HYDRAULICS AND PNUMATICS SYSTEMS

LAB MANUAL

AEOLUS AERO TECH PVT LTD

BANGALORE

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 HYDRAULIC AND PNUMATIC SYSTEMS

Pump and motor:

If a hydraulic rotary pump with the displacement 10 cc/rev is connected to a hydraulic rotary motor
with 100 cc/rev, the shaft torque required to drive the pump is 10 times less than the torque
available at the motor shaft, but the shaft speed (rev/min) for the motor is 10 times less than the
pump shaft speed. This combination is actually the same type of force multiplication as the cylinder
example (1) just that the linear force in this case is a rotary force, defined as torque.
Both these examples are usually referred to as a hydraulic transmission or hydrostatic transmission
involving a certain hydraulic "gear ratio".

Hydraulic pump:

An exploded view of an external gear pump.

Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system develops in
reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining flow against a load
of 5,000 psi.
Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume). They are
powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a flexible elastomeric
coupling to reduce vibration.
Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are;

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 Gear pump: cheap, durable (especially in g-rotor form), simple. Less efficient, because they
are constant (fixed) displacement, and mainly suitable for pressures below 20 MPa (3000 psi).
 Vane pump: cheap and simple, reliable. Good for higher-flow low-pressure output.
 Axial piston pump: many designed with a variable displacement mechanism, to vary output
flow for automatic control of pressure. There are various axial piston pump designs, including
swash plate (sometimes referred to as a valve plate pump) and check ball (sometimes referred to
as a wobble plate pump). The most common is the swash plate pump. A variable-angle swash
plate causes the pistons to reciprocate a greater or lesser distance per rotation, allowing output
flow rate and pressure to be varied (greater displacement angle causes higher flow rate, lower
pressure, and vice versa).
 Radial piston pumps: normally used for very high pressure at small flows.

Piston pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life operating at
higher pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston pumps make up one
half of a hydrostatic transmission.

Control valves:

Control valves on a scissor lift

Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool
inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, and
intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the supply fluid is
blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to an actuator
and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is moved to the opposite
direction the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to return to neutral
(centre) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each hydraulic
cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.

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Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools typically
have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 µm). The valve block will
be mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern to avoid distorting the valve block and
jamming the valve's sensitive components.
The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure,
or solenoids which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude outside
the housing, where it is accessible to the actuator.
The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen by flow
capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate proportional to
valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of the most expensive
and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.

Actuators:

 Hydraulic cylinder
 Swash plates are used in 'hydraulic motors' requiring highly accurate control and also in 'no
stop' continuous (360°) precision positioning mechanisms. These are frequently driven by
several hydraulic pistons acting in sequence.
 Hydraulic motor (a pump plumbed in reverse)
 Hydrostatic transmission
 Brakes

Reservoir:
The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume changes from:
cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and contraction, and leaks. The
reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid and also work as a heat
accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used. Design engineers are always
pressured to reduce the size of hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment operators always appreciate
larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil, as the

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particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the tank. Some designs include dynamic flow
channels on the fluid's return path that allow for a smaller reservoir.
.

Hydraulic fluid:

Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually
petroleum oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant fluids,
depending on their applications. In some factories where food is prepared, either an edible oil or
water is used as a working fluid for health and safety reasons.
In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components, suspend
contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter, and to function well to several hundred
degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Filters:

