelli) and religious works. fection in Japan, but it was banned there in 1889.
Tasso, Torquato (1544 95), Italian poet and dramatist. Taverner, John (c. 1490- 1545), English composer. He
He entered the service of the dukes of Este at Ferrara, was the first master of the choristers at Cardinal College
where from an early age he wrote poetry and produced (now Christ Church), Oxford (1526-30), where choral
his pastoral drama Arninta (1573). A serious, vulnerable, music on a large scale was encouraged. He wrote a
and self-questioning man, Tasso's life was a long decline number of very fine masses, some, such as the six-part
into illness and insanity. His poem Jerusalem Delivered Corona spinea and Gloria tibi Trinitas, in a large-scale festal
(1574), intended to give Italy a religious *epic, revolves manner, not only showing great contrapuntal skill (see
round the Crusaders' conquest of Jerusalem in 1099. He *counterpoint) but also profound musicality. His smaller-
succeeds in creating memorable heroes and heroines and scale masses, including the well-known one on the 'West-
in infusing the poem with a melodious, elegiac quality. ern Wynde' melody, point the way to the simpler style
Tasso's epics and critical works had a great influence on of church music which was to become common later in
English literature, notably on Spenser, Milton, Dryden, the century. Most notable are his three *polyphonic
and Gray, while Byron and Goethe wrote works on his antiphons of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
tragic life.
fete (1947), about a village postman. His fame rests largely work for the modern idiom; Aureole (1962), a lyric,
on the character of Monsieur Hulot, whose physical abstract dance; and Esplanade (1975), a masterpiece of
ineptness and loping walk were first seen in Les Vacances dance made out of running and walking steps. His darker
de Monsieur Hulot (1953). With its minimal dialogue and side is reflected in Cloven Kingdom (1976).
visual jokes it established a pattern for three more Hulot
films: Mon ancle (1958), which satirized gadgetry and Taylor, Sir Robert (1714-88), British architect. He
social climbing; Playtime (1967), in which US tourists find began his career as a sculptor (the pediment of the
Paris as skyscraper-ridden as home; and Trafic (1971), Mansion House in London is his work). City merchants
focusing on the motor-car, in which Tati once more and bankers formed the bulk of his clientele, and for them
returned to a characterization of Monsieur Hulot. Taylor designed country villas as well as commercial
TCHAIKOVSKY 448
premises. He was immensely hard-working and is usually are the Penguin Pool at London Zoo (1935), which
considered a highly competent rather than an inspired consciously imitates the forms of the Russian *Con-
designer, working in a basically *Palladian style. structivist sculpture of Gabo and Pevsner, and two coolly
elegant blocks of flats in Highgate, London, Highpoint I
Tchaikovsky, Pyotr (Ilych) (1840-93), Russian com- (1933-5) and Highpoint II (1936-8).
poser. His studies included composition lessons at the St
Petersburg Conservatory with the composer and pianist Telexnann, Georg Philipp (1681-1767), German
Anton Rubinstein (1829-94). In 1866 he moved to composer. He was a supreme exponent of the new galant
Moscow, teaching at the Moscow Conservatory (1866- style of composition, writing music designed to meet the
78) and consolidating his reputation with such works as needs not only of ecclesiastical and aristocratic patrons,
the fantasy overture Romeo and Juliet (1869). In 1877 he but also of the growing number of middle-class musicians
entered into a marriage which was ruined by the under- and audiences, for whom he established musical societies
lying tension of his homosexuality. A platonic rela- in each of the major cities where he worked. He is
tionship by letter (1876-90) with the wealthy widow probably the most prolific composer in the history of
Nadezhda von Meek proved an important spiritual and music, working in every major genre, including opera.
material aid to his well-being. Mystery surrounds his In 72 he became Kantor of the Johanneum, Hamburg,
1 I
death, one theory being that he committed suicide at the and remained music director of the city's five main
behest of a 'court of honour' summoned to avert a churches until his death. His music is marked by bold
homosexual scandal. His music includes six important harmonies, natural melody, buoyant rhythm, and beau-
symphonies (1866-93), ^^^ most famous being the Sixth tiful instrumentation.
or 'Pathetique'; concertos for piano (1875, 1880, 1893)
and violin (1878); songs, choral and chamber music; tempera, a term originally applied to any paint in
ballets (including Swan Lake, 1876; The Sleeping Beauty, which the *pigment is dissolved in water and mixed
1889; and The Nutcracker, 1892); and operas (including (tempered) with an organic gum or glue, but now
Eugene Onegin, 1878; and The Queen of Spades, 1890). The generally confined to the most common form of the
style of his emotionally charged music was marked by —
medium egg tempera. Egg tempera was the most im-
flair and brilliance, yet often tinged with a brooding portant technique for *panel painting in Europe from
fatalism, particularly in his later years. the beginning of the 13th century until the end of the
15th, when it began to be overtaken by oil. Tempera
Tecton, the name adopted by a group of architects painting has had a revival in the late 19th and 20th
who were *Modern
the leading representatives of the centuries, Andrew *Wyeth being a noted exponent.
Movement The group was founded in London
in Britain.
in 1932, and disbanded in 1948. The most important temperament (in music), a term for the adjustment of
member was the Russian-born Berthold Lubetkin who intervals involved in the various systems used in tuning
worked in Moscow, Leningrad, and Paris, before settling the notes of the octave. In the acoustically 'pure' or
in London in 1931. Amongst Tecton's most famous works 'untempered' *scale that arises in the natural *harmonic
series, the semitones vary very slightly in size. Thus a
semitone between, say, the second and third degrees of
Tempera is a difficult medium to handle, as the colours one scale might not fit when required to serve between
are few and not easy to blend. The subtle effects that the fifth and sixth degrees of another scale. These differ-
Botticelli achieves m his painting 'Venus and Mars' ences pose no problems to singers, or to instruments (such
illustrated here depended on a slow building-up as the violin family) that can vary their *pitch at will,
process, m which each layer of paint would have a
but they do pose problems with instruments (such as the
calculated effect on the next. However, although it is not
as versatile as oil pamt, tempera produces an attractive
keyboard) in which the pitch is fixed as part of their
smooth surface that withstands the passage of time well. construction. With fixed-pitch instruments it was not
(National Gallery, London) possible to pass satisfactorily from one *key to another
449 TERNARY FORM
until tuning in equaltemperament had been adopted. A determined by a solar ritual, for the face of the central
step towards thiswas mean-tone tuning, developed in the pyramid is aligned with the setting midsummer sun and
1 6th century, which rendered tolerable the relationship all the other important buildings are related to it axially.
between certain keys, but left others unusable. It was When the Teotihuacan culture collapsed in ad c.700,
probably a modified version of such a system, allowing features of this architecture seem to have been transferred
freemodulation from key to key with good eflfect, which to sites on the edge of the Valley of Mexico, notably
Bach used for his 48 preludes and fugues 'The Well- Xochicalco and Cholula. (See also *Central American
Tempered Keyboard'. The move to equal temperament and Mexican architecture.)
was led in the 7th century by the French mathematician
i
Mersenne. In this the octave is made up of twelve equal Terborch, Gerard (161 7-81), Dutch painter and
semitones in which each interval is slightly out of tune, draughtsman. He is noted for his portraits and pictures
but still acceptable to the average ear. of elegant society, to which his gifts for delicate charac-
terization and exquisite depiction of fine materials were
tempo *time and tempo. ideally suited. Unlike most of the Dutch artists of his time
he travelled extensively. In Germany in 1648 he painted
Teniers, David (the Younger) (1610-90), Flemish The Swearing of the Oath of Ratification of the Treaty of
painter, most important member of a family of
the Miinster, a group portrait of the signatories to the treaty
Antwerp artists. His output was huge and varied, but he that gave the Dutch independence from the Spanish.
is best known for his peasant scenes. In 1651 he was
appointed court painter to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm Terbrugghen, Hendrick (1588- 1629), Dutch painter.
of Austria, governor of the Austrian Netherlands, and After training with Bloemaert in Utrecht he spent a
was also made custodian of the archduke's art collection. decade in Rome and on his return to the Netherlands he
He made paintings of the galleries in which the works of became the leader of the painters in Utrecht who adopted
art were installed and painted small copies of some of the *Caravaggio's style. Terbrugghen was chiefly a religious
pictures. His father, David (the Elder) (1582-1649), was painter, but he also painted some outstanding *genre
primarily a painter of religious scenes. Few paintings are works. His style was sensitive and poetic.
known that are certainly by him, and many formerly
attributed to him are now ascribed to his son, with whom Terence * Roman comedy.
he may have collaborated.
ternary form, a three-part musical structure consis-
Tennyson, Alfred, Baron Tennyson (1809-92),
ist ting of two similar (or identical) outer sections with a
British poet. At Trinity College, Cambridge, he met
Arthur Hallam, whose early death he mourned in a series
of *lyrics. In Memoriam (published anonymously, 1850), This portrait of Tennyson (1869) is one of several made
which express his own awareness of change, evolution, of him by the pioneering Victorian photographer Julia
and immortality. His early poems {Poems, 1833) include Margaret Cameron. In an introduction to a selection of
Tennyson's poems W. H. Auden wrote of him: 'He had a
'Mariana' 1830); and 'The Lady of Shalott', 'The Lotos-
(
large, loose-limbed body, a high, narrow forehead, and
Eaters', and 'A Dream of Fair Women'. His 'Morte huge bricklayer's hands; m
youth he looked like a gypsy;
d' Arthur' (1842) was later incorporated in Idylls of the in age like a dirty old monk.' Tennyson himself called this
King 1885), an expansive series of twelve connected verse
(
photograph 'The Dirty Monk'. (National Portrait Gallery,
*romances on the Arthurian legend. He was admired by London)
Victoria and Albert and in 1850 was appointed *Poet
Laureate. In this capacity he wrote an 'Ode on the Death
of the Duke of Wellington' and 'The Charge of the Light
Brigade' (1854), composed after the charge at Balaclava.
His long narrative poem The Princess (1847) and the
monodrama Maud (1855) contain some of his best-loved
lyrics. Among his later works are his narrative poem
Enoch Arden (1864), several dramas including the tragedies
Becket and The Cup (both 1884), and the short poem
'Crossing the Bar' (1889), in which the poet conveys his
awed sense of the mystery of life.
contrasting section in between. The contrasting section is serene beauty, modelled on contemporary eastern Indian
usually in a different key. This ABA pattern is one of the images (see *Buddhist art). Lopburi (iith-i3th century)
simplest yet most satisfying forms in music, the whole became an important source of *Khmer influence, de-
principle of statement, contrast, and restatement being veloping the sanctuary tower [prang) into a key feature
at the root of even the most sophisticated formal struc- of Thai architecture and giving new life to Khmer-style
tures. Such types as the *minuet and trio, the da capo Buddha images. The first autonomous Thai kingdom was
*aria, and the lyrical slow movements of sonatas and established in about the middle of the 13th century, after
symphonies are in ternary form. the provincial rulers of the Sukhothai region of central
Thailand broke from a weakened Khmer empire in 1238.
terracotta (Italian, 'baked earth'), baked clay that has The architectural legacy of the Sukhothai kingdom is seen
not been glazed. The word is applied also to the reddish- in the numerous Buddhist complexes (wats) at the twin
brown colour considered most typical of the material, cities of Sukhothai and Sisatchanalai (Sawankhalok) and
although it occurs in various other colours. Terracotta is at Kampheng Phet. These remains reveal a prosperous
a form of earthenware, but from ancient times it has been state generously endowing the Buddhist community
used for statues (usually small-scale) and architectural [sangha) . Theravada Buddhism laid stress on accumulating
ornaments, and it is to these rather than pottery that the merit and this resulted in the building of numerous
term usually refers. monasteries and the commissioning of bronze images in
vast quantities. Thai temple architecture followed Khmer
Terry, Dame Ellen (Alice) (1847- 1928), British act- models, but also developed an indigenous style partly
ress. A member of a theatrical family, her beauty of voice inspired by Sinhalese Buddhist art. Evangelical contacts
and gesture were widely acclaimed. In 1878 she began with Sri Lanka (Ceylon) introduced the concept of the
her famous partnership with Henry * Irving, playing most 'walking Buddha', which became part of the classical
of the Shakespearian heroines as well as contemporary repertoire of Sukhothai art. The Sukhothai-style Buddha
roles. In 1906 she appeared as Lady Cicely Waynflete image is sinuous, with crisp features and clinging wet
in Shaw's Captain Brassbound' s Conversion, a role created 'drapery' which barely disturbs the smoothly contoured
for her. surface. Thai temples were richly decorated with stucco
and glazed ceramic ornament and housed images of the
Tetley, Glen ), US dancer and choreographer.
(1926- Buddha, often of monumental scale. In 1438 Sukhothai
He Holm, Tudor, and Graham, and danced
studied with came under the control of the rival kingdom, Ayudhya,
with modern dance and ballet companies, including which continued the Buddhist art tradition. Much of the
American Ballet Theatre. Pierrot Lunaire (1962) shows his art production of Ayudhya and of the northern school of
particular flair for mixing elements of the two genres in La Na, centred at Chieng Mai, perished in regional
an expressionistic, theatrical work. It is a style that has conflicts and in the devastating wars with the Burmese,
found a ready audience in Europe, particularly through who sacked Ayudhya in 1767. The capital was moved to
the Netherlands Dance Theatre and Rambert Dance Bangkok, but the art of this later period, the Ratanakosin
Company. school, was consciously archaistic, looking back to the
lost glories of Sukhothai and Ayudhya. From the second
Thackeray, William Makepeace 163), British
(181
half of the 19th century, however, a growing interest in
novelist. He began a career in journalism and later
both Chinese and European art stimulated some fresh
studied art in London and Paris. His early works include
artistic activity. Remains of Thai ceramics are known
The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844), a portrayal of 18th-
from Neolithic times, but glazed wares are associated
century society. From 1842 he joined the staff of the newly
with the foundation of the first Thai kingdom of Sukhothai
founded radical pictorial Punch, contributing caricatures,
in the 13th century. By the 14th century Sukhothai and
articles, and humorous sketches, some of which were
Sisatchanalai centres were producing glazed domestic
collected in The Book of Snobs (1846-7). His major
stoneware, architectural ornaments and tiles, and wares
novel Vanity Fair (serialized between 1847 ^"^ ^^4^ ^^^
for the growing export market to maritime South-East
illustrated by himself), was set in Regency England. It
Asia. Underglaze iron-brown painted wares, typically
satirizes the pretensions of society through its central
with fish or flower designs, and a thickly glazed greenware
character, the socially ambitious and unscrupulous Becky
(see *celadon) were the dominant types produced. This
Sharp. It was followed by a fictionalized autobiography,
trade reached its peak in the 15th and i6th centuries.
Pendennis (1848-50); The History of Henry Esmond, Esq
Other kiln centres grew up around Ayudhya and in the
(1852), a virtuoso novel in 18th-century style, and its
north around Chieng Mai.
sequel The Virginians (1857-9), set pardy in the USA;
The Newcomes (1853-5); ^"^ many other novels. He was
Thai literature. The earliest example of Thai poetry,
at his best as a powerful satirist and moral realist exposing
the Sayings of Phraruang, was compiled in the reign
with a sharp eye the hypocrisy, vanity, and snobbery of
of King Ramkhamhaeng (c.1275-131 7) of Sukhotai. It
society.
belongs to the didactic genre known as suphasit and
influenced many later poetical works. Like much Thai
Thai art, the art and architecture of Thailand, formerly
literature, it is strongly influenced by Buddhist themes
called Siam. The peninsula region of modern Thailand
and text. An important early Thai prose work compiled
was probably the earliest part of south-east Asia to receive
sustained Indian contact with Hindu merchants from
southern India. The dominant people of the region, the The attenuated sophistication characteristic of Thai art is
in 1345 is the Three Worlds Cosmography of Phraruang, which cupied what had been the orchestra. Thus the horseshoe-
describes the hells, the earth, and the heavens according shaped auditorium evolved, and it quickly became the
to Buddhist cosmology. The text has over the centuries most popular design everywhere. The platform stage of
been elaborated upon and is often depicted in temple the *Elizabethan theatre later became the apron stage
wall-paintings. In the Ayutthaya period (1380- 1767) (in front of the proscenium arch), which formed the
poetry predominated and five main types of verse-form, acting area of the Restoration theatre, with proscenium
with numerous sub-classifications, developed and remain doors on each side through which the actors entered and
in use to this day. These verse-forms (called chan, kap, exited. The apron stage was retained in 18th-century
khlong, klon, and rai) each had complex rules governing Georgian theatres, but the actors gradually moved back
the number of syllables and their rhyming patterns. A behind the proscenium arch among the scenery. By the
combination of the rai and khlong verse-forms called lilit early 19th century the apron stage had disappeared and
developed in the 15th century, while in the 17th century the 'picture-frame' stage reigned supreme. Many theatres
a form of long reflective poetry known as nirat reached were built during the 19th century; exteriors improved,
perfection. The poem Siprafs Lament, written by the exiled interiors grew more luxurious. Modern theatres such as
poet Siprat, is a masterpiece of this genre. The Indian the picture frame and the open stage (a descendant of
epic the *Rdmayatia (called in Thai Ramakian) was a source the Elizabethan platform stage) are usually better
of inspiration in much Thai literature, above all in Thai designed. The popular theatre-in-the-round ensures in-
drama, dance-drama, and *shadow-play performances. timacy between actors and audience, especially in 'prom-
Many Thai literary works were lost in the Burmese enade' productions in which the actors mingle with a
destruction of Aytthaya in 767, but following the es-
1 standing audience. Flexible staging, which can be adapted
tablishment of a new Thai dynasty and capital at Bangkok for various styles of presentation, is popular with *fringe
in 1782, much new literature was produced and prose groups and in the small studio theatres attached to many
writing perfected. Thai kings and members of the royal large theatres or forming part of arts complexes. Many
family and court played a leading part in the revival of theatrical performances are also given in public houses
Thai literature and composed many original works. The and other buildings never intended for theatrical events,
opening up of Thailand to the West, begun by King and on the streets. (See also *set design, *stage ma-
Mongkut (1851-68), and the introduction of printing chinery.)
contributed to the development of a modern prose lit-
erature and to the first fictional works, some adapted and Theatre Workshop, company founded
a British theatre
translated from Western sources. After the revolution of in 1945 by a group of actors who were dissatisfied with
1932 composition in traditional genres declined, and the the commercial theatre 'on artistic, social, and political
short story and novel became established and popular grounds'. Joan Littlewood became its artistic director.
forms of writing. The company took over the Theatre Royal, Stratford, in
London, and opened in 1953 with Twelfth Night. Left-wing
Tharp, Twyla (1942- ), US dancer, choreographer, in its ideology, it sought always to revitalize the English
and director. She studied with Graham, Cunningham, theatre by a fresh approach to established plays, or by
and Taylor, and has choreographed and danced with her commissioning working-class plays, many of which were
own group and made works for television, Broadway, subsequently transferred to West End theatres, among
and major ballet companies. Her structural explorations them Brendan Behan's The Quare Fellow (1956) and The
culminated in The Fugue 1970). American popular dance
( Hostage (1958).
is evident in Eight Jelly Rolls 97 1 and Nine Sinatra Songs
( 1 )
(1982), with their casual movement and comment on Thomas, Dylan (Marlais) (1914-53), Welsh-born
current social issues. poet and prose writer. His exuberant rhetorical style
refreshed the post-war English literary scene, and with
theatre, a building or outdoor area for the performance the publication of Deaths and Entrances (1946), containing
of plays and similar entertainments. The earliest recorded 'Fern Hill', he was firmly established. His prose works
theatres were in Ancient Greece, and evolved from the include Portrait of the Artist as a Toung Dog (1940) and
worship of Dionysus (see *Greek theatre). They were set Adventures in the Skin Trade (1955), both collections of
on hillsides around which were ranged semicircular tiers stories. His famous radio play for voices Under Milk Wood,
of seats, with a circular area (orchestra) containing the first presented at the Poetry Center in New York City in
altar at the foot, where the *chorus performed. Beyond 1953 and broadcast in its final version by the BBC the
the orchestra was a stage, initially low but later raised, following year, combines poetic alliterative prose with
and a stage-wall. The Roman theatre seldom used sloping songs and ballads to evoke the lives of the inhabitants of
ground, and the lofty stage building formed a single unit an imaginary Welsh seaside town, Llareggub. His highly
with the semicircular auditorium, both rising to the same acclaimed Collected Poems igj^-igj2 were published shortly
height. The actors performed on a raised stage, the front before his death in New York, hastened by heavy drinking.
of which was usually decorated with reliefs. The outer
walls of the auditorium were composed of several storeys, Thomas, (Philip) Edward (Edward
Eastaway) (1878-
each formed by a row of arches. Huge amphitheatres, 191 7), British poet. He
married young and supported
like the Roman Colosseum, resembled double theatres, his family by writing books about the countryside and
with an arena in the middle. The theatres of Renaissance biographies; among the best is his life of Richard Jefferies
Italy (there were none during the Middle Ages; see (1909). In 19 3 he met Robert *Frost, who encouraged
1
*booths and *liturgical drama) were modelled on the him to write poetry, using the natural speech rhythms in
Roman and Greek, but were covered. The curtained his prose. Thomas's poems describe country scenes in
proscenium arch between the auditorium and stage was detail and examine states of feeling with stoical honesty.
introduced, as was *perspective, and the audience oc- At the outbreak of World War I he volunteered for the
453 THOREAU
Based on the Hellenistic theatre at Eretria, Based on the Theatre of Marcellus, Based on the Teatro Olimpico,
Greece, 3rd century BC Rome, 13-11 BC Vincenza, 1580-4
Based on the second Globe Theatre, Based on the Comedie-Francaise, Based on the Alley Theatre,
London, 1614 Paris, 1689 Houston, 1950s
acting area
audience
The classic Greek theatre was built into the hillside. The Arne. Thomson contributed greatly to the vogue of the
Renaissance theatre was roofed, while the Elizabethans *picturesque and his verse foreshadowed some of the
performed on an 'apron' stage. With the introduction of the attitudes of the Romantic movement.
proscenium stage theatres became larger. 20th-century
theatres aimed to draw the audience closer to the drama,
Thomson, Virgil (1896- 1989), US composer. From
1925 to 1932 he lived in Paris, where he formed a fruitful
relationship with Les *Six and with Gertrude *Stein. He
army and was killed in France. Although he seldom collaborated with the latter on two semi-Surrealistic
writes directly about the war, a sense of threat and loss operas {Four Saints in Three Acts, 1928; and The Mother of
ispresent in many poems, and he is now seen as one of us All, 1947). His compositions are deliberately naive,
the most moving of the 'war poets'. somewhat in the manner of *Satie.
