Phases/Stages of Mine Life

Starting from the prospecting to the mine closure, the mining life cycle passes
through the following phases (Hustrulid and Kuchta, 1995).
Prospecting
This is the act of searching for and identification of a mining prospect. The phase
starts with the primary reconnaissance in which an examination of the entire
region for areas of interest is made and the favourable area is identified. This is
followed by secondary reconnaissance through which the target area and then
the target is selected. Reconnaissance may begin with a selected region of
several thousand to more than 100,000 km 2, may reduce the terrain under
consideration to something on the order of 100 km2 in a favourable area. A
favourable area may then be reduced to less than 50 km2 in a selected target
area. Once a target is selected, it is investigated for a discovery of a prospect
followed by the preliminary evaluation of the prospect. The evaluation is done
considering a number of factors (geography – location, topography, climate and
altitude; legal status of land and mining rights; historical, political and sociological
factors; geology; mining conditions; ore treatment requirements; environmental
requirements and restrictions; economic criteria) to find out whether the prospect
is acceptable, and if it is so then it is approved for the next phase, that is,
exploration.
The various methods used for prospecting are – geological method (conventional
prospecting, interpretation of airborne and satellite imagery, field geologic
mapping, subsurface investigation), geophysical methods (remote sensing, aero-
magnetic surveying, regional gravity surveying, aero-electromagnetic surveying,
airborne radiometric methods), and geo-chemical methods comprising of
collection of samples (plant tissues, animal tissues, micro-organisms, etc.) from
different sample media (soils, stream sediments and waters, lake sediments and
waters, glacial deposits, rocks, etc.) and their analyses.
Exploration
Exploration is basically the activities related to establishing a mineral deposit
through geological (drilling, trenching, pitting, aditing, etc.) and geophysical
(detailed surface methods – gravity, magnetic, electrical, seismic, etc.;
subsurface/borehole methods – gravity, electric logging, etc.) methods.
In this phase, the deposit is delineated establishing its shape, size, etc., the
deposit characteristics as well as the host rock characteristics are identified and
assessed in terms of their physico-mechanical and physico-chemical properties,
and the grade-tonnage relationships and the spatial distribution of grade is
established. At the end of this phase, a three-dimensional model (deposit
modeling) of the deposit is prepared using the available exploration data.
Planning and design
In mine planning stage, the decisions, mostly financial, are taken to optimize an
objective function (e.g., net present value, total profit, internal rate of return, total
conservation, etc.) depending on the requirement on the basis of available
exploration data and other information while satisfying the various constraints
(e.g. , available capital, legal considerations, market conditions, physical and
biological environment, techno-economic environment, climatic conditions,
geographic location, site characteristics, deposit characteristics, etc.) which are
likely to affect the venture. In mine design stage, the planning decisions are
translated in the form of maps, drawings, figures, charts, tables, etc.
Development and construction
Actual physical development of a mine starts from this phase. During this phase
various activities – like establishing the box-cut and developing mine entries,
establishment of working benches (ore and waste benches), erection and
commission of equipments – take place. The development phase ends when the
mine achieves its target production, and is followed by the production phase.
Production
This is generally the longest phase of the mine life. It starts at the end of the
gestation period and ends when the ultimate pit configuration is reached. During
the period the mine gives the targeted production.
Reclamation/mine closure
Reclamation may be carried out simultaneously or at the end of the production
phase depending on the situation and mine specifies. From the environmental
point of view, this is extremely important. During this phase the land (including
the waste dumps) is reclamated both mechanically and biologically so that the
land returned after the mining use becomes acceptable to the environment and fit
for some or other economic use.
Surface Mine Planning and Design Components/Tasks
At the end of exploration phase the ore body modeling is done, and once this is
completed the next step is mine planning. The planning and design job involves a
number of tasks. These include broadly:
Selection of break-even cut-off grade – Net value-grade curve and stripping
ratio-grade curve are first constructed considering the cost (production,
amortization and depreciation, processing, overhead, etc.), percentage recovery
and the gross value of the ore, and then the break-even cut-off grade is
determined.
Development of the 3-D economic block model – This is done from the ore
body model with the help of the net value-grade curve.
Identification of ultimate pit configuration – The ultimate pit configuration
(UPC), following the principal of total profit maximization, is determined based on
the economic block model while satisfying the slope stability requirements. A
number of methods (hand methods, computer methods – floating cone, Lerchs –
Grossmann 2-D algorithm, 2½ -D algorithm, Lerchs-Grossmann 3-D algorithm,
etc., and computer assisted hand methods) are used to determine the UPC.
Estimation of total and mineable ore reserve vis-à-vis grade – Once the UPC
is determined, the total tonnage of available mineable ore reserves and the
corresponding grade, and the associated quantity of waste within the pit are
determined.