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Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually produced by
mechanical components and need to be removed along with other contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the reservoir and the
pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitation and possibly failure of the pump.
Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves. This arrangement is more
expensive, since the filter housing is pressurized, but eliminates cavitation problems and protects
the control valve from pump failures. The third common filter location is just before the return line
enters the reservoir. This location is relatively insensitive to blockage and does not require a
pressurized housing, but contaminants that enter the reservoir from external sources are not filtered
until passing through the system at least once. Filters are used from 7 micron to 15 micron depends
upon the viscosity grade of hydraulic oil.
Tubes, pipes and hoses:
Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for hydraulics. The tubes
have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with standard diameters up to 100 mm. The tubes
are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes are
interconnected by different types of flanges (especially for the larger sizes and pressures), welding
cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), and several types of flare connection and by cut-rings. In larger
sizes, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not acceptable since the
interior cannot be inspected.
Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally these are used
for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections, but usually by welds. Because of
the larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected internally after welding. Black pipe is non-
galvanized and suitable for welding.
Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are used when
pipes or tubes cannot be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine operation or maintenance.
The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is surrounded by multiple layers
of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is designed for abrasion resistance. The bend radius of
hydraulic hose is carefully designed into the machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and
violating the hose's minimum bend radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel
fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high pressure hose is the connection of the hose
to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of rubber which requires periodic
replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals.

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Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is commissioned.
Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings are used, the paint is
removed under the nut, and is a location where corrosion can begin. For this reason, in marine
applications most piping is stainless steel.
Seals, fittings and connections

Components of a hydraulic system [sources (e.g. pumps), controls (e.g. valves) and actuators (e.g.
cylinders)] need connections that will contain and direct the hydraulic fluid without leaking or
losing the pressure that makes them work. In some cases, the components can be made to bolt
together with fluid paths built-in. In more cases, though, rigid tubing or flexible hoses are used to
direct the flow from one component to the next. Each component has entry and exit points for the
fluid involved (called ports) sized according to how much fluid are expected to pass through it.
There are a number of standardized methods in use to attach the hose or tube to the component.
Some are intended for ease of use and service, others are better for higher system pressures or
control of leakage. The most common method, in general, is to provide in each component a
female-threaded port, on each hose or tube a female-threaded captive nut, and use a separate adapter
fitting with matching male threads to connect the two. This is functional, economical to
manufacture, and easy to service.
Fittings serve several purposes;

1. To join components with ports of different sizes.

2. To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face seal, for example.
3. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90°, 45°, straight, or swivel fitting is chosen as
needed. They are designed to be positioned in the correct orientation and then tightened.
4. To incorporate bulkhead hardware to pass the fluid through an obstructing wall.
5. A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification of hoses or
valves

A typical piece of machinery or heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed connection points
and several different types:

 Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled fitting correctly
without over or under tightening.
 O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an additional nut
tightens the fitting, washer and o-ring in place.
 Flare fittings, are metal to metal compression seals deformed with a cone nut and pressed
into a flare mating.
 Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and o-ring seal are fastened together.
 Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used primarily in aircraft.
 Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged permanently in place.
Primarily used in aircraft.

Elastomeric seals (O-ring boss and face seal) are the most common types of seals in heavy
equipment and are capable of reliably sealing 6000+ psi (40+ MPa) of fluid pressure.

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Procedure: (Hydraulics)

1. Ensure first the oil colour, it should be in brown.

2. Switch on the mains
3. Switch on the main in panel board.
4. Increase the motor speed level at 30 – 40 %.
5. Check the fluid pressure; it should be less than 2 bars.
6. If pressure is high reduce the speed of the motor , the fluid pressure will be decrease
7. Make sure that fluid flow from pump to tank with the help of clear pneumatic tube.
8. Now giving Upward comment with the help of lever, the landing gear to start to move
upward
9. Once the landing gear moves upward, ensure the pressure below 2 bar( if pressure is high
reduce the motor speed )
10. Once Landing gear reached the steady state ( Full retraction ), release the lever from up to
normal
11. Now giving the comment at down , so that landing gear will start downward
12. Once reach the steady state ( Full extraction ) , release lever from down to normal
13. Switch off the main in panel board.
14. Switched off the mains

Precautions

1. Keep the fluid pressure always below 2 bar

2. Do not regulate the pressure regulator ,without supplier knowledge
3. Oil should be brown colour, if the colour changes change the oil
4. Oil SAE 140 grade
5. Do not operate speed controller above 40 %
6. Always clean in every week, avoid from dust formation.