Thomson, James (1700 48), Scottish poet. In 1725 he Thoreau, Henry David 181 7-62), US poet and essay-
(
came to London where he wrote 'Winter', the first part ist. Most of his life was spent in Concord, Massachusetts,
of his long, *blank-verse poem The Seasons (1726 30). It where he was associated with * Emerson and other *Tran-
was a departure from the neoclassical conventions, offer- scendentalists. In 1849 he published A Week on the Concord
ing new images of nature and was adapted for Haydn's and Merrimack Rivers and his essay 'On the Duty of Civil
oratorio. He produced several tragedies including So- Disobedience'; the latter, based on his imprisonment for
phonisba (1730) and Tancred and Sigismunda (1745). He is refusing to pay poll tax during the Mexican War, was to
also remembered as the author of the ode 'Rule, Britan- influence both Gandhi and the US Civil Rights move-
nia', from Alfred, a Masque (1740), with music by Thomas ment. Walden; or Life in the Woods (1854), one of the
THORNDIKE 454
classics of American literature, re-creates a two-year (1929) with E. B. White satirizing pseudo-scientific sex
period in which he pursued a simple, independent ex- manuals; the comedy The Male Animal (1940) with Elliott
istence in a self-built hut by Walden Pond, musing on Nugent; and the short story 'The Secret Life of Walter
natural phenomena and confirming his belief that by Mitty' (1939; filmed 1947). Thurber's fantastic people
seeking individual salvation each man would contribute and animals move with sad persistence through traumatic
to the salvation of the whole. Some of his finest writing upsets; they are misshapen and repressed products of a
is in the twelve-volume Journals, published in 1906. malignant fate which they stoically survive or combat.
Resigned dogs observe predatory women at war with
Thorndike, Dame (Agnes) Sybil 882 976) British ( 1 1 , docile men who quietly dream of escape.
actress. By the outbreak of World War I she was playing
Shakespeare's heroines at the Old Vic in London. She is Tibetan art. Tibet's geographical position between the
particularly associated with two roles: Saint Joan (1924) powerful countries of India and China has led to its art
in -the first London production of Shaw's play, and the being heavily influenced by both cultures, though with
schoolmistress Miss Moffat in Emlyn Williams's The Corn its own character and finding its inspiration almost solely
a combination of monastery, palace, and fortress, and the although until about 1900 it was better known for stained
residence of the Dalai Lama (the traditional ruler and glass, jewellery,and mosaic work. Tiffany designed many
highest priest of Tibet) until the 14th Dalai Lama fled to prestigious interiors in New York and redecorated the
exile in India in 1959, after an unsuccessful revolt against White House in Washington in 1882 3.
the Chinese. The a massive, rectangular, almost
palace is
famous for its distinctive glass vases and lamps, char- Timur (1336- 405, also called Tamerlane or Tam-
1
acterized by sumptuous forms and iridescent colour, burlaine), who created a vast Islamic empire stretch-
TIN PAN ALLEY 456
ing from Mongolia to the Mediterranean. Although Tintoretto, Jacopo (1518-94), Italian painter. He
legendary for hisbarbarity in war, he encouraged art, trained in Venice and may have been Titian's pupil. Most
literature, and science and intended that his capital, of Tintoretto's paintings were of religious subjects, but he
Samarkand, should be Asia's most splendid city. One of also painted mythologies and portraits, his style char-
the finest of the monuments surviving there from his time acterized by a dynamic energy and a masterly handling
is his own vast mausoleum, the Gur-i Mir (1405), which of perspective and space. His religious paintings have an
shows the ribbed bulbous dome and lavish tile cladding aura of deeply held personal faith, while his mythological
typical of Timurid architecture. After Timur's death the compositions retain a more buoyant tone, reminiscent of
empire broke up because of dynastic struggles and outside Titian. In 1564 when the Scuola di San Rocco (a
attacks, but art continued to flourish, particularly at charitable religiousorganization) announced a com-
Samarkand and Herat (now in Afghanistan). Archi- petition for a decoration, he did not submit
ceiling
tecture attained an unprecedented splendour and Islamic sketches like the other competing artists, but secretly had
painting reached its peak in the Herat School, the most a completed canvas installed in place. His successful ruse
illustrious figure of which is *Bihzad. Herat was famous marked the beginning of a long relationship with the
also for its carpets, and other decorative arts flourished Scuola, where he worked until 1587, decorating walls
under the Timurids. The last Timurid ruler ot Herat was and ceilings with huge canvases, including a stupendous
deposed in 1506, effectively bringing the dynasty to an representation of the Crucifixion (1565). He continued to
end, but Babur, the Timurid ruler of Fergana, survived paint up to his death, and his late work has a rapturous,
the collapse and established the Mughal dynasty in India mystically intense quality.
(see *Mughal art).
tin whistle * flageolet.
Tin Pan Alley * popular music.
Tippett, Sir Michael (Kemp) (1905- ), British com-
poser. He worked as a teacher and did not establish
himself as a composer until 1939, with the Concerto for
The Rape of Europe is one
of a series of mythological Double String Orchestra. The oratorio A Child of Our
scenes that Titian painted for Philip II of Spam. They are Time (1941) made him famous. Outspoken in defence of
based on poetic texts, particularly Ovid's Metamorphoses, his beliefs, he served a prison term (1943) as a con-
and Titian himself referred to them as poesie, a term scientious objector. Tippett's work is deeply concerned
appropriate to their air of enchantment. In Greek
mythology Europa was a King's daughter, lured by Zeus
—
with political, social, and psychological issues in par-
ticular the journey from the darkness of ignorance and
disguised as a bull, to climb on his back m play, where-
upon he carried her off to the sea and bore her to the island hatred into the light of self-knowledge and acceptance.
of Crete. (Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston) His operas The Midsummer Marriage (1952), King Priam
457 TOLSTOY
(ig6i), The Knot Garden (1969), and The Ice Break (1976) toccata, a keyboard piece that exploits the performer's
from different angles, as do such choral
tackle these issues musical dexterity. The word itself means 'touched' in
masterpieces as The Vision of St Augustine (1963-5) and Italian, and thus the music is *staccato in its effect. The
The Mask of Time (1984). His four symphonies (1945- extended trumpet fanfare that opens Monteverdi's opera
77), four string quartets (1935 79), and four piano sonatas Orfeo (1607) is labelled 'toccata', as is the last movement
(1937-84) mark the progress of his thought in powerful of Vaughan Williams's Eighth Symphony (1955).
abstract terms. Tippett's music is notable for its rhythmic
vitality and polyphonic complexity. It can be astringent toleware *lacquerwork.
and even harsh when the occasion demands, but more
frequently it is lyrical and romantically luxuriant. Tolkien, J(ohn) R(onald) R(euel) 1892- 1973), South (
1882. In 1888 he underwent a religious conversion after the Middle Earth, inhabited by shy, dwarfish creatures
going into a church to 'catch the atmosphere for a ('hobbits') with hairy feet, and a range of other races,
picture', and thereafter he devoted himself to religious some of whom speak own
elvish language and write
their
subjects, his biblical illustrations proving enormously in a runic alphabet. A supreme story-teller, Tolkien
popular. describes the struggle of good and evil forces for possession
of a magical ring that bestows absolute power.
Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) 1480 1576), Italian painter
(c.
who dominated Venetian art during its greatest period. Toller, Ernst (1893- 1939), German * Expressionist
He trained in the studio of Giovanni *Bellini, but was dramatist. His work depicts a society which has so drained
more profoundly influenced by *Giorgione. (Titian its subjects that they are unable to achieve their natural
worked in collaboration with him and completed some potential, failing in their responsibility to themselves and
pictures unfinished after his premature death.) When
left in their search for companionship. The Change (19 18),
Bellini died in 15 16 Titian succeeded him as official offering an *allegory of spiritual rebirth and self-
painter to the Venetian Republic, and his dominance discovery, and Masses and Man (19 19), 'a play for the
there was unchallenged until his own death sixty years social revolution of the twentieth century', are matched
later, resulting in a series of magnificent altar-pieces by Hinkemann 1924), the tragedy of a worker emasculated
(
throughout Venice. In 1533 the Holy Roman Emperor in the war and an object of derision to his fellow-workers,
Charles V appointed him his official painter. Titian visited and The Machine Wreckers (1922), set in Luddite England.
the imperial court at Augsburg, in 1548 and 1550, and He was associated with the communist government in
on the second visit met Charles's son, the future Philip Bavaria (191 8). Exiled in 1933, he committed suicide in
II of Spain, who became the most important patron of the USA.
his later years. He remained active to the end of his life,
and the pieta that he painted for his own tomb and left Tolstoy, Count Lev (Nikolayevich) (1828-1910),
unfinished at his death is one of the greatest final Russian author and religious thinker. Born into the
testaments that any artist has left to the world. Titian landowning aristocracy, he entered the army in 1852
was equally renowned for his portraits and for his religious and participated in the siege of Sebastopol (1855), ^
and mythological paintings (which vary from profoundly description of which he published in three sketches,
moving scenes of Christ's Passion to erotic nudes) and he Sevastopol (1855 6). For the next four years he enjoyed
brought to new heights the traditional Venetian delight the social life of St Petersburg and Moscow, where his
in beautiful colouring. His mastery of oil paint was publication of the trilogy Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth
complete, and he was the first artist to exploit its textural (1852-4), Two Hussars (1856), and Three Deaths (1859)
possibilities to the full, his late works being remarkably confirmed his reputation as a brilliant short-story writer.
free in brushwork. Little is known of his personal life, but After his marriage in 1862 he managed his estates with
he was notoriously avaricious, and deliberately ex- success and enlightened liberalism, while at the same time
aggerated his age to try to gain sympathy (and thereby writing his two masterpieces, War and Peace (1863-72)
money) from patrons. and Anna Karenina (1875-6). The former covers the period
of the Napoleonic invasion of Russia as reflected in a vast
Tlatilco, a near Tacuba, west of Mexico City. It has
site tapestry of lives, including urban and rural aristocrats,
yielded some of the
earliest surviving art of the Valley of peasants, soldiers, diplomats, and courtiers. The flawless
Mexico from about 900 to 800 bc, in the form of clay structure of these characters placed in a complex series
figurines, many representing 'pretty ladies', or steato- town, country, and on the battlefield,
of settings in
pygous women. Typically, the figurines have Janus- combine to make this perhaps the greatest European
heads or three-eyed, double-aspect visages, 'ballerina' novel. Anna Karenina, which is set in the 1860s, unfolds
feet, and short, trotter-like arms extended as if in dance. the tragic fate of its heroine, a married woman, and her
The modelling is elaborate compared with most other lover. In it, he reaffirms the
as in all Tolstoy's writings,
early Mexican figurines (most of which are built up superiority of rural, natural over the shallowness of
life
rather than strictly modelled) and the work is further urban society, and its ultimate ability to destroy the
distinguished by incised detailing of both clothing and nature of love. After these two novels Tolstoy underwent
anatomical features. Similarities with discoveries as far a spiritual crisis, renouncing his worldly possessions and
afield asPeru have inspired speculation about a single repudiating his artistic work {My Confession, 1881). He
archaic American culture. (See also *Central American attempted to probe the meaning of life with The Death of
and Mexican art.) Ivan Rich (1885), The Kreutzer Sonata (1890), and a series
TOLTEC ART 458
Tolstoy (right) with Chekhov on his estates at Yasnaya man, and which established the poster as a serious
Poly ana m 1901-2. In his early life Tolstoy had led a art-form. Alcoholism and syphilis caused his death at the
libertine existence, but painful self-exammation age of 36.
converted him to a form of Christian asceticism, and he
preached an ideal of the dignity of rural labour and the
peaceful resistance to political force. Excommunicated
by the Russian church in 1901 he none the less attained a
, The city of Tula in central Mexico is one of the chief
world-wide reputation as a moral beacon, who was to monuments of Toltec art. These huge sculpted columns
exercise a profound influence on younger leaders such (c.ad900-1200) m the form of warriors or hunters are the
as Mahatma Gandhi. most famous remains there. About 4.5 metres (15 ft.) tall,
they originally supported the roof of the temple of the
god Ouetzalcoatl.
toys, articles designed to be played with, especially for or self-confidence) punished by the gods or fates. The
Toys have been made from prehistoric
the use of children. tragic eflfect usually depends on our awareness of ad-
times, and numerous playthings survive from Egyptian, mirable qualities (manifest or potential) in the prot-
Greek, and Roman times, including balls, rattles, and which are wasted terribly in the unavoidable
agonist,
miniature representations of houses. In later ages they disaster. The most painfully tragic plays, like Shake-
became more sophisticated, and the skills of the artist speare's King Lear (c. 1605), display a disproportion in
became more important. During the i6th to i8th cen- scale between the protagonist's initial error and the
turies baby-houses were popular: cabinets divided into overwhelming destruction with which it is punished. The
room-like compartments in which miniature furniture Roman tragedian Seneca set the pattern followed by
was displayed. In the mid- 1 8th century thejumping-jack English playwrights from Thomas Kyd's The Spanish
(a flat marionette-like figure) was very popular, especially Tragedy (1586) to Webster's The Duchess of Malfi (1623)
in France where the Duchesse de Chartres commissioned in their violent 'tragedies of blood'.The major achieve-
Boucher to paint one for her. The dolls of the i8th century ments in tragedy of this period are Shakespeare's Hamlet,
are particularly attractive: the so-called 'Queen Anne Othello, Macbeth, and King Lear. These and other tragedies
type' have wooden heads under a thin coat of plaster, by Shakespeare employ a larger and
cast of characters
glass eyes, and delicately painted faces. In the 19th a wider variety of scenes than the Greek tragedies. In
century magic lanterns became popular, projecting 7th-century France Corneille and Racine wrote tragedies
1
hand-painted slides. Wax dolls, such as those made by modelled more closely on Greek examples, usually ob-
Augusta Montanari for the Great Exhibition of 1851, serving the 'unities' of time, place, and action which
were minutely detailed, the hair being set into the wax dramatic theorists claimed to derive from Aristotle. This
strand by strand. By the late 19th century France had strict French convention required that the action should
taken the lead in the manufacture of china-headed dolls, take place in one day in one location; it was later
notably the large-eyed, refined Jumeau dolls. China rejected by Hugo and others in the period of French
has its own history of toy-making, its most popular * Romanticism. Tragedy declined in the i8th and 19th
contribution being the kite, invented in the early centuries centuries, and the validity of its modern revival by Ibsen,
BC. In the Andean highlands the cult of the miniature Tennessee Williams, and Miller is much disputed. Some
is associated with good luck, and annual fairs where novels, like Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), can
everything is sold in miniature are still held in the Bolivian be described as tragedies; others, like Melville's Moby-
towns of La Paz, Oruro, and Cochabamba. Dick (1851), have recognizably tragic protagonists.
tracery, a term used to describe decorative stonework Traherne, Thomas (f. 1637-74), English mystical poet
(or more rarely brickwork) set in the upper part of and religious writer. He was a clergyman in Herefordshire
windows, and by extension to describe similar ornament and London. Almost all the work for which he is admired
applied to other architectural features or, for example, today was discovered by chance in notebooks and only
furniture. Tracery is one of the most characteristic features published from 1903. The Centuries of Meditation (1908),
of medieval architecture after about 1200 and its vari- discovered in 1897 on a street book stall, are linked short
ations or absence have been used to classify different meditations showing his joy in creation and in divine love.
stages of the *Gothic style, notably * Early English, The work is noted for its rhythmic, ecstatic descriptions
*Decorated, and *Perpendicular in Britain. Two basic of his childhood and for his imaginative response to the
kinds of tracery are distinguished. The earlier form was idea of infinite space. His Poems of Felicity, discovered in
'plate' tracery, in which solid areas of flat stone were the British Museum, were published in 1910. They are
perforated with decorative openings; from about 1230, on similar themes and argue complex ideas in careful
first in France and then elsewhere, this was replaced by *stanzas. The Thanksgivings, published anonymously in
a much longer-lived form called 'bar' tracery. In this, 1699, are in exuberant *free verse based on the un-
thin strips of stone, usually developing the lines of the rhymed rhythms and images of the Bible.
muUions (the upright members dividing the window into
panes), were arranged into a meshwork or other pattern. Transcendentalism, a US philosophic and literary
The tendency for tracery to become more intricate, and movement that flourished in New England, particularly at
to be applied more extensively, not only to windows but Concord 1836-60), as a reaction against 18th-century
(c.
also to walls, vaults, and screenwork, persisted down to rationalism, the sceptical philosophy of John Locke,
the end of the Middle Ages in almost every part of Europe and the confining religious orthodoxy of Calvinism. The
except Italy, so that eventually some buildings were Transcendentalists asserted the correspondence between
conceived almost entirely in terms of tracery. nature and the individual mind, and the presence of the
divine in both. The chief literary expressions of the
tragedy, in the Western tradition, a kind of drama (or movement were *Emerson's Nature (1836), and his essays
sometimes, prose fiction) which represents the disastrous and lectures, and *Thoreau's Walden (1854).
downfall of a central character, the 'protagonist'. The
tragedies of Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles are the transfer printing, a method of decorating ceramics or
most permanently impressive fruits of *Greek theatre. enamels by printing a design from an engraved copper
From their works, Aristotle arrived at a very influential plate on to paper and then pressing the paper while still
definition of tragedy in his Poetics (4th century bc): the wet to the surface of the object to be decorated. The
imitation of an action that is serious and complete, technique originated in Britain in the 1750s and soon
achieving a *catharsis through incidents arousing pity spread to the Continent of Europe. Originally, the design
and terror. Aristotle also observed that the protagonrst is transferred was monochromatic, so colour had to be
led into a fatal calamity by his hamartia ('error' or 'tragic added by hand, but multi-colour transfer printing was
flaw'); this often takes the form o{ hubris (excessive pride developed in the 1840s.
