MARITIME

EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
A Practical Guide
 MARITIME
EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Published by The Nautical Institute

202 Lambeth Road, London SE 1 7LQ, England
telephone: 0171-928 1351
fax: 0171-401 2817

First edition published 1997

Copyright © The Nautical Institute, 1997

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
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reviews.

Although great care has been taken with the writing and production of this volume, neither The
Nautical Institute nor the authors can accept any responsibility for errors, omissions or their
consequences.

The opinions expressed are those of the authors only.

All photographs and diagrams acknowledged

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Frontispiece: JiI70rk at Sea by Captain D.A. Hawker, taken from a study undertaken when working as an artist tutor for
The Marine Society. The artist lives near Northampton.
 CONTENTS

Foreword 1 - Mr W.A O'Neil .............................................................................................................................. 4

Secretary General, The IMO

Foreword 2 - Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI,

President, The Nautical Institute 1993-1996 .............................................................................................. 5

Maritime Education and Training - The Overview .......................................................................................... 6

SECfION I - Applying the concepts of learning

Chapter
1 Concepts of learning and their application ................................................................................................. 8
by Mr. Don Baillie ExC FNI

2 Concepts, skills and competence in a maritime setting ........................................................................... 16

by Mr. Don Baillie ExC FNI

3 Group learning and training techniques ................................................................................................... 23

by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI, Northstar Maritime / Hill Tallack

4 The preparation of a lecture ....................................................................................................................... 33

by Elaine Ives BSc FRMetS andJohn McEnaney BA MNI

5 Factors to be considered when developing a curriculum for maritime education and training ......... 38
by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University

6 Training in the Royal Navy - its management and methodology .......... ,............................................. .45
by Rear AdmiralJ.H.S. McAnally LVO MNI

SECfION II - Learning resources and educational technology

Chapter
7 Making the most of learning resources for both college and student .................................................... 56
by Dr. Alston Kennerley PhD FNI, University of Plymouth, UK

8 Electronic and multi-media systems and their value in education and training programmes ........... 62
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd.

9 The development of computer based instructional programs ................................................................ 68

by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd.

10 The use of simulators as tools for training and examining seafarers ..................................................... 76
by Dr. Michael L. Barnett PhD BSc MNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

11 The role of the simulator instructor and the need for instructor qualifications .................................... 85
by Captain Roger Syms BSc (Nautical Studies) MRIN FNI, Australian Maritime College

12 Managing navigational simulation ............................................................................................................. 89

by Captain Samar J. Singh ExC MPhil PhD FNI, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

13 The role and use of simulators for bridge resource management training ........................................... 99
by Captain Piet Pols, MarineSafety International, Rotterdam

14 Training in shiphandling skills - optimising experience, simulation and time on manned models ....... 107
by Captain Nigel W Hunt BSc FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

15 The use of tactical warfare simulation for naval training ...................................................................... 113
by Lt. Cdr. Andrew C.Y. Prince RN, Royal Navy School of Maritime Operations, HMS DRYAD

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 1

 SECfION III - The organisation of education and training
Chapter
16 Afloat and ashore: where are tomorrow's skills being developed? ...................................................... 120
by Mr.]. David Precious AMNI, Precious Associates Ltd.

17 The responsibility of a college principal - integrating a maritime college

with the maritime environment ............................................................................................................... 126
by Captain Wan Shukry Wan Karma MSc, Maritime Academy of Malaysia Melaka

18 Developing company based training and the training of trainers ........................................................ 132
by Mr. Glyn Cunnah BSc MNI, BP Shipping Ltd.

19 The training, updating and upgrading of maritime lecturers ............................................................... 140

by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University

20 Higher education in maritime disciplines - the development of graduate and

post graduate programmes ....................................................................................................................... 144
by Mr. Steve Bonsall BSc MNI, LiverpoolJohn Moores University

21 The development and implementation of the 1995 STCW Convention ............................................ 154
by Mr. Stephen E. Chapman BSc FNI

22 Translating international maritime training standards into national regulations ................................ 160
by Professor Captain P.S. Vanchiswar ExC PhD FNI, World Maritime University

23 Training ship training ................................................................................................................................ 167

by Captain James C. De Simone BS MBA MNI,
State' University of New York Maritime College, U.S.A.

SECfION IV - Fundamentals of assessment and evaluation

Chapter
24 An introduction to norm referenced and criterion referenced assessment, marking and grading ... 173
by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc (Wales) FNI, World Maritime University

25 Preparing a company training strategy and assessing its effectiveness ................................................ 180
by Mr. Keith Parsons MNI, V Ships

26 The management of seafarers' training by shipping companies through a group training organisation 186
by Mr Colin Chandler BSc MNI, Ship Safe Training Group Ltd.

27 An introduction to competence based training with a framework for vocational qualifications ..... 189
by Mr. R.C. Matthew, UK Merchant Navy Training Board

28 The assessment of competence within a maritime vocational training scheme ................................. 196
by Captain Philip ].C. Smith ExC FNI

29 The role of continuous assessment and the use of projects in student development. ........................ 200
by Mr. Christopher]. Haughton BA Cert Ed MNI, Fleetwood Nautical Campus

30 The development and evaluation of examination systems based upon multiple choice criteria ..... 207
by Mr. Perry A. Stutman, United States Coast Guard

31 Learning from students - feedback and evaluation ............................................................................... 222

by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc FNI, World Maritime University

32 Management training and development in the shipping industry ....................................................... 229

by Mr. Peter Springett MBA DMS (Shipping), Odyssey Training Ltd.

2 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

SECfION V - Towards specialisation
Chapter
33 The role of the educational consultant .................................................................................................... 236
by Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI

34 Marine pilot training ................................................................................................................................. 241

by the late Captain James Drahos BS FNI, former Marine Pilot, South Central Alaska

35 Training for command ............................................................................................................................... 250

by Captain Peter Roberts BSc FNI

36 The need for commercial management .................................................................................................. 256

by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI, Northstar Consultants

37 Training for new high speed craft services .............................................................................................. 265

by Captain Trevor Bailey MNI, Stena Line

38 Language training for non-native English speaking mariners .............................................................. 273

by Professor Captain F. Weeks ExC MA PhD FNI

39 Training sea and shore staff to meet the requirements of the ISM Code ............................................ 286
by Captain Graham]. Botterill FICS MIQA FNI, Ferriby Marine

40 Guidance on the implementation of IMO Model Courses .................................................................. 292

extracts from IMO pub. 096/88

41 The role of research in developing intellectual skills and their application ....................................... 302
by Mr. John S. Habberley BSc MPhil FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

42 Self development programmes for seafarers .......................................................................................... 307

Mr. Brian Thomas BA (Hons) PGCE, The Marine Society, London

43 Aspects of distance education on board .................................................................................................. 311

by Mr. Pooran P. Chugani CEng FIMarE MIE DMS DPHE, India

44 Continuous professional development for maritime educators ........................................................... 320

by Mr. C.Julian Parker BSc FNI, Secretary, The Nautical Institute

APPENDICES
Appendix
I Sources of information of particular value to maritime lecturers ......................................................... 327

II Some training books available from Kogan Page Ltd ........................................................................... 328

III Some training books available from the Institute of Personnel and Development ............................ 331

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 3

 FOREWORD I
by

Mr. W.A. O'Neil

Secretary General, The International Maritime Organization

Shipping is an international industry. It is therefore imperative that all seagoing officers share a common sense
of purpose and apply rules and regulations in like manner.

Also we have to recognize that every individual is different and there will be various paths through education
and training programmes towards certification.

Today, maritime education and training is based on standards established by IMO. The 1995 amendments to
the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW),
1978 entered into force in 1997 and, during the next few years, will result in training standards having to be
upgraded. The text of the original Convention has been almost completely replaced; equally important, IMO
itself has been given responsibility for ensuring that the new standards are complied with. Governments which do
not meet STCW requirements could find that their seafarers are denied employment on foreign flag ships because
their certificates are not internationally recognized.
 FOREWORD II
by L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI

President, The Nautical Institute (1993-1996)

Welcome to the world of maritime education and training. For seafarers "welcome back", because you will have
been here before, as a student. With a predicted world-wide shortage of officers, maritime education and training
will become increasingly important in the next decade. We need to ensure that the best teaching practices are
used. The more effective they are, the quicker people learn. Better training methods mean better pass rates, higher
standards and shorter times to qualify. Effective training is good for the shipping industry.

This book, which contains some of the best advice available, is designed to improve our understanding and
organisation. It is well timed, for the moment of most need. It will help existing maritime teachers, trainers and
assessors and will be particularly useful for those seeking to enter this branch of their profession. It is a useful
guide and reference for all senior officers and managers whose job includes mentoring and guiding juniors and
trainees. It is also recommended reading for simulator manufacturers and others who serve this sector of industry.

Associated with the book there is a self-study distance learning diploma scheme for those who wish to enter the
maritime education and training profession. The scheme comprises six assignments, which demand a proven
capability to plan for and deliver competence, manage curriculum development and assess results. There is also
a project designed to provide the candidate with an in-depth specialised knowledge of a particular discipline.

Your professional work at sea or working ashore requires specific detailed knowledge and a wide range of
skills. Teaching requires different knowledge and skills. Maritime education and training needs a blend of the two.
It is not always the cleverest people who make the best teachers, but the ones who are best at passing on their
knowledge and skills. As a teacher your knowledge will need to go beyond the confines of certificates of competency
syllabuses. You must know your subject thoroughly and keep yourself up to date with new theories and current
practice. Teachers should provide a link to the wider understanding of technology, commerce and people. No one
can afford to throw their books away when they qualify. In a changing world, teachers can light the torch of life-
long learning, which their students will need.

This book, based upon the experience of respected teachers from many countries, will help you prepare to
work as a teacher or trainer, whether as a career change or for shorter assignments. It is said, "the best way to learn
a subject is to teach it". When I was allowed on my own in the classroom for the first time, and students asked
awkward questions, I realised the limits of my knowledge and experience. You cannot rely on recalling what you
were taught ten or more years ago: things have changed. There are ways of coping. I was fortunate to have a very
good teacher as my mentor when I started, but I wish I had also had this book!

Teaching comes more naturally to some people than to others, but all teachers need to plan and perform in a
professional and competent way. We all remember the teachers from school days who captured our imagination
and made subjects interesting. They tended to be the enthusiastic and happy ones. They were well organised,
maintained discipline, were sympathetic and supportive. Discipline and integrity are also important, particularly
when dealing with younger trainees and in examinations. I remember the first two students I had to fail for
attempting to cheat. They passed a piece of paper across and back, via the floor, while I was invigilating. It did not
help them. The first had written, "What is an Interscan Cursor?" and the other had replied "I don't know!"

We are very fortunate in the maritime world, and particularly in the professional bodies, that we have so many
people who are willing to make time and take trouble to pass on their skills to the next generation. I would like to
thank all those who have contributed to this book, which will take its place alongside those for Command at Sea,
Harbour Masters, Pilots and Surveyors. The Maritime Education and Training Diploma Scheme will take its place
too, by providing advice and guidance to those wishing to become specialists in this branch of their profession.

The rewards of teaching are many. Probably the greatest satisfaction is gained through seeing the success of
former students. The friendships and mutual respect developed between trainer and trainee tend to last well
beyond the gaining of certificates of competency or graduation. I can recommend it. If you wish to become a
teacher or trainer, think ahead and be prepared. The best place to prepare for teaching ashore, is while you are at
sea. This book will help you to "learn to swim" as a teacher, before being thrown in at the deep end. I wish you
success.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 5

 MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

THE OVERVIEW
Maritime Education and Training, is designed to provide an authorative guide to effective practices. It includes
learned contributions from no less than 39 authors with a vast wealth of combined experience, from countries as
far apart as Australia, England, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Sweden and The United States of
America.

The editorial board for Maritime Education and Training included Captain Len Holder (former President, The
Nautical Institute), Mr. D. Baillie, Mr. S. Bonsall, Mr. G. Cunnah, Mr.J.S. Habberley, Mr. CJ. Houghton, Dr. A.
Kennerley, Captain C.F. Luddeke, Mr. K.A. Parsons, Mr. J.D. Precious, Mr. E. Raeng, Captain M.G. Vanstone,
Professor Captain G. Zade and Mr. Julian Parker (Secretary The Nautical Institute).

There are two forewords, one by Mr O'Neil, Secretary General of the IMO and one by Captain Len Holder,
who was President of The Nautical Institute from 1993 to 1996.