PNUMATIC SYSYTEM

The advantages of pneumatic systems:

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 Pneumatic control systems are widely used in our society, especially in the industrial sectors
for the driving of automatic machines. Pneumatic systems have a lot of advantages.

High effectiveness:

Many factories have equipped their production lines with compressed air supplies and movable
compressors. There is an unlimited supply of air in our atmosphere to produce compressed air.
Moreover, the use of compressed air is not restricted by distance, as it can easily be transported
through pipes. After use, compressed air can be released directly into the atmosphere without the
need of processing.

High durability and reliability:

Pneumatic components are extremely durable and can not be damaged easily. Compared to
electromotive components, pneumatic components are more durable and reliable.

Simple design:

The designs of pneumatic components are relatively simple. They are thus more suitable for
use in simple automatic control systems.

High adaptability to harsh environment:

Compared to the elements of other systems, compressed air is less affected by high
temperature, dust, corrosion, etc.

Safety:

Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems because they can work in inflammable
environment without causing fire or explosion. Apart from that, overloading in pneumatic system
will only lead to sliding or cessation of operation. Unlike electromotive components, pneumatic
components do not burn or get overheated when overloaded

Easy selection of speed and pressure:

The speeds of rectilinear and oscillating movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust
and subject to few limitations. The pressure and the volume of air can easily be adjusted by a
pressure regulator

Environmental friendly:

The operation of pneumatic systems does not produce pollutants. The air released is also
processed in special ways. Therefore, pneumatic systems can work in environments that demand
high level of cleanliness. One example is the production lines of integrated circuits.

Limitations of pneumatic systems:

Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also subject to many
limitations.

Relatively low accuracy:

As pneumatic systems are powered by the force provided by compressed air, their operation is
subject to the volume of the compressed air. As the volume of air may change when compressed or

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heated, the supply of air to the system may not be accurate, causing a decrease in the overall
accuracy of the system.

Low loading:

As the cylinders of pneumatic components are not very large, a pneumatic system cannot drive
loads that are too heavy

Processing required before use:

Compressed air must be processed before use to ensure the absence of water vapour or dust.

Otherwise, the moving parts of the pneumatic components may wear out quickly due to friction.

Uneven moving speed

As air can easily be compressed, the moving speeds of the pistons are relatively uneven

Noise:

Noise will be produced when compressed air is released from the pneumatic components

Main pneumatic components:

Pneumatic components can be divided into two categories

1. Components that produce and transport compressed air.

2. Components that consume compressed air.

All main pneumatic components can be represented by simple pneumatic symbols. Each
symbol shows only the function of the component it represents, but not its structure. Pneumatic
symbols can be combined to form pneumatic diagrams. A pneumatic diagram describes the relations
between each pneumatic component, that is, the design of the system.

The production and transportation of compressed air

Examples of components that produce and transport compressed air include compressors and
pressure regulating components.

Compressor:

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 A compressor can compress air to the required pressures. It can convert the mechanical energy
from motors and engines into the potential energy in compressed air (Fig. 2). A single central
compressor can supply various pneumatic components with compressed air, which is transported
through pipes from the cylinder to the pneumatic components. Compressors can be divided into two
classes: reciprocator and rotary.

Pressure regulating component:

Pressure regulating components are formed by various components, each of which has its own
pneumatic symbol:

(i) Filter – can remove impurities from compressed air before it is fed to the pneumatic
components.

(ii) Pressure regulator – to stabilise the pressure and regulate the operation of pneumatic
components

(iii) Lubricator – To provide lubrication for pneumatic components

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3 The consumption of compressed air

Examples of components that consume compressed air include execution components

(cylinders), directional control valves and assistant valves.

(a) Execution component

Pneumatic execution components provide rectilinear or rotary movement. Examples of

pneumatic execution components include cylinder pistons, pneumatic motors, etc. Rectilinear
motion is produced by cylinder pistons, while pneumatic motors provide continuous rotations.
There are many kinds of cylinders, such as single acting cylinders and double acting cylinders.