TRAVEL WRITING 460
travel writing, a kind of literature describing the political novels, known as the 'Palliser' novels after the
curiosities,dangers, customs, and sights of places and central character. These include Phineas Finn (1869), The
journeys, remote or near. A celebrated early example is Prime Minister (1876), and the sharply satirical The Eustace
the Guide or Description of Hellas (2nd century ad) by Diamonds (1873). His vast output included forty-seven
the Greek writer Pausanias. The Venetian Marco Polo novels, travel books, biographies, and collections of short
recorded his journeys in China and India at the end of stories and sketches. He was more
concerned with his
the 13th century. The late i6th century saw many characters than with plot and has been admired for his
accounts of voyages to America and elsewhere; Richard treatment of family and professional life, the variety and
Hakluyt's Principall Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries of delicacy of portrayal of his heroines, and his accurate
the English Nation (1589) is an important collection of description of Victorian social life.
Livingstone (1872). Notable English travel writers in the use and for other circumstances where extending slides is
20th century include Freya Stark (1893 ), Wilfred diflficult. Up to the i8th century the English name was
Thesiger (1910- ), and Bruce Chatwin (1940 89).
*sackbut, used today to distinguish earlier models from
modern. The trombone came into the orchestra from the
tremolo, in music, the rapid reiteration of a note, or church and opera, and was later adopted by military
rapid alternation between two notes. * Chords can also bands. Three sizes were normal: alto, tenor, and bass.
be treated in the same way. It is often confused with The soprano trombone has been used occasionally, and
vibrato, which is a fluctuation of *pitch —
pleasant if a contrabass was introduced by Wagner. Today all parts
under control, unpleasant if it develops into a wobble, save for contrabass are played on Bj? instruments with an
particularly where the human voice is concerned. F extension controlled by a valve in the back bow.
trio, in music, a composition for three voices or instru- trompe-l'oeil (French, 'deceives the eye'), a term in art
ments, hence the string trio (violin, viola, and cello) and applied to a painting (or a detail of one) that is intended
the piano trio (piano, violin, and cello). The central to deceive the spectator into thinking that it is a real
section of the *minuet, *scherzo, and march is called a object rather than a two-dimensional representation of
'trio' because it was originally written in three-part it. Such virtuoso displays of skill often have a humorous
Barchester Towers (1857) and ended with The Last Chronicle (1970), and Amour en fuite (1979). His second film, Tirez
of Barset (1867). They are set in a cathedral community sur le pianiste (i960), was a thriller, and his third, Jules et
in the imaginary West Country county of Barset and are Jim (1961), chronicling the relationship of two men with
interconnected by characters who reappear in more than the same girl, rivalled the first in popularity and critical
one of them. He developed this technique in his series of acclaim. His other work included Fahrenheit 4^1 (1966),
461 TUDOR ARCHITECTURE
added to fill the octave between the first two harmonics. explore psychological concerns, his idiom remained in the
A further advance was the development of the BBI7 tuba, modernist ballet tradition.
a fifth lower (CC for orchestral use). Because upright
tubas are heavy to carry on the march, the spirally coiled Tudor architecture, a term that can in its broadest
helicon, whose weight rests of one shoulder, was invented sense be applied to any buildings erected in Britain under
in 1845. This led to the sousaphone, which projects the the Tudor dynasty, that is, from the accession of Henry
sound forward instead of sideways. VII in 1485 to the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. Used in
this way the term encompasses the final flowering of the
tubular bell, a metal tube used instead of a church bell. * Perpendicular style at the earlier end of the time-scale
Twelve tubes, covering a full octave, can hang on a stand and the great series of houses by *Smythson at the other
occupying about one square metre or yard of floor, and end. However, in normal parlance the term 'Tudor
can be moved by two people. The same number of real architecture' indicates a specific style of building as-
bells would weigh thirty or forty tonnes and occupy a sociated chiefly with the first half of the i6th century. It
large space. This is why tubular bells are used even is a style expressed mainly in secular architecture (col-
though their sound is only an approximation to the real legiate as well as for church building in
domestic),
thing. The tubes are hung with 'white' notes in front and Britain was ended by the Reformation. The most
virtually
'black' behind (see *notation), and are struck with characteristic building material was brick, often patterned
rawhide hammers. by the use of contrasting colours or used to create splendid
decorative chimney stacks. Forms to a large extent fol-
Tudor, Antony (William Cook) (1908-87), British lowed those of the Perpendicular period, but windows
dancer and choreographer. He studied with *Rambert and doors were either flat-topped or had a very shallow
and joined her company, creating his first work in 1931. arch known as a 'Tudor arch'. Outstanding examples
He moved to North America to work for *American include Hampton Court Palace, begun by Cardinal
Ballet Theatre and subsequently other US companies. Wolsey in 15 15 and continued by Henry VIII; Compton
TURGENEV 462
' w-»'"^^viy^fi^\<.'
Compton Wynyates in Warwickshire is one of the most Turkish literature, literature of the Turkic peoples.
picturesque examples of Tudor architecture. The rosy The characteristics of the earliest Turkish poetry are seen
brickwork, mellow masonry, and irregular composition, in the *epic poetry of the Kirghiz, who have remained
with crenellations, twisted chimney stacks, and windows
in the original Central Asian heartlands: their epic, the
of varying shapes and sizes, create a feeling of warm
tranquillity.
Manas, has been passed down by word of mouth to
modern times. The tribes which spread into the Middle
East were soon converted to Islam and were greatly
Wynyates in Warwickshire, one of the most idyUically influenced by the Persian and Arabic languages and their
beautiful ofEngHsh country houses, built by Sir William literature (see * Arabic and * Persian literature). Two
Compton, one of Henry VIII's courtiers; and the Great classical languages developed: Eastern Turkish or Cha-
Gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, completed in 1533. ghatai literature produced two great figures: the poets
Although there is no firm dividing line, it is usual to All Shir Neva'! (1441-1501) and Babur (1483- 1530),
distinguish architecture of the later Tudor period as who founded the Mughal empire in India, and wrote his
'Elizabethan' (Elizabeth I reigned 1558- 1603). In this famous memoirs, the Bdburndmah. Western Turkish was
period stone is used more often for major buildings, houses called Oghuz or Ottoman, and its literature developed
become more grandiose in design and 'outward-looking' in various strands. Early mystical poetry, written in a
rather than 'inward-looking' (that is, arranged around a simple language by Yunus Emre (d. 1321) and others,
courtyard), and there is greater foreign influence, both gave way at court to learned poetry, heavily influenced
in the use of the classical *Orders and in rich, often by Persian models, and called Divan poetry. The greatest
Flemish-inspired, surface ornamentation. exponents of this were Fuzuli {c. 480 556) Baki
1 1
526- , (
1
with A Sportsman s Sketches (collected 1852), short lyric (i6th century) are still sung by minstrels. With the defeat
glimpses of rural life which do not ignore the misery of of the Ottoman empire in 19 18, and the creation of
Russia's serfs. The
great novels, noted for their stylistic modern Turkey, the script was changed from Arabic to
elegance, reveal a pastoral lyricism, an ultimately pess- Roman and a new literature appeared. The novelist Yasar
imistic view of personal relationships, and a tendency to Kemal 1923-
( ) and the communist poet *Hikmet have
idealize the female and dwell on the flawed inadequacy achieved international fame. The most famous writer of
of the male. They also engage the political and intellectual the eastern Turkish world is the Soviet author Chingiz
issues of the day. Ineffectual idealism is central to the Aitmatov (1928- ), who writes novels in Kirghiz and
eponymous hero o^ Rudin (1856). In A Nest of Gentlefolk Russian. (See also *Sufi literature.)
(1859) the pure and spiritual Liza cannot reconcile herself
with the worldly and inconstant Lavretsky. Bazarov, the Turkish music *West Asian music.
hero of Fathers and Sons (1862), is the prototypical positivist
and whose practical talents and emotional po-
nihilist, Turner, J(oseph) M(allord) W(illiain) (i 775-1 851),
tential areboth eventually wasted. Turgenev spent much English painter, the most original genius in *landscape
of his mature life in France; for Western literary circles painting in the 19th century. Until about 1796 he worked
he was the embodiment of the aristocratic but passionate exclusively in water-colour, becoming a leading exponent
and unspoiled Russian intellectual. of the topographical view, but he then turned also to oils.
Around the turn of the century his personal style began
Turkish art *Ottoman art, *Seljuq art. to emerge, as his work became more highly charged
463 TWAIN
emotionally,imbued with a *Romantic sense of move- popular to this day. His experiments with
for children are
ment and drama. He travelled extensively in Britain, and language reveal a fascination with the commonplace and
from 1802 he made periodic visits to the continent of bizarre.
Europe, the mountains of Switzerland and the haunting
beauty of Venice providing him with the subjects for Tvardovsky, Aleksandr (Trifonovich) (19 10-71),
some of his most memorable paintings. In both oils and Russian poet. Of peasant origins, he became a national
water-colour he developed a technique of unprecedented poet with his *epic Vasily Tyorkin (194 1-5) about the
freedom, at times floating his colours in films of the utmost Russians at war. As editor of the journal New World in
delicacy, at others swooping and swirling them around the 1960s, he was a vital liberalizing force, pressing for
with an energy that suggests the overwhelming forces of greater artistic freedomand a literature based on aesthetic
nature. By the end of his career his paintings were rather than political themes.
approaching abstraction, as the figurative elements dis-
solved into beautiful mists of light and colour. His work Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) (1835-
was often attacked, but he had the most eloquent of 19 10), USnovelist, lecturer, and essayist. He was a
champions in *Ruskin. Turner died a very rich man and Mississippi steamboat pilot before becoming a journalist
left to the nation an enormous body of work, now housed and publishing comic sketches under the name 'Mark
in the specially built Clore Gallery (opened in 1987) at Twain', a phrase meaning 'two fathoms deep', in sound-
the Tate Gallery. ings on Mississippi riverboats. After the success o{ Innocents
Abroad (1869), he moved to Hartford, Connecticut, and
Tuwim, Julian (1894- 1953), Polish poet. He made a began to write a mixture of fiction and autobiographical
startlingdebut with Lying in Wait for God (1919); he then works. He returned to his childhood world of the Mis-
translated Russian poets and wrote for cabaret. His verses sissippi in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), preparing
the way for his masterpiece The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn (1884), in which he celebrates the flowering of
Mississippi frontier civilization in terms of its own pungent
Sun Setting Over a Lake (c. 1845) shows the extreme tall talk and *picaresque adventure. His bitter satire of
freedom of Turner's late style, the subject being suffused feudal tyranny, A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's Court
by light, colour, and atmosphere which together create
the true theme of the picture. Constable wrote of him 'He (1889), and The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson (1894)
seems to paint with tinted steam, so evanescent and airy.' reflect the darker tone of his later period. Twain was one
(Tate Gallery, London) of the greatest American humorists and his vernacular
TWENTIETH-CENTURY MUSIC 464
twentieth-century music, the undermining of tonality 16th century this was superseded by Roman type (the
that began in the igthcentury with *Wagner's intensive normal form today, as used in this book) and italic (a
use of the chromatic *scale continued in the first years sloping face). Type also became more compact, so that
of the 20th in the music of *Debussy. His style, which books were easily portable. Different typefaces are usually
has been called *impressionistic, opened up new musical named after those who created or popularized them,
horizons and helped to complete the dissolution of the although the typeface Bembo is named after Cardinal
'classical' principles that had guided Western music since Pietro Bembo (1470- 1547) because it was based on a
the 1 7th century. With the undermining of such prin- type used for a book written by him. Among celebrated
ciples, it seemed necessary to find new explanations for type designers are the Italian Giambattista Bodoni 740- ( 1
the state of music's grammar. Chief among them, and for 181 3) and the Englishmen William Caslon (1692 1766),
a time the most influential, was *Schoenberg's concept John Baskerville (1706-75), Eric Gill (1882 1940), and
of *serialism formulated in the 1920s. This blossomed Stanley Morison (1889- 1967). In addition to designing
widely after World War II, but taken to extremes (as in typefaces, Morison was an important figure in adapting
the use of *total serialism by such composers as *Boulez historic typefaces for mechanical typesetting.
465 UMAYYAD ART
SPECIMEN
SEVERAL SORTS
OF THE
A
D'. John Fell ukiyo-e, Japanese term meaning 'pictures of the floating
world', applied to the dominant movement in Japanese
scholars or missionaries. Typography as a separate branch ginated in Hawaii but derived from the small Portuguese
of design began in the late 19th century among 'art guitar-type instrument the machete, which had been car-
compositors'. In the 1920s and 1930s it became common ried to the Philippines in the i6th century and had
for the layout of printed matter to be specified by a travelled thence to Hawaii. The ukulele became widely
graphic designer. The invention in recent decades of used in the USA in the 1920s, and thence in Europe,
electronic means of transmitting typefaces to the printed especially for accompanying the voice in popular music,
surface or screen has led to the evolution of many new much of which was published with ukulele tablature. In
typefaces, and visually acceptable ways of combining text Britain the ukulele-banjo, tuned in the same way, was
and images to convey information. (See also *in- more often used than the ukulele itself
cunabula.)
Uxnayyad art, the art and architecture of the Arabian
Umayyad dynasty (661-750), which ruled over the entire
Islamic world (including most of Spain), the only dynasty
ever to do so. Initially existing buildings were converted
UNAMUNO 466
A print or ukiyo-e from the late 18th-century erotic album *Apollinaire during his student days in Paris. He fought
Poem of the Pillow. The delicate mood of this print by in World War I, an experience which marked his poetry.
Utaxnaro is heightened by the careful attention to details The *Symbolist, indeed cerebral, poetry of his early years
as mthe depiction of the graceful folds of different
gave way to a greater lyrical force: he could invest a few
fabrics. (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
words with a significant depth of meaning in order to
express what he called the cosmic essence of things.
by the Umayyads to the demands of the Islamic faith.
The Great Mosque in the Umayyad capital of Damascus Updike, John (Hoyer) (1932- ), US novelist, short-
(begun 707), for example, incorporated existing Hel- story writer, and poet. Among best-known novels is
his
lenistic buildings into its plan, and the Dome of the Rock The Centaur (1963), in which realism combines with
in Jerusalem (685-91) is built on the site of a Jewish mythology in the presentation of three days important in
temple and emulates the forms of the Byzantine Church the lives of a teenager and his father who, like other
of the Holy Sepulchre in the same city. Thus the term characters, are also presented as figures of Greek myth-
'Umayyad' does not refer to a particular style. In Spain ology. Couples (1968) depicts a small town's stylish set of
a branch of the Umayyad line survived until the early young married couples in their almost religious ob-
Iith century, and the Great Mosque of Cordoba (begun servance of sexual pairing. Updike is known as a brilliant
stylist in his fiction, but he has also written many poems,
785) is the most important example of Umayyad archi-
tecture there (see also *Moorish art). Little survives of generally light, published in a series of collected works.
other Umayyad arts, although there are some murals
from the palace at Qasr 'Amra (712-15), including nude Urdu literature, literature written in Urdu, the prin-
bathing scenes based on Graeco-Roman models. cipal language of the Muslim population of India and
Pakistan, usually written in Persian script. It began in
Uncununo, Miguel de (1864- 1936), Spanish novelist, Dakani, the dialect of the Deccan Muslim kingdoms
poet, and essayist. He have suffered a major
seems to of Bijapur and Golconda. The earliest texts (mid- 15th
spiritual crisis in around 1897, after which all his work century) are Sufi verses, but court poetry reached its
is characterized by an obsessive brooding on recurrent height with the 1 7th-century Nusrati and Ghavvasi. The
themes, especially the conflict between faith and reason. poet Wall (1668- 1 707) flourished at Aurangabad and
This is the core of The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and c.ijoo moved to Delhi, where Urdu soon supplanted
Peoples (1913), which advocates an attitude of creative Persian for writing poetry. At Delhi three poets became
uncertainty, and permeates all his fiction which, apart prominent: the satirist Sauda (i 713-81), Mir (1722-
from Peace in War (1897), is markedly experimental. 18 10), writer of love-lyrics, and Dard (1721-85), a Sufi
His Mist (191 3) explores questions of free will and mystic. As Mughal Delhi declined, artistic patronage
determinism, identity and personality, which underlie centred on Lucknow (c. 1750- 1850). SensuaHty char-
later works, especially Abel Sanchez (191 7) and San Manuel acterized the Lucknow Urdu poetry of Insha 756- ( 1
Bueno, Martyr (1930). An uncompromising thinker, his 1818) and Atish (1785 1847). Delhi poetry revived under
works, in both forms and ideas, seek to undermine his the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar with
reader's security. his laureate Zauq (1790- 1854), Momin (1800-52), and
particularly Ghalib (1797- 1869). Urdu prose began with
Ungaretti, Giuseppe (1888-1970), Italian poet. Born folk-tales like Garden and Spring, produced for Fort William
in Alexandria, Egypt, he was influenced by French College (founded 1800), and was developed further by
'decadent' poets including *Mallarme, *Rimbaud, and Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817 98) and the Aligarh
467 VANBRUGH
Utaxnaro Kitagawa (1753- 1806), Japanese painter and Valery, Paul-Ambroise (i 871 -1945), French poet
print-maker, a leading exponent o{*ukiyo-e. He specialized and essayist. During the 1890s Valery published work in
in portraying beautiful women {bijinga), usually soph- La Conque and Le Centaure, * Symbolist reviews, but there-
isticated courtesans of the Yoshiwara district of Tokyo, after wrote no more literature until La Jeune Parque
where he lived for most of his life. The beauty of his appeared in 191 7. This poem, and the collection Charmes
colour and line and the vigour of his characterization (1922) which followed it, constitute the basis of Valery's
made him enormously popular and influential in Japan reputation as a poet. The latter collection contains ^Le
and later much appreciated in the West. Cimetiere mariri most famous poem, a reflection on the
, his
theme of life and death. Unlike the Symbolists, he eschews
Utrillo, Maurice (1883 1955), French painter. He was free verse and casts his thought into a regular, classical
the illegitimateson of Suzanne *Valadon, a famous form of great beauty. His essays, on many subjects,
artist's model and distinguished painter. Utrillo began to are enhanced by his stylistic qualities of verve and
paint in 1902 under pressure from his mother, who hoped compression. Among the more accessible of these is La
that it would remedy the alcoholism to which he had Soiree avec Monsieur Teste (1896), a partial self-portrait,
been a victim from boyhood. His large output consists humorously written, about an absent-minded intellectual.
mainly of street scenes in Montmartre, often painted in
milky tones. He subtly conveys solitude and emotional Valle-Inclan, Ramon Maria del (c. 1866 1936),
emptiness and shows a delicate feeling for atmosphere, Spanish novelist and dramatist. He worked as a journalist
even though he often worked from postcards. His best in Madrid, standing out for his anarchic eccentricity
work was achieved by 191 6; success in the 1920s led him among the group which was to become the *Generation
to repeat many of his works. of '98. His first major success as a novelist was with the
elegantly written four Sonatas (1902-5), whose decadent
Utzon, J0rn (1918- ), Danish architect. He worked hero is reminiscent of Nietzsche's Ubermensch. Lights of
briefly with*Aalto in Helsinki, and then with *Asplund Bohemia (1920) introduces his first esperpento, a technique
in Stockholm, and came to international prominence in of systematic artistic distortion of character to convey the
1956 when he won the competition for the Sydney Opera deformed aesthetic which was to become the hallmark of
House, producing one of the most strikingly original the Theatre of the * Absurd.
of all 20th-century designs. The building stands on a
breakwater jutting into Sydney harbour, and has a series Vallejo, Cesar Abraham (1893- 1938), Peruvian poet.
of huge white shell roofs redolent of billowing sails. The Brought up in a small town in the Andes, Vallejo recalled
construction of the building posed grave problems (it was it in later life as an ideal. His first book of poems. The
eventually finished in 1973 at huge cost) and Utzon left Black Heralds (19 18), showed the influence of *Dario and
the project in 1966 because of interference with his work; the *modernists, but in his second, Trilce (1922), he finds
the exterior, however, is close to his original conception in a remarkable original voice, disturbing and moving the
all essentials. Utzon's other work includes the Parliament reader. In the collection Human Poem (1938) he turns to
Building in Kuwait. an idiosyncratic Marxism, relating the anguish of the
poor in South America to universal social themes, and to
the issues raised by the Spanish Civil War, which he
experienced first-hand.