In Section I - Applying the Concepts of Learning - the principles of learning in a maritime setting are
explored and advice is given on various techniques and factors to be considered. The authors combine sea,
government, academic and consultancy experience and set the scene for maritime instructors on helping learners
to learn. The final chapter in this section is an interesting insight into training in the Royal Navy today, how it is
managed and the methods used.

Section II is about Learning Resources and Educational Technology. Chalk and talk, whilst not to be
under-rated, have long been replaced by more modern technology. Electronic, multi-media and computer-based
programs are described and how best to use them. The authors, with world-wide experience in practical training
and education delivery, offer detailed and up-to-date advice. Simulators play an ever increasing part in training,
and the subject is extensively covered here, including the training of simulator instructors. Again, the Royal Navy
adds its view on training simulators at the end of the section.

The Organisation of Education and Training is covered in Section III. University, academy, college and
company views come from highly qualified authors. Training ashore and afloat, how to integrate maritime training
with the industry, lecturer updating and implementation of the STCW Convention are amongst the items covered
in detail. An American view of training cadets afloat concludes this section.

In Section IV - Fundamentals of Assessment and Evaluation - covers the vitally important task of
checking that learning is effective. Highly detailed chapters on assessment, evaluation, multiple choice questions,
feedback from students and management development are presented by authors with extensive and ongoing
experience ashore and afloat.

Section V - Towards Specialisation - concludes this book with chapters on a fascinating of specialist
training matters, including consultancy work, pilotage, command, high speed ships, the commercial approach
and maritime English language. Meeting the requirements of the ISM Code and guidance on IMO Model Courses
are complemented by advice on self-development programmes, distance education and continuing professional
development.

The appendices give valuable details on sources of information and some training books available.

All in all, Maritime Education and Training provides highly professional, skilled and practical advice on maritime
education and training drawn from very experienced authors from countries all over the globe. This book should
be the text book of choice for all seriously interested in the subject.

