foreany ae PRESSURE MEASUREMENT TA, Pressure ofa liquid. 2.2. Pressure head of aliquid, 2.3. Pascal’ law. 2.4. Absolute and ‘gauge pressures. 2.5, Measurement ofpressure-Manometers-Mechanical geuges. Highlights ‘Objective Type Questions — Theoretical Questions-Unsolved Examples. 2.1 Pressure of a Fluid ‘When a fluid is contained in 8 vessel, it exerts force at all points on the sides and bottom and top of'the container. The foree per unit area is called pressure. If, P=The force, and Pp ‘A= Area on which the force acts; then intensity of pressure, p => (21) ‘The pressure ofa fluid on a surface will always act normal to the surface. 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid ‘A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight, this pressure increases asthe depth of sasha isp aad ; Consider a vessel containing liquid, as shown in Fig. 2.1. The liquid will exert pressure on all sides and bottom of the vessel. Now, let cylinder be made to stand in the liquid, as shown in the figure. Let, h=Heightof liquid inthe eylinder, ‘A= Area of the cylinder base, w= Specific weight ofthe liquid, Vessel = Liquid and, p= Intensity of pressure Now, Total pressure on the base of the eylinder = Weight of liquid in the cylinder Fig. 2.1. Pressure head. ie, p.A=wAh wah 7 he, p=wh 2.2) Pau p « a liquid due to its depth will vary directly with depth. .ce above that point, i surface which woul ‘Asp = wh, the intensity of pressure in ‘As the pressure at any point ina liquid depends on height of the free surfa is sometimes convenient to express a liquid pressure by the height of the free ‘cause the pressure, i.e. [from eqn. (2.2) =f “The height ofthe free surface above any point is known asthe static head at that point. In ths case, static head is h. “4 Pressure Measureme! Hence, the intens 1. Asaforco} 2 Asanequi Alternatively: Pressure variatic In order to deterr law states as follows: “The rate of int vertically downward « the specific weight of ‘The proof of the I Refer toFig.2.2 Let, p = Intensity AA =Cross-see Z= Distance 0 free surfic AZ=Height of The forces acting (0 Pressu LM=p * MA e fore (i Pressure fore (ii) Weight of the (i) Pressure fore For equilibriu px! oO, pxd Eqn, (2.3.) states density of the fluid at i On integrating the where, p is the pressure From eqn. (2.4), w45 tensity of pressure of a liquid ms force per unit area (i.e,, N/mny?, N jivalent st be expressed in the following two ways m),and tatic head (i.e., metres, mm or emof liquid). iternatively jure variation in fluid at rest : mine the pressure at an} follows: of increase of presiave'hi a peice a 8 lage mward direction must be equal to Fluid? ¥y point in a fluid at rest “hydrostatic law" is used; the and - weight of the fluid at that poina. Pts Proof of the law is as follows, p= Intensity of pressure on face LM, = Cross-sectional area ofthe element, and top Distance of the fluid element from © surfice, and A2= Height ofthe fluid clement. 1) = forces acting on the clement are Steen ae 2.2. Fores ting ons uid iment PAA (acting downward) nal Pressure foree on the face ST=[p 4. 2 Z Ja (acting upward depth of Pea ed 4 ig upward) ; ight ofthe fd element Weight density x volume wx(adxa7) Pressure fores on surfaces MT and LS. ae gual and opie For equilibrium of the id element, we have px ad -| p+ Baz) ads wr (adr) = a px dd-p ras @ x areas ewilhy 2G E6 « AZxM +x Ad AZ=0 es EB ~v(cancelg 22 » a4 fom both te sides) ez ¥. a (2.2 =PXg (s w=pxg) 3) dope. E Sics that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight a of the lat tat poin, Ths is “hyrctate lac ich woul On inte ating the eqn. (2.3), we get Jeo = Jre.az P= Pez (nz) atmospheric pressure an. (2.2 : (24) ft. In thi is the pressure above From eqn. (2.4), we havens Fluid Mechanios and Hydraulic Machines Proveute’ Mecmter os ae Since the elem pelle ps) the ek Here Z is known as pressure head. fe Example 21. Find the pressure ata depth of 15m below the fee surface of water in areserotr. : Solution. Depth of water, h= 15m From (iv) and ( Specific weight of water, w=9,81 kN/x? which is indep Pressure p: Hence, at any We know that, p=wh=981* 