The great hall at Castle Howard is one of Vanbrugh's established himself with The Cily and ihe Dogs (1962), a
most impressive interiors. It rises through two storeys novel describing his education in a military academy in
into a dome, and never before had an English country Peru. As in later novels, he made no attempt to disguise
house boasted such a grandiose Baroque room. The
the real-life inspiration for the work, using the struggle
quality of the decorationwas appropriately high, but the
hallwas badly damaged by a fire m 1940 and the dome of the individual for survival against corruption to reflect
paintings, by the accomplished Venetian artist Giovanni the spiritual and political malaise of Peru. He has pub-
Antonio Pellegrini, were destroyed. lished a distinguished series of other novels, including
Conversationin the Cathedral 969) and The War of the End
(
1
world of the day. Turning to architecture he became with studies of Flaubert and Garcia Marquez. Unusually for
*Hawksmoor the leading English*Baroque architect. His a writer of his quality, he adopts a high profile, seeming
two most famous buildings are Castle Howard, Yorkshire almost to seek publicity and controversy.
(begun 1699), and Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire (begun
1705), which are among the grandest of English country variation, theme and, a piece of music in which a
houses. Blenheim was built for John Churchill, ist Duke of main theme, usually a self-contained melody, is presented
Marlborough, in thanksgiving for his victories. Vanbrugh in a sequence of different versions. Thus the *harmony
had a notorious feud with the overbearing Sarah, Duchess or *rhythm may be radically altered, while the melodic
of Marlborough and was eventually dismissed. Of his outline remains the same —
or vice versa. All kinds of
other works the most remarkable is Seaton Delaval, variants are possible andeffective, so long as the re-
Northumberland (1720-8), in which the audacious bold- lationship with the original is still discernible. Early
ness and massive grandeur of his style are concentrated examples simply decorate the given theme, but later
into a comparatively small house. His own house, Van- practices make more radical changes so that each 'va-
brugh Castle, Greenwich (1718), is in a medievalizing riation' assumes a character of its own. Variations first
style that marks him out as a forerunner of the * Pic- appeared in 16th-century keyboard music, but by the
turesque and the *Gothic Revival. Most of Vanbrugh's 1 8th century were also to be found in orchestral works.
architectural work involved country houses for the ar- Later examples, such as Elgar's 'Enigma' Variations
istocracy, but he also designed a theatre in London ( 1899), often explore individual aspects of a theme, rather
(destroyed) and was employed on royal buildings as than treating it in its entirety.
*Wren's deputy.
Varley, John (1778- 1842), British landscape painter in
van Campen, Jacob (1595- 1657), Dutch architect. His water-colour. He published handbooks on water-
most important building is the huge, stately Amsterdam colour technique and was perhaps the most influential
Town Hal! (now the Royal Palace), begun in 1648 and teacher of his day. His style represents the transition
a triumphant symbol of the city in its greatest period. between tinted topographical drawing and the bolder
His other buildings include the Mauritshuis in The Hague method of water-colour characteristic of the 19th century.
(1633-5), designed as a royal palace and now a picture Other members of his family were artists, notably his
469 VAULT
brothers Cornelius (i 781 -1873) and William (c. i 785- military architecture and siege craft. In spite of the royal
1856). favour he long enjoyed, he died in disgrace after writing
a pamphlet on taxation that met with Louis XIV's
varnish, a liquid material used chiefly as a protective disapproval.
coating (on furniture, for example, as well as on pictures).
Picture varnishes have traditionally consisted of a resin vaudeville, US
entertainment consisting of a succession
such as amber, copal, or sandarac, dissolved in a substance of short items — singers,
dancers, comedians, acrobats,
such as linseed oil or turpentine. Synthetic solutions are —
animal acts and often including sketches in which star
now also used. Albumen varnishes, usually made from names from the theatre could occasionally be seen. Dating
the whites of egg, have been used as a temporary varnish. from the 1880s, it resembled British 'variety' or *music-
Spirit varnishes originated in the Far East and were not hall, both of which evolved from free-and-easy evenings
introduced into Europe until the i6th or 17th century, into more 'respectable' family entertainments in purpose-
becoming popular in the i8th century. They are used built theatres. Vaudeville developed its own stars such as
chiefly as fixatives for water-colour or tempera paintings. the comedian W. C. Fields (1880- 1946) and the 'black-
Wax, chiefly bleached beeswax, or paraffin wax, has been face' artist Lew Dockstader, and survived until the 1930s.
used to give a matt protective coat. Ideally, varnish used The term was applied in France to a light play with
as a protective coating should be colourless, transparent, music. (See also *burlesque.)
without effect on the colour of the paint, and easily
removed if it deteriorates. Varnish has seldom matched Vaughan, Henry (1621-95), Anglo-Welsh poet and
this ideal, however, and the removal of darkened varnish mystic. He lived in Breconshire, where he seems to have
without damaging the paint surface underneath is one of practised as a physician. The rapturous *Metaphysical
the delicate tasks facing the picture restorer. poetry for which he is known appeared in his
chieffy
remarkable third book Silex Scintillans ('The Shining
Vasarely, Victor (1908 Hungarian-born painter.
), Stone', enlarged 1655). In its preface he ac-
1650,
Active in France from 1930, he was the main originator knowledges his debt to the 'holy life and verse' of
and one of the chief practitioners of *Op art. In the 1930s *Herbert; like his contemporary *Traherne, he was in-
he worked mainly as a commercial artist, particularly on spired by memories of an earlier state of childish inno-
the design of posters, showing a keen interest in visual cence. Vaughan's poems, notably his masterpiece 'The
tricks and spatial illusions. From 1943 he turned to Retreat', are filled with images of light and colour, and
painting, and in about 1947 adopted the kind of geo- of natural phenomena as emblems of spiritual states. His
metrical abstraction for which he is best known. He twin brother Thomas (1621-66) wrote on alchemy, and
explored ways of creating impressions of movement his doctrine of the affinities between the spiritual and
through visual ambiguity, and his fascination with this physical worlds is also evident in Henry's poems.
field led him to experiment with *kinetic art. Vasarely's
writings as well as his paintings have been of great Vaughan Williams, Ralph (1872- 1958), British com-
influence on younger Op artists. poser, founder of the nationalist movement in 20th-
century English music. From about 1903 he began to
Vasari, Giorgio (1511-74), Italian painter, architect, collect folk-songs and from 1904 to 1906 was editor of
and biographer. His Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, The English Hymnal, for which he wrote the celebrated
Sculptors, and Architects (1550, enlarged in 1568) is the hymn, 'For All the Saints'. His study of English *folk
fundamental source of information on Italian Renaissance music and his interest in English music of the Tudor
art, its outlook shaping attitudes to the period for centuries period dictated the development of his idiom away from
afterwards. Vasari believed that art had declined in the the dominant German style of his day. He incorporated
Middle Ages, been revived by *Giotto, and culminated modal elements based on folk song and medieval scales,
in the work of * Michelangelo, and this idea of artistic and a new rhythmic freedom of his own, into a highly
'progress' subsequently coloured most writing on the personal and characteristically English style. Three
*Renaissance. His own considerable achievements as works — the song cycle On Wenlock Edge 1909), the choral
(
painter and architect have sometimes been overshadowed Sea Symphony 1909), and the Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas
(
Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre de (1633- 1707), square or circular central space in a building, the vault
French soldier, military engineer, and architect. He was is often used over a space much longer than it is wide,
the foremost military engineer of the 17th century, build- such as the nave of a church. The vault may have been
ing a cordon of fortresses around France. Vauban also used as long ago as the 4th millennium BC in the Middle
designed other buildings such as gateways, barracks, and East, but it was the Romans who first gave it a central
chapels in association with his fortifications, always in an place in their architecture. They generally used a form
austere, massive style, and he wrote various works on known as the 'barrel', 'tunnel', or 'waggon' vault, a
VEDAS 470
continuous half-cylinder of masonry, as in a railway and sense of space in a scene are conveyed with vividness
tunnel. A great technical breakthrough came in the and immediacy, but the individual figures or objects
Middle Ages with the development of the ribbed vault, dissolve into blurred brush-strokes when they are looked
in which instead of a solid mass of masonry, the vault at closely. With this technical went a mastery in
skill
consists of narrow intersecting stone ribs supporting a expressing character that has rarely been matched — even
comparatively light infilling. This was an essential com- when he was painting the pathetic court dwarfs (in a
ponent of the structural and aesthetic revolution of marvellous series in the Prado, Madrid, where almost all
*Gothic architecture. his greatest works can be seen) he conveyed a sense
of profound human sympathy, with no suggestion of
Vedas ('Sacred Knowledge'), the four books of the caricature. As with almost all Spanish painters, Velazquez
divinely revealedHindu scriptures. They form the earliest remained little known outside his country until it was
Sanskrit literature, embodying the beliefs of the Aryan brought into the mainstream of European affairs with
warrior-herdsmen who invaded north-west India during the Napoleonic wars. In the mid- 19th century, however,
the 2nd millennium bc. The most important book is the he was highly influential on progressive artists such as
Rigveda ('The Veda of Verses'), the world's oldest religious Manet.
text, still held sacred, probably composed between 1500
and 900 BC. Essential selections from the Rigveda (and Velde, Henri van de (1863- 1957), Belgian architect,
therefore datable a century or two later) are the Sdmaveda designer, painter, and writer, an outstanding exponent
('The Veda of Chants'), with tunes for chanting the of *art nouveau. Initially he was a painter, but in about
hymns, and the Yajurveda ('The Veda of Sacrificial Texts'), 1890, under the impact of William *Morris and the *Arts
containing formulae for the priests administering the and Crafts Movement, he turned to design. In addition
sacrifice. The Athdrvaveda ('The Veda of the Fire-Priest'), to designing many buildings in Belgium and Germany
younger and only given canonical status later, contains he was a prolific writer and lecturer and the director
spells and incantations for sorcery, exorcism, and other (1908-14) of the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts,
The Vedas were handed down orally
superstitious beliefs. which developed into the celebrated *Bauhaus. His finest
and only committed to writing much later, perhaps in works include his own house at Uccle near Brussels
the 2nd century bc. (1895), for which he designed the furniture and fittings.
He was the first art nouveau designer to use completely
Vega Carpio, Lope de (1562 1635), the most prolific abstract forms, rather than ones based on plants.
and and novelist of the Golden
influential dramatist, poet,
Age of *Spanish literature. Lope stated that more than veneer, a thin sheet of material with a decorative or
100 of his plays had been written in less than a day each, fine finish bonded to the surface of an object made of
and that the total exceeded 1,500 plays, though only a coarser and cheaper material. The term usually refers
third of these survive today. His fluency and range as a to the use of rich-coloured, expensive woods (such as
dramatist was immense; his poetry, of whatever form mahogany or rosewood) in furniture, but veneers can
(and he practised most) of lyricism. He excelled in
is full also be made of other luxury materials such as ivory and
the writing of sonnets, ballads, and songs {canciones), and *tortoiseshell. Veneering was known in the ancient world,
even his epics, novels, and many plays are full of lyrical but it did not become common in furniture-making until
fragments. The plays include cloak-and-dagger dramas the 17th century (see *cabinet-making); the height of
like The Dog in the Manger ( 1618), plays on peasant honour skill in the craft was reached in the i8th century, par-
and the pleasures of rural life such as Peribdnez and the ticularly in France. In the 19th century the introduc-
Commander of Ocana (c. 1610), tragedies including The tion of mechanical saws allowed veneering to be used in
Knight from Olmedo (c. 1620) and Punishment without Revenge mass-produced furniture.
(163 1 ), and the historical play The Sheep-Well
1613). (c.
His verse treatise, The Mew Art of Writing Comedies (i6og), Venetian art, the art and architecture of Venice, par-
established the pattern that was to characterize the ticularly in the i6th century, the period of its greatest
dramas of his age: to mix *tragedy and *comedy in the material and cultural splendour. Culturally it was open
same play; to disregard the Aristotelian unities of time to diverse influences and originally looked east to Byzan-
and place; to divide the play into three acts for exposition, tium, as is seen in the most famous Venetian building
complication, and denouement; and to use colloquial the Basilica of St Mark (see *Byzantine art). In the
language for domestic scenes. 15th century, led by the *Bellini family, Venice became
established as a leading Italian centre for painting.
Veldzquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva (1599- 1660), Giovanni Bellini established the Venetian concern for
Spanish painter. Most of his early works were religious colour rather than drawing as the dominant means of
pictures or bodegones (a Spanish term for kitchen or similar artistic expression. His pupils included *Giorgione and
scenes with a prominent *still-life element), but after he *Titian, and the was continued to
line of great painters
moved from his native Seville to Madrid in 1623, on the end of the century by *Tintoretto and *Veronese.
being appointed court painter to Philip IV, he con- Venetian architecture is characterized by sensuous rich-
centrated mainly on portraits. In 1629-31 and 1648-51 ness. The Doge's Palace, with its lacy open stonework,
he visited Italy, but otherwise his life revolved around and the St Mark's Library in an exuberant classical style,
the activities of the court. He always based his work on are two of the buildings that most clearly demonstrate
close study of nature, but his way of expressing this this trait. The Library is by *Sansovino who —
though a
became increasingly subtle. His early works have a Florentine by birth —
became the leading Venetian
sculptural solidity and use detail to give a sense of almost sculptor of the i6th century and often made his sculptures
palpable reality, but he gradually subordinated detail to parts of the decorative schemes of his buildings. In the
overall effect, so that in his late works the atmosphere Veneto, the mainland area inland from Venice, the
. 3
471 VERLAINE
pre-eminent architect *Palladio built villas and civic great Requiem (1874), until in old age he surprised the
buildings, as well as churches in the city itself. By the world with his greatest masterpieces: the Shakespearian
17th century, the native genius seemed to have exhausted tragedy, Otello (1887), and a comedy Falstaff (iSg-^).
itself, and most of the best painters to work there came
from elsewhere in Italy or abroad. Venice, however, can Verga, Giovanni (1840 1922), Italian novelist and
boast one of the finest and most original buildings of the short-story writer. Born in Sicily, Verga wrote his early
Italian *Baroque —
the church of Santa Maria della Salute works under the influence of French *naturalist writers,
by *Longhena. With its huge scrolls buoying up the then established his own style of 'verismo' or *realism to
dome, it is one of the most magnificent as well as one of depict the life of the Sicilian peasants. Among his short-
the most familiar sights in the city. In the i8th century story collections are Life in the Fields (1880) and Rustic
Venice enjoyed its second great flowering of art. *Tiepolo Tales (1883), the former including Cavalleria Rusticana,
and Giambattista Piazzeta were outstanding among many immortalized in Mascagni's opera. His two major novels
distinguished decorative painters who revived the brilliant are The House by the Medlar Tree (1881), about a family
colours and festive spirit of the i6th century. The engraved of fishermen, and Master Don Gesualdo (1889), about a
veduti (views)of the city published by Luca Carlevaris in self-made man who suffers rejection when he tries to
1703 are, together with his paintings, the foundation on break the class barrier. Verga perfected a unique narrative
which *Canaletto and *Guardi built their own popular style which combined literary language with idioms and
images of the city. With the rise of *Neoclassicism in the constructions from popular and dialect speech.
late 18th century, the vitality again went from Venetian
art, and since the 19th century the city has been more a Verlaine, Paul (1844-96), French poet. His reputation
place of cultural pilgrimage than a creative centre. In rests chiefly on the work of the first part of his career:
the field of 20th-century art, however, it is important Poemes saturniens (1866) and Fetes galantes (1869), which
for theVenice Biennale, an international exhibition insti-
tuted 1895 ^"<^ \\t\d every two years, which has
in
acquired world-wide prestige as a show-place for con- Verlaine's great lyric poetry found itself unexpectedly m
temporary art. the eye of the storm that brought World War II to an end:
It was these lines, broadcast from London on the night of
Venturi, Robert (1925- ), US architect. He worked 5 June 1944, that the French resistance forces had long
awaited. They gave the coded signal of the Allied
for *Saarinen and *Kahn before establishing his own
landings at dawn the following day and the final
architectural practice in Philadelphia in 1958. His work liberation of Europe: 'Les sanglots longs / des violons de
has included public, Collegiate, commercial, and domestic I'automne / blessent mon coeur/d'une
buildings. His houses in particular have developed am- longueur/monotone'. (Etching by Anders Zorn,
biguous spatial devices in a way that indicates his interest Nationalmuseum, Stockholm)
in the *Baroque. Venturi's most recent work reflects the
ideas of * Post-Modernism, notably his Sainsbury Wing
(begun 1987) for the National Gallery, London. In spite
of such prestigious commissions, Venturi is probably
better known for his writing and teaching than for his
buildings. His books include Complexity and Contradiction in
Architecture ( 1
966)
reflect the influence of the * Parnassians; Romances sans by the and atmosphere of *Claude's painting. He
light
which grew out of his stormy relationship
paroles (1874), is best known
for his paintings of the sea-shore and ports,
with * Rimbaud; and Sagesse (1881), stimulated by his done in an idealized and somewhat sentimental style. His
conversion to Roman Catholicism. His poetic theory, son, Antoine-Charles Horace (Carle Vernet) (1758-
enunciated \n Art poetique (187 1-3), emphasized suggestion 1835), painted battle scenes for Napoleon, and after the
and musicality and therefore looked forward to the restoration of the monarchy was official painter to Louis
Symbolists. However, he rejected their concept of vers XVIII, for whom he did racing and hunting scenes. His
libre or *free verse which could dispense with rhyme and son, Emile-Jean-Horace (Horace Vernet) (1789-1863),
metre, holding instead to vers liberes, verse which retained was one of the most prolific of French military painters,
these features but with greater flexibility than had been specializing in scenes of the Napoleonic era, together with
allowed by traditional metrical schemes: his use of the animal and oriental subjects.
impair, a line with an uneven number of syllables, enabled
him to achieve strikingly musical effects. In 1884 he Veronese (Paolo Caliari) (c. 1528-88), Italian painter.
published Les poetes maudits, a collection of essays which In 1553 he settled in Venice, and is one of the major
helped bring the work of Rimbaud and *Mallarme to artists of the Venetian School. He worked on a large
other Dutch paintings of the period that are superficially above all in the church of S. Sebastiano, where he is
very similar, but Vermeer's work is raised to a completely buried.
different level because of his flawless skill in composition
and the matchless sensitivity of his handling of light, Verrocchio, Andrea del (1435 88), Italian sculptor,
through which he creates images of perfect serenity and painter, and metalworker, originally trained as a gold-
harmony. smith. He had the largest and most important workshop
second half of the 15th century. His
in Florence in the
vernacular architecture, term applied to buildings most famous works are the statue of David (c. 1475) in
made of local materials in response to local needs, gen- the Bargello in Florence and the equestrian statue of
erally of unknown authorship and following traditional Bartolommeo Colleoni Venice (begun 1481, completed
in
patterns, with minimal reference to the styles prevailing after his death). Few paintings exist that can be certainly
in the mainstream of architectural development. Typical assigned to Verrocchio's own hand, but numerous im-
materials of vernacular architecture include timber, portant pictures came from his workshop. He also trained
thatch, wattle and daub, flint, and certain types of several distinguished painters, most notably Leonardo da
stone. Wood has been especially important in vernacular Vinci.
architecture as it was once such a widely available
material. It has been much employed in * timber-framing. Versailles *Boulle, *Le Notre, *Louis XIV style.