J.A Hepworth
Lt Cdr RN (Retd) MNI

6 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

- SECTION I -

Applying the concepts of learning

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 7

 Chapter ONE
CONCEPfS OF LEARNING AND THEIR APPLICATION
by Mr. Don Baillie Ex C FNI
Introduction
The aim of this publication is to help those who seek
guidance in the task of raising the professional
standards of seafarers through education and training.
These standards may be set by IMO, by examiners,
by lecturers, assessors, The Nautical Institute, or by
the example and demands of serving seafarers. The
standards are achieved through learning, alone or in
a group, at sea or ashore, by accident or by design.
That is why the guide begins with these reflections on
the key aspects oflearning. Many later chapters discuss
in detail ways in which trainers, tutors and students
set about organising effective learning. Here we review
the main ideas which help them to develop and select
an appropriate method for a particular situation.
"We live and learn". Think for a moment of all the
things you learned before you went to school: walking,
talking, eating (in the approved manner), being
respectful, laughing, and so on. Think what you
learned during your school years but not at school:
riding a bike, shopping, dealing with illness, much
more. In or out of school you will have had a few
inspiring teachers, many who shaped your learning
successfully, some who told you much that you have
now forgotten; but always the learning will have been
done by you. There is no doubt that you have the
ability to learn. Do not doubt that those whose
standards you wish to raise also have the ability to
learn.
You, and they, have learned (and forgotten) in a
huge variety of ways and circumstances from a large
number of different people. If anyone says to you
"There is only one way to learn" they cannot have
8 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
reflected for long on their own experiences. They may
have a strong need to believe that life is simple and
uncomplicated. Tell them "Variety is the spice of life".
You may recall some sayings about learning and
teaching.
"It's never too late to learn"
"You can't teach an old dog new tricks"
"A little learning is a dangerous thing"
"We must learn to walk before we can run"
"Experience is the best teacher"
"Wise men learn from others, fools by their own
mistakes"
Take your pick. Each is sometimes true. None is
always a guide. For you who have an interest in
teaching, reflecting on your own experience is an
important starting point. You will probably recollect
that expertise gives a teacher authority. And
enthusiasm will often convey the importance, interest
or excitement of the subject. Both expertise and
enthusiasm are necessary or desirable, but they do
not guarantee to bring about learning. That is the
teacher's art.
We find it easier to begin studying navigation by
assuming the earth to be a sphere, the local surface of
the sea to be flat, and the tides to rise and fall in a
completely predictable way. These assumptions are
very helpful to begin with, and often can be taken 'for
all practical purposes' to be true. But the competent
navigator, who is a practical person, must know the
circumstances in which it can become uneconomic or
dangerous to cling to those simplified assumptions.
like exams or pleasing the teacher, because you cannot
vary your approach to allow for individual differences.
But if you are helping a shipmate, teaching in a tutorial
setting, or learning on your own the intrinsic
motivations can be used effectively.
The main reason for trying to use intrinsic
motivation as a teacher in marine colleges is simple
enough, and very relevant to the aims of The Nautical
Institute. Competence examinations are a very
powerful motivator for learning whatever has to be
learned to pass them, but the motive disappears as
soon as the exam has been passed. The successful
candidate for a Master's Certificate can then serve for
thirty or more years with the Authorities assuming he
will learn whatever is necessary to keep him
competent. But the only sure way for that to happen
is for him to want to go on learning, which is most
likely if he is driven by intrinsic motives. It follows
that while college teachers, and individual students,
will look to a variety of motives, no opportunity should
be missed to encourage the growth of intrinsic ones.
Serving officers are usually better placed to do this,
for two reasons. They can concentrate their help on
activities or subjects that are clearly necessary to the
efficient running of the ship they are on, not some
other type of ship, or some exam syllabus. It is here
that one finds job satisfaction, which is one of the
intrinsic motives. Secondly, the good ship's officer is
the one that the learner tries to emulate, and the
standards he sets are the ones which are taken to heart,
so to speak. College teachers help by making their
subject interesting and by referring to topics clearly
relevant but beyond the strict syllabus limits.
To conclude this section, let's review the main ways
in which a teacher, instructor or tutor can use
motivations to help a learner make progress. Initially,
vocational students are usually motivated by the desire
to pass exams and to master the skills and knowledge
required for their present or next job. The teacher
should make as clear as possible what that involves in
terms of effort by the leamer, and where possible
demonstrate the standard of performance to be
achieved. This provides goals or targets, and it is bad
for motivation to discover later that you were aiming
at something else. But it is also bad for motivation if
the goal seems to be too far away to be reached, so
the teacher often breaks the process down into
manageable steps and can then use a wider variety of
means to help the learner along, such as a 'public'
commitment to devote a certain time to a task.
'Nothing succeeds like success'. Very few people
actually like having their mistakes pointed out,
necessary though this may be. So good teachers strive
to make sure that encouragement outweighs criticism,
and that criticism is presented as help rather than
punishment. When a class or individual learner is
10 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
convinced of a teacher's good intentions they will
accept some rebukes, but if that comes early the effect
is likely to be sharply to diminish their willingness to
ask questions, risk failure, or seek help. So, be positive
whenever possible, and especially in the early stages.
The leamer's first impressions of a teacher are difficult
to change. The shared smile of pleasure, the "That's
right" and "Well done!" are effective.
Any breakdown in the 'cycle' oflearning can cause
loss of motivation, though sometimes it will provide a
spur to greater effort. So the later sections on attention,
perception and feedback also contain relevant
references to motives.
The aspects of motivation included in this little
review are those which a teacher or instructor can most
easily influence. It would be unrealistic to make no
mention of the attitudes of the leamer, which can make
the teacher's task very easy or almost impossible on
occasions. But don't forget that a learner may think
his teacher has attitudes, too, which make learning
easier or harder!
Attitudes
An attitude is a readiness to act in a certain way. It is
often unpredictable, as when we talk of people being
'moody', but it seems to have a big influence on how
a person reacts to a situation. The outcome, in the
learning processes that interest us, is usually seen as a
willingness or unwillingness to take an active part. The
person with the attitude seems to evaluate whether or
not taking part is more likely to be harmful or
beneficial to them. They may push themselves
forward, or they may try to avoid being involved; to
catch or to avoid the teacher's eye.
There are usually two components to an attitude.
These are feelings, which are often more obvious; and
there are beliefs (or opinions) which the learner can
use to justify his attitude if challenged. These feelings
we tend to call positive or negative; they are probably
based in personal history, but also in aspirations. What
we believe about our self, the sort of person we are
and would like to become, is important but not easy
for others to see, or for us to be consistent about.
The other component is more open to influence.
The leamer's attitude to learning is strongly influenced
by his belief in its relevance to his purpose. If a task is
thought to be pointless, a skill obsolete, or a drill
ineffectual, the learner can believe he is justified in
avoiding the drudgery oflearning. At the other end of
the scale of relevance and interest he will approach
the task eagerly. And while every variation of attitude
lies between these poles, you may occasionally come
across even greater extremes - individuals who deny
responsibility for any success or failure, or who claim
total responsibility for it. But they are unlikely to have
prospered in the teamwork necessary at sea, or in a
college.
It is normal for any learner to feel some anxiety
about things he cannot yet do, and confidence about
things already achieved. Too much anxiety is
undesirable, as is overconfidence, but in dealing with
individuals the teacher can often use a little of one to
modify the other. Not by ridicule or sarcasm, which
are as damaging in private as in public, but by facing
the overconfident with a more complex problem, and
by reminding the anxious that they have a record of
success already.
Psychology sheds a little light on attitudes, and
provides plenty of food for the thoughtful teacher, but
it does not provide answers. This is because attitudes
are so closely associated with individual experience,
personalities and preferences. Yet a professional study
programme which gives no attention to attitudes, and
especially 'openness' to going on learning, is in danger
of being a bag of tricks performed for examiners but
not carried out where it matters - on the ship.
Attention
It is obvious that the learner has to pay attention to
whatever he is trying to learn. Some students have
tried to improve their memorisation of the Collision
Regulations by falling asleep with their 'Walkman'
playing the words into their unconscious ears, but the
effectiveness of learning while asleep has not been
established. By contrast the effectiveness of taking a
rest from time to time is a universal experience. Reflect
again on your own experience; most people will recall
occasions when a problem which has been causing
difficulty is put aside. After a period of attending to
something entirely different you return to the problem
and quickly hit upon the solution. Coincidence? Or
perhaps the change of activity caused, or permitted,
you to forget the unsuccessful methods of solution
which were hard to get out of your thinking while you
persisted. Whatever the reason, the concept of
attention is not as simple as it first seems. You can
have too much of it. Also, it can be directed at the
wrong things. My physics teacher in pre-sea training
always emitted a whistle when pronouncing the's'
sound in words like whistle and pronounce. I can
remember that, from over forty years ago, more clearly
than what physics he taught me.
What can teachers and learners do to maximise
attentiveness? Both can be conscious of a few bodily
matters, though only one may be able to do anything
about them. Fresh air to breathe, good lighting for the
eyes to work by, no distractions for the ears (though
music doesn't seem to distract the individual), and
enough comfort for the blood to circulate yet not
enough to encourage dreams. Fatigue, whether from
previous activity or lack of sleep, is obviously
unhelpful, as are hunger, hangovers and a full bladder.
Unhelpful mental states such as anxiety and
boredom also distract attention from learning. You
may even be feeling a little of that now, reader, because
all this is well known to you. What is the best response
for you? Read faster, skip a paragraph, make a cup of
coffee, scan through it again to make sure it's as
straightforward as you are thinking? I hope you do
what's best for you, but whatever you do it will involve
a change of activity, mental or physical or both. You
will be more active than before, and this is one of the
keys to effective learning. It is why this author who
has no control of how you learn, only what is on the
page in front of you, frequently asks you to stop
reading and think, recollect, imagine - any activity to
make a change, however short, from just reading.
But if you are expecting to start or to improve your
teaching or instructional skills there are plenty more
ways to get and hold the attention of learners which
will be dealt with in later chapters. You will be a
planner, a performer, a communicator, a source of
knowledge and a demonstrator of skills. A character,
perhaps, who will be remembered by future
generations with affection or respect. One who holds
attention, by style or by authority.
Before we change the subject let's change the
activity again. Try to recall two or three people who
have taught you things, in school, college or at sea.
Did they all hold your attention in the same ways?
What did they have in common and what were their
differences? Did they all make you and their other
students learn efficiently? Would you like to emulate
any of them?
I have directed your well-motivated attention
towards positive aspects of your experience, but there
is much to be learned by reflecting on things you will
hope NOT to do yourself. Some of the most
knowledgable of men never quite master the need for
voice modulation and eye contact, or the modest skills
of slide projection.
The aim of attracting and directing the attention
of the learner is to achieve the next condition for
successful progress along the spiral, which is correct
perception of what has to be remembered or
performed.
Perception
Perception refers to the ways in which the brain
organises the information brought to it by the senses.
Despite a century of research this is still a controversial
matter when it comes to explanations. Fortunately,
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 11
the principles guiding teachers are generally accepted
and we can leave the theorists to their work.
To illustrate the concept of perception we will take
examples from the senses of hearing and sight, but
you will soon see that the ideas apply to touch, taste
and smell as well. The letter 'N can be written or
printed in thousands of slightly or considerably
different ways; yet most of these different visual
patterns arriving at your eyes are given the same
meaning by your brain. Sometimes you have to make
an effort, mainly you don't, but in any event you
perceive the same thing - unless the differences are
important. In that case you may perceive a capital,
italic or Greek a; but there are still thousands of ways
that one of those can be represented to your eyes, so
the event is much the same - you construct the same
perception, though the light falling on your eye is
different. Closer to our interests, consider how we hear
the same instructions or advice from many different
pilots, each with a unique accent and style of speech.
Between ear and brain we decode these different noises
so as to perceive the same words in one language.
A different process may be at work when, on the
bridge on a dark night, you see a single white light.
This simple signal to your eye could have a large
number of meanings once your brain gets to work on
it, and some that don't come to mind. Your perception
here is clearly affected by past experience and
learning, and particularly by the context. On a main
shipping route but well away from land you may
perceive a masthead or stern light, and get a nasty
shock if it turns out to be an improperly lit fishing
vessel.
Perception, then, is the way the brain "makes
sense" of what our senses detect. Psychologists
entertain us with examples of how we can be misled.
Space limits us to two. In the first, one of the main
lines looks longer than the other. In the second the
long lines appear to converge when they are parallel.
Check them for yourself.
You will be familiar with a reverse process, whereby
you "see" a circular plate despite the image on your
eye being the ellipse produced by a tilted circle. The
brain has learned this trick and it serves us well.
Another aspect of perception is referred to in the
English saying that "You can't see the wood for the
trees". Too much detail prevents us from grasping the
main idea. Or if several people say the same thing but
slightly out of phase the listener misses the message.
Too many instructions baffle the learner.
But once you have perceived a wood, or a ship,
you are likely to be interested to know what kind of
wood or ship it is, and in this case the development of
perception involves discrimination, attention to
significant detail, and so on, so as to refine the brain's
ability to make more, or more accurate meaning from
the sense data available.
This is the teacher's chief interest in ideas about
perception. They may help him to communicate
accurately and clearly, and to diagnose and correct
the misperceptions and vagueness in the developing
ideas and skills of his students. With adult professional
students the main task for the teacher, or the student
learning on his own, will often be making the right
connections between what is known already and what
is new.
Language is obviously a vital tool in learning, and
almost any word may be wrongly perceived or call
up a faulty concept in the student's mind. We shall
see that feedback to the teacher is vital in correcting
perception. The lone student is at great disadvantage
at this point, but benefits from the development of
strategies to test his own understanding which prove
invaluable later; actively 'making sense' of what has
to be learned is a form of problem-solving of general
application. If 'teacher' does too much of the work,
this general mental skill will not be promoted.
Acquiring knowledge and skills presents enough
problems for the learner without teachers adding to
them. So the teacher plans his approach with
perception as a factor. For example, when we are
learning to use a PC it is all too easy for an enthusiastic
instructor to expect the learner to attend to the
keyboard, the screen and the instructor's words
simultaneously. Unless the three sources of
information are presented in a careful sequence the
beginner is likely to be confused. Yet each source is
simple enough in itself, so he will be tempted to say
that he has followed, and hope the teacher goes away
for long enough for him to sort out what was
happening by trial and error.
When helping the student to acquire knowledge
from books or lectures, the perception of significant
ideas, names and formulae is aided by such well-
known means as underlining, capitals, and box
diagrams. Teachers use the loudness and tone of their
voices to emphasise important things, not only the
words they speak.
The main skill involved in perceptual learning is
discrimination, which is the ability to differentiate
between similar sensory signals. For example,
engineers need to be able to discriminate between
smells that are normal and those that might be
associated with danger; or, if they have lost that skill,
they still need to tell which alarm sound relates to
which danger. Bridge watchkeepers have to try to
judge whether or not the bearing of an approaching
ship is changing enough for safety.
Sharpening these skills is one of the unending tasks
of teachers and instructors. It is not much talked about
because it is an integral part of their work in most
contexts. It usually crops up when the learner admits
to feeling "confused". The eyes and ears may be getting
contradictory signals, or the new ideas will not fit
comfortably with the information already held in the
brain. The teacher (or book) may be responsible for
the confusion, but in this unfair world one of the
satisfying moments in a teacher's life is when the
problem is resolved, and the learner says with relief
"Ah! I see!". Perception complete.
The activity of the learner and the
teacher
At last we have got to the engine room of the business
of education and training, you are probably thinking.
Correct.
But this is the shortest section of this chapter. The
reason is that the main techniques of teaching, such as
lecturing, coaching, computer-based learning and
simulation and the use of visual and other aids are
all given chapters to themselves later in the guide. Here
we can review the features we expect any of these
techniques to have, ifthey are to succeed in connecting
the learners permanently to the subject matter.
We have seen that the presentation of what has to
be learned should increase rather than undermine the
learners' motivation and attention, strengthen positive
attitudes and lead to accurate perceptions. This is
obviously easier if the subject-matter is seen to be
relevant and interesting, and the learner has a good
grasp of necessary prior knowledge and skills. Later
we shall see the importance offeedback iflearning is
to be efficient, and of repetition if it is to be effective.
This section is headed 'activity'. Recall a typical
successful learning occasion. You will have been active,
mentally and probably physically as well. If you had
a teacher he will have been active, too, either directing
you or passing on his knowledge or skill in a dynamic
way which kept your attention focused. Thus,
purposeful activity is a basic feature of most learning,
and in situations where that is difficult to observe, such
as in lectures or when reading, the experience is less
likely to be memorable.
Feedback, or knowledge of results
You have probably used correspondence courses and
written essays during your training. If so, you may
recognise that many people, on receiving work back
from the marker, take good note of the mark awarded
but pay little attention to any detailed comments. They
may, in the case of correspondence course work,
hardly remember the questions. The overall mark may
make them feel good, bad or indifferent. If they feel
good it will help their motivation to keep going; if
they feel bad it may spur them to greater efforts; but
in any case the feedback is too remote in time from
the specific learning to be of much use unless they
revise the learning when the results arrive. No wonder,
then, that a lot of vocational study has to be repeated
in college whatever was attempted at sea - unless there
is strong motivation from other sources.
Contrast the feedback in correspondence courses
with that given to students preparing for oral
examination. Each highly specific question requires a
quick and usually brief answer which is instantly
assessed and 'rewarded' or corrected. Such feedback
is efficient both for the learning of the subject matter
and for strengthening the motivation of the successful
student. "Nothing succeeds like success", providing
we are talking of small steps and immediate feedback.
Success in a final exam is a different matter.
Undoubtedly it is gratifying and good for motivation.
Unfortunately unless the exam scripts are returned to
the candidate - an unusual procedure - he cannot be
certain which questions he answered correctly. So with
a pass mark of 70% there is a possibility of being
mistaken about more than 25% of the subject matter
on which he has been tested for competence. No
information has been provided on the syllabus items
not covered in that particular examination paper. This
should remind us that however important the exams
are for motivation, it's the quality of the training and
learning that counts in setting overall standards of
competence!
Training on board provides the opportunity to
make full use of feedback because two-way
communication between learner and instructor can
be immediate and of high quality. College training
programmes will make provision for one-to-one
contacts in which the teacher has the chance to test
individual understanding closely, and to diagnose the
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 13
source of failure to comprehend or perform accurately.
But the economics of educational institutions usually
requires that a high proportion of time is spent in
lectures, libraries or working alone, and these are times
when feedback may be of uncertain quality or absent
altogether.
Where active learning is at its most effective the
concept of feedback is itself a two-way one. The learner
can question his instructor, to test or extend his own
understanding, just as the instructor questions the
learner to assess the effectiveness of his teaching.
Compare the potential ofthat situation with a lecture,
a video or a guide like this!
Feedback is not all conducted in speech and
writing. Interaction between teacher and student is,
like any other conversation or meeting, full of
nonverbal signals. Gestures, nods, smiles, frowns, eye
movements and body posture are all used to convey
meaning. But they can also be habits that are unhelpful
to good learning. For example, there are learners who
habitually nod and smile whatever the teacher is
saying. The teacher may feel pleased, but the feedback
is unreliable. Another example is the lecturer who has
a way of saying "OK?" at the end of most sentences.
It sounds like an invitation to stop him if you don't
understand, but his audience knows that the lecture
will never end if we all air our doubts; so all he sees
are the nods. Nods are nice to receive, so he pays more
attention to the nodders and the feedback again
becomes unreliable.
Turning our attention back to the learner, and the
importance offeedback to him, one last example can
be drawn from the development of skills. Manual
steering involves relating visual signals about existing
and desired headings to the amount of wheel applied
in the prevailing conditions. Visual feedback is
obviously essential to the process, and it is provided
both by the deviation from the desired heading and
by the rate of change. The skilled helmsman relates
the two effectively, as does the auto. But notice the
two general points: the feedback is essential to skill
acquisition; and the sooner you get it the better. In
practice good feedback also motivates the learner to
improve by his own efforts.
This completes one cycle of our ideal spiral of
learning. Very occasionally, the strength of one feature
will be such that we will learn from the first experience.
Powerful motives, an extremely positive attitude, a
clear insight, a feeling of exhilaration, or very painful
(or pleasant) feedback; any of these may account for
us learning something at the first attempt.
More often, however, we shall have to repeat the
effort in total or in part to satisfy ourselves or others
that we have learned and retained some knowledge
14 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
or skill - memorised the facts, grasped the idea, or
'got the knack'.
In any event, between the first exposure to
something new, and the belief that we have 'learned
it', no account would be complete without referring
to the faculty with which we retain something from
each cycle - our memory.
Memory
It is not just education and training that rely on the
idea of memory. All progress, meaning desired
improvement, and all continuity, by which individuals,
families, nations, religions try to maintain the best of
the past, depend on memory. And yet science still
struggles to provide an adequate explanation of its
operation. Computers can have memories (well, that's
what we call them; superstores might be a better name)
of huge size, and retrieval systems of staggering speed.
They can be made to simulate all sorts of scenarios as
though they remembered them, to be expert,
intelligent, masters of chess and so on. But when it
comes to forgetting, dreaming and having new ideas
they are no match for humans. Perhaps science will
crack it next year, but meanwhile we must do the best
we can with brain cells instead of microprocessors.
To the teacher or the lone student we can offer
some guidance. First, there is no substitute for
repetitive practice at the two extremes oflearning. To
achieve and maintain the highest levels of skill; and
to memorise unrelated facts (such as morse code
signals, or the order of the alphabet) there are no short
cuts. Of course the teacher can organise the
opportunities and provide feedback; and occasionally
a gifted learner will turn up who has a 'photographic
memory' or is a 'born shiphandler', but don't count
on it. There is no escaping that some learning requires
persistent application, not to say drudgery, to achieve
the memorisation needed by head and hand.
Second, the practice is usually more effective when
spaced out rather than concentrated in long sessions.
This is not 'common sense' and sometimes upsets
accountants who would prefer to pay for short,
intensive coaching; that may be good for computers
but it doesn't suit humans. This we know from
experience as well as from research. Spending too long
at one go trying to learn to drive a car, or to memorise
the Colregs, or to comprehend the law of contract, is
counterproductive. For some reason a change of
activity, just as much as a rest, helps us to remember
for the long term. And the more different the
intervening activity, the better; asking your trainee (or
yourself) to calculate a Pacific tide as a change from
European ones is a recipe for confusion rather than
rest. The toilets at the Nautical College, Wars ash, used
to have a wall chart of the International Code flags on
the back of the door. What better regular but spaced
out practice, with quite different activity in the
intervals, could you contrive? Whether the cadets were
paying attention to the learning task I cannot say.
Third, most of the knowledge that a seafarer has
to acquire is not like the Morse or International Codes,
but is based on subjects which have a sound basis in
science or experience. Memory in these areas is well
served by making connections. For example, building
the study of stability up from our basic understanding
of water pressure and gravity; or, in a different way,
extending our understanding of navigation by
developing the general concept of position lines. Being
able to use these connections is often the difference
between 'knowing' the facts and 'understanding' the
subject. The memory is then in a condition to grow
easily and to tackle problems effectively.
Fourth, the process of storing and retrieving
information is immensely helped for us humans by
the use of any device which extracts significant
features. An obvious example is an abbreviation. It
seems a paradox that it can be easier to remember
three things - the abbreviation, the fact that it's an
abbreviation, and what it's an abbreviation for - GM,
for example - than just to remember the name
Metacentric Height. More significant devices are :-
rhymes (our grandfathers learned much of the Rule
of the Road in verse form) like "Error East, Compass
Least"; sayings like "Men very easily make jugs serve
useful and numerous purposes" whose initial letters
trace the sequence of planets outward from the Sun;
and any rule, rule of thumb, sequence, procedure or
formula that helps us to pull out of the memory the
full details stored there.
Even more efficient than these verbal and symbolic
compressions are direct visual representations. The
power of visual aids is detailed elsewhere in this guide,
so it is enough here to state that sketches, diagrams,
plans and silhouettes, for examples, are presentations
whose simplifications are good news for our memories.
A fine example is the familiar diagram of the purely
imaginary Celestial Sphere which reduces a huge
amount of information to a compact and much more
memorable space. Tabulations and 'family trees' are
other examples of ways of compressing information
about relationships, just as are drawings of ships.
Pulling the picture-memory out of store and talking
about it is far more efficient than memorising a written
verbal description.
If you have read through this chapter you may have
wondered where perception stops and memory begins.
Memorising and remembering can be seen as storing
and retrieving perceptions. We also have seen that the
brain processes information from the senses, and then
tries to fit it in with the memories already in store, to
form perceptions. We are struggling, together, to
understand what is happening in our nervous systems
and brains and so are several branches of science and
philosophy. The tongue and the word processor (and
the teacher) can only deal with one aspect at a time,
whereas the brain can and does link them all
inextricably in its actions.
Be that as it may, the swift and certain application
of professional competence depends on a well-
equipped and well-disciplined memory.
To summarise the ways in which the role of
memory in learning can be developed, there is first
the repetitive spaced practice in recalling factual
material. Then there is the recognition, and later
recollection, of the connections between things. This
forming of 'mental maps' is helped by simplified
presentations, especially visual aids which pick out the
significant features of what has to be remembered. It
is as though a good memory is first and foremost a
well-organised store, with good signs and labels, or a
good 'cargo plan' from which retrieval at the right port
in undamaged condition can almost be guaranteed.
Conclusion
A teacher or instructor is many things. He (or she) is a
source of knowledge, a demonstrator of skill, a judge
of standards, a mentor passing on the values and
expectations of his main occupation, one who
encourages, steers and prompts those who want or
need to make progress, and shares the pleasure of
success and the disappointment of setbacks. To do
these things well the teacher must communicate well,
so it should be no surprise that some of the best
teachers are like good actors. They perform well in a
variety of roles, and they have thought hard about
their parts. You will find this illustrated in many of the
following chapters of this guide.
In this first chapter we have chosen to place the
learner at the centre of the process and to see how
learning involves his active contribution, which the
teacher may have to stimulate. We have scanned some
of the aspects of the psychology oflearning which have
most relevance to adult vocational study and offered
a few examples from the wide spectrum of a deck
officer's interests. If your appetite for further study
has been whetted there are many fascinating books
on motivation, perception and remembering from
which to choose. But you will find the points of special
interest to nautical teachers applied elsewhere in this
guide. Good reading.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 15
 Chapter TWO