Selection of optimum mine and mill cut-off grades – After the determination
of UPC, knowing the reserve and the grade distribution, the mine and mill cut-off
grades are so selected that the total net present value (NPV) of the venture is
maximized. These cut-off grades may or may not remain constant over the whole
life of the mine depending on the mine specifics and other factors.
Estimation of targeted production and mine life – Proper estimation of
targeted production vis-à-vis mine life for a given deposit is of paramount
importance. Too low production rate sacrifices possible economics of scale and
defers possible profits too far into the future. Conversely, too high a production
rate may drive up the project’s capital cost beyond any ability to repay within the
shortened mine life.
Taylor (1977), after studying many actual projects involving a wide range of
orebody sizes and shapes for which the total ore reserves were reasonably well
known, put forward an empirical relationship (Taylor’s mine life rule) between the
total ore tonnage and the mine life. The rule, a simple and useful guide, states:
Life (years) = 0.2 x (Expected ore tonnage)1/4
However, it is more convenient to use quantities expressed in millions, and
generally the practical range of variation of mine life seems to lie within  20%.
So the rule may be restated as:
Life (years) = (1  0.2) x 6.5 x (Tonnage in millions)1/4
Planning ore and waste excavation schedule vis-à-vis intermediate pit
layout – These activities basically relates to identification of the optimum
sequence of ore and waste excavation and the corresponding intermediate pit
layouts so that the NPV (or IRR / total cash flow/ any other objective function) of
the venture is optimized. A number of techniques, such as, sequencing by nested
pits, phase scheduling, block sequencing, push back design, etc., may be used
for the purpose.
Planning the equipment system – The surface mining being a machine
intensive one, the economic success of a surface mining project depends to a
great extent on the selection of the right equipment system in relation to the
chosen mining system and the method of work. This task involves the selection
of right type, size and number of units to accomplish the various unit operations,
and their phasing/scheduling in relation to the mine life.
Factors that affect the choice of equipment are: (i) required production, (ii) haul
distance, (iii) operating room within the mine design, (iv) availability and costs of
power, fuel, etc., (v) weather conditions, (vi) material type (rock, alluvium, etc.),
(vii) mine life vs. capital required for a specific mining system, and (viii) operating
characteristics of equipment.
The size of equipment is influenced by a variety of factors, such as, mine design,
production rates, comparative operating costs, and capital costs. The total
number of units needed is determined from the required production rate and the
productivity of individual unit. The outcome of equipment selection may dictate
changes in mine design and rates of mining if the benefits of one type of mining
system place it far ahead of other systems.
Calendar planning – This is the planning of various activities related to calendar
schedule. In a mining project, the calendar plans generally required are: (i)
instantaneous excavation indicating the production of mineral, removal of waste,
and stripping ratio per year (or some other time interval) basis, (ii) cumulative
excavation showing the cumulative mineral production, cumulative handling of
waste, and stripping ratio upto that year or instant, (iii) instantaneous and
cumulative machinery deployment, (iv) instantaneous and cumulative variation in
ore quality, (v) development and dismantling of haul roads, and (v) Manpower
requirement.
Slope stability planning – This relates to planning and design of slopes
(highwall and dump slopes) based on the site specific geo-mining conditions and
prevailing techno-economic environment. The selection of optimum slope angle
is a critical decision that can have far reaching effects on the accumulated cash
flow and the overall economics of a mining project.
For the highwall slopes, the optimum slope angle/angles is/are determined based
on the depth of the coal seam(s), dip and physico-mechanical characteristics of
coal seam(s), physico-mechanical characteristics of host rocks and groundwater
conditions. For waste dumps the optimum slope angle and height are determined
considering the dump foundation conditions, physico-mechanical properties of
spoil materials, dump formation method, planned final dump profile, effects of
surface water and groundwater, dump drainage system design, likely effects of
short term stress fields (earthquakes, heavy blast vibrations, etc.) and the
stabilizing and reclamation measures.
Waste dump planning – This involves the planning and design of dumps
(external, internal) in terms of their location/site, optimum height vis-à-vis slope
angle, profile, formation method, drainage system, stabilizing and reclamation
measures.
Mine transportation system planning – Proper planning and design of
transportation system in a surface mine is of paramount importance as it is
generally the costliest or second-costliest unit operation in a surface mine. It
involves in selecting the right type, size and number of transportation equipment
depending on the mine system to be adopted and targeted production.
Mine drainage planning – This is an area that is often neglected. This involves
the planning and design of mine drainage system, mine sump (location and
capacity), pumps (type, size and number) and pumping system based on
estimates of accumulation of water in the mine through surface water and
groundwater flow and their seasonal variation. In mine drainage planning, the
problem of acid mine drainage should also be given due importance.
Environmental management planning – This involves in planning the
necessary mitigating measures to be taken so that the adverse impacts on
environment due to mining are kept under control and the pollution level of
different components of physical environment (air, water, land, flora and fauna)
are maintained within the permissible maximum.