Oak was the type most commonly used in Britain, while
various soft woods have been used in Europe and America. vessel flute, a musical instrument with a globular
The between vernacular 'building' and main-
distinction rather than tubular body, such as the *ocarina and many
stream 'architecture' appeared only after the Renaissance, whistles. Acoustical differences between tubular and vessel
with the of the profession of architect. In the late
rise flutes are fundamental. The pitch of tubular flutes is
19th century, however, vernacular styles influenced the controlled by their length and varied by opening finger-
work of architects such as Lutyens. holes, whose effect is mainly determined by their position.
The pitch of vessel flutes is controlled by their volume
Verne, Jules (1828- 1905), French novehst. He aban- and varied by the area of open holes whose position is
doned a legal career and began writing *science fiction almost immaterial; they are blown cavity resonators.
stories which remain popular. His most famous titles Since the embouchure or blowing hole is also an aperture.
include Le Voyage au centre de la terre (1864), Vingt mille
lieues sous les mers (1870), and Le Tour du monde en
quatre-vingts jours (1873). He foresaw a number of scientific 'Maid with a Milk Jug' (c. 1660), right, illustrates many of
developments and devices, including space travel, tele- the features typical of Vermeer's work: a single figure
vision, and the submarine, and his style has been in- engaged in an everyday task; a window lighting the
fluential for later writers of science fiction. scene from the left; a favourite colour harmony of yellow,
blue, and grey; and delicately grainy brushwork
Vernet, family of French painters. Claude-Joseph suggesting the play of light with exquisite vibrancy. Even
though Vermeer's name was at that time almost entirely
(1714-89) was one of the leading French land- and forgotten, Sir Joshua Reynolds thought this picture was
seascape painters of his period. From 1733 to 1753 he one of the finest he saw when he visited the Netherlands
worked in Rome, where he was particularly impressed in 1781. (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
I /
4,
/^
.**'
:^
.#*^-'^
VICENTE 474
shading it with the Hp also affects the pitch. Experiment mechanization, and new building materials, most notably
shows that other instruments also function as cavity *Paxton in the Crystal Palace. Some of the most grandiose
resonators: sHt drums, for example, are affected by the Victorian buildings are outside Britain, an outstanding
volume of contained air and by the area of the slit, and example being the Parliament Buildings in Ontario
the effect of area of open hole explains the results of (1861-7).
cross-fingering (closing one or more finger-holes below
the lowest open hole to flatten the pitch by a semitone) Vidal, Gore (1925- ),US novelist, dramatist, and
and altering finger-hole sizes on all wind instruments. essayist. Born into the US political elite, he achieved
notoriety with the novel The City and the Pillar (1948), a
Vicente, Gil (f.i47o-c. 1536), Portuguese dramatist and sympathetic treatment of homosexual life, and Myra
poet. A playwright whose works reach back to the Breckinridge (1968), a satire about the lurid adventures of
medieval Portuguese dramatic tradition and ahead to the a transsexual. More substantial are his stylish, sardonic
Renaissance theatre, he practised both as an actor and essays, and dealing with the history
his historical novels
director of *pageants. He excelled in a variety of secular of the ancient world and with the political life of the
and religious genres, but a persistent feature of his work USA. The latter include the trilogy Burr (1973), i8y6
is its naturalness, with related qualities of realism and (1976), and Lincoln (1984).
humour. His works, written in Portuguese and Spanish,
are particularly memorable for their rich gallery of human Vietnamese art. Northern Vietnam was conquered by
types, inspired by contemporary Portuguese life, each China in the first century ad and Chinese influence has
defined by his own peculiar language. Many of his been dominant in Vietnamese art (see *Chinese art).
works were censored by the Church and banned by Early remains such as glazed ceramics and brick tombs
the Inquisition after 1536. Irreverent in their desire to reflect the influence of the Han (206 bc-ad 220) and
entertain and correct, they incorporate social criticism of Tang (618-907) dynasties. In 697 northern Vietnam was
the clergy, of corrupt religious practices, and of life at declared the protectorate of Annam ('Pacified South') by
court. the Tang court, but struggles throughout the loth century
resulted the establishment of the independent Ly
in
Victoria, Toxnas Luis de (1548-1611), the greatest dynasty in 1009. Thang-long (now Hanoi) was founded
Spanish composer of the Renaissance and one of the finest as the new capital and the arts were actively patronized,
European composers of the time. In about 1587 he was particularly those associated with palace and monastic
appointed chaplain to the Dowager Empress Maria, architecture. The *stupa-tower of Binh-son and decorative
living in retirement in a Madrid convent. He remained
in her service until her death in 1603, and was organist
The railway station was among the many new building
at the convent until his own death. His music settings — types to achieve prominence in Victorian architecture.
of the mass and magnificat, *motets, and other liturgical None was grander than London's Euston Station, which
—
compositions is notable for its intensity and *polyphonic boasted a magnificent Greek Revival gateway (1836-9)
magnificence. His psalm-settings, employing two and by Phihp Hardwick and this Great Hall (1846-9) by his
son, Philip Charles Hardwick, evoking the splendour of a
three choirs, are particularly impressive, and his re-
Renaissance palace. Both were demolished in 1963.
putation today rests mainly on his motets. Although he
wrote no secular music, a certain amount of madrigal-type
word-painting can be seen in some of his works.
tiles and carved terracotta reliefs survive from this period. also has *Mannerist features in its complexity of forms,
Although Vietnamese ceramics are firmly rooted in the and in certainways anticipates the *Baroque: his Roman
Chinese tradition there was a conscious effort to establish churches of S. Andrea in Via Flaminia (1554) and S.
an indigenous decorative repertoire. This effort was con- Anna dei Palafrenieri (begun 1573), for example, were
tinued under the Tran dynasty (13th- 15th century), but the first to use an oval plan, a type that was taken up
Chinese occupation in the early 15th century triggered a by 17th-century architects. Vignola's most important
new wave of Chinese influence, seen in temple archi- building is the Gesu in Rome (begun 1568), the mother
tecture, ceramics,and decorative arts. In central Viet- church of the Jesuits. In line with the ideals of the
nam, however, the kingdom of Champa (6th to 15th Counter-Reformation, the building was intended to pro-
century) had an independent tradition of art, Cham art, vide a clear view of the altar for a large congregation
that was more influenced by India than by China. and to have good acoustics for preaching. Vignola's
Champa temples, like the earliest *Khmer examples, design, with a broad nave flanked by a series of chapels
consist of a brick sanctuary tower [kalan) with out- rather than by the traditional aisles, shallow transepts,
buildings of perishable materials. The earliest Cham and a central dome, was so successful that it became one
sculptures are in an Indian post-*Gupta style of the 6th of the most imitated in the history of architecture, virtually
century, and a vigorous style was maintained from the a standard pattern for churches in Catholic countries.
8th to the late 12th century, when attacks by Angkor Vignola's other buildings include the Palazzo Farnese at
debilitated the kingdom. The Chams were also renowned Caprarola (1552-73, begun by Peruzzi), an enormous
for their gold jewellery, much of it intended for the building on a pentagonal plan, with a circular courtyard.
decoration of sculpture. Vietnamese ceramics parallel the In 1562 he published an important treatise on the *Orders
evolution of Chinese ceramics from the Han period of architecture that became regarded as a standard
onwards in form and style, except for brief periods when work.
a strongly indigenous character emerges. Production of
large-scale temple vessels and utensils continued into Vigny, Alfred de (1797- 1863), French poet, dramatist,
recent times, together with domestic wares which continue and novelist. His reputation as a * Romantic poet rests
to be made in traditional kilns. upon two collections, Poemes antiques et modernes (1826)
and Les Destinees (published posthumously, 1864). 'Moi'se',
Vietnamese literature. As a consequence of China's in the former, describes the isolation of the leader or man
long occupation of Vietnam (2nd century BC-ioth century of genius, while 'La mort du loup' in the latter depicts a
ad), the country has been greatly influenced by *Chinese stoic resignation to suffering. In 1826 Vigny published a
literature, language, and philosophy. Vietnamese writers successful historical novel, Cinq-Mars. He also wrote
only gradually began to free themselves from Chinese Romantic dramas, notably Chatterlon (1835), considered
models and to create a literature written in nom, a hybrid his masterpiece, which depicts the sufferings of un-
ideographic script developed to express purely Vietnamese recognized genius.
vocabulary and popular oral literature. The first great
nom works date from the 15th century, and in the 17th vihuela, a plucked stringed musical instrument used in
and 1 8th centuries new genres such as verse novels Spain in the Renaissance. Guitar-like in shape, it was
developed and predominated. Vietnam's greatest literary tuned and had paired strings, or double courses, like the
work is considered to be The Tale of Kieu written by *lute. Like the lute it was used for serious music and
etnamese values experienced under colonial rule trans- the Scandinavian (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish)
formed Vietnamese literature. The 1930s marked a tracers and warriors who from the 8th to the iith
watershed in Vietnamese literature, a period when mod- centuries raided by sea many parts of north and west
ern genres flourished, most notably in the Tho Moi ('New Europe. Viking art consists mainly of woodcarving,
Poetry') movement. The thirty years of war (1945-75) metalwork, and jewellery, much of it influenced by the
and the partition of Vietnam in 1954 affected Vietnamese art styles of nations with whom they traded. The most
literature. In the North, literature was required to support important group of works comes from the 9th-century
socialism and the reunification of Vietnam, while in the Oseburg Ship Burial (showing evidence of contacts with
South writing was more varied and critical. A leading *Carolingian art), a royal burial in Norway at which
contemporary writer is Le Luu, whose recent novel were found numerous elaborately carved wooden objects,
Time Gone By deals with the problems experienced by a including a cart, various sledges, and the prow and stern
Vietnamese soldier adapting to life in his North Vietnam of a Viking ship (now in the Viking Ship Museum, Oslo).
village after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. His The keynote of the decoration, as with other Viking art,
work has inaugurated a more critical, realistic, and is complex interlace patterns with animal motifs, similar
personal style. to the typeof decoration found in *Celtic art. The 'art'
at which the Vikings really excelled was shipbuilding
Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da (1507-73), Italian the famous longship found at Gokstad in Norway has a
architect. His style looks back to the High *Renaissance superb taut beauty of line that perfectly expresses its
tradition of *Bramante in its dignity and sobriety, but it function but has an abstract purity of its own. In Britain
VILLA-LOBOS 476
gamba). The viola d'amore was an 18th-century instrument poems in which the traditional themes of Greek bucolic
roughly of viola size, which had sympathetic strings, and poetry are blended with contemporary political and
was played on the arm, without frets. literary themes. His next work, the Georgics, is a lyrical,
didactic poem on farming, which also treats the wider
violin, a bowed stringed musical instrument evolved in themes of the relationship between man and nature and
Italy late in the 15th century by combining the stringing outlines an ideal of national revival after civil war. His
and size of the treble *rebec with the body of the *lira last and most famous work was the Aeneid, an *epic poem
da braccio. Adding a fourth string, violins retained the in twelve books modelled on the epics of *Homer, which
character, most suited to dance music, of the rebecs. Like relates the wanderings of the Trojan hero Aeneas after
all Renaissance instruments, violins were made in different the fall of Troy. His wish that the poem (unfinished at
sizes,from treble (violin) through three sizes of alto his death) should be burned was not respected. All the
(including contralto and tenor *viola), and bass (*cello), poems show Virgil the master of a melodious and varied
to *double bass. The first great violin-maker was Andrea *hexameter verse, of a suggestive boldness of expression,
Amati (pre-1511 to pre-1580), the founder of a famous and of a melancholy humanity. All, especially the Aeneid,
dynasty of Cremonese makers, pre-eminent among whom deeply influenced poets down to the Romantic period,
were his younger son Girolamo (Hieronymus) and his not least Dante, Milton, and Dryden. His works quickly
grandson Nicolo (1596 1684). A younger contemporary established themselves as the greatest classics of Latin
in Brescia was Gasparo da Salo (1540- 1609), who was poetry and exerted an immense influence on later classical
succeeded by his pupil Maggini. Characteristic of the and post-classical literature.
work of all these makers was a deep body, with highly
arched back and front or 'belly', and a full, rich tone. virginals, a musical instrument, strictly, a small member
The same is of the violins of Jacob Stainer of
true of the harpsichord family with both bridges on the
Innsbruck (c. 1617-83), who may have been a pupil of
Nicolo Amati. Nicolo's most famous pupil was Antonio
Stradivari (1644-1737), who modified the shape of the The title-page of the first book of keyboard music to be
violin, reducing its depth but with some models increasing printed mEngland, Parthenia (1612-13) shows a young
girl or 'mayden' playing a pair of virginals, as the
its length, producing an instrument with a stronger and
violoncello *cello.
soundboard and strings running parallel with the key- music became known throughout Italy and Europe and
board, popular from the 15th to the 17th centuries. The frequently took him away from Venice and his obligations
name also often meant the *harpsichord. Flemish virginals to the Pieta, whose service he finally left in 1 738. Though
sometimes had a smaller instrument, the 'child', stored he wrote music in forms, including over forty operas
all
in the side the case. The 'child' was placed on top of the and much sacred music, it is his 500 or more concertos
'mother' and the two were played together, the former that provided the basis of his fame. These employ solo
being an octave above the latter. instruments of all kinds, presented in a variety of ima-
ginative, lyrical textures and in structures that herald the
Visconti, Luchino (Don Luchino Visconti, Conte di form of the Classical *concerto. Many of them have
Modrone) (1906-76), Italian film and theatrical director. descriptive titles, some of which are programmatic for —
His film career began with Ossessione (1942), which example The Storm at Sea and the enormously popular
transferred James Cain's novel The Postman Always Rings The Four Seasons, a set of four violin concertos (f.1725).
Twice to an Italian setting, and The Earth Trembles (1948), Almost all instrumental composers of the i8th century
a documentary-style study of Sicilian fishermen filmed on (including J. S. Bach) show signs of his influence.
location and without professional actors. Sensibility 1954), (
a love story set during the unification of Italy during the Vlaminck, Maurice de (1876- 1958), French painter
1 860s, was his first colour film. Later films included Rocco and graphic artist. With *Matisse and *Derain he was
and His Brothers (i960), a kind of sequel to The Earth one of the leading exponents of *Fauvism, delighting in
Trembles about the tragic results when brothers from pure colour and often using paint straight from the tube
southern Italy migrate to the north; The Leopard (1963), in vigorous and exuberant compositions. This phase was
based on the novel by Lampedusa about a traditional short-lived, however, and from 1908 his work became
aristocrat with liberal leanings; The Damned (1970), an darker and more solid. His later pictures tended to
anti-Nazi film about a powerful German steel family; and become rather slick and mannered.
Ludwig (1972). He is best known, however, for Death in
Venice (1971), an adaptation of Thomas Mann's novel. voice, sound uttered with the vibration or resonance of
the vocal chords. High notes are produced when the
Vitruvius (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), Roman archi- vocal cords are tightened, low notes when they are slack.
tect and military engineer active second half of the
in the The pressure of the air from the lungs controls the strength
1st century bc. The only building known to have been of the sound. Adult male vocal cords are larger and
erected by him was a *basilica (destroyed) at Fanum thicker than those of the adult female, hence their capacity
(now Fano) in Italy, and his fame depends on his treatise to produce lower sounds. The lowest adult male voice is
De Architectura. This is the only book on building and the bass, followed in ascending order by the baritone,
architecture to have survived from the ancient world tenor, and countertenor. The lowest adult female voice is
and is an invaluable source of information on Greek the contralto, followed by the mezzo-soprano and the
architecture as well as Roman. It was known in manu- soprano. The boy's unbroken voice may be alto or treble
script in the Middle Ages and the first of many printed (the equivalent of the adult soprano). Young girls have
editions appeared in Rome in i486. For centuries it a similar range, but the voice is softer in quality. The
was regarded as the authoritative voice on classical ranges of the various voices are shown below.
architecture, exerting a powerful influence on other au-
thors of treatises, notably *Alberti and *Palladio. The
treatiseis divided into ten books, dealing with such topics
(
ematical issues.
bass baritone
Vittorini, Elio (1908-66), Italian novelist. A Sicilian,
he worked as a journalist in Milan, where he edited the
political and cultural journal The Polytechnic. During the ^ ^
late 1930s and early 1940s he became increasingly hostile
tenor countertenor
to the Fascist regime and was arrested in 1943. Much of
his writing reflects his political stance; his best novels
include Conversation in Sicily 94
(
1
and Women on the Road
1
)
It should be noted that the countertenor voice is not satiricalpoem Le Mondain 736) is interesting as a defence
( i
the same as the male alto. The male alto sound is produced of the luxury of contemporary society and contrasts with
by a baritone singing falsetto; the countertenor isa high the ideal simplicity advocated by Fenelon and Rousseau.
voice in its own right; while the *castrato has a soprano Voltaire wrote several historical volumes, including the
range. The term 'coloratura', as in coloratura soprano, Essai sur les moeurs (1769). This recounts the history of
indicates a style of singing and is not a voice as such — civilization without recourse to divine intervention in
merely a voice which is flexible enough to cope with human affairs. Voltaire's ideas receive their best literary
elaborate runs and trills. expression in his philosophical tales, which demonstrate
the characteristic clarity and concision of his style. In
Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) (1694- 1778), French Candide (1759), the best-known of these, he launches a
satirist and critic. He was a prolific author of, among on optimistic belief in a benign providence,
satirical attack
other things, plays, poems, historical works, and philo- though a work,
later U
Histoire de Jenni (1775), reveals a
sophical tales of a generally polemical nature. His attacks shift away from
a purely pessimistic view of life towards an
on political and religious intolerance brought repeated undogmatic belief in the existence of God. He contributed
condemnation of his works, causing him to live at different articles to * Diderot's Encyclopedie, the supreme literary
periods in Britain and Switzerland. An early work, the monument of the French *Enlightenment, in which
Lettres philosophiques (1734), shows his admiration, shared movement he was a major figure.
by *Montesquieu, for the British political system, which,
in allowing freedom of conscience, made it possible for Vonnegut, Kurt Jr. (1922- ), US novelist, short-story
the arts and sciences to flourish. Voltaire's drama is writer, and dramatist. Captured by the Germans in
generally conventional, following the pattern established World War II, he was working in the underground meat
by *Corneille and *Racine, and though his plays were locker of a slaughterhouse in Dresden when that city was
very successful in his own day they are now largely annihilated by US and British bombs. This experience
forgotten. His poetry is witty, reflecting the cultivated was an important influence on the 'black humour' of
taste of his day, but otherwise has little artistic merit. The his fiction, and is described in his best-known novel.