CONCEPTS, SKILLS AND COMPETENCE

IN A MARITIME SETTING
by Mr. Don Baillie Ex C FNI

Following pre-sea training at King Edward VII Nautical College in London, Don Baillie served his apprenticeshiP with what is now
BP Tankers and was a deck officer with BP and P&O.After obtaining the Extra Master's Certificate hejoined the teaching staff of his
old college. While teaching he obtained an advanced diploma in mathematics and attended a teacher training course. In 7965 he was
appointed to the staff of the only UK college which prepared seafarersfor lecturerposts in nautical colleges.

Five years later, when he was completing studies for a Master's Degree in Educational Research, he was invited to become one of
Her Majesty's Inspectors monitoring the work of technical colleges in general and marine colleges in particular. In that capacity he
advised the UK Department of Education on the needs and quality of nautical education, and represented that Department on the
Merchant Navy Training Board, the National Sea Training Trust, and on committees of the Council for National Academic Awards, the
Technician Education Council and then BTEG. He worked closely with the Department of Transport's Chief Examiners in curriculum
and examination developments and the provision of simulators, and published many reports on aspects of nautical education and the
work of the marine departments and faculties.He organised several conferencesfor lecturers in marine fields, and recently retired after
23 years as H M Inspector.

Introduction reasons - to keep the cost down. My shipmates

To achieve competence a learner has to acquire some
knowledge and develop some abilities. To be awarded
a Certificate he has to have them assessed. In this
chapter we take a look at the division of practical
competence into skills and concepts (or underpinning
knowledge), and the implications for teachers and
assessors.
To begin with, the division is in essence a
convenient one for talking about the way we can
organise teaching and assessment. It is not an accurate
description of human learning. Skill and knowledge
are normally interwoven. Usually we add to our
knowledge by learning a skill, and we refine our skills
as we develop related concepts. This is a common
experience on simulator courses, for example.
There are some skills - like swimming - which we
can develop with hardly any important knowledge,
and there is knowledge - like the meaning of chart
symbols - which we can acquire without any special
skill. The way we teach these is not very cont~tious;
practical experience for one and rote memonsmg for
the other. But where knowledge and skill help each
probably had a much better idea of my competence
than the examiner who passed me, but I needed the
Government's approval even more than I wanted
theirs.
These two aspects of competence are sometimes
given the names 'Knowing That' and 'Knowing How'.
We shall not follow that attractively simple path,
because we need to look deeper. If you are allowed to
establish your competence in a skill by describing how
you would do it, rather than by actually doing it in
the presence of an assessor, you are only proving you
know that it ought to be done in this way, not that you
can do it. 'knowing that' has taken the place of
'knowing how'. The real skill has not been assessed.
You have persuaded the assessor of your competence
by your knowledge of associated concepts - know-how
- without demonstrating command of the skill itself.
Concepts - the basis of 'underpinning
knowledge'
When we say that we have a concept of something,
we mean that we are able to think in our brains about
· . · · .
a th 1ng or 1d ea w h 1Ch IS ou t Sld e th ose b raIns, m th e
O •

other there is always scope for trying out different
amounts of each, in different orders.
Likewise the method chosen for the assessment of
competence usually relates to the relative importance
of skill and knowledge in the competence concerned,
but this is distorted by considerations of cost and
credibility. For example, the skill aspects of position-
fixing,. s~ch as. they are,. have been as ses sedin
unrealIstIc and mappropnate ways for t he best 0 f
"real" world. For example, we can think about 'ship'
or 'officer' or 'headway' without having to have a
picture of any of these concepts in our mind's eye.
Concepts are the basic elements of the work of the
mind. They are comparable to genes in biology. They
link the information we receive from our environment
with the sense that we make of it, and how we respond
to it. Some people say that every word we use stands
for a concept, and for the purposes of communication,

