At small loads when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of rupture (the bending

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF FLEXURAL tensile stress at which the concrete begins to crack), the entire cross section of the beam resists
MEMBERS bending, with compression on one side and tension on the other.

2. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS

2.1. Beam Descriptions
A beam is a structural element that primarily resist loads applied laterally to the beam’s axis.
It’s mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction
forces at the beam’s support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to
produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses,
strains and deflections of the beam. Beam are characterized by their support, profile (shape of cross
section), length and their material.
Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading experience
compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically, under
gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at Figure 2-2: Typical concrete stress–strain curve, with short-term loading.
the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom
of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. Modes of 2.2.2. Concrete Cracked–Elastic Stresses Stage
deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression, as under a vertical load, are known As the load is increased after the modulus of rupture of the concrete is exceeded, cracks
as sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for example over a support, is known as hogging. begin to develop in the bottom of the beam. The moment at which these cracks begin to form
The same original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and that is, when the tensile stress in the bottom of the beam equals the modulus of rupture is referred
bottom, is the same as the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, to as the cracking moment, Mcr. As the load is further increased, these cracks quickly spread up to
and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is the vicinity of the neutral axis, and then the neutral axis begins to move upward. The cracks occur
exposed to shear stress. at those places along the beam where the actual moment is greater than the cracking moment.
The service or working loads are the loads that are assumed to actually occur when a
structure is in use or service. Under these loads, moments develop that are considerably larger than
the cracking moments. Obviously, the tensile side of the beam will be cracked.

Figure 2-1: A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under a uniformly distributed load

2.1.1. Types of Beam Section

The three common types of reinforced concrete beam section are:
a. Rectangular section with tension steel only (this generally occurs as a beam section
in a slab).
b. Rectangular section with tension and compression steel.
c. Flanged sections of either T or L shape with tension steel and with or without
compression steel.
2.2. Theoretical and Practical Considerations
In this section, it is assumed that a small transverse load is placed on a concrete beam with
tensile reinforcing and that the load is gradually increased in magnitude until the beam fails. As this
takes place, the beam will go through three distinct stages before collapse occurs. These are: (1) the
uncracked concrete stage, (2) the concrete cracked–elastic stresses stage, and (3) the ultimate-
strength stage.
2.2.1. Uncracked Concrete Stage
Figure 2-3: Concrete cracked–elastic stresses stage.
2.2.3. Beam Failure—Ultimate-Strength Stage
As the load is increased further so that the compressive stresses are greater than 0.50f’c,
the tensile cracks move farther upward, as does the neutral axis, and the concrete compression
stresses begin to change appreciably from a straight line. For this initial discussion, it is assumed
that the reinforcing bars have yielded.
2.2.4. Cracking Moment
The stress in the concrete at any point a distance y from the neutral axis of the cross
section can be determined from the following flexure formula in which M is the bending moment
equal to or less than the cracking moment of the section and Ig is the gross moment of inertia of
the cross section:

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Equation 2-1 Example 2-2:
𝑀 Assuming the concrete is uncracked, compute the
𝑓=
𝐼 bending stresses in the extreme fibers with a
Equation 2-2 moment of 52 kN-m and determine the cracking
𝑓 = 0.7𝜆 𝑓′ moments for the sections shown if f’c= 28 MPa
and the modulus of rupture is f = λ f′ .
The “lambda, λ” term is 1.0 for normal-weight concrete and is less than 1.0 for
lightweight concrete. Given:
My =
f’c=
Equation 2-3
𝑓𝐼
𝑀 =
𝑦 Procedure Calculation
(a) Bending stresses:
Locate the neutral axis with respect to the
Example 2-1:
top of the section
Assuming the concrete is uncracked, compute the bending 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑦 + 𝐴 𝑦 + 𝐴 𝑦 + . ..
stresses in the extreme fibers with a moment of 46 kN-m
and determine the cracking moments for the sections shown
if f’c= 28 MPa and the modulus of rupture is f = λ f′ .

Given:
My = 𝒚=
f’c= Solve for the moment of Inertia of the
beam.
𝐼 = 𝑏ℎ

Procedure Calculation
(a) Bending stresses:
Solve for the moment of Inertia of the
beam.
𝐼 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑰𝒈 =
𝑰𝒈 =
Next, substitute the computed moment of
Next, substitute the computed moment of inertia to the following equation.
inertia to the following equation. 𝑀
𝑀 𝑓=
𝑓= 𝐼
𝐼 𝒇=
𝒇= (b) Cracking Moment
(b) Cracking Moment Substitute the given to the following
Substitute the given to the following equation.
equation.
𝑓 = 0.7𝜆 𝑓′
𝑓 = 0.7𝜆 𝑓′ 𝒇𝒓 =
𝒇𝒓 = For cracking moment, substitute the
For cracking moment, substitute the required parameter to this equation:
required parameter to this equation: 𝑓𝐼
𝑓𝐼 𝑀 =
𝑀 = 𝑦
𝑦 𝑴𝒄𝒓 =
𝑴𝒄𝒓 =

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 2.2.5. Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked Moment
When the bending moment is sufficiently large to cause the tensile stress in the extreme
fibers to be greater than the modulus of rupture, it is assumed that all of the concrete on the tensile
side of the beam is cracked and must be neglected in the flexure calculations. The reinforcing bars Solving x by Completing the Square
on the tensile side begin to pick up the tension caused by the applied moment.
On the tensile side of the beam, an assumption of perfect bond is made between the
reinforcing bars and the concrete. Thus, the strain in the concrete and in the steel will be equal at
equal distances from the neutral axis. If the strains in the two materials at a particular point are the
same, however, their stresses cannot be the same since they have different moduli of elasticity.
Thus, their stresses are in proportion to the ratio of their moduli of elasticity. The ratio of the steel
modulus to the concrete modulus is called the modular ratio, n:

Equation 2-4 Solve for the moment of Inertia of the

𝐸 beam.
𝑛=
𝐸 𝐼 = 𝑏ℎ

𝑰𝒈 =
Solve for the bending stress acting on
concrete.
𝑀
Figure 2-4: Cracked Transformed Section 𝑓 =
𝐼
Example 2-3: 𝒇𝒄 =
Compute the flexural stresses Solve for the bending stress acting on steel.
𝑀
in the concrete and steel for the 𝑓 =𝑛
𝐼
beams shown using the
transformed-area method.
𝒇𝒔 =
Given:
My = 2.2.6. Design Methods
f’c= 2.2.6.1. Working Stress Design
From the early 1900s until the early 1960s, nearly all reinforced concrete design in the
United States was performed by the working-stress design method (also called allowable-stress
design or straight-line design). In this method, frequently referred to as WSD, the dead and live
loads to be supported, called working loads or service loads, were first estimated. Then the
members of the structure were proportioned so that stresses calculated by a transformed area did
not exceed certain permissible or allowable values.
Procedure Calculation
Taking the equations of moment by 2.2.6.2. Ultimate Strength Design
equating the moment due to compression and After 1963, the ultimate-strength design method rapidly gained popularity because (1) it
the moment due to tension. The value of x makes use of a more rational approach than WSD, (2) it uses a more realistic consideration of
will be the height of the compression block. safety, and (3) it provides more economical designs. With this method (now called strength
E design), the working dead and live loads are multiplied by certain load factors (equivalent to safety
n=
E factors), and the resulting values are called factored loads. The members are then selected so they
will theoretically just fail under the factored loads

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