Slaughterhouse Five (1969). In his other works, including
Cat's Cradle (1963), he uses surrealism and science fiction,
The Vorticists at the Restaurant de la Tour Eiffel: Spring philosophic meditation, and brief, impressionistic scenes
1915 was painted m 1961-2 by William Roberts, one of the to present the duplicity and absurdity of modern life.
leading exponents of Vorticism, as an affectionate
recollection of a meeting of his former associates at a
Vorticism, a short-lived British art movement ori-
favourite London restaurant. Ezra Pound is seated m the
left foreground with legs crossed; Roberts is seated next
ginating just before World War I. The central figure of
to him with hands folded; and Wyndham Lewis is the Vorticism was *Wyndham Lewis, who edited its review
central figure in the hat. (Tate Gallery, London) Blast. His harsh, angular, mechanistic style was shared
W
VOUET 480
waisted drum, a musical instrument in which a central balanced life, celebrating the requited love of equal
section isnarrower than the ends. Shapes vary from partners and exploring the nature of love itself. He spent
hourglass, as in India, Tibet, Japan, and West Africa, to his life in the service of important political figures whose
goblet, as in Burma, and in the Middle and Near Eastern turbulent fortunes are reflected in trenchant political
darabukka, dombak, and zarb. With some hourglass and verse ranging from demands for specific actions to the
most goblet drums, and the barrel-shaped Javanese ken- criticism in his late poems of the decline in political,
dang, with its internal constriction, the waist is an acous- moral, and artistic standards in the changing world
tical device to compel the contained air into resonance around him. More than 100 of his poems, and some
with the head; some New Guinea drums function more melodies, survive.
as *stamping tubes than as drums. With other hourglass
drums, especially the * talking drums, the tension cords Walton, Izaak 1593- 1683), English
( writer. He is chiefly
joining the two heads are pressed into the waist, increasing known for his treatise The Compleat Angler, or the Con-
the tension and raising the pitch of the heads. Some templative Man's
Recreation (1653), which combines prac-
Indian drums are played similarly, but the damaru, like tical information on fishing and angling, with folklore,
the Japanese tsuzumi, is usually tensioned before playing gastronomic advice, songs, verse, and pastoral interludes.
by tying the tension cords tightly into the waist. Written as a dialogue in cheerful and leisurely prose, its
glimpses of an idyllic rural life have made it lastingly
wait * minstrel. popular. Walton's Lives are gentle and admiring portraits
of friends and clerics, including John Donne (1640) and
Walcott, Derek (Alton) (1930- ), West Indian poet George Herbert (1670).
and dramatist. In 1959 he founded the Trinidad Theatre
Workshop, which he directed until 1977, staging there Walton, Sir William (Turner) 1902 83), British com-
(
many of his plays, including Dream on Monkey Mountain poser. He came under the influence and patronage of the
(1967). His collections of poems, including In a Green *Sitwells, collaborating with Edith on Facade (1922),
Mght (1962) and The Fortunate Traveller (1982), combine an entertainment in which music cleverly underscored
European and Caribbean influences. poetry, and whose jazz rhythms and parodist wit earned
him considerable notoriety. The overture Portsmouth Point
wallpaper, a decorative covering for interior walls made (1925) and the Viola Concerto (1929) established him as
of large sheets of stout paper bearing painted, printed, a composer whose romanticism was clothed in terms of
stencilled, or embossed designs. In Europe, wallpaper an easily assimilated modernism. His music includes the
seems to have developed in the late 15th century as a oratorio Belshazzar's Feast (1931), the operas Troilus and
cheaper substitute for other wall coverings such as tapestry Cressida (1954) and The Bear (1967), two symphonies
or painted cloth or silk hangings, and, although it is (1935, i960), and concertos for violin (1939) and cello
sometimes said to be a Chinese invention, there is no firm (1956), as well as a series of film scores (including
evidence that wallpaper was in use in the Far East at an Laurence Olivier's Henry V, 1944; Hamlet, 1947; and
earlier date than this. No examples from the earliest days Richard HI, 1955).
WARHOL 482
waltz. Derived from an old Austrian-German peasant tion. In 1962 he achieved notoriety when he exhibited
dance, the Ldndler, the waltz first gained popularity in Campbell's soup cans and sculptures
stencilled pictures of
the early 19th century and still exists in the late 20th of Brillo soap-pad boxes, rapidly becoming the most
century in various versions. It was originally a fast turning famous figure in American *Pop art. He was opposed to
couple dance in 3/4 or 3/8 time with a marked accent on the concept of a work of art as a piece of craftsmanship
the first beat. Over the years the tempo decreased, and turned out his works like a manufacturer, calling his
although the 'Viennese Waltz', as in the works of the studio 'The Factory'. From 1965 he concentrated on
*Strauss family, has retained much of the earlier lilting —
film-making his later films gained widespread attention
fast style in contrast to the modern slower waltzes. The because of their voyeuristic concentration on sex.
popularity and scandal that the waltz engendered was
due not only to its hypnotic rhythm but also the innovative Warlock, Peter (Philip Arnold Heseltine) (1894- 1930),
hold and the relative positions of the man and woman. British composer, critic, and author. His compositions
Prior to the waltz, dances had been as much for the consist mainly of songs, notable for their sensitive response
pleasure of the spectators as for the performers and this to the English language. He founded the magazine
was reflected in the dual orientation of the dancers' The Sackbut (1920) and wrote about and edited Tudor
movements. In demonstration and competition dancing and Jacobean music. His best-known instrumental work
the waltz can be as showy and spectacular as other is the collection of dances the Capriol Suite (1926), and
Warhol, Andy (Andrew Warhola) (1928-87), US tographer, Roger Fenton (1819-69) covered the Crimean
painter, graphic artist, and film-maker of Czech extrac- War (1855 6) with a vanload of bulky equipment, glass
plates, and dangerous chemicals. This cumbersome tech-
nology, and the political requirements of those who had
Andy Warhol seen with the kind of banal packaging that commissioned him, prevented him from showing the true
he transformed mto an expensive commodity. He has
evoked widely differing critical opinions: to some he was
drama and horror of war. Mathew Brady (c. 1823-96)
an inspired figure in modern art, who celebrated and and others in the American Civil War (186 1-5) came
ridiculed middle-class American values; to others he was nearer, though even their best photographs (for example
merely a clever self-promoter. 'Death of a Sharpshooter' by Alexander Gardner (1821
82)) had to be posed. From the late i88os photographs
could be used to illustrate newspapers, and the Boer War
and World War I were covered by many photographers
and cinematographers. But it was the introduction of the
35mm camera in 1925 that finally enabled real action to
be recorded. This new lightweight, hand-held equipment
was exploited by Robert *Capa, among others, in the
Spanish Civil War, and by many photographers on both
sides during World War II. The Korean War (1950-3)
was widely covered, and it is sometimes said that the
frequent public showing of both still and moving pictures
of the Vietnam War (1961-73) hastened its end. Among
the most notable post-war photographers in Vietnam and
other conflicts have been Larry Burrows 1926-71), Philip
(
U Embarquement pour r lie de Cyf/7ere was Watteau's as a reflection of his own character, for he was restless
reception piece to the Academie Royale de Pemture et and died young of tuberculosis. He was an influential
de Sculpture in 1717 and because it did not fit into figure, and the sophistication of his work helped French
conventional categories he was received as a 'pemtre de
art to break free of dependence on Italian prototypes.
fetes galantes' (painter of courtship parties), a category-
invented expressly for him. The Mediterranean island of
Cythera (Kithira) is said to be the place where Venus, the Watts, George Frederick 8 7- 904) British painter
( 1
1 1
,
goddess of love, came ashore after being born from the and sculptor. He was in Italy from 1843 ^o 1847, where
sea, so it was a place of pilgrimage for lovers. (Louvre, his attitude to art was formed by his admiration for the
Pans) great *Renaissance masters. He invested his work with
moral purpose and his most characteristic works are
abstruse *allegories that were once enormously popular
works include Manchester Town Hall (1868 77) and the but now seem vague and ponderous. His portraits of great
Natural History Museum in London (1873-81), which is contemporaries have generally worn much better. His
*Romanesque rather than Gothic in style. Waterhouse most famous sculpture is the equestrian figure Physical
made use of strong colour in brick and terracotta and Energy (1904) in Kensington Gardens, London.
employed exposed iron for structural purposes, and his
buildings often have a hard, bright clarity. Waugh, Evelyn (Arthur St John) (1903-66), British
novelist. His early novels Decline and Fall (1928) and Vile
Water Margin, Chinese *epic novel. It is based on Bodies (1930) were followed by Black Mischief (1932), A
traditional accounts of the exploits of Song Jiang and his Handful of Dust (1934), and Scoop (1938), stylistically
rebel band against the Song government in 11 20-1. brilliant works of social satire which capture the brittle,
Written in the vernacular, it weaves a number of stories cynical, determined frivolity of the inter-war generation.
and anecdotes around a band of enlightened outlaws who Brideshead Revisited (1945) was a serious study of a landed
have by choice made themselves social and political family and the recovery of their faith in Roman Cath-
dissenters. The version that is read today is said to have olicism. His wartime experiences in Crete and Yugoslavia
been compiled in about 1370 by Shi Naian and Luo inspired his trilogy Sword of Honour (1965), in which he
Guanzhong, but was heavily revised by Jin Shengtan in analyses the eternal struggle between good and evil, and
the 17th century. It is one of the few traditional Chinese civilization's fight against barbarism.
works approved by Chinese Marxists.
waxwork, a sculpture in beeswax, particularly a lifesize,
Watteau, Jean-Antoine 1684- 1 721), French painter,
( highly realistic figure of a famous person complete with
one of the greatest artists of the *Rococo period. His real clothes and hair. Wax has a long history in sculpture;
name is most associated with a type of picture that he it is easy to cut and shape and readily mixes with
invented and made his own ihc fete galante (courtship colouring matter, making it an ideal medium for nat-
party), in which exquisitely dressed young people idle uralistic portraiture. It was much used in the ancient
away their time in a dreamy, romantic pastoral setting. world. Middle Ages, and Renaissance for making death
Watteau's pictures are highly artificial (apart from scenes masks, and exhibitions of waxworks became popular
of love, he took his themes mainly from the theatre), entertainments in the i8th century. Easily the most
but underlying the frivolity is a feeling of melancholy, famous exponent of this kind of work was Madame Marie
reflecting the certain knowledge that all pleasures of the Tussaud (1760- 850), who both cast masks from the
1
flesh are transient. The melancholy of his pictures is seen living and death masks of many guillotined victims of
WEAVER 484
the French Revolution, opening a permanent exhibition new kind of informal domestic architecture. Webb was a
('Madame Tussaud's') in London in 1802 (some of her friend and associate of William * Morris, for whom he
death masics are still on display in the Chamber of Horrors designed his first and best known building, the Red House
there). Less well known but generally more interesting is at Bexley Heath (1859), an unpretentious red-brick house,
the collection of royal funeral effigies (including that of with irregular plan and facades. Although he was less
Elizabeth I) at Westminster Abbey. outgoing than Shaw and devoted to perfecting his work,
Webb was an influential figure, his reputation travelling
Weaver, John (1673- 1760), British dancer, choreo- by word of mouth. He was a founder member of Morris's
grapher, and theorist. He was a pioneer of ballet (Taction decorative art firm in 1861 and became its chief designer
(see *Noverre), demanding units of plot, choreography, in furniture, glass, metalwork, jewellery, and embroid-
and stage sets, and introducing acting instead of the eries. His massive oak furniture, in particular, was in-
technical virtuosity fashionable in his day. He adopted fluential on the *Arts and Crafts Movement.
Italian *commedia deWarte characters such as *Harlequin
for the first English *pantomime ballet. Tavern Bilkers Weber, Carl Maria von (1786- 1826), German com-
(1702), composed the first formal libretto for his dance- poser, conductor, and one of a large family of
pianist,
drama The Loves of Mars and Venus (171 7), and wrote musicians. The success of his *operas Der Freischiitz 182 1
(
Africa also has an ancient and flourishing tradition of often thanany of his time apart from those of Shakespeare.
weaving (see * African costume and textiles). Other types Both plays have 'Italian' settings of almost unrelieved
of decorative weaves, such as velvets, damasks, and satins corruption and cruelty. They combine striking language
followed (see *Chinese decorative arts, *Ottoman art, and dramatic effects with a profound understanding of
and * Persian art),culminating in the development of human suffering, complex plots, and sensationalism.
the mechanized loom to produce decorative weaves by
Jacquard in 1801, and the revolt against mechanization Wedekind, Frank (1864- 191 8), German dramatist.
by designers such as * Morris. Sometimes dyeing tech- His plays, which aroused much controversy, can be seen
niques such as *batik or ikat (where threads are dyed in as forerunners of the Theatre of the * Absurd. His use of
part before weaving and create a pattern according to sexuality as a motive force reduces characters to puppets
the way in which they have been dyed) which are driven by their obsessions. The grotesque atmosphere of
widespread in Central Asia, South-East Asia, and Japan, his plays is designed to shock his audience. It belies
determined the decoration of the textile. Forms of *em- a deep moral seriousness: his characters are outsiders
broidery such as *crewel work were developed to em- desperate for social acceptance and doomed to fail. Spring
bellish plain weaves, while *carpets and rugs are usually Awakening (1891) stylizes the dilemma of adolescents kept
woven in pile techniques. in sexual ignorance. The Lulu plays. Earth Spirit (1895)
and Pandora s Box 1904), on which *Berg based his opera
(
Webb, Philip (1831-1915), British architect and Lulu, depict a woman whose sexuality destroys all it
designer. With Norman *Shaw he was the leading figure encounters. The Marquis of Keith (1901) highlights the
in the late 19th-century breakaway from historicism to a immorality and hypocrisy of contemporary society.
485 WELSH-LANGUAGE LITERATURE
Wedgwood, Josiah (1730-95), British potter. He com- adaptation of Melville's Moby-Dick, directed by John
bined organizing ability and flair for business with scient- Huston (1955).
ific knowledge and artistic taste and was largely re-
sponsible for the great expansion of the Staffordshire Wells, H(erbert) G(eorge) (1866- 1946), British novel-
pottery industry in his period. The Wedgwood pottery ist, historian, and journalist. He was known for his
was founded at Burslem in Staffordshire in i
759 and in advocacy of socialism, feminism, and rationalism and is
1 768 Wedgwood opened a new factory at Etruria, a remembered for his scientific romances, which rate among
village he had built for his workmen. Its cream-coloured the earliest products of the new *science fiction genre. In
earthenware, known from 765 as Queen's ware (in
1
this mode he wrote, among others. The Island of Doctor
honour of Queen Charlotte), established the factory's Moreau (1896), The Time Machine (1896), The Invisible
reputation (see also *creamware). It was either left plain Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds (1898), which
or decorated with *transfer printing or enamel painting combine political satire with warnings of the dangers of
and came to rival porcelain in popularity. The factory scientific progress. Other novels realistically and hu-
also catered for the taste for Neoclassical tableware morously reflect his lower-middle-class background, in-
(inspired by antique examples). He invented a fine black cluding Kipps (1905) and The History of Mr Polly (1910).
stoneware in c. 1767 which he called 'basaltes', and in He also wrote collections of short stories, works of scientific
1774 5 the white stoneware which he stained blue (or and political speculation (including The Shape of Things
green, mauve, or yellow) and called 'Jasper'. The Wedg- to Come, 1933) and histories (such as The Outline of History,
wood products were enormously popular and were ex- 1920), which confirmed his position as a popularizer and
ported to Europe and to the USA. In 1774 he was one of the most influential voices of his age.
commissioned to make for Catherine of Russia a service
of more than 1,000 pieces enamelled in sepia. Jasperware Welsh-language literature. Welsh has one of the
is still made today. oldest vernacular literatures in Europe, spanning the
period from the 6th century, when the poets Aneirin and
Weelkes, Thomas (1567-1623), English composer. Taliesin flourished in the north of Britain, down to the
The few known facts of his life include the publication of present day. Among the finest achievements of writing in
his first book of *madrigals (1597) and
his appointments
as organist of Winchester College 1598- 1602) and later
(c.
of Chichester Cathedral (c. 1602-17). Further volumes of Welles's first film, Citizen Kane, appears on almost every
madrigals followed in 1598, 1600, and 1608. His services, critic's list of the best films ever made. Here Kane's
anthems, and madrigals are among the finest of their bored second wife, frustrated m her efforts to become an
opera singer, passes the time with a jigsaw puzzle. Her
time, vivid in their imaginative musical imagery, skilled
husband (played by Welles) looks on. The empty
and sonorous in their *counterpoint. expanse of Xanadu, Kane's enormous mansion, appears
m the background.
Weill, Kurt (Julian) (1900-50), German composer. He
distinguished himself with such early works as the String
Quartet (1923) and the *Expressionist opera The Prot-
agonist (1926), both of which came near to *atonality.
Weill's collaboration with *Brecht, though it lasted only
three years, can be numbered among the most notable
of the 20th century. The acid but memorable tunes of
The Threepenny Opera, an updated version of Gay's The
Beggar's Opera (1928), and The Rise and Fall of the City of
Mahagonny (1930) were stinging exposures of a corrupt
and decaying capitalism. The operas brought first fame
and success, then Nazi condemnation. Weill settled in the
USA 1935), where he wrote successfully for the Broadway
(
Welsh are the poems of eulogy associated with the Wesker, Arnold (1932- ), British playwright. He
independent princes, the medieval prose tales known as achieved fame through the so-called Wesker Trilogy,
the * Mabinogion, and the lyric nature poetry of Dafydd ap three plays about a Jewish family, Chicken Soup with Barley
Gwilym (c. 1320-80), which was to influence succeeding (1958), Roots (1959), and Tm Talking about Jerusalem
generations of poets. A characteristic element of the (i960). The Kitchen (1959), showing the stresses of life
Welsh *bardic tradition was expressed in the strict poetic in a restaurant, was influential in the development of
conventions oi cynhanedd ('harmony'), a complicated sys- *kitchen-sink drama. Other plays of note include Chips
tem of accentuation, *alliteration, and internal rhyme. with Everything (1962), a study of class attitudes in the
The strict *metres have continued to this day, along with RAF during National Service, The Merchant (1977), which
*free verse. A conscious literary use was made of prose treats the story of Shylock in a manner that constitutes
by story-tellers whose oral tales were recorded in writing. an attack on anti-Semitism, and Caritas (1981) about the
The Reformation and the Tudor policy of encouraging spiritual struggle of a 14th-century anchoress.
the use of English led to a diminution of appreciation of
the Welsh culture. The first Welsh printed book, Tn y Wesley, Samuel (1766- 1837), Samuel Sebastian
Ihyvyr hwnn (Tn this Book', known by its opening words) ( 1 810 composers and organists. Samuel was
76). British
(1545) was followed by a translation of the Bible into the son of the hymn-writer Charles Wesley (nephew of
Welsh in 1588. Welsh literature in the 17th century John Wesley, the founder of Methodism). His masses,
consisted mainly of religious works. Goronwy Owen motets, and anthems are of a high quality and his twelve
(1723-69) founded a new school of Welsh poetry which voluntaries 805- 7) contain some of the most important
( 1 1
led to the establishment of local eisteddfods or meetings organ music between J. S. Bach and Mendelssohn. His
of competitors to perpetuate the classical forms of Welsh natural son, Samuel Sebastian, was also a fine organist.
literature. The greatest lyric poet of the 19th century was His anthems, such as The Wilderness (1832) and Ascribe
Ceiriog (John Hughes, 1832-87), while in the 20th unto theLord (c. 1852) are outstanding, while his brilliant
century poets and dramatists such as Saunders Lewis command of the organ is reflected particularly in the
(1893-1985) drew increasingly on the rhythms and vo- large-scale F major Andante which forms the second
cabulary of colloquial speech. The dramatist John Gwyllm of three pieces for chamber organ (Set H,
Jones (1920- ) and the novelist and short-story writer 1842-3).