Environmental disaster management planning – This is the planning
regarding the measures to be taken in the eventuality of an environmental
disaster so that the hazard level due to such disaster is kept to a minimum.
Mine reclamation/mine closure planning – This relates to the planning of
measures to be taken for mechanical and biological reclamation (simultaneous
and/or at the end of mine life) and closure (ongoing and final) of a surface mine.
Planning Inputs
To accomplish the various tasks of mine planning, a wide range of inputs
becomes necessary.
The inputs required may be grouped under different headings.
Topography and contour: The contours of the area under consideration and the
surface features present.
Surface: Vegetation (type, method of clearing, local costs for clearing, etc.),
unusual conditions (extra heavy timber growth, lakes, stream diversions, gravel
deposits, etc.), etc.
Climatic conditions: Altitude, temperatures (extremes, averages), precipitation
(annual average, maximum and minimum; monthly average, maximum and
minmum; daily maximum; run-off), wind velocity (average, maximum and
minimum speed, prevailing direction), humidity (effect on installations, i.e.
electrical motors, etc.), dust, fog and cloud conditions
Surface Water (potable and process): Sources (streams, lakes, wells, etc.),
availability (ownership, water rights, cost, etc.), quantities (monthly availability,
flow rates, drought or flood conditions, possible dam locations, etc.), quality
(present sample, possibility of quality change in upstream source water, effect of
contamination on downstream users, etc.), sewage disposal method, etc.
Ground water: Ground water table and its seasonal variation, flow pattern,
permeability, etc.
Mine Water as determined by prospect holes: Within mine area and in
surrounding areas, dam locations, etc.
Ore body characteristics: Shape, size, extent, type, total ore tonnage, grade-
tonnage relationship, spatial distribution of grade, physico-mechanical and
physico-chemical properties of ore body, etc.
Host rock characteristics: Presence and spatial distribution of fracture and
cleavage planes, hardness, degree of weathering, fragmentation features,
suitability for road surface, etc.
Structural data: Faults, folds, joints sets. bedding planes, etc. and their
respective details.
Waste dump location: Physico-mechanical properties and slope of dump
foundation, haul distance, haul profile, allowable maximum dump height vis-à-vis
dump profile, dump capacity, etc.
Location(s) for concentrator: Location with respect to the mine location – haul
uphill or downhill, Site preparation – amount of cut and/or fill, availability of
process water – gravity flow or pumping, washery slime disposal – gravity flow or
pumping, location of maintenance facilities.
Tailing pond area: Probable location(s), required pipeline length and discharge
elevations, enclosing features (natural, dams or dikes, lakes, etc.), pond overflow
(effect of water pollution on downstream users, possibility for reclaiming water,
etc.), tailing dust and its effect on the area, etc.
Smelting: Availability, method of shipping concentrate, rates, if company on-site
smelting – then effect of smelter gasses, concentrate freight rates, railroads and
dock facility, etc.
Environmental aspects: Environment base line data, permissible environmental
impact level during pre-mining, mining and post-mining periods, environmental
impact assessment, etc.
Roads: Area road maps, additional road information (widths, surfacing,
maximum load limits, seasonal load limits, seasonal access, other limits or
restrictions, maintaining agency, etc.), access roads to be constructed by
company (distance, profile, cut and fill requirement, bridges, culverts, terrain and
soil conditions, etc.).
Accessibility of principal town to outside: Methods of transportation available,
reliability of transportation available, communications, etc.
Land ownership: Present owners, present usage, price of land, and type of
options, leases and royalties expected.
Power: Availability (voltage, distance, rates and length of contract, etc.), power
lines to site (who builds, who maintains, etc.), tariff system, substation location,
and possibility of power generation at or near site.
Economic climate: Principal industries, availability of labour and normal work
schedules, wage scales, tax structure, availability of goods and services
(housing, stores, recreation, medical facilities and unusual local disease,
hospital, schools, etc.), material costs and/or availability (fuel oil, concrete,
gravel, borrow material for dams, etc.), purchasing, etc.
Government: Political climate (favourable or unfavourable to mining), past
reactions in the area to mining, special mining laws, local mining restrictions, etc.
Others: Hazard potential from the point of view of earthquakes and their possible
effects on pit slopes, maximum predicted slopes, estimate on foundation
conditions, etc.

SOURCES OF OBTAINING INFORMATION

(a) GSI and other maps, satellite imagery, special aerial or land survey
(b) Past records (i.e. government sources)
(c) Maintaining measuring and recording devices
(d) Collection and analysis of samples
(e) Field observations and measurements, and field surveys
(f) Making preliminary plant layouts
(g) Cost inquiries
(h) Material availability inquiries
(i) Utility availability inquiries
(j) Checking courthouse records for land information
(k) Checking local laws and ordinances for applicable legislation
(l) Personal inquiries and observation on economic and political climates