15= 147.15 EN/n? which is called Pas ie. po l47.15 kNin? =147.18KPa (Ans) Example 23. Example 2.2, ind the height of water column corresponding fo a pressure of 54 Nin? respectively. Find th Solution. Intensity of pressure, p = 54 KN? Solution. Dian Specific weight of water, w =9.81 kN/m? Height of water column, h: Diameter ofthe peek. Force on the p Using the relation: p= wh; k= £= 5 57= 55m (Ans) 2.3. Pascal’s Law ‘The Pascal's law states as follows “The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest, isthe same in all directions". Proof, Let us consider a very small wedge shaped clement LMN of aliquid, as shown in Fig. 23 Let, Intensity of horizontal pressure on the clement of liquid, p, = Intensity of vertical pressure on the clement of liquid, Intensity of pressure on the diagonal of r the right angled triangular element, «a= Angle ofthe element ofthe lgui Fig. 23. Pressure ona fluid element at res , = ‘Total pressure on the vertical side LN ofthe liquid, P. = Total pressure on the horizontal side MN ofthe liquid, and , = Total pressure on the diagonal LM ofthe liquid cer Now, P.=p,* EN bee and, P,=p, *MN onan and, P.=p, 1M (i Area of plunge vag the element ofthe liquid isa es, therefore the sum of horizontal and vertical componens of the liquid pressures must be equal (0 zero. Resolving the forces horizontally intensity of pie P, sina =P, py. LM, sin =P, LN (s P,=p, LM), Be But LM. sin a= LN Dect prosnar ity of pressur P,= Py Resolving the forces vertically: Bout intensit P,.cosa= PW “ola weight ofthe liquid clement) (where, W‘ic Machines leasurement a7 3) ment is very small, neglecting its weight, we have Preosa=P, orp, LMecosa=p, MN LM cos a= MN FromFig2.3 ina reservoir. P=, 0 oo W),weget p,=p, ic & independent of « fa cas pe Cint in a fluid at rest the intensity of pressure is exerted equally in all directions Paseal’s law, Sse 23. The dlameters of ram and plunger ofan hydraulic press are 200 mm and 30 mm Rinne > =e weigh fed by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger ts 400 N bee Diameter ofthe ram, D se plunger, d=30mm=0.03 m Senthe plunger, F=400N F= 400N | 4 Plunger Pr N i clement at rest Hydraulic press Fig. 24 Lad lined, W 0 mn : A=2pt= 2 5022200314 m2 ) eh a4 Bieorsncil . za s Fa? = 0.032 7.068 « 104m? Be rw angtay 7.068 « 10 Ieastyof pressure due o plunger, pa ina eS eee @ 7,068 x10 SR sasiy of pressure will be equally ransmited (due to Pascal’ law), therefore the From Fig 23 Ime of pressure atthe vari aen ) =p = 5.66» 108 Nin messy ofp athena = WAM Wy % weaofram A” 0.0314 : 5.66 x 10° or W = 0.0314 5.66 « 10°N = 17.77 x 10°'N or 17.77 KN (Ans.)Fluid Mechanics and’ Hydraulic Machines 48 Example 2.4, For the hydraulic jack shown in Fig: 2.5 find the load lifted bythe large piston when Nis applied on thesmall piston. Assume the specific weight of the liquid in the “jack is 9810 Nim Solution. Diame' force of 400 small piston, d= 30-mm=9.03 m F=400N ‘small piston ~ Large piston ~ Liquid peafot cea pi > REEDS Cota Tat Wh Diameter oft reps, D= 100m 01m Anotipébiiin, Ag DRE wute sx 1042 Foweonsnalipsoa, FAN Landi F400 25.66.10)? Pressure intensity on small piston, P=" = a 7.068% Pressure intensity at section LL, Ae “+ Pressure intensity due to height of 300 mm of Tiquid oF a wh = 5.66108 + 9810 x 1000 =5.66% 108 + 2943 = 5.689 * 10° Nin pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = §,689 * 10" Nim? Faves on the large piston = Pressure intensity * area of large fiston 5,689 x 105 x7.854* 107 =4468N Hence, load lifted by the large piston = 4468 N (Ans.) 2.4. Absolute and Gauge Pressures ‘Atmospheric pressure: “The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure uP ss iknovn as aospheric pressure. The atmospheric press is als "The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute 2270) pressure’ Note, The local atmospheric pressure may be ait ishigher than sa evel, and higher values ifthe place is brincreage of the column of ai standing, respectively: on all surfaces with which itis in contact, andi ‘o known as ‘Barometric pressure ) is called ‘Standard atmosphere + than these values ifthe