16 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

and particularly teaching, this can help. If your junior,
or trainee, doesn't understand a statement, you need
to be sure which word or words are causing the
difficulty.
In the adult world most of the concepts behind
everyday words are well-established in most
individuals, and the teacher is mainly engaged in
refining them, connecting them or introducing new
ones which help to build professional or other
knowledge, and competence.
The word 'concept' itself, like some other words,
can be ambiguous. It sometimes stands for your own
private understanding of what a word means. But it
may also stand for the accepted definition by a public
authority such as 'society in general', or 'the DTp', or
'the Law'. Here again it is often the teacher's job to
bring these two versions of a concept into line.
Progressive thinkers frequently try to expand or alter
the use of a concept, and the resistance to this can
lead them to propose new words, or uses of words,
which we sometimes call 'jargon'.
Jargon irritates us only if we discover that we 'knew'
what the jargon word stands for; we had the concept
already, but not the word. For example, many a small
businessman will have a very clear concept of how
the pricing of an item can affect sales and profits, but
seem to have no idea what the young salesman means
by 'elasticity of demand'.
So the teacher of 'new' concepts is in a minefield
(I hope we share the same concept of a minefield).
The learner may have a good conception of the new
material, but feels there must be more to it than just
learning a new name. Or the new name may call up
partial or irrelevant concepts already in his mind. Or
some of both. Since all the teacher has to help him is
language and imagination - a mass of concepts and
images of his own - he needs to be able to reach up to
a higher level of concept-making of his own, which
we call his understanding.
To say more about the learning of concepts we need
to take a look at the make-up of any concept or set of
concepts. What are their features and how are the
levels related?
Whenever a number of objects (ships, for example)
in the 'real' world have something in common, we
form a concept of them in our minds. Not only objects
are involved. Activities like 'sport' and qualities like
'strength' also lead us to form concepts. Unless it is
nice and simple, like 'triangle', a concept usually
involves several common attributes. A ship is designed
to float, but so is a buoy, so the concept 'ship' must
have other attributes which the concept 'buoy' doesn't
have. This is obvious; so it will be obvious that one
way to develop a concept is for the teacher to show
the learner where the boundaries of the concept are
to be found - by presenting items that have some
features of the concept, but others that don't belong.
The buoy floats like the ship, but doesn't carry cargo;
the ship floats like the buoy, but isn't moored in a
special place.
Of course some concepts can be simply defined in
terms of other concepts, for example 'ellipse'. Others,
like 'logarithm', have definitions that generations of
students have learned without any understanding.
Others again, like 'celestial sphere', are wonderful acts
of the imagination.
Let's stop with 'ship' a little longer. It is not a serious
problem that dictionaries have slightly different
definitions. It doesn't really matter thatthe borderline
between 'ship' and 'boat' is unknown. Practically
everyone HAS a concept of 'ship' and it is instructive
to think how they might have come by it. Perhaps
they came across 'boat' first, and think of a ship as a
big boat. That would be to develop a new concept
from its relationship with an old one. Or perhaps they
already have a concept from stories about Viking
'ships' and the Titanic; then their concept development
might be governed by asking of each new floating thing
with a mast, is this a ship? Here is a bulker, is it a
'ship'? Here is a tug, is it a 'ship'? The most famous
example of the difficulty of this approach is believing
that ostriches and penguins are really 'birds'.
Of course it is much more important to be clear
about a lot of other concepts, such as 'unstable' and
'untrustworthy' but here again there are basically two
approaches to learning the concepts. The concept
'unstable' can be learned by a definition which
includes all cases and excludes all others, but the
concept 'untrustworthy' must be refined by trial and
error, with no certainty at the borderline, and some
sort of ideal type to compare each case with.
We saw that concepts often overlap, as with ship
and boat. Another feature is that they may include, or
be included in, other concepts. For example fishing-
vessel, tug and passenger ferry all belong to the
concept 'vessel', and each breaks down to more
specific concepts that we can have of, for example,
tuna boats, trawlers and shrimpers. Concepts also tend
to be included in ever more general ones, used to
classify things. Thus vessels are included in the concept
'vehicle', and vehicles belong in the even more general
concept 'means oftransport'. This last would include
escalators as well as spaceships and mini-bulkers.
The interesting thing about this hierarchy of
concepts from the most particular to the most general
is that the intermediate ones seem the most important
for efficient learning. Once we have a good grasp of
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 17
the middling concept it is easier to work out finer
discriminations of the more specific kind, as well as to
learn to use the more general ones which lead to a
higher understanding of our subject and its wider
connections.
Psychologists who have studied the learning of
concepts mainly agree that there is a sequence in which
a new concept is acquired. The speed at which any
one learner moves through the sequence varies a great
deal, but the sequence does not. Most of the research
involves children of school age and younger, and we
can reasonably assume that adults are much quicker
except where they have already formed some closely
related or erroneous concept which makes it harder
for them to grasp the new one.
The four stages are as follows. First there is
recognition of an object, activity or quality as being
separate from its background or environment. Thus
an infant learns first that its mother is separate from
the rest of its surroundings, our ancestors saw that a
planet moved differently from the stellar background,
and the hospitals notice an unexpected level of skin
cancer in Australia.
In the second stage of development the object, etc.,
is recognised in a different environment, from a new
angle or with a different sense - confirming its separate
identity. In the third stage several different objects are
recognised as equivalent to the first - establishing a
group or class ('people' for the infant, planets, and
widespread concern about skin cancer in the Southern
Hemisphere). Finally we reach the formal stage of
setting out the attributes which allow correct
identification of the members of this concept - or
enabling us to distinguish it from other concepts
(human faces and voices, planetary motion, and
depletion of the ozone layer - a concept which we have
yet to name).
The most general description of this sequence is
"From the particular to the general, from the concrete
to the abstract, and from the known to the unknown".
Only if a concept can be defined in terms which
the learner already firmly understands, can the above
sequence be cheerfully ignored. A well-stated
definition, with examples proceeding from easier to
more difficult, and a few non-examples if necessary
to illustrate the boundaries of the group, will secure
effective learning in that case.
Not only is it usually wise to start concept
development from concrete experience when possible,
but adults can often be helped by being given an
overview of how new concepts relate to one another.
This may take the form of a hierarchy, as when dealing
with officers' responsibilities or the dependence of one
18 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
thing on another (for example the dependence of
weight and momentum on mass); or a sequence, as in
sea states and wind force names; or there may be a
checklist of related attributes from which concepts are
drawn, as in identifying the passage of fronts in
meteorology.
If you are impatient to get on to skills and the
practical things of life, you have our sympathy. But if
you think that the idea of concepts is just an invention
of academics, recall the practical importance of
'bending moment' and 'metacentric height' and
'position lines'. All are pure concepts. Understanding
them cannot be delegated, as skills can, to computers.
Skills
To be a good footballer you need to playa lot of
football. To be a good writer you need to be a good
reader. Both skills need a lot of practice, but watching
football on TV will do little for your ability whereas
reading good books will improve your writing. So once
again there is no golden rule about learning, by which
a teacher can avoid thinking hard about how best to
help his students.
What do we mean by 'skill'? Or should I ask "What
are the defining attributes of the concept 'skill'?".
When I was a student of these matters our tutor
demonstrated his ability to sail a dinghy with one hand
while rolling and lighting a cigarette with the other.
We then had to write down what we thought was the
essence of 'skill'.
Phrases like 'effortless control', 'ability to attend
to more than one task', and 'mastery of tools' came to
mind. When we thought more widely of other skills,
we became more general and we settled on three wider
attributes. These were effectiveness, flexibility, and
anticipation.
By effectiveness we meant that the particular skill
can be performed quickly (apparently without much
thought), accurately and with a degree of physical
economy. The latter may give freedom to do other
things at the same time, or the stamina to go on for a
long time. The lower level of skill that we show during
learning will be relatively clumsy, i.e. less quick, or
less accurate, or more tiring.
Flexibility may be less obvious than effectiveness
but in the end is just as important. Inflexible standard
tests are often used to assess competence, for example
in car driving. This is fair on candidates as well as
measuring a baseline of competence. But in real life
exactly the same problem only occurs twice in the
most routine operations, and a skilled person is surely
one who applies his skill effectively in new situations.
This is often referred to under the head of 'Transfer of
Training', and is an ability where man - so far - seems
to be still ahead of the machine.
The third feature, anticipation, is perhaps an
element of flexibility. Most skills are acted out in
dynamic situations, so there has to be a predictive
aspect, foresight, which draws on the skilled person's
experience and imagination. Shiphandling involves
this to a high degree, as does the effectiveness of many
management skills. Precise prediction contributes
greatly to the effective co-ordination of our actions, in
both space and time.
The other approach to agreeing a concept of 'skill',
suggested earlier in this chapter, was by means of a
definition. You will find several in various dictionaries
and encyclopaedias. One which calls up a picture very
like the description of attributes is:- the capacity for
carrying out complex, well-organised patterns of
behaviour smoothly and adaptively, so as to achieve
a goal or outcome. This covers verbal and social skills
as well as physical tasks.
Some authorities divide skills into three types.
Perceptual skills are those with which we recognise
complex patterns (see Chapter 1). Then there are the
perceptual-motor skills in which the perceptual 'inputs'
are coordinated with physical movements to produce
'outputs'. Finally there are mental skills such as
reasoning. More important than classifications of this
kind is to distinguish a skilled performance from a
habit, which it can resemble. A habit lacks the
flexibility which was a feature of the true skill. A habit
may be an essential small component of a skill, an
automatic response to a simple stimulus, but the full
skill will include the ability to over-ride that habit when
circumstances change in a way not anticipated.
Some theorists (who usually base their theory on
observation of rats or pigeons) reject this distinction
and hold that all learned skills are chains of habitual
responses, each triggering the next response. As you
accumulate an ever-increasing 'bank' of these chains
of responses the chance of meeting a new situation is
decreasing. But when one leaves the laboratory the
number of possible situations you can meet increases
hugely. Then you have to match each situation to just
one of the numerous habits you have stored. This is
an unconvincing picture of skill because the bigger
your collection of habits the longer you will take to
choose the right response; this is the opposite of what
we experience - the more skilled you are, the faster
your reaction is likely to be.
It seems much more likely that by practice our
brain develops a set of rules which in effect tell us
how to respond, or the response most likely to be
appropriate on the information and experience
available to the brain - a sort of internal expert system
to which we go on adding by training or practice.
This leads us to consider how we acquire skills.
The importance of feedback to the efficiency of the
learning process is dealt with at length in Chapter 1.
We can certainly learn some skills without a training
programme - most early learning (to walk, and to
speak, for example) lacks a programme, but there is
plenty of feedback. The outcomes (falling over or
getting a response to a noise) provide the feedback
and thus are more important than inputs. However it
isn't long before imitation starts to be evident, and
inputs (which may be demonstrations or training
programmes) can assume the greater importance.
Rewards, encouragement, disapproval and so on
provide the feedback for imitative learning.
When language develops (and with it, concepts!)
direct instruction in skills - telling how - can be added
to the earlier two methods which I shall call trial and
error, and imitation. Most adult training is some
combination of these three. It is rarely obvious what
mixture gives the best results in any particular case,
because trainees respond so differently. This is also
dealt with in Chapter 1.
Earlier it was suggested that the brain controls skill
development like an expert system that is improved
by training or practice. Here are two more concepts
which it pays you to distinguish. Training involves a
deliberate scheme to assist the learner. It involves the
trainer guiding the learner to make more satisfactory
or effective actions, helps him to attend to the
appropriate feedback signals, encourages him and
evaluates his progress. As skill improves the actions
become smoother or quicker (or whatever the skill
requires) and then the learner can focus more attention
on the significant feedback. He thus takes charge of
his final development with the trainer having less
input. We often use the term 'coach' for someone
shaping the higher development of skills, and that may
be appropriate for senior officers helping to sharpen
their juniors' skills. But in a world where IMO
minimum standards may represent the only level
demanded, skill development in the years after
certification will depend on officers knowing how to
assess their own skills rather than leaving it to an
official trainer or assessor.
Practice may simply involve using the skill so far
acquired, however imperfect. Improvement is not
automatic. Golfers will know what I mean. The
benefits of simple repetition are not guaranteed,
especially when fatigue becomes stronger than
motivation. This underlines the need for the learner,
and especially the lone learner attempting to improve
skills from a self-study course, to have learned enough
about the guidance and feedback needed in his case.
Only then can he evaluate, modify, and so i!llprove
his own performance.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 19
 Any analysis of a skill will show that it is made up
of a collection of sub-skills which in turn may be
broken down until you get to those most basic
elements described earlier as perceptual, perceptual-
motor, and mental skills. Thus, to take an everyday
example, making a cup of coffee might be reduced to
sub-skills such as pouring, handling a spoon, using
electric switches, measuring powder, and so on. Using
electric switches breaks down to recognising the
switch, coordinated movement to control it, knowing
when it is on or off, and so on. All very obvious, you
may say. Good. It is the trainer's job to decide how to
put these elements together and to recognise where
the overall performance is unsatisfactory because a
sub-skill has not been learned well, or is not being
integrated with other sub-skills.
Integrated? There are essentially three structures
which govern the connection of sub-skills - and hence
the training strategy needed and the assessment
possibilities. Simplest is the straight sequence, such as
we use in making the cup of coffee; there may be more
than one possible sequence, and the trainer might
judge that one is easier to learn, or is the custom on
that ship. Then the learner can master each sub-skill,
and then learn the rule for the sequence. After that,
guided "practice makes perfect", and the rule is
somehow absorbed into the subconscious, somewhere
in the brain, and controls the smooth performance
we recognise as 'skilled'.
The second structure of sub-skills involves using
them simultaneously. Occasionally it is only physically
possible to learn them simultaneously; for example
when starting to ride a bicycle. The skills to control
motion, balance and steering are connected in such a