Islwyn Ffowc Elis (1924- ) have been innovators in
form and subject-matter, and are followed by a younger West, Benjamin (1738- 1820), US painter, active
generation of enthusiastic writers. mainly in Britain. He had early success as a portraitist
in New York, studied in Italy (1760-3), then settled in
Welty, Eudora (1909- ), US novelist and short-story London, where he enjoyed a lucrative and distinguished
writer. Most of her fiction features the inhabitants of the career. West's international reputation was based mainly
Mississippi region, whose style of speech she catches with on his *history paintings, in which he made the radical
Her preoccupation is with the intricacies
great precision. innovation of depicting figures in contemporary costume
of human relationships and with characters who fail to rather than 'timeless' draperies, notably in his famous
know themselves or their neighbours. Her novels include Death of Wolfe 770). At first he was attacked for breaking
( i
The Robber Bridegroom (1942), The Ponder Heart (1954), revered conventions, but his idea was soon adopted by
and 77?^ Optimist's Daughter (1972). Her Collected Short other artists, notably his fellow countryman * Copley.
Stories appeared in 1980, and the autobiography One
Writer's Beginnings in 1984. West, Nathanael (Nathan
Wallenstein Weinstein)
(1903-40), US A New
Yorker, he produced
novelist.
Wen Zhengming (1470- 1559), Chinese painter. Wen three further mordant novels after his debut with The
isconsidered the ideal of the Wu
school of scholar-amateur Dream Life of Balso Snell (1931), a fantasy dwelling on
painters who despised the professional Zhe school of court human corruption. Miss Lonelyhearts (1933) a sad and
artists. He abandoned his official career in Beijing to bitter satire dealing with a male newspaper 'agony aunt';
devote his life to literary composition, calligraphy, and A Cool Million (1934) offers a savage attack on the
painting, becoming renowned for all three. He was an conventional American dream of success; and his mas-
austere figure, his predilection for pines and cypresses terpiece. The Day of the Locust (1939) is an apocalyptic
and wintry landscapes being seen as a reflection of his *satire in surrealist style set in Hollywood, where he
purity and integrity. His work was widely admired and worked as a screenwriter.
he had many followers.
West Asian music, the music of the Middle East,
Werfel, Franz (1890- 1945), Austrian novelist and poet which comprises a crescent of land from North Africa
of Jewish parentage. His early poetry, The Friend of eastwards to the Soviet Republic of Uzbekistan. Cul-
the World (191 1), epitomized the new humanity and turally the area has been dominated by the traditions of
brotherhood he desired. His poems from the battlefield the Arabic-, Persian-, and Turkish-speaking peoples, each
during World War I, though almost despairing, retain a distinct but sharing a number of characteristics through
belief that mankind could sustain spiritual values. These their Islamic heritage. Until the 20th century classical
values inspire all Werfel's work. His novel The Song of music was under the patronage of imperial courts, while
Bernadette (1941), written in exile and largely based on a large body of folk music existed independently but was
documents related to the saint's vision at Lourdes, was an much influenced by classical forms and instruments. A
immediate world-wide success, except in those countries smaller body of religious * Islamic music also exists. The
dominated by the Nazis, where it was banned. His last strictures imposed on music by Islam have traditionally
play, published as Comedy of a Tragedy ( 1 944) centres on , resulted in its performance at private gatherings by a
the problems of race and emigration. small number of specialists accorded low social status,
487 WEST INDIAN NATIVE ART
This musician from Bahrem plays the qanun, an Western, film genre dealing with various aspects of the
instrument found under different names throughout the
opening up of the American West in the 19th century.
area included by West Asian music. With its eighty or
more strings the qanun calls for considerable technical In view of the substantial American contribution to the
accomplishment in a player. early development of the cinema, it is hardly surprising
that US film-makers quickly made use of the vast store
of history and legend readily available. The Western was
and the dominance of the musical scene by Jews and the first film genre to emerge, beginning with The Great
Christians. Nevertheless, discussion and development of Train Robbery (1903), the story of a hold-up on the Union
musical treatises, many of which were written between Pacific Railroad. *Griflith and Thomas Ince 1882- 1924) (
the gth and i6th centuries, has helped retain music as a made a number of short Westerns, the latter introducing
respected intellectual discipline. Western notation and the Western's first star, William S. Hart (1870- 1946). By
traditions were introduced in the late 19th and early 20th the 1920s de*Mille, *Ford, and other major directors
centuries resulting in some hybrid forms and attempts to were making Westerns, and sound increased their appeal:
unite Western and Middle Eastern musics. Classical art they were made as main features, second features, series
music of West Asia is essentially soloistic, ensembles (such as Hopalong Cassidy), and even as musical Westerns
typically consisting of a leading vocalist or instrumentalist with singing cowboys. Westerns reached their heyday in
accompanied by a stringed instrument playing in unison, the 1940s and 1950s, the advent of colour being par-
or by two percussion instruments. Melodic organization ticularly felicitous for them. A variant also appeared in
is by *modes or scales, known in Arabic as maqdm. Each
Europe, including the Italian 'spaghetti' Western. Classics
prescribes an order of pitches, melodic shapes, and specific such as Stagecoach (1939), High Moon (1952), and Shane
musical or non-musical characteristics. They are thus very
(1953) achieved resonances well beyond their immediate
closely connected to the ragas of *Indian music. Some subject-matter; but examples of the genre are now rare,
are named after places, for example Hijaz (in Arabia), the public appetite having been sated by a surfeit of them
possibly reflecting their origin. In the Arabic tradition 30 on television.
maqdmdt are used. The Turkish makam is very similar,
though its intervals have been further standardized. In West Indian music *calypso, *Caribbean music,
Persia modes are known as dastgdhs, of which there are *popular music, *steel band.
twelve, each subdivided into melodies called gusheh. The
various modes are catalogued in the radif, a body of music West Indian native art, the Pre-Columbian art of the
whose performance is some ten hours long, memorized Arawak, especially Taino and Ciguayo, peoples of the
WHITE
Antilles. In the four or five centuries before the arrival in the public's face'. Whistler won his libel action, but
of the Spaniards, they created ambitious art-forms, com- was awarded only a farthing as damages. In his fifties,
pared with the less developed wood-carvings, petro- however, he began to achieve honours and substantial
glyphs, and shellwork of their neighbours, in ceremonial success. His paintings are mainly portraits and landscapes,
spaces defined by stone walls, reminiscent of Meso- particularly views of the Thames, noted for the flawless
american ball courts (see *Central American and Mex- harmony of tone and colour for which he is famous.
ican literature). Stone collars and pendants, stylized Whistler was also one of the finest etchers of the 19th
human and carved wooden stools called
statues in stone, century.
duhos are the typical and distinctive products of their
culture. Anthropomorphic or zoomorphic symbols, called White, Gilbert (1720-93), British naturalist and clergy-
cemis,decorated personal ornaments, especially, in His- man. He spent most of his life in his birthplace, Sel-
paniola, of gold. borne, where he was curate. His correspondence from
1767 with the naturalists Daines Barrington and Thomas
Weston, Edward (1886-1958), US photographer. Like Pennant formed the basis of his classic Natural History
so many 20th-century US photographers, Weston was and Antiquities of Selborne (1788), which gives detailed
profoundly influenced by *Stieglitz, who encouraged him descriptions, in an elegantly literary style, of wildlife and
to abandon his highly pictorialist style in favour of nature, observed with much affection and expressing his
'straight'photography. His meticulously sharp and finely love of picturesque landscapes.
textured pictures of nudes, of natural objects (for example,
sand dunes, seashells, and plants), and of the decaying White, Patrick (Victor Martindale) 9 2-
(
1
1Aus- )
,
marks of man in the landscape, were made with a plate tralian novelist. Educated in England, after wartime
camera, and have been widely copied. In 1932 he was a service in the Royal Air Force he settled on a farm near
co-founder, together with Ansel Adams and Willard van Sydney. His world reputation was achieved by The Tree
Dyke, of the influential *Group f 64. of Man (1955), about the struggles of an Austrahan
farmer, and by Voss (1957), which describes an expedition
Weyden, Rogier van der (r. 1399- 1464), Nether- across the Australian wilderness by a visionary German
landish painter. Though there is little secure knowledge explorer in the 1840s. These and other novels, including
about his career, it is known that by 1436 he had moved Riders in the Chariot (1961), The Solid Mandala (1966), and
to Brussels and been appointed oflicial painter to the city. The Vivisector (1970), have been admired for their epic
No paintings are known that can be attributed to Rogier qualities and imaginative boldness. He was awarded the
on the basis of signatures or contemporary docu- Nobel Prize for Literature in 1973.
mentation, but several are mentioned in early sources,
and the style shown in these is so distinctive that a Whitman, Walt (1819-92), US poet. Inspired partly
coherent body of work has been built up around them. by the writings of *Emerson and the *Transcendentalists,
All his surviving pictures are either religious works or he published in 1855 and 1856 the first and second
portraits. The religious works are remarkable for their editions of Leaves of Grass, including the poems later
emotional power and refined spirituality, the portraits for entitled 'Song of Myself, 'Crossing Brooklyn Ferry',
their dignified aristocratic grace. Rogier seems to have and 'Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking'. Six further
had a large workshop with numerous assistants and expanded editions appeared in his lifetime. During the
pupils, and many of his compositions are known in several American Civil War he worked as a volunteer nurse and
versions. produced the moving collection Drum Taps (1865), later
incorporated in Leaves of Grass. Whitman pioneered the
Wharton, Edith (Newbold Jones) (1862 1937), US use of *free verse and created a distinctive American
novelist and short-story Brought up in wealthy
writer. voice in poetry, in which he celebrated the expansion
New York background in the
society, she exploited this and democratic vitality of the United States, but also
novel The House of Mirth (1905), where her study of the wrote powerful poems on sexual liberation and the
effects of false values rises above the level of the novel of meaning of death.
manners to become tragedy. The Age of Innocence (1920),
considered her most skilfully constructed work, returns to Whittier, John Greenleaf (1807-92), US poet and
the same subject-matter, but Ethan Frome (191 1) is a journalist. After an early period in which his subject-
tragic novella set on a New England farm. Her work matter was rural life and New England history, he began
shares the subtle artistic realism of her friend Henry to write poetry reflecting his hostility to slavery and other
James. forms of oppression: these poems are collected in Voices
of Freedom (1846) and Songs of Labor (1850). Later he
Whistler, James Abbott McNeill (1834- 1903), returned to his former themes, notably in Snow-Bound
US-born painter and graphic artist, who worked mainly (1866), a reminiscence of winters during his childhood.
in Britain and France. His contemporary fame depended
not only on the quality of his work but also on his wide-screen cinema, projection processes using a
flamboyant personality— he was a wit and dandy and wider screen than the 4:3 (width to height) of the
loved controversy. Whistler's art was based on radical original cinema. Abel *Gance used such a screen, but
ideas, the principal one being that painting should exist the letter-box shape was not generally used until the
for its own sake, not to convey literary or moral ideas. introduction of CinemaScope, a system first displayed in
He often gave his pictures musical titles to suggest an The Robe (1953). The wider screen increases audience
analogy with the abstract art of music. In 1879 he involvement and is particularly eflfective in spectacular
went bankrupt following a costly lawsuit with the critic films and musicals, especially when accompanied by
*Ruskin, who had accused him of 'flinging a pot of paint stereophonic sound. It also facilitates the shooting of
489 WILLIAMS
scenes in continuous takes, rather than by cutting. Other teaching again in 1945. As a teacher and as a highly
wide-screen processes such as Cinerama have technical dramatic performer, she provided a focus for the perform-
drawbacks, and CinemaScope itself is less suitable for ance form of early Central European modern dance.
more intimate, claustrophobic subjects.
Wilde, Oscar (Fingal O'Flahertie Wills) (1854
Wieland, Christoph Martin (1733 1813), German 1900), Irish-born dramatist and poet. He proclaimed
poet and man of letters; the earliest German translator himself a disciple of the essayist and critic *Pater and of
of Shakespeare, who partly inspired his allegorical verse the cult of 'art for art's sake', and his flamboyant
epic Oberon 780). He is a keen-eyed and humorous critic
(
1
aestheticism attracted much attention. His early pub-
of the petty bourgeoisie in The History of the People of hcadons include Poems (1881), The Happy Prince and Other
Abdera (1774) and of exaggerated enthusiasm in The Tales (1888), written for his sons, and his only novel The
Adventures of Don Silvio de Rosalva (1764). In his *Bil- Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), a *Gothic melodrama. His
dungsroman The History of Agathon (1766-7), in which a brilliantly written comedies for the stage include Lady
good man progresses through error to a balanced view Windermere's Fan (1892), and his masterpiece, The Import-
of life, he espouses the philosophy of the *Enlightenment. which he exposes Victorian
ance of Being Earnest (1895), in
His flexible, expressive prose brought to the German hypocrisies. The Marquis of Queensberry, father of Lord
language qualities hitherto regarded as primarily French. Alfred Douglas, disapproved of his son's friendship with
Wilde and brought about Wilde's imprisonment in 1895
Wigxnazi, Mary (Mary Wiegmann) (1886- 1973), Ger- for homosexual offences. In De Profundis (1905) Wilde
man *modern dancer, choreographer, and teacher. She apologized for his conduct and claimed to have stood 'in
studied with *Jaques-Dalcroze and *Laban. Her famous symbolic relation to the art and culture' of his age. The
solo 'Witch Dance' (earliest version 1914) was a stark, Ballad of Reading Gaol (published anonymously in 1898)
uncompromising statement of * Expressionism and her was inspired by his prison experiences.
subsequent solo and group compositions explored differ-
ent emotional states and moods within what is now Wilder, Thornton (Niven) (1897- 1975), US novelist
termed the Ausdrucktanz tradition. Her activities were and dramatist. He achieved wide popularity with his
severely curtailed during World War H, but she began novel The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1927), a delicately ironic
study of the way Providence has directed disparate lives
to one end. Later he was to become better known for his
work for the theatre, particularly Our Town (1938), a
Walt Whitman, shown here during his stay in
celebration of a small New Hampshire community, and
Washington m the Civil War, was frequently attacked for
the freedom and sexual explicitness of his verse. He is
the comedy The Skin of Our Teeth (1942), a parable about
now recognized as America's greatest poet and Leaves the survival of humanity. His comedy The Matchmaker
of Grass acknowledged as one of the most influential
is (1954) was the source of the musical Hello, Dolly.' (1963).
books m the history of American literature. It broke
decisively with tradition and encouraged poets to Wilkie, Sir David 785- 1 84 1 ) British artist. He moved
,
(
1
experiment with subject-matter and style.
from his nativeScotland to London in 1805 and soon
established himself as the most popular *genre painter of
the day. He was strongly influenced in style and technique
by 17th-century Netherlandish painters. His success did
much to establish the popularity of anecdotal painting in
England, and many Victorian artists were influenced by
him. In 1825 8 he travelled abroad for reasons of health,
and his style changed radically under the influence of
Spanish painting in particular, becoming grander in
subject-matter and broader in touch.
is best known for Tarka the Otter (1927), one of several on reed instruments against the tip of the reed. An ancient
wildlife tales. His pro-Hitler views damaged his later practice widespread throughout the world is to hum a
literaryreputation, although he continued with a se- kind of *drone while playing a flute, and this technique
quence of fifteen autobiographical novels, A Chronicle of has been exploited by some modern composers and by
Ancient Sunlight ( 1 95 1 -69) jazz performers.
.
491 WOODCARVING
Winterhalter, Franz Xavier (1806-73), German lyric and three narrative poems: Parzival (c. 1200- 10),
painter, the most successful court portraitist of his period. Titurel, and Willehalm (probably both left unfinished after
He was based in Paris for most of his career, but he his patron's death in 12 17). Parzival describes the hero's
painted most of Europe's royahy and was a particular quest for a chivalric perfection conceived in religious
favourite of Queen Victoria. His work has often been terms and symbolized by the Holy Grail; it served as
dismissed as superficial, but its technical panache is the source of *Wagner's opera. In Willehalm Wolfram
undeniable and his glossyromantic charm is faultlessly describes the moral dilemma of a hero constrained to
orchestrated. He was also an accomplished lithographer. conduct a crusade against his wife's Islamic family and,
stressing the common humanity of all people, explores
Witkiewicz, Stanislaw Ignacy (1885- 1939), Polish the morality of religious wars.
dramatist and novelist. The nonsensical situations and
grotesque characters and language of his thirty-odd plays WoUstonecraft, Mary (1759-97), British writer and
anticipate the Theatre of the *Absurd. Disappointed by feminist. She wrote the feminist classic A Vindication of the
their poor reception he wrote only one. The Cobblers, after Rights of Woman (1792) which attacks the educational
1930. The novels Farewell to Autumn 1927) and Insatiability
(
restrictions which kept women in a state of 'ignorance
(1930) present a catastrophic vision of European culture and slavish dependence', and a novel Mary (1788). She
and the individuality of man crumbling in the face of moved to Paris in 792 to witness the French Revolution,
i
This oak misericord (c.l415) from St Nicholas's Chapel, term is also applied lu the pniu so made). It derives from
King's Lynn, gives an insight into the tools and techniques the *woodcut, but because of the harder surface and the
of medieval woodcarving. In the centre a master carver use of tools similar to those of the copperplate engraver,
is shown at his desk, and behind him two of his
the effect is generally finer and more detailed. Thomas
apprentices are at work. At the sides are woodworking
*Bewick in the late i8th century was the first fully to
tools. (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
exploit its and he succeeded in making it the
possibilities,
most popular medium for book illustration until it was
with jaguars and eagles. In most societies statues have superseded by photo-mechanical processes.
been carved of wood, and these were mostly painted in
European art until the 20th century. The present century woodwind, musical instruments, the orchestral *flutes
has seen a flowering of abstract wood sculpture in the and * reeds. Today this name is illogical, for many are
work of *Brancusi, *Hepworth, and *Moore. (See also made of other materials, but all were originally wooden
* woodwork.) except *saxophones, which, because their reed and
mouthpiece are similar to those of *clarinets, are never-
woodcut, the technique of making a print from a block theless regarded as woodwind. Ivory has occasionally
of wood sawn along the grain (the term is also applied been used for *flutes since the i6th century, for *oboes
to the print so made). It is the oldest technique for in the i8th century, and for clarinets in the 19th, and
making prints and its principles are very simple. The glass was fashionable for flutes early in the 19th century.
design is drawn on a smooth block of wood (almost any Metal was used for all woodwind from the mid- 19th
wood of medium softness can be used) and the parts that century, often for military bands and ships' orchestras; it
are to be white in the print are cut away with knives and withstood the vicissitudes of military life and vagaries of
gouges, leaving the design standing up in relief This is tropical climates. Ebonite and vulcanite were used late
then inked and pressed against a sheet of paper. The in the century for similar reasons, just as plastic is now
origin of woodcut is obscure (the principle was employed used for children's instruments. The woodwind section,
in fabric printing in the Middle East at least as early as asit is known in the symphony *orchestra, was established
the 5th century ad), but woodcut as we know it appeared by Beethoven, with two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets,
in Europe in the early 15th century. It was much used and *bassoons. In their early works, Haydn and Mozart
as an illustrative technique in the early days of printed often scored for oboes only, with a pair of *horns which,
books, but in the i6th century it lost ground to line although they are brass instruments, have always been
engraving. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries there intermediary between woodwind and brass, plus (one can
was a major revival of interest in woodcut as a medium usually assume) at least one bassoon playing with the bass.
of original artistic expression, artists such as Munch, Oboes were sometimes scored in the outer movements and
Gauguin, and the German Expressionists realizing the flutes in the quieter slow movement; players were expected
potential of the rugged boldness that is characteristic of to change from one to the other. The woodwind section
the technique. Coloured woodcuts can be made either by was enlarged by Berlioz and Wagner to three or more of
cutting the block in such a way that different coloured each instrument. A flautist was expected to play *piccolo,
inks can be applied separately to distinct parts, or (more and later alto flute, an oboist to play *cor anglais, a
usually) by making successive impressions from a series clarinettist to play high or low clarinets, and a bassoonist
of blocks, each of which is inked with a separate colour. to play contrabassoon. Thus today woodwind players are
The latter was the method used in the extremely rich prepared to play all the higher and the lower members
tradition of coloured prints in Japan (see *ukiyo-e). of their respective families.
wood-engraving, the technique of making a * print woodwork, the art or craft of making objects in wood.
from a block of hardwood sawn across the grain (the Wood is one of the few natural materials that is found
493 WOOLF
almost ready for working and it has been one of the the sensuous and tactile beauty of wood that is brought
fundamental commodities of virtually every human soci- out by the craftsman. A variety of techniques have been
ety. In many parts of the world, for example Scandinavia, used to exploit this, among them inlay and *marquetry.