place under question tle lower ‘due tothe corresponding decrease ower than sea level, Pressure Measurem Gauge pressur It is the pressu atmospheric pressua Gauges record difference in pressu pressure ofthe liqui ‘gauge’ and the rece Tocal atmosphere pi (Vacuum press Absolute press It is necessary | atmospheric pressur Any pressure mi ‘Aschematic di given in Fig. 2.6, Pressure —> 1, Absolute pre 2. Vacuum pres Units for press ‘The fundament Pascal, Low pressures way of saying that Note. When the local r simplicity of cae Standard atmo 101.3 KN/n? 0 = 100kPa=10° Nirraulic Machines Jarge piston ne liquid in the Beontact, and it tetric pressure rd atmospheric inder question Ponding decrease Prmeue easement 49 Gange pressure: ured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in which the = sken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero, ure above or bélow the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the mre of the liquid to which they are connected and that of surrounding air, If the weer oo below the local atmospheric pressure, then the gauge is designated as ‘vacuum value indicates the amount by which the pressure of the liquid is below ai mimespinic pressure, ie. negative pressure defined as the pressure below the atmospherie pressure). my to establish an absolute pressure scale which is independlent of the changes in eee > A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete vacuum. measured above the absolute zero of pressuré is termed as an ‘absolute pressure’ set diagram showing the gauge pressure, vacuum pressure and the absolute pressure is oP. Positive gauge -— Atmospheric pressure tie a Negative gauge pressure or vacuum Absolute Zero absolute pressure > Fig. 2.6. Relationship between pressures. Machematically tte pressure ~ Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure Pats = Pam * Peaese © Fecsum pressure = Atmospheric pressure ~ absolute pressure mis for pressure damental S.I. unit of pressure is newton per square metre (N/m). This is also known as sare often expressed in terms of mm of water or mm of mercury. Thisis an abbreviated saying that the pressure is such that will support a liquid column of stated height. the local atmospheric pressure isnot given ina problem, its taken as 100 kN/m® or 10 mof water sendiard atmospheric pressure has the following equivalent values f 1013 mb (mitlibar) 3 N/m or 101.3 KPa; 10.3 m of water, 760 mm of mercu Nin barFluid Mechanics and Hydraulié Machines | Pressure Measurem« (Intensity of (it) Nén? absol (ii) Metres of» (i) Metres of (0) Centimetre Take atmospher Solution. Given (Intensity 0 Gauge read Example 2.5. Given that: Barometer reading = 740 mm of mercury; Specific gravity of mereury = 13.6; Intensity of pressure = 40 kPa. Express the intensity of pressure in S.J. units. both gauge and absolute. Solution. Intensity of pressure, p = 40 kPa Gauge pressure: 10 kPa =40 kN/m? = 0.4 x 10° Nim? =0.4 bar (Ans.) 0°Nim) 04210" _ 4.077 m of water (Ans) sa (ii) Nim! absol 04x10 __ 9399. of mercury (Ans) pore 381x10 «136 Where, w = speciioweigh For water : w = 9.81 kNim? aes [For mercury : w = 9.81 x 13.6kN/m’ | Absolute pressure: ig betteee Barometer reading (atmospheric presse) 740 mm of mercury = 740 * 13.6 mm of water = 40213.6 «1006 mof water Mee 1000 y). Metres of Absolute pressure (p,y,) = Atmospheric pressure (Pym) * BBE PrESSHE (Pym) Pay, = 10.06-+4,077 = 14.137 m of water (Ains.) = 14.137 x (9.81, 10°) = 1.38 x 108N/m? (Ans.) (p= wh) .38 bar (Ans.) (1 bar = 105 Nim?) 14.137 136 Example 2.6. Calculate the pressure at.a point $m below the free water surface ina liquid the has a variable density given by relation p= (350+ Ay) ke/m? iere A = 8 kg/m* and y is the distance in meires measured from the free surface. Solution, As per hydrostatic equation dp = pigsdy= g (350+ Ay)dy Integrating both sides, we get for fess Ayydy = g [350+ 8y)dy gy (a A, = 1,039mof mereury,(Ans.) Example 2.8. 