way that learning anyone of them separately does
not help and can hinder progress. These are the kind
of circumstances in which the trainer is reduced to
urging the learner to "Have a go! You'll soon get the
idea/knack". It is 'Trial and error' on a big scale. To
get the measure of it, just try to write a brief manual
on how to ride a bike. Or how to throw a heaving line
accurately.
More often a skill breaks down into some elements
which have to be performed simultaneously and some
in sequence. For example, in measuring a sextant
altitude at twilight there is a sequence of sub-skills
concerned with preparing the instrument, and locating
the star. Bringing it down to the horizon, and
determining the exact altitude, though following the
sequence, each involve the co-ordination of two sub-
skills (large and small adjustments to the instrument
while holding the image in place). These are
simultaneous perceptual and perceptual-motor skills.
Then there is another simultaneous pair, perceptual-
motor and mental, as you weave your way back to
the chronometer in the gloom while counting the
seconds in your head.
20 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
To summarise, the trainer can be expected to be
more aware of the sub-skills which make up the skill
to be learned, than is the ordinary practitioner. He
needs to recognise what mix of sequential and
simultaneous connections is involved. He has to
choose the appropriate training approach for each sub-
skill or group of them - demonstration/imitation, trial
and error, or direct instruction.
The assessor will be equally aware of the sub-skills
if he has to make a judgment of how far the learner is
below a satisfactory performance, unless he is a final
examiner and can simply view the full skill in order
to make his judgment.
There is one other opportunity for the lone learner
to keep some of his skills sharper than might be the
case if he has no chance either to be trained or to
practise. Ocean-going watchkeepers of a serious turn
of mind (and, no doubt, their seniors) ask themselves
questions beginning "What if ?" to try to keep the
necessary actions fresh in their minds should some
emergency arise. This mental rehearsal can be far
more wide-ranging and frequent than drills. The
disadvantage, of course, is the absence of feedback!
If we seem to have become repetitive about the
importance of clear, timely and well-focused feedback
it is as a result of experience. Anyone going in for
teaching, or even a bit of helpful instruction of their
juniors, quickly finds that it is not until you try teaching
a subject or skill that you discover how much or how
little you understand it, whatever your qualifications.
This discovery, too, is the result of feedback - from
those you are trying to teach.
Competence
I do not know if any maritime administration has
defined competence, but if so I hope it is a definition
helpful to those who use it. 'Competence is the
possession of the skills and knowledge required for
the award of a Certificate of Competency' doesn't help
us much, although college lecturers the world over
have learned what the words stand for. Interpretation
is a never-ending business of their's and
administrations as they keep pace with the technical
advances and legal changes which take place in the
industries they serve or regulate.
At sea, competence is more likely to be defined as
a capacity to do a job efficiently in any circumstances
likely to arise. There are many reasons why these two
definitions differ, not least that they refer to quite
different concepts. Men of goodwill have always
wanted to keep the practical effect of these differences
as small as possible, and reform of the means of
attaining and assessing competence is thus a recurrent
feature in the modern history of seafaring.
 In general terms administrations want a limited
number of certificates to be valid in a very wide range
of ships and trades, and for a long time. Good
shipowners are happy to add their own special
requirements, bad ones are only interested in manning.
Shipmates expect to be able to sleep soundly at night,
after being relieved on time. The attitudes of individual
seafarers vary, but probably most see competence
exams as hurdles to be cleared on the path to
promotion. Many experienced ones
have stories to tell which suggest that their competence
wasn't finally tested until they were in the job they
had already been qualified for. A small number have
been involved in inquiries which found them to be
incompetent despite having a Certificate.
If we focus on the concepts of competence which
an administration and a good serving master might
have, what will be the common attributes, and what
the significant differences?
There would surely be a large measure of
agreement about a collection of skills and
underpinning technical knowledge at a level
appropriate for the job in question. The needs of the
ship as an operating unit could be agreed in a large
number of respects, especially relating to safe
navigation (I am only thinking of the deck functions).
The two concepts of competence will diverge at
some points. The shipmaster will tend to make some
allowance for experience, expecting more or less
competence according to age and background, while
the administration simply sets a minimum standard
for all. Administrations allow successful candidates to
display evidence that they may be incompetent. For
example they may set a 70% pass mark. This implies
that a Certificate of Competency can be awarded to
someone who gets 30% of their stability and navigation
calculations wrong! A shipmaster would take this as
evidence, if displayed at sea, that they are NOT
competent. This difference reflects the different
assessment methods employed.
It is inevitable that administrations will only update
the syllabus, or list of knowledge and skills, at intervals
so that the master of a modern ship will find some of
it out of date as a portfolio for current competence.
This will be exaggerated if shore-based assessors
cannot keep in touch with changing conditions at sea.
The shipmaster may also have limited sympathy with
the idea that his officers are expected to be competent
on other types of ship, of which neither he nor they
have experience.
A second dimension of competence involves
personal attributes and professional values.
Administrations may make an attempt to assess a
candidate's qualities, attitudes and motivation as they
The third aspect of competence, which overlaps
with the first two and may be conceived differently
by shipmasters and administrations, concerns the ship
as a social unit. Senior competency examinations pay
some attention to management and leadership
knowledge. The weight to be given to knowledge is
often a matter of dispute, but the importance of skills
is not. Leadership styles differ, as do reactions to them,
but the importance of effective management to the
efficiency of safe operation on board can hardly be
doubted. This is true at all levels but it is rarely assessed
formally except at the higher levels, if then.
This is not altogether surprising because it is in the
social context that tensions about the conception of
competence are most likely to arise. For example, the
newly appointed officer, arriving from a Certificate
or refresher course, may find that 'the way we do things
on this ship', and the letter of the latest regulation, do
not exactly coincide. At once, there is a tension
between conformity and professional or personal
integrity which will require social skills to resolve.
The fourth area in which the concepts of
competence differ is in the modes of judgment used
by administrations and shipmasters. Examiners like
precise and reasonably simple questions with which
to test candidates, and thereby produce fair tests in
the sense that each candidate starts from the same
place, however unrealistic that might be. Real life at
sea is a place of probabilities, approximations and
some unknown quantities, and it is in those
surroundings that the shipmaster makes his assessment
of competence.
The concepts differ, the circumstances differ; I am
not aware whether any research has been carried out
as to how often the judgments agree. Some of the
evidence from the Institute's Marine Accident
Reporting Scheme, and from letters to 'Seaways',
suggests that agreement would be less than complete.
Finally, let's turn to another area of competence. This
guide is being written for those who wish to contribute
to raising standards in maritime training, either at sea
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 21
or in shoreside institutions. What makes a competent
trainer or lecturer?
Draw on your own experience as a trainee and
student. Among the attributes you would expect a
competent teacher to possess would be superior
knowledge and greater skill than those you sought to
achieve. Two exceptions to this general idea might
suggest themselves. There might be some obscure area
of operations - heavy lifts, or a very recent piece of
software, for example - where the competent teacher
will not pretend to know all, and will draw on other
sources, including other students in a class, or other
shipmates, to help learning.
The second exception relates to the highest levels
of skill and understanding. At most levels you expect
the teacher to be better at doing a task than the trainee.
But at the highest level the ambition of the competent
teacher is that his best students will actually perform
better than he. Or she. Coaches in sport are generally
NOT as competent as the best performers; they offer
other insights, motivation and a wealth of learning
from the experience of others. Likewise there are
competent trainers who can help practical men to
perform better than they.
Were it not so, the standards would be forever
sliding down. This is in contrast to teaching knowledge,
where scholars, researchers and practitioners are all
adding to what is known and can be passed on to the
next generation.
22 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
What else can we say of competent teachers?
Different styles of teaching appeal to different sorts of
learners. There are extremes along the range of
methods, from the autocrat who makes the learner do
nearly all the learning, to the instructor who never
stops talking. But a competent teacher who is going to
be effective with a variety of people learning a variety
of subjects and skills is certain to need to have a variety
of skills himself.
Above all he has to be a good communicator. Most
of us would like him to show positive attitudes about
the value of what he is teaching, with flashes of
enthusiasm, and seriousness of purpose, flavoured with
humour and illustrated with relevant anecdotes. Most
learners find these things helpful to their motivation.
But they must also be encouraged to reflect upon their
own experience - or what is sea service for?
Readers who studied Chapter 1, on the concept of
learning, may see that the concept of a competent
teacher can be derived from thinking about learning.
The competent teacher brings about the desired
learning effectively and efficiently. The two ideas are
inseparable. We hope you enjoy proving this for
yourself. Let the last word go to a Skipper, Mr
Humphrey Bogart of the 'African Queen'. "A
professional is one who can give his best performance
when he doesn't feel like it." Yet another angle.
 Chapter THREE
GROUP LEARNING AND TRAINING TECHNIQUES
compiled by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI
on behalf of Northstar Maritime and Environmental Consultancy
in association with Hill Tallack
Introduction
Training outside the more formal environment of a
nautical college has always been a feature of maritime
education. It has ranged from cadet training ships
through such informal activities as the noon sight
under the watchful eye of the navigating officer, to an
increasing onboard delivery by personnel officers,
college lecturers and consultants as companies
endeavour to get more 'sea miles' from their trainees.
It also, critically, includes emergency drills - although
this is far too infrequently realised.
This chapter is designed to focus attention on some
of the questions which need to be asked when planning
group training activities and to highlight some of the
techniques which may help 'non-professional' trainers
deliver more effectively.
Why?
'Why group training?' must be one of the first questions
a prospective trainer should ask. Is group training
better than the alternatives?
Today the trend is to offer people a range of options
for learning. This to a great extent derives from the
ability of modern technology to package and transmit
information, which has led to the development of
Learning Resource Centres within companies - and
similar facilities will appear increasingly on board.
These offer individuals the option of self study through
text, multimedia and video. The emphasis is
increasingly on encouraging people to own and
manage their own development with companies
offering a range of alternative ways for people
continually to develop and improve themselves -
already Continuous Professional Development (CPD)
is well established in many of the professions.
However effective self study and self study
techniques become, at some stage within the learning
process it is still necessary for there to be human
interaction. At one end of the scale this may be a one
to one student - tutor relationship or traditional
classroom based teaching and it also includes seminars
and conferences. Group training is also an important
part of this process and it is part of the trainer's, or the
personnel or training manager's responsibility to
decide which is the most effective learning process in
order to achieve a desired training outcome.
Cost, inevitably, is one of the first factors to be
considered. It is easy to be driven by 'what is cheapest?'
often dressed up to sound like 'what is more cost-
effective?'. A better approach is generally 'what is the
best I can buy with the allocated funds within my
budget?' This immediately raises the question of what
is the desired outcome; is it to achieve a well trained
and well motivated crew or is it to meet irksome
statutory requirements?
Generally speaking, group training is most
beneficial when:
• Practical activities have to be demonstrated or
practised (and competency based learning places
great emphasis on the ability to demonstrate
capability); and
• There is a benefit to be gained from sharing the
experience of other participants (and, possibly,
other companies or other industries).
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 23
 or for
• Developing behavioural based interpersonal skills
(e.g. crisis management training such as crowd
control).
• Facilitating team building and management
development.
• Reinforcing company values and company
practices.
• Enhancing product knowledge.
If the subject matter has a high academic or
intellectual content, some preliminary formal teaching
or individual study will improve the training outcome.
Also, as more students study individually to develop
their underpinning knowledge (UPK) along the route
to competency based qualifications, an element of
group training will play an important role in
reinforcing and bolstering the acquired knowledge and
in linking it to the associated skills.
Where and When?
Both these questions also require early consideration.
Delivered in the wrong environment, at the wrong
time, much of the investment in training sessions can
be wasted. As the organiser of the training, it is easy
to view these questions from the provider's
perspective. 'When is it convenient for me to organise
or deliver this training?' rather than 'when and where
can I gather the largest number in a receptive mood
and in a (learning) conducive environment?'
Who?
Both who is going to be trained and who is to deliver
the training? Should the training be company based
or would the participants benefit from interaction with
other organisations, either within or outside shipping?
Certainly at management level there is a degree of
benefit from cross fertilisation with other cultures. The
span of participants also needs careful consideration
- at what level is the training to be pitched and can
different levels be run concurrently?
'Who?' also refers to the question of who is to
deliver the training. Specialist knowledge of the subject
is only part of the specification of a trainer and in
training as opposed to teaching, it can be argued that
it is not the most important. The ability to deliver in a
way in which the subject matter is understood,
reinforced and remembered can be more important
- especially if it leaves a thirst for more knowledge.
The amount of preparation time should never be
overlooked - the busy personnel manager or
superintendent, who rushes on board to deliver an
important message without proper preparation does
himself, his company and theJecipients a grave
disservice.
24 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
What?
This also has two aspects. What is the subject matter,
both in terms of the core training objective as well as
in terms of scope and what are the desired outcomes?
In industry, which is turning increasingly towards
competency based learning and assessment, as
evidenced by the 1995 Amendments to the Standards
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW)
Convention and, within the United Kingdom, National
(and Scottish) Vocational Qualifications (S/NVQs) it
is important to have a measure of the effectiveness of
training. Again within the United Kingdom, the
Training and Development Lead Body (TDLB) has
established base line standards for training. Although
these standards have been developed in support of
the implementation of S/NVQs, they are a useful
starting point.
The starting point is a growing acceptance that
people's performance in their work should not be
measured solely on their theoretical knowledge nor
on their possession of skills; nor even on their ability