Russia, and colonial America, it has been the commonest The resonance of certain woods (for example pinewood
building material, and for this purpose strength and grown at high altitudes in the Alps) produce the quick
resilience are its most valued qualities. The distinct and even response required of stringed instruments. (See
building styles of Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia were also *woodcarving.)
developed in order to exploit the abundant supply of
wood. In the tradition of * Maori art the carving of Woolf, (Adeline) Virginia (nee Stephen) (1882- 194 1),
wooden buildings was refined to a level of great beauty. British novelist and literary critic. The house that she,
Wood can also be used to create superb architectural her sister Vanessa (the painter Vanessa Bell), and her
effects as in the numerous wooden roofs that form one of brothers occupied in Gordon Square, London, was the
the glories of English medieval art, and the cedarwood centre of the *Bloomsbury Group. She began writing for
Mudejar roofs of Spain, such as those of the Alhambra the Times Literary Supplement and in 191 2 married the
atGranada, composed of interlaced geometrical patterns political journalist Leonard Woolf. Together they founded
of wonderful complexity. The development of *furniture in 191 7 the Hogarth Press, which published much of
depended heavily on the exploitation of wood: the stylistic her work. Her third novel, Jacob's Room (1922), was
differences to be seen in early European furniture were recognized as a departure from traditional fiction in its
due in part to the preference for oak in the north and poetic impressionism. She was hailed as a principal
walnut in the south. The second half of the i8th century exponent of *modernism and established her reputation
saw the use of an increasing range of imported hardwoods, securely with subsequent novels, including Mrs Dalloway
often used as *veneer. When used in furniture, it is often (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927), The Waves (1931), and
The Years (1937). Shortly after completing Between the Acts
(1941) she experienced the last of her recurring bouts of
Bewick, the son of a small farmer, was self-taught. mental illness, which led to her suicide by drowning in
Lacking all drawing material, he began as a small child to the River Ouse. She is now acclaimed as one of the great
etch with chalks on the flagstones and hearth of his home. innovative writers of the 20th century, many of whose
The villagers of Ovmgham asked him to draw scenes experimental techniques, such as *stream of consciousness,
from daily farm life on the walls of their cottages, and this
have since been drawn into the mainstream of fiction.
led to etchings with quiIl pen and blackberry juice.
Today his genius for wood-engraving, illustrated here Her distinguished literary criticism includes A Room of
by 'The Chillmgham Bull' (1789) is universally One's Own (1929), now a classic of the feminist movement,
recognized. (Newcastle City Library) collections of critical essays, and short stories. Her letters
WORDSWORTH 494
Wu Cheng'en *Monkey.
commissions came in the last two decades of his life, (1766- 840; he changed the form of his surname in 1824),
1
beginning with the Johnson Wax Factory at Racine, who was chiefly responsible for the present form of
Wisconsin (1946-9). Windsor Castle.
WYATT 496
Wyndham Lewis, Percy (1882- 1957), British painter Xia Gui (r. 180-C.1230), Chinese painter, an eminent
1
Y
yangqin, a musical instrument, the Chinese *dulcimer,
deriving from the Persian *santur, with thin brass or
generated into drunken despair [Tavern Moscow, 1924).
He went on
Yevtushenko,
(^933" )'
to travel abroad and marry the dancer
Isadora *Duncan, eventually committing suicide. He is
still one of the most genuinely popular Russian poets,
Yevgeny
steel strings struckwith very Hght bamboo beaters. The work, declaimed in the brash, unpoetic language of the
resonator is a lacquered trapezoid box, the sloping sides early Revolutionary poets. His poem 'Babiy Yar' (1961),
usually being curved, with a small, central drawer to commemorating the Nazi massacre of Ukrainian Jews,
store the beaters and a heavy brass tuning hammer, and was interpreted as a criticism of Soviet anti-Semitism,
a lift-off lid. There are two bridges, the left-hand about and he fell into disfavour with the publication of
official
one-third of the way across the soundboard, and the His writings have since
his Precocious Autobiography (1963).
right-hand a quarter of the way. The yangqin is an received a measure of success in the Soviet Union.
important instrument in much Chinese ensemble music.
Yiddish literature, writing in Yiddish, the language of
Yeats, Jack Butler ( 187 1- 1957), the
best-known Irish Ashkenazi (Central and East European) Jews. Early
painter of the 20th century, brother of the poet William works adapted traditional Jewish sources, medieval Euro-
Butler Yeats. Until about 1910 he worked mainly as an pean *epic poetry, or both, for example, Shmuel bukh, a
illustrator, then turned to oils. His early work as a painter reworking of the biblical narrative of Samuel into courtly
was influenced by French *Impressionism, but he then *romance. Old Yiddish literature (<;. 1250-c. 1540) and
developed a more personal *Expressionist style marked Middle Yiddish literature (C.1540-C. 1800) were written
by vivid colour and extremely loose brushwork. He in a quasi-standard Western Yiddish (dialects of Germany
painted scenes of Celtic myth and everyday Irish life, and Holland), which survived until the late i8th century,
contributing to the upsurge of nationalist feeling in the when it was replaced by a new literary language based
arts inspired by the movement for Irish independence. on Eastern Yiddish (Slavonic and Baltic lands). Modern
Yiddish literature (from c. 1800) was initiated by the
Yeats, W(illiain) B(utler) (1865- 1939), Irish poet and Chassidim, adherents of an 18th-century mystical move-
dramatist. Aleader of the *Irish Literary Revival, he is ment, and their opponents, the maskilim (purveyors of the
a major voice of modern Irish poetry in English. As a European *Enlightenment movement), both using the
young art student, he developed a lifelong interest in language for ideological works. During the later 19th
mysticism, and studied Irish folklore. In the early 1890s century it became a serious art-form in the hands of the
he established the Rhymers Club with other young poets satirist Mendele Moykher Sforim (Sh. Y. Abramovitsh,
in London, and published a collection of stories, The Celtic c. 1834- 191 7), the humorist Sholem Aleichem (Sh. Ra-
Twilight (1893), which defined the mystical tone of the binowitz, 1859- 191 6), and the Romanticist Y. L. Peretz
early Irish literary revival. With his patron Lady Gregory (1853- 91 5). In the 20th century, Yiddish prose, poetry,
1
he founded the Irish Literary Theatre in 1899, ^^^ ^^^ and drama flourished in Eastern Europe; and the mi-
a director of the Abbey Theatre, Dublin from 1904. He gration of an exceptionally high number of gifted writers
wrote nearly thirty plays, including the poetic The Countess has carried Yiddish literature worldwide.
Cathleen (1892) and the more realistic Cathleen ni Houlihan
(1902), but is remembered chiefly for his poetry. His yueqin, a musical instrument, the Chinese moon-guitar.
early verse, in The Wind Among the Reeds (1899) and other The circular resonator has a flat belly and back, and the
collections, has a dreamy *Pre-Raphaelite atmosphere, neck is short, with high bamboo frets which continue on
but in The Green Helmet (1910) and Responsibilities (19 14) the belly. The four silk strings are in two courses or pairs
he develops a more austere and public style which tuned a fifth apart.
introduces his characteristic blending of personal longings
(notably his unrequited love for the revolutionary Maud
Gonne), political hopes and fears for the Irish nation,
and mythological images. His most celebrated collections
are The Wild Swans at Coole (191 7), Michael Robartes and
the Dancer (1921), which contains 'Easter 191 6' and
'The Second Coming', and The Tower (1928), including
'Sailing to Byzantium' and 'Among School Children';
although some of his later poems (notably 'Byzantium'
and 'The Statues') are much admired. His dabblings in
the occult produced an elaborate system of spiritual
symbols outlined in A Vision (1925). Yeats was a senator
of the Irish Free State from 1922 to 1928, and was
awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923.
Z
Zadkine, Osip 890- 967) Russian-born sculptor who
( 1 1
,
earlier Daoist
and cryptic, a
work ascribed to Laozi and is paradoxical
work of
passage, which illustrates
literature.
worked mainly in Paris and became a French citizen in Zhu Da, also known as Bada Shanren (1626-c. 1705),
192 1. He was influenced by *Cubism, but his primary Chinese painter, an individualist and eccentric master.
concern was with dramatically expressive forms and he Descended from a branch of the Ming imperial family,
evolved a personal style that made use of hollows and he became a Buddhist monk after the fall of the dynasty
concavities, his figures often having holes pierced through in 1644, and became mentally unbalanced. Most of his
them. His greatest commission, the bronze To a Destroyed painting is said to have been done while drunk, and his
City (1953) standing at the entry to the port of Rotterdam, brushwork is often extremely bold and spontaneous.
is an extremely powerful figure that is widely regarded Misshapen birds balancing unsteadily on one leg, sketchy
as one of the masterpieces of 20th-century sculpture. landscapes, and masterly lotus paintings all possess a
certain enigmatic qualityand a memorable combination
Zamyatin, Yevgeny (Ivanovich) (1884- 1937), Rus- of energy and elegance. He was little appreciated in his
sian playwright, and satirist. His stories of
novelist, own lifetime, but now enjoys a great reputation.
survival post-Revolutionary Petrograd (now Len-
in
ingrad) include 'The Cave' (1922); he was among the Ziegfeld, Florenz 1867- 1932), US theatrical producer
(
most eminent Soviet literary figures in the 1920s. His and showman. He is best known for his Follies, a spec-
most famous work, the anti-Utopian novel We (1924), tacular *revue featuring beautiful girls (often in semi-
was published in the Soviet Union only in 1988. He fell nudity) and elaborate scenery and costumes, inspired by
out of favour and emigrated to Paris in 1931, after which the Folies-Bergere in Paris. The Follies opened in 1907,
he struggled to survive as a film scenarist. with new editions almost annually until his death; there
were also several posthumous editions, the last being in
Zapotec art, the art of a southern Mexican people, who 1957,. Ziegfeld also produced many straight plays and
occupied Monte Alban in Oaxaca from c. 2nd to c. 8th musicals, notably Jerome Kern's Show Boat (1927).
centuries ad. Builders and sculptors on a monumental
scale, broadly in the *01mec tradition, were succeeded Zixnxnerxnann, Doxninikus (1685- 1766), one of the
by producers of fluid and technically proficient clay leading German * Rococo architects, active in Bavaria
sculpture, the most powerful examples of which take the and Swabia, chiefly as a designer of churches. He began
his career as a stuccoist and he regularly worked in
form of anthropomorphic ritual vessels, carved in wet
clay and fired with faithful precision. The early sculptors collaboration with his brother the fresco painter Johann
of this period preferred expressive simplicity, achieving Baptist Zimmermann (1680- 1758), facts that help
sumptuous decorative effects while keeping to strict con- to explain the superb decorative unity and masterful
ventions in the depiction of physiognomy and posture. craftsmanship of his interiors. The masterpiece of the
Later occupants of the site and others nearby, such as Zimmermann brothers is the pilgrimage church of Die
Mitla and Zaachila, usually classified as post-Zapotec or Wies, near Munich (1746-54), where the simple white
Mixtec, added delicate ceramics, lapidary work, and exterior gives no hint of the airy vision in pastel colours
woodwork. Their goldwork, often in the form of elaborate and gilt within.
pendants, is probably all of the 13th century or later.
zither, a plucked stringed folk instrument of Austria and
zarzuela ^operetta. Bavaria, in its present most common form comprising a
shallow wooden soundbox over which are stretched five
Zeroxnski, Stefan (1864- 1925), Polish novelist. During melody strings and accompanying strings tuned to form
early years of hardship he came to abhor social injustice, chords. In the modern ethnomusicological sense it covers
as reflected in his short stories and Homeless People 1900).(
a far wider range of instruments, with strings running
In Ashes (1904) he mirrored the Napoleonic period, in parallel with the resonator, which may be a tube, trough,
Faithful River (191 2) the 1863 Uprising, and Before the stick, raft, bar, or board. Very commonly, especially in
Spring (1925) newly independent Poland. Europe, the board is the upper surface of a box. Such
instruments are usually plucked (*psalteries) or
Zeuxis [Jl. late 5th century bc), Greek painter. None of
hammered (*dulcimers), but some are bowed (the
his works survive, but ancient writers describe him as one *hurdy-gurdy with a wheel, others with a bow), and a
of the greatest Greek painters, and one of the stories few are blown (*aeolian harps). They are widely dis-
about his powers of imitation tells that he painted some tributed, with tube zithers being found in Indonesia
grapes so naturalistically that birds pecked at them. He and Madagascar [valiha), half-tube zithers in China (for
is said to have specialized in panel paintings, and there example, gin), Korea (kayagum) and Japan {*koto), trough
are also references to his works in clay. zithers chiefly in East Africa, stick zithers in India {*virid),
India and elsewhere, bar zithers in
raft zithers in Africa,
Zheng *koto. Africa, India,and South-East Asia, board zithers chiefly
in Africa, and box zithers throughout Europe, North
Zhuangzi, Chinese classic writing on philosophy, a 3rd- America, North Africa {qdnun), Iran and Iraq {*santur),
century bc Daoist text attributed to Zhuang Zhou (369- and China {*yangqin). The simplest raft and tube zithers
499 ZWEIG
have strings cut from the surface of the resonator, bridged drone pipe of the Egyptian arghul is varied by attaching
up with small pieces of gourd, etc. Others have attached extensions. Most such pipes are mouth-blown, but some,
strings of other material, which may simply be tied to such as the Indian pUngi or snake-charmer's pipe, have a
the ends of the resonator or may have tuning pins so that gourd wind-chamber; others are blown as *bagpipes.
their pitch can be easily adjusted.
Zurbaran, Francisco (1598- 1664), Spanish painter,
Zoffany, Johann 733-1810), German-born painter
(i acdve mainly in Seville. Most of his work consisted of
who settled in Britain in about 1760 after working in religious paintings: he worked for churches and mon-
Rome. He made his name with paintings representing asteries over a wide area of southern Spain and his work
scenes from plays, usually showing the celebrated actor was also exported South America. His style was solemn
to
David *Garrick in one of his favourite parts, and also and emotionally combining austere naturalism
direct,
painted *conversation pieces in the same relaxed vein. with mystical intensity, making him an ideal painter for
George III and Queen Charlotte were his special patrons, such a fervently religious country as Spain at the time of
and he did some of his best work for the royal family. In the Counter-Reformadon. The most characterisdc of his
1783 Zoffany went to India, where he made a fortune paintings are single figures of monks or saints in medi-
painting Indian princes and British expatriates, but his tation. They are usually depicted against a plain back-
career after his return to England in 789 was un- 1 ground, standing out with massive physical presence.
distinguished. For a long time chiefly accepted for his Towards the end of his career Zurbaran's work lost some
documentary value, Zoffany is now also appreciated for of its power and simplicity, as he tried to adapt to the
his considerable charm. much sweeter style of *Murillo.
Zola, Exnile (1840- 1902), French novelist and critic. Zweig, Stefan (i 881 -1942), German poet, short-story
His first major novel, Therese Raquin (1867), was based on writer,and dramatist. Of Jewish decent, his work was
the principles of *realism associated with the *Goncourt deeply influenced by the psychology of Sigmund Freud,
brothers. From this he developed the more extreme, notably the stories First Experience (191 1), Amok (1922),
pseudo-scientific concept of *naturalism, which aimed to Conflicts (1925), and The Royal Game (1942). In this
demonstrate how the behaviour of individuals is de- intricate narrative the game of chess provides an analogy
termined by historical and social factors combined with to the psychological deterioration of a Jewish intellectual
the influence of heredity. These views are set out in a under interrogation by the Gestapo. Zweig wrote several
theoretical work, Le Roman experimental (1880), and are plays, including Jeremias (191 7), and provided Richard
illustrated in a series of twenty novels known under the * Strauss with the libretto for The Silent Woman (1935).
collective title of Les Rougon-A4acquart, written between He is also the author of the longer biographical study
zukra *hornpipe.
Archivi Alinari 11,53; The Executive Council of the Socialist Lord McAlpine of West Green © the artist
© ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 1990 Fitzwilliam Museum 160, 211;
Editions Citadelles, Paris 399, 438;
87, 354; Fondazione Giorgio Cini 268; Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of
Bibliotheque Municipale d'Arras Sonia Halliday 186, 430; Musee Guimet, Paris 99, 248, 276;
5;
National Museum of Ireland 84; Roger-Viollet 407; Vatican Museums 293, 374;
National Museums and Galleries on Rothschild Collection, Paris (photo: Victoria and Albert Museum, London 17,
Merseyside, Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Giraudon) 72; 80, 115, 118, 180, 224, 229, 234, 250, 252,
Sunlight 436; Roy Export Company Establishment (photo: 283, 317, 333. 336, 381, 419. 492 (photo:
© 94
1 1RKO Radio Pictures, Inc. Ren. University of Pennsylvania School of
1968 RKOGeneral, Inc. (photo: British Medicine 14; Lynn Williams: 20, 167, 193, 453;
Film Institute) 485; UPI/Bettmann 432; David Woodroffe: 32, 322, 331, 352.
Boston Publi
i
NX70
.094.
BRIGli 199G
BRANCH L
BR
Boccioni, The Street enters Shaw, Pygmalion Imagists, US poets World History: from earliest times to 1800
theHouse Tagore, GTtMjhli (Editor: Harry Judge), the first of ^vvo volumes on
Duchamp, Nude world history, covers the orip''- o of civilization, the
Proust, A la rechercl
Descending a Staircase temps perdu growth of ancient empire^ and the emergence of
states throughout the ,rt/orld. It includes
Bauhaus founded
biographies of rulers and reformers, accounts of
Gabo, Kinetic Construction Chaplin, The Kid T. S. Ehot, The Waste military campaigns, and the history of individual
Man Ray, The Gift Kern,Show Boat Joyce, Ulysses countries.
Diego Rivera, murals, Graham pioneers modern Mandelshtam, Tristia World History: from 1800 to the present day
Mexico dance-forms Kafka, The Trial (Editor: Robert Blake), the second of the two
Kandinsky, Composition viii Mayakovsky, The Bed-Bug . Lorca, Gypsy Balladi volumes on world history, deals with the modern
period. It includes biographies of rulers,
Bonnard, iVude m the Bath Bunuel, L' Age d'or Negritude movemen statesmen, and reformers, accounts of military
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'Fallingwater' House American Ballet Akhmatova, Requieri the history of individual countries.
International Surrealist Steinbeck, The Grap Forthcoming
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reviews human inventiveness from earliest times
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Modulator Carne, Les Enfants du Revisited
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he Corbusier, Unite paradis Camus, La Peste
d'Habitation, Marseille
Human Society (Editor: Richard Hoggart)
Arthur Miller, Death of a Orwell, Nineteen provides a general introduction to the structure
Salesman Eighty-Four and organization of contemporary society. It
Freud, Interior Near lonesco. The Bald Baldwin, Go Tell it o. covers the peoples and countries of the world,
Paddington Primadonna Mountain their beliefs, customs, recreations, and social,
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New York Tennessee Williams, Cat The Universe (Editor: Professor Archie Roy)
Pop art. Op art flourish on a Hot Tin Roof describes the origin, structure, and composition
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Nolan, Kelly and Figure
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'Post Modernism' Pynchon, Gravity's
within entries. It will also contain tables of useful
Hockney, Portrait of Sir Rainbow
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David Webster Heaney, North
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