7 Seagh a suction pi : see minimum de Assume atmosp Solution, Giver Minimum dept Let, Then, A er let be Svoking hydro = gfasoy 482 p= 5|380y +82) a $981 (805 +85) = 18148 RV? = 1815KNe (Ans) Example 2.7. On the suction side of a pump a gauge shows a negative pressure of 0. Express this pressure in terms of:e Machines ) in?) liquid that , £0.35 bar Frame Measurement 51 intensity of pressure, KPa. Wine! absolute. eares of water gauge. Mesres of oil (specific gravity 0.82) absolute. tres of mercury gauge. eemospheric pressure as 76 cm of Hg and relative density of mercury as 13.6. .35 bar Sebution. Given: Reading of the vacuum gaug Intensity of pressure, kP: fauge reading = 0.35 bar=0.35 x 10°Nin? 35 x 10° Pa=35kPa(Ans,) Nim? absolute: Atmospheric pressure, Pyg, = 76cm of Hg 13910)» 2% = 10196 Nit ‘lute pressure = Atmospheric pressure ~ Vacuum pressure Pate Pasm~ Pras = 101396 ~35000 = 66396 N/m? absolute (Ans.) Metres of water gauge: P= pgh = Wh P0385 x10° = 3.867m (gauge) (Ans Pree (UBC) = ea (Bags) = B= = Metres of oil (sp. gr. = 0.82) absolute: ‘hy (absolute) = a = 8.254mof water absolute) (Ans.) Centimetres of mercury gauge: 035105 hip ange) = 225210 2 9 2673 mot ime nero (@M¥B) = 75 5 9810 Es = 26.36 emof mereury (Ans) Example 2.8. The inlet o pump is 10.5 m above the bottom of sump from which it draws water suction pipe. Ifthe pressure at the pump inlet is not to fall below 28 kN/m’ absolute, work se she minimum depth of water in the tank ume atmospheric pressure as 100 kPa. Solution, Given: Py,, = 100 kPa = 100 kN/m? Minimum depth of water in the tank: 28 kNin. Pye," The vacuum (suction) pressure at the pump inlet. Pavel ene 100 - 28)=72 KNin? or 72000 Nim? wrther, let be the distance between the ptimp inlet and free water surface in the sump. oking hydrostatic equation, we haveFluid Mechanics and, Hydraulic. Machines ‘Minimum depth of water in the tank =10,5-7.339=3.161 m(Ans.) Example 2.9.4 cylindrical tank of cross-sectional area 600 mm? and 2.6 m height is filled with water upto a height of 1.5 m and remaining with oil of specific gravity 0.78. The vessel is open to atmospheric pressure, Calculate (0 Intensity of pressure at the interface. (ii) Absolute and gauge pressures on the base of the tank in terms of water head, oil head and Nine. (iii) The net force experienced by the base of the tank Assume atmospheric pressure as 1.0132 bar. Solution. Given: Area of cross-section ofthe tank, A = 600 mm sp-gr of oil = 0.78; Pyyq= 1.0132 ba. (0 Intensity of pressure at the interface: ‘The pressure intensity at the interface between the oil and water is due to 1,1 mofoil and is given by, ifs wh | ndrical tank (078x9810)*14 nis =8417 Nim? (Ans,) | matter votre) (i Absolute and gauge pressure onthe base ofthe a ue Pressure at the base of the tank * os ofl ~ Pressure at the interface ue to 1.1m of ol) + a pressure due to 1.5 mof water 1417+ (9810 1.5) | =23132 N/m? (gauge) (Ans.) | Prose (gma) Water wl 23132 9810 12 L = Eg 7 3005 mot olgauge) (Ans) Atmospheric presse, ,,,=1.0132 bar Pan 1.0132 10° Nin? Fig. 27 1.0132 « 10° ae _ 1.0132 10° 0.78 x 9810 ‘Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure Pra (absolute) = 10,328 + 2.358 =12,686 m of water (Ans.) 3.241 +3.023 = 16.264 mof oil Ans.) 101320+ 23132 124452 Nin? (Ans.) (iit) Thenet force experienced by the base of the tank: FE (gauge) * cross-sectional area 3.879 N (Ans) = 2.358m of water (gauge) (Ans.) (0.328 mof water 3.241 mof oil = Pras 23132 x 600 * 10°= Pressure Moasur Example 2 © Acrlind ff0.9m (9. oral pr (i) Weight What is Solution. a) Fig. 28 shor liquid upto the s According t the height of the the column. Thu and sizes, the san on the bottom of vessels has the s force P= p x A same. This is in iquid in each ves as hydrostatic () Area Intensi Total p P=p* Weight the cyl Fromthe ab Sptinder is great ‘epdrostatic parayoraulic Machindll tami Messurement 53 (2) What is hydrostatie paradox? Ff 0.25 mdiameter and 1.2 m heights fexed centrally on the top ofa large eylinder ameter and 0.8 m height. Both the cylinders are filled with water: Calculate: mure at the bottom of the bigger cylinder, and igh is filled essel is open sdrostatic paradox between the two results and how this difference can be nciled? Setation. (=) Hydrost ead, oi! head a paradox: Ssbows three vessels 