to undertake a range of different activities. It is their
performance and not the process people go through
to achieve those outcomes which should be the basis
for measurement.
Competence based learning and NVQs are
discussed in more detail elsewhere in the book; the
first important point for the trainer is to identify very
clearly the desired training outcomes. While this fixes
the destination point of the exercise, the starting point
also needs establishing. It is important to have an
accurate, or as accurate as possible, picture of the level
of knowledge of the candidates at the beginning of
the session. This may need some research by the
trainer which might be documentary, by use of a
questionnaire or by talking to the candidates.
With this knowledge, it is possible to prepare the
'passage plan' , taking into account such navigational
hazards as language and/or cultural differences,
company cultures and personal expectations.
Preparation and presentation are now the two areas
on which the trainer must concentrate - as frequently
stated; Proper Planning Prevents Poor Performance.
How?
How does the trainer prepare for the course delivery,
how can it be made interesting and stimulating, how
can the trainer get across the main training points in a
way that will be remembered (and used) and, finally,
how is the effectiveness of the group training
monitored and assessed?
 A golden rule of training is that the objective is
not just to impart your knowledge or information to
the participants but to enable them to use that
knowledge or information effectively in their
workplace (to the overall benefit of the organisation).
This is sometimes called the learning bridge which,
for the facilitator spans the gap between theory and
practice while for the learner it must provide a bridge
between group experience and real world experience.
Thus, the trainer or facilitator should be thinking about
words like:
relevant, meaningful, useful,
significant, realistic, usable,
helpful,
and above all,
interesting.
How people learn
The trainer must have an understanding of how people
learn as well as of his subject. The route to the mind is
through the five senses:
• Sight - the most important as far as learning is
concerned and the most difficult to 'switch off'. If
not given something upon which to focus, the eyes
will find something and the trainees' attention may
be lost.
• Hearing - it is far too easy to talk and assume that
the trainee is following and will remember. Standard
research indicates that lecture hall students will have
forgotten 75% of what they have been told within
24 hours .•
• Touch - a very important sense, to be used
whenever possible, especially in workshop sessions.
People learn best by doing.
• Taste and smell - generally have a limited
application .•
In a classroom, it is generally found that 75% of
what is learnt is absorbed through sight and only 25%
through hearing, whilst in workshops hearing drops
even lower and the main sensory perception is touch.
The overall importance of sight, however, should not
lead to the phenomenon known as death by overhead
(or the computer age equivalent of paralysis by
Power Point).
Understanding is related to concentration, not only
the ability to receive information but also to retain it.
Trainers need to plan for the immutable fact that levels
of concentration will rise and fall during a training
session and be alert to the need to change tempo or
pitch to rekindle attention and achieve understanding.
First impressions count - the trainer is stepping
on to centre stage. The first 30 seconds must be used
to grab people's attention. The introduction must be
thoroughly rehearsed and the overall delivery paced
to take into account attention span. The group should
be involved as early as possible and, if possible work
on the basis of the group participating 75 per cent of
the time and the trainer talking only 25 per cent of
the time.
The trainer must
• Get commitment - dress smartly as a compliment
to the trainees, be positive and pleasant in style and
behaviour.
• Be clear in announcing what he is going to talk
about, for how long and using what approach.
• Establish eye contact - this is the way in which to
control the group! Use the lighthouse effect - work
around the group, focus on each person in turn for
a few seconds. Do not focus on one person or the
middle distance, as they will focus on the middle
distance too .
• When answering questions, look at the questioner
25% of the time and the audience for 75% of the
time.
• A trainer may sit for a general discussion, but should
stand to deliver important points - this makes more
impact.
• Summarise frequently and always before moving
to a new topic - a visual aid (sight) might help, or
involve the group (doing - a close relation of
'touch').
• Keep a careful track of time and monitor
concentration and energy levels. (Remember, the
passage plan is the guide, it is (generally) drawn
eradicably on the chart).
Control nerves - take slow, deep breaths before
starting; be confident about the introduction. If the
trainer loses his or her way, control must be kept -
it is not a disaster to ask 'Where was I?' (involvement
- doing).
Use short words and short sentences. Choose the
active verb rather than the passive and concrete
examples rather than abstract. Use examples but
avoid jargon (or explain it).
• Use pauses and silence - it rarely sounds as long to
an audience as it does to the speaker. The voice
should be on an upward inflection at the end of
sentences and reading from a script avoided.
• Use gestures - they give focus for the eyes and
provide meaning to what you say; but avoid
fiddling. Stand confidently with an upright posture;
• Get people nodding (in agreement, not off) and ask
questions, even if an answer is not needed
(participation and 'doing').
• Assess as quickly as possible the nature of various
trainees and be ready to intervene quickly if
difficulties arise with people that might affect the
group's progress or enjoyment.
The ability to deal with difficult or uncooperative
people is another skill which the trainer must address
and practise. These may include:
 'The Know-All' comments too often, frustrates
others and discourages colleagues from participating.
If the group doesn't correct the 'know-all' then you
must intervene. Try a summarising comment and a
direct question like 'That's an extremely good point,
now let's hear some other thoughts'.
'The Rambler' gets off the points easily and gets
lost before reaching the point of what he/she is trying
to say. Intervene as soon as the person stops for breath,
thank them, restate the objective and move on.
'The Confused' has difficulty in expressing his/her
thoughts. You can help by listening and summarising
the person's ideas for instance, 'So what you're saying
is ' cloths for cleaning whiteboards, how often
'The Silent Contributor' says nothing. You should
try and discover why. Is he/she bored/shy/insecure/
new or does he/she have a language difficulty? Try
the following techniques -
• Ask a question that you're certain the person can
answer.
• Ask for his/her opinion on views expressed by
colleagues.
'The Stubborn Type' sticks to his own views and
won't see the point of fellow group members. Say
something like 'I'm sure you have good reasons for
your point of view, but it's important to listen to your
colleagues' viewpoints as well.'
Preparation and the use of visual aids
Not surprisingly, preparation is the essential ingredient
for successful training and this incorporates both
planning and skill. The skill, the knowledge and/or·
capabilities which the trainer wishes to impart, depend
not only on knowledge (or research) but crucially, on
the ability to identify and focus on the training
outcomes which are the objectives.
The planning, how to deliver the training and what
equipment is required, is an area which frequently
needs more time than is usually allocated for these
activities. As well as the trainer being prepared,
preparations should include:
• The participants or trainees .•
- Give at least 10 days' notice of a formal training
event.
Brief in advance: dates, times, venue,
programme title, purpose.
- Provide pre-course reading or activities if
relevant.
• The venue.
_ Choose an informal seating arrangement - use
a 'u' shape for small groups.
Avoid chairs in a row.
26 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
- For larger groups (15+), try arranging seats in
clusters of four or five around tables.
- Arrive in plenty of time to ensure that the
required facilities are as ordered (coffee and tea,
meals, heads, syndicate rooms etc.). It is also a
good idea to check how to increase ventilation
or reduce the level of central heating.
• The equipment, which may include:
Overhead projector with or without computer
projection capabilities.
- Screen.
- Flip chart or white boards.
- Camcorder.
TV monitor and video.
- Stationery supplies, including markers (and
forgotten), pins and blue-tack, extension leads
and so on.
Too frequently visual aids are used as the training
session with the trainer acting as a commentator,
repeating the bullet points on an endless series of
overheads. The fact that computer technology means
that overheads can now be faded in or out from all
points of the compass does not necessarily enhance
the training content.
Visual aids should enhance the talk rather than
acting as something to hide behind; the trainer's talk
should be able to stand on its own, with the visuals
conveying and reinforcing facts, statistics and ideas.
Flip charts, although not 'high-tech', are a valuable
tool since they are flexible and can invite participation
from the group. They can provide:
• A focus and reference point for the group.
A focus for group/syndicate activity.
• A storyboard for the training session.
• A quick way of capturing ideas.
When using a flip chart to take feedback;
• Take up a position on the left (if right handed) to
maintain eye contact with the group.
• Write up headline points or key words only.
• Use the participants words to emphasise their
importance.
When using a flip chart as part of the delivery:
Underline titles, keep to three key points per page
and a maximum of two colours.
• Paper clips may be used or the ends dog-eared to
help locate the place and reminder notes may be
faintly pencilled in.
• With modern glues, notes may be stuck on to make
a point and removed to reveal a point - be
inventive.
• The trainer's back should never be turned on the
audience.
Overhead projectors (OHPs)
Overhead transparencies are flexible but again,
effective use requires adherence to a few simple rules .•
• Ensure that enough time is left to check that the
transparencies are in the right order, that the OHP
works (and has a spare bulb), is in focus and projects
on to the screen without overmuch distortion or
without blocking the group's view.
• Landscape is generally better than portrait; favour
the upper two thirds and use a maximum of 7 lines
and 6 words per line.
• Leave the transparency on the screen long enough
(at least 15 seconds) for participants to absorb the
message.
• If making a number of points reveal them one by
one.
• There is a fine balance between forever switching
the projector on and off and leaving a blank white
screen or overhead not relevant to the current part
of the lecture - think about how to manage this.
• Do not photocopy small print on to an overhead
and then apologise that no-one will be able to read
it. Rather hand out photocopies at the start of the
session - or at the relevant point within the session;
the activity can be useful to rekindle attention.
• Tell the group if they are going to be provided with
copies of the 0 HPs at the beginning of the session,
not half way through.
Camcorders and video
Camcorders for video feedback can be a valuable tool
for reinforcing the training points. It is a 'hands on'
activity and thus a powerful aid. However:
• Carefully plan how the activity will fit into the
session.
• Remember that it is a time consuming activity - it
takes double the time to record and play back.
• Get sound, practical knowledge of the equipment
before using it and practice.
• Plan how to stage the activity and decide whether
to play back the whole of the recording or edited
highlights.
• Do not get over enthusiastic with the zoom facility
or pan the camcorder right and left too much unless
really accomplished and remember that sound is
also being recorded; the microphone must be
carefully positioned.
The effectiveness of a group training session can
be enhanced by the creative use of the training aids
mentioned above and also by the skilful use of
participation activities. Remember that people learn
more by 'doing' than by listening and a general rule is
75% involvement against only 25% talking by the
. is formed into role playing units. It enables all
tramer.
Participation activities include:
• Role play.
• Case studies.
Simulation exercises .
• Discussion groups.
• Breakout groups.
• Brainstorming.
• Training videos.
Using different training techniques
Role play
Acting out roles enables people to learn without risk
in a simulated and safe situation as well as
consolidating a skill or reinforcing key training points.
Role playing helps people to learn about their own
strengths and needs, particularly in terms of their
behaviour. It also helps their approach to people and
how to deal with differing attitudes, and putting the
theory into practice improves their skill and shows
them how to manage situations in which they might
later find themselves.
This involves a three step process:
1. Setting up a situation and then asking two or three
people to handle it as they think appropriate.
2. The rest of the group or specific people may act as
observers.
3. Discussing and evaluating what happens after the
role play has ended.
Types of role play
A typical role play might sketch out a simple situation
which requires a spontaneous response. For example,
in a 'Managing Meetings' session, the trainer might
say:
'Imagine you have just joined a ship and your head of
department asks you to chair a meeting you've never attended
before - you're being asked to undertake this task with no
preparation. How would you reply assertively?'
At the other end of the scale, role playing can be
quite complex providing individuals with specific
briefs and covering, for instance, bridge management.
Four common approaches to role play are:
• Informal role play involving two or three people
and acted out spontaneously.
• Struc~red r~le plays where players learn and follow
a specIfic bnef. ..
• Multiple role plays where the whole trammg group
· · ·
mem b ers to b e SImuItaneous Iy mvo Ive d enac tmg
out the roles.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 27
• Reversed role playing - players exchange roles to
help them appreciate the other person's point of
view.
Before the role play, the objectives for the role play
must be explained. After asking for volunteers and
selecting the role players, the trainer should issue the
role play brief verbally or in writing. After the
observers have been briefed and the importance of
their role has been emphasised, any observer sheets
are distributed and the camera operator (if used) is
briefed on what to capture. The trainer must be clear
about when the role play should end.
During the role play the interaction must be
observed, discussion points pinpointed for later, and
any video tape sequence numbers or key points noted
down.
Afterwards, the trainer should thank everyone and
ask the observers to complete feedback forms. When
the role players have noted down their thoughts, the
lead role player is asked to comment and then the
observers and finally the trainer should offer his or
her own comments and insights. If the role play has
been videoed, the whole video can be played or
highlights of the role play used to illustrate important
points. The trainer should ensure that the observer
feedback focuses on strengths as well as areas for
improvement and the key learning points must then
be summarised.
Simulation exercises
Simulation exercises are particularly valuable in
helping students translate theory into practice ("see/
hear" to "dolfeel"). They also have an essential role
when there is either an element of danger or
significantly high cost involved in the subject matter
being taught. In a simulation exercise, it is generally
the process of doing the task that is important rather
than the background theory and so the selected task
should be something relatively straightforward. The
theory and implications are better covered in
associated discussion groups.
A particularly important dimension of simulation
exercises is their role within the vocational training
process. In setting up simulation exercises for
vocational assessment, particular attention must be
paid to the performance criteria and the range
statement related to the element under assessment.
The assessment must be carefully planned and
recorded if it is to meet the quality requirements of
the Y.Q system. An opening interview between the
assessor and the candidate ensures that both are clear
about the task and the desired outcome as well as the
time and place of the assessment and the equipment
to be used. The assessor also has a duty to ensure that
28 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
the simulation exercise and equipment are appropriate
and as realistic as possible and the reason for a
simulated as opposed to actual activity recorded.
During the candidate's demonstration of his
competence, the assessor should be as unobtrusive as
possible, intervening only for matters of safety or if
the assessor's and the candidate's understanding of
the assessment requirements are obviously radically
different. On the completion of the demonstration of
competence, the assessor then tests the candidates
underpinning knowledge using a list of prepared (and
if necessary, supplementary) questions and these