Single acting cylinder:

A single acting cylinder has only one entrance that allows compressed air to flow through.
Therefore, it can only produce thrust in one direction (Fig. 4). The piston rod is propelled in the
opposite direction by an internal spring, or by the external force provided by mechanical movement
or weight of a load (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 Cross section of a single acting cylinder

The thrust from the piston rod is greatly lowered because it has to overcome the force from the
spring. Therefore, in order to provide the driving force for machines, the diameter of the cylinder
should be increased. In order to match the length of the spring, the length of the cylinder should also
be increased, thus limiting the length of the path. Single acting cylinders are used in stamping,
printing, moving materials, etc.
 Double acting cylinder:

In a double acting cylinder, air pressure is applied alternately to the relative surface of the
piston, producing a propelling force and a retracting force (Fig. 6). As the effective area of the
piston is small, the thrust produced during retraction is relatively weak. The impeccable tubes of
double acting cylinders are usually made of steel. The working surfaces are also polished and
coated with chromium to reduce friction.

Fig. 6 Cross section of a double acting cylinder

Directional control valve:

Directional control valves ensure the flow of air between air ports by opening, closing and
switching their internal connections. Their classification is determined by the number of ports, the
number of switching positions, the normal position of the valve and its method of operation.
Common types of directional control valves include 2/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. The first number represents
the number of ports; the second number represents the number of positions. A directional control
valve that has two ports and five positions can be represented by the drawing in Fig. 8, as well as its
own unique pneumatic symbol.

2/2 Directional control valve

The structure of a 2/2 directional control valve is very simple. It uses the thrust from the spring
to open and close the valve, stopping compressed air from flowing towards working tube ‘A’ from
air inlet ‘P’. When a force is applied to the control axis, the valve will be pushed open, connecting
‘P’ with ‘A’ (Fig. 9). The force applied to the control axis has to overcome both air pressure and the
repulsive force of the spring. The control valve can be driven manually or mechanically, and
restored to its original position by the spring.

3/2 Directional control valve

A 3/2 directional control valve can be used to control a single acting cylinder (Fig. 10). The
open valves in the middle will close until ‘P’ and ‘A’ are connected together. Then another valve
will open the sealed base between ‘A’ and ‘R’ (exhaust). The valves can be driven manually,
mechanically, electrically or pneumatically. 3/2 directional control valves can further be divided
into two classes: Normally open type (N.O.) and normally closed type (N.C.) (Fig. 11).
5/2 Directional control valve:

When a pressure pulse is input into the pressure control port ‘P’, the spool will move to the left,
connecting inlet ‘P’ and work passage ‘B’. Work passage ‘A’ will then make a release of air through
‘R1’ and ‘R2’. The directional valves will remain in this operational position until signals of the
contrary are received. Therefore, this type of directional control valves is said to have the function of
‘memory’.

(a) 5/2 directional control valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol Fig. 12 5/2
directional control valv

(c) Control valve:

A control valve is a valve that controls the flow of air. Examples include non-return valves,
flow control valves, shuttle valves, etc

(i) Non-return valve:

A non-return valve allows air to flow in one direction only. When air flows in the opposite
direction, the valve will close. Another name for non-return valve is poppet valve (Fig. 13).
Flow control valve:

A flow control valve is formed by a non-return valve and a variable throttle (Fig. 14).

Procedure: (Pneumatics)

15. Ensure the compressor pressure from the pressure gauge it should be min 4 bar .
16. Switch on the mains
17. Switch on the main in panel board.
18. Release the air from compressor
19. Check the air pressure; it should be less than 1 bar..
20. Now giving Upward comment with the help of lever, aileron to start to move upward
21. Now giving the comment at down , so that landing gear will start downn
22. Switch off the main in panel board.
23. Switched off the mains

Precautions:

7. Keep the air pressure always below 1 bar

8. Do not regulate the pressure regulator ,without supplier knowledge
9. Fill the air compressor as per usage, air compressor is automatic cut off in build
10. Compressor reach 8 bar it will be auto cut off

Always clean in every week, avoid from dust formation.