1, 2 and 3 having the same area 4 at thé bottorn and each filled a Se same height h. pmo Cylindrieal hon oil (Sp. ge = 0.78) 4 A= Area of the bottom Inter aaa Fig. 2.8, Hydrostatic paradox and water Seen 0 the hydrostatic equation, p = wh; the intensity of pressure (p) depends only on Se ee ote column and not at all upon the size of i < Se Ths, in al these vessels of different shapes ae L Pe Se sane intensity of pressure would be exerted a ‘each of these vessels. Since each of the same area 4 at the bottom, the pressure 4 on the base of each vessel would be s&s independent of the fact that the weight of Sete vessel is different, This situation is referred se etrectatic paradox. atthe bottom, 4=2 x (09) =0,6362 m? ity of pressure at the bottom p=wh=9810x(1.2+0.8) 19620 Nim ressure force at the bottom 19620 % 0.6362 = 12482N ght of total volume of water contained in 0.9 m dia x volume of water Fig. 2.9 =9810| = x09? x08 += x0.25? x12] =55: rag! cas x00 2] esmn ve calculations it may be observed that the toial pressure force at the bottom of the Se = ereater than the weight of total volume of water (W) contained in the eylinders. This is Speescack paradox.Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulle Machines 54 rostatie paradox: Refer to Fig. 2.9. ‘The following is the explanation of the hydn = 12482.N (downward), A reaction at the roof Total pressure force on the bottom of bigger tank of the lower tank is caused by the upward force which equals, wh = 9810 x F009 ~ 0.257) x 1.2 = 6911N (upward) ‘The distance h corresponding to depth of water in the cylinder fixed centrally on the top of larger cylinder. Net downward force exerted by water = 12482 ~ 6911 water in the two cylinder. 2.5 Measurement of Pressure “The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following devices: 5571 N and it equals the weight of 1. Manometers Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point ina fluid by ofliquid. These are classified as follows: balancing the column offluid by the same or another column of (@, Simple manometers: (i Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer, and (ii) Single column manometer. (®) Differential manometers. 2. Mechanical gauges: These are the devices in which the pressure is measured by balancing the fluid column by spring (elastic element or dead weight. Generally these gauges are used for measuring high pressure and where high precision is not required. Some commonly used mechanical gauges are: (Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (if) Bellow pressure gauge, and (iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge. 2.5.1 Manometers 2.5.1.1. Simple manometers 4 “simple manometer” is one which consists ofa glass tube whose one end is connected to point where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere ‘Common types of simple manometers are discussed below: 1, Plezometer: {A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids, Itconssts of glass tube (Fig 2.10) inserted inthe wall ofa vessel or of Pipe rontaining liquid whose pressure is to be measured. The tube extends vertically upward to such height that liquid can frely rise in it without overflowing, The pressure at any point in the liquid indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube above that point, which can be read on the seals attached to it. Thus if w is the specific weight of the liquid, then the pressure at point A(p) is by iS Prezometer @ Fig, 2.10. (a) Piezometer tube fitted to open vessel Pressure Measurement Piezometers measur of the liquid), since the subjected to atmosplter ‘suitable for measuring n air will enter in pipe thr 2, U-tube manomete Piezometers cannot the lighter liquids are 10 very long tubes, which ca ‘more gas pressures can because a gas forms 1 limitations can be overec ‘A U-tube manome U-shape, one end of wh pressure is to be measur atmosphere as shown in (For positive pres Referto Fig. 2.11 (a) Let, A be the point Height o Height o i = Pressure S, = Specific 5, =Speeific The pressures in the! points at the same Pressure head above Pressure head above Squating these two f