Heat Transfer Modes

Methods based on experiment are available for evaluating energy transfer by heat.
These methods recognize two basic transfer mechanisms: conduction and thermal
radiation. In addition, empirical relationships are available for evaluating energy transfer
involving a combined mode called convection.

A brief description of each of these is given next.

Conduction

Energy transfer by conduction can take place in solids, liquids, and gases. Conduction
can be thought of as the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance
to adjacent particles that are less energetic due to interactions between particles.

The time rate of energy transfer by conduction is quantified macroscopically by

Fourier’s law. As an elementary application, consider Fig. 1 showing a plane wall of
thickness L at steady state, where the temperature T(x) varies linearly with position x.

By Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer across any plane normal to the x direction,
𝑄̇𝑥 , is proportional to the wall area, A, and the temperature gradient in the x direction,
dT/dx:

𝒅𝑻
𝑸̇𝒙 = 𝜿𝑨 (Eq. 1)
𝒅𝒙

where the proportionality constant 𝜿 is a property called the thermal conductivity. The
minus sign is a consequence of energy transfer in the direction of decreasing temperature.
 Fig. 1 – Illustration of Fourier’s conduction law

Radiation

Thermal radiation is emitted by matter as a result of changes in the electronic

configurations of the atoms or molecules within it. The energy is transported by
electromagnetic waves (or photons). Unlike conduction, thermal radiation requires no
intervening medium to propagate and can even take place in a vacuum.

Solid surfaces, gases, and liquids all emit, absorb, and transmit thermal radiation to
varying degrees. The rate at which energy is emitted, 𝑸̇𝒆 , from a surface of area A is
quantified macroscopically by a modified form of the Stefan–Boltzmann law:

𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝜺𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒𝒃 (Eq. 2)

which shows that thermal radiation is associated with the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the surface, 𝑻𝒃 . The emissivity, 𝜺, is a property of the surface that indicates
how effectively the surface radiates 10 ≤ 𝜺 ≤ 1.02, and s is the Stefan– Boltzmann constant:

𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑾
𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × ∙ 𝑲𝟒 (Eq. 3)
𝒎𝟐

In general, the net rate of energy transfer by thermal radiation between two surfaces
involves relationships among the properties of the surfaces, their orientations with respect
to each other, the extent to which the intervening medium scatters, emits, and absorbs
thermal radiation, and other factors.

A special case that occurs frequently is radiation exchange between a surface at

temperature Tb and a much larger surrounding surface at Ts, as shown in Fig. 2. The net
rate of radiant exchange between the smaller surface, whose area is A and emissivity is 𝜺,
and the larger surroundings is

𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝜺𝝈𝑨[𝑻𝟒𝒃 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔 ] (Eq. 4)

Fig. 2 Net radiation exchange

Convection

Energy transfer between a solid surface at a temperature Tb and an adjacent gas or

liquid at another temperature Tf plays a prominent role in the performance of many devices
of practical interest. This is commonly referred to as convection. As an illustration,
consider Fig. 3, where 𝑻𝒃 > 𝑻𝒇 .

In this case, energy is transferred in the direction indicated by the arrow due to the
combined effects of conduction within the air and the bulk motion of the air. The rate of
energy transfer from the surface to the air can be quantified by the following empirical
expression:

𝑸̇𝒄 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒃 − 𝑻𝒇 ) (Eq. 5)

 Fig. 3 – Illustration of Newton’s law of cooling

known as Newton’s law of cooling. In Eq. 5, A is the surface area and the proportionality
factor h is called the heat transfer coefficient. In subsequent applications of Eq. 5, a minus
sign may be introduced on the right side to conform to the sign convention for heat transfer.

The heat transfer coefficient is not a thermodynamic property. It is an empirical

parameter that incorporates into the heat transfer relationship the nature of the flow pattern
near the surface, the fluid properties, and the geometry.

When fans or pumps cause the fluid to move, the value of the heat transfer coefficient
is generally greater than when relatively slow buoyancy-induced motions occur. These two
general categories are called forced and free (or natural) convection, respectively.