questions should take into account those aspects of
the range statements which the simulation exercise
has not been able to address directly.
It is apparent, therefore, that when setting up a
simulation exercise, whether for assessment or general
training, the trainer/assessor must have a clear
understanding of the concepts and principles
underpinning the exercise and how this particular
exercise will help to achieve the objectives of the
course/session. The trainer should practise using the
exercise before the session and then make sure the
group undertaking the exercise is briefed very carefully
and has a clear understanding of its purpose. The
exercise must be carefully planned and staged ensuring
sufficient resources and time are allocated to it.
Observers should be thoroughly briefed as they
playa key role in helping the group understand how
they have worked to complete the task. The
experience of those taking part can be drawn on but
personal observations and insights should be kept until
the end.
Leading a discussion
A typical management training programme involves
a number of discussion sessions.
Discussion leading is particularly appropriate for
handling the implications of a training activity.
Concepts, principles and their application to work can
be considered and possible solutions evaluated after
analysis of the issues and problems. It is also invaluable
for feedback after a training activity.
The trainer's role is to develop people's
understanding of the subject by helping them to think
it through and relate their experience to that of others
in the group.
When conducting a discussion as a lead into an
activity or as a result of an activity the trainer should
decide the purpose of the discussion and how it could
contribute to the overall objectives of the session. A
discussion framework must be developed, for instance,
how much time should be devoted to the discussion
and what headings to use in discussing the topic. These
headings can be prepared as questions:
1. What is passage planning?
2. Why do we plan?
3. What are the skills required for passage planning?
It can be useful to chart the discussion topics on a
flipchart to give both the trainer and the group a focus.
When managing a discussion, the three important skills
are:
• Ask questions.
• Listen .•
• Summarise .•
Open questions must be asked to provoke thought
and discussion, for example 'Why is passage planning
an important tool in operational management? not 'Do
you think passage planning is ..... .' The questions must
be framed in an encouraging way and never used for
trapping or belittlement. The questions must link ideas
in the session and answers should be used to frame
the following question.
While listening, the trainer should be able to
paraphrase his or her understanding of a contribution,
while noting down important points and also looking
at the contributors.
Each section should be summarised at the
appropriate time 'So what we are saying is that passage
planning is ..... .' The summary points should be listed
on a flipchart and the whole discussion summarised
at the end.
For successful handling of the discussion, the trainer
must ensure that people's contributions are relevant
to the discussion topic by clarifying understanding of
each contribution before continuing. Since everyone
should have the opportunity to contribute no
contribution should be squashed and the 'silent'
contributors should be encouraged.
When reviewing the discussion, the trainer should
ask:
• How well did I achieve my objective?
• Was my discussion plan logical?
• Did my approach suit the group?
• Did everyone have an opportunity to contribute?
• Did I summarise at the appropriate points?
Breakout groups
There are times in a training programme when it may
be a good idea to reduce the size of the group to
achieve the specific training objective or activity.
Breakout groups are particularly appropriate for
preparation before a general group discussion. They
allow different aspects of a subject to be reviewed and
should be used when contributions from younger or
quieter group members need to be encouraged, or a
degree of competitiveness is required or people would
benefit from closer contact with a trainer/facilitator.
If the group is empowered to solve a problem or reach
a decision without support, then breakout groups may
be the answer.
Points to consider when planning to use breakout
groups are:
Equipment and additional accommodation.
Selection of members for groups - experience,
status, personality.
• Size and number of groups.
• Number of tutors/facilitators available.
• Group knowledge of subject.
There are many benefits of breakout groups. They
allow more opportunities for quieter people to
contribute in a more informal atmosphere with more
chance of individual participation. More can be
covered in the same time if breakout groups have
different briefs. Members tend to accept their own
findings, and these groups create movement,
discussion and team spirit, helping to identify strengths
and weaknesses and providing a powerful aid to team
building.
The disadvantages of breakout groups are that they
provide a danger of disagreements, with fewer
opinions to discuss and some members may be
excluded if there is a dominant character who tries to
take over. It is important to watch the timings very
carefully. If participants have not been well briefed, a
great deal of time can be wasted, and they also require
more resources, in the way of space and facilitators.
During the break out activities progress should be
checked at frequent intervals and time checks given.
The trainer should provide encouragement, assistance
or clarification if groups are floundering and ensure
that feedback points have been collated properly in
the allotted time.
During the feedback session the trainer must ask
breakout groups to choose a spokesperson to present
their feedback. Where groups have been doing the
same task, the spokesperson from group one should
be asked to feedback and subsequent groups should
then add any new ideas or angles, thus avoiding
unnecessary repetition.
Groups should always be praised and thanked for
their contributions and the spokesperson singled out
for a special word of thanks. To draw the feedback
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 29
session to a positive conclusion, the trainer should
summarise the key learning points which have
emerged.
Conducting a brainstorming session
Brainstorming can be used to generate many ideas in
a short space of time and can be effectively used as
part of a training session, course, or management
meeting. The activity is also a key element of hazard
identification within risk management.
Before starting the session, the trainer can get the
participants to start thinking creatively as individuals
by, for example, asking them to undertake a couple
of short brain-teaser activities such as listing ten uses
for a paperclip, in 45 seconds. Then the rules for
brainstorming should be put up and explained.
The participants should then be asked to list on a
flipchart as many ideas as possible on, for example
'how to improve emergency training and drills'. People
should call out ideas and write them up furiously. The
aim could be to reach 50 ideas in ten minutes. The
ideas can be way out and crazy; they do not need to
be feasible at this stage. A prize can be given to the
person who comes up with the most ideas, and another
to the person who raises the most laughs.
After this the serious business should begin. The
lists should be gone through a second time and the
team should 'star' any particular ideas that appeal.
These 'starred' ideas can be recorded on a flip chart or
wallboard, but no discussion at this stage.
Next, the 'star' ideas should be evaluated into three
categories, numbered as follows:
1. Possible.
2. Not sure.
3. Impossible.
The second and third categories should be
challenged as no idea should be dismissed
prematurely. Next groups should be formed and a list
of 5 ideas produced from the first category which the
participants are keen to pursue. Individual team
members should then commit to championing each
idea through to implementation .•
The key to brainstorming is to get the team to think
freely and to produce as many ideas as possible. The
evaluation process should always be left to the end.
The purpose is to get people to have a 'can do' mindset,
not a 'wouldn't worR, 'can't do' one.
Encouraging a team to think in a free-wheeling,
brainstorming way will spark creative ideas and make
training or meetings more fun.
30 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Using training videos
Training videos, if used in an interactive way, can
stimulate learning, increase enjoyment and enhance
the message.
If used as part of a structured training programme,
training videos can help to reinforce a message through
visualisation, humour and drama. They help to set an
example and model behaviour and vary the tone and
pace of the training. They can be used to introduce or
summarise a topic or activity and to stimulate thought
and discussion. If shown in clips or segments
interspersed with activities and discussions they can
be a particularly powerful tool.
When using a training video, the trainer should
have a clear purpose in mind and understand why it
is being shown and how it will contribute to the overall
objectives of the programme or activity. A training
video should be chosen which is both relevant and up
to date - no videos for the sake of videos or as an easy
'filler'. It should be previewed to assess its content and
comprehensive notes should be made - key training
points, story line, possible stop points and so on.
The trainer should decide when it should be used
- as an introduction or summary or to spark discussion
or to support an activity and the trainer's support
material which often accompanies the video should
be carefully studied. At the end of the session, the
effectiveness of the video should be reviewed.
Evaluating the training
Evaluation is such a critical aspect of training that it
should always be planned at the same time as the
programme itself.
The depth and width of evaluation will depend
upon a number of factors.
• The type of training, for example is it a short skills
session or a series of management development
modules?
• The timing of training, for example will the training
take one hour, one day, one week or will it be
developed as a series of modules over six months?
The level of training, for example is the training
designed foe senior managers, middle managers,
supervisors?
• The specified training need, for example is it to fill
a gap in the learning, knowledge, skill, attitude or
is it perhaps to bridge a business need?
The purpose of evaluation is generally to improve
the quality of training, considering aspects such as
trainer delivery, methods, length, content; to assess
the effectiveness of the overall programme, to justify
the programme (do the benefits outweigh the costs?),
and to justify the role of training.
,
Focuses on th e Iearner
s ....
. ..
enjoyment 0 f th e trammg
Focuses on what the learner's
have learned by the end of the
programme
Focuses on measuring the effects
of training on the learner's job
performance
Focuses on measuring the effects
on organisational performance
Figure 3.7 The evaluation chain
Evaluation at reaction level
Purpose - to determine the learner's enjoyment, i.e.
how they think or feel about the training
programme.
Benefits - it provides an opportunity for learners to
comment directly on the quality of training.
Provides the trainer with feedback to improve the
effectiveness of future courses for other learners.
Simple to administer at low cost.
Issues - scepticism about its usefulness beyond the
training programme and its effects on improved job
performance.
Who carries it out? - learners and trainers.
Methods - usually learners and sometimes trainers
complete self assessment questionnaires, commonly
called 'happy sheets'. Can also include informal
observation, discussion and highly structured
questionnaires for management training.
Timing - most often carried out at the end of a training
programme / session / module.
Process - questionnaires should be handed out at the
start of the programme to allow learners time to
absorb questions and consider the answers. Time
must be set aside for completion of a questionnaire,
normally as part of the programme summary. The
trainer should decide whether questionnaires
should be completed anonymously or not. People
are often more honest if they are anonymous. The
trainer should also explain the purpose of the
questionnaIre to gauge reactIOns for Improvmg
future programmes.
Evaluation at learning level
Purpose - to establish, with reference to the stated
learning objectives, what the learner has learned
by the end of the programme session.
Benefits - it provides an objective assessment of how
well the learning objectives have been met. It relies
upon the formulation of well defined learning
objectives at the outset.
Issues - learning outcomes cannot be measured
objectively if objectives are loose and not defined
in behavioural terms.
Who carries it out? - learner and trainer.
Timing -learning level evaluation takes place during
the training event. It provides feedback on the
training process and the individual's training needs.
Methods - there are three types of learning to be
evaluated. Firstly knowledge based learning is mostly
evaluated through simple questionnaires, multiple-
choice questionnaires and open ended
questionnaires. It is difficult to assess as a discreet
area as it is usually integrated with skills.
Secondly skills based learning is best assessed through
observation, for example role play of a mock
coaching session or meeting using trained observers.
Thirdly attitude based learning is particularly difficult
to evaluate and can involve quite complex
measurement techniques. Attitude is best measured
where changed behaviours will operate, i.e. in the
workplace.
Process - design the evaluation when developing the
programme and deciding upon the programme
outcomes. It is these outcomes that your evaluation
will seek to measure. Explain the purpose of the
evaluation to learners at the start of the programme.
Then explain, if appropriate, how the evaluation
will be fed back. Finally ensure that any
questionnaires used are well constructed and easy
to understand.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 31
Evaluation at job performance level
Purpose - to measure the effects of training on the
learner's job performance.
Benefits - it assesses how well the learning - knowledge,
skills and attitudes - have been applied at work and
is therefore a most critical and valuable stage.
Issues - this level of evaluation is frequently the least
well planned and conducted. Its effectiveness is
dependent upon the training needs analysis being
properly conducted at the outset.
Who carries it out? - it can involve the learner, the
learner's manager or an external assessor such as
an NVQ assessor.
Methods - most common methods are that the learner
self-assesses or that the manager assesses learners
either through:
• Observation - formal, informal.
• Self-completed questionnaires.
• Interviews one to one, by telephone or group
interviews.
Process - select candidates for programmes according
to their needs. Ensure a pre-course briefing takes
place between the delegate and the manager to
discuss the objectives and purpose of the training.
Next, ensure that a post course debriefing is held
as soon after the course as possible between delegate
and manager to discuss immediately reactions to
the training and further action or support as
required. Lastly carry out job performance
evaluation in the work place after an appropriate
time when the person's application of what he/she
learnt is assessed.
Evaluation at organisationallevel
Purpose - to assess the contribution the training has
made to the performance of the department!
organisation.
Benefits - the ultimate justification that training is
effective in contributing to business performance.
32 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Issues - this level of evaluation can be difficult and
time consuming since performance is dependent
on many factors other than training. You need to
take a realistic view of what can be assessed.
Who is involved? - trainers, line managers, senior
management and others, such as human resources.
Process - identify the key organisation performance
indicators at the training needs analysis stage. For
example, for a safety managing programme,
performance indicators might include accident
statistics, claims record, staff generated safety
initiatives and the willingness to report 'near miss'
occurrences under a 'no blame' culture.
Decide how long the training will take to affect the
indicator. For example, a management programme
which explores goal setting, coaching and feedback
may take several months to impact on the
performance criteria. It is also important at this stage
to identify any other factors which might impact
on the results.
Set up systems to maintain the results and allocate
responsibilities for tracking the evaluation.
Conclusion
Group training has an important role to playas part
of a range of training and educational options which
are increasingly being owned and managed by the
student. This puts the trainer in the role of provider
and facilitator.
At the other end of the spectrum are those events,
such as statutory drills, which should and could be
valuable training sessions (and not just "Board of Trade
sports"). Whether they are depends very much upon
the energy and enthusiasm of those in charge. Training
can be as stimulating and satisfying for the trainer as
it should be for the student if the trainer is clear about
the desired outcomes, chooses the right mix of aids
and techniques and starts preparation in plenty of time.
 Chapter FOUR

THE PREPARATION OF A LECfURE

by Elaine Ives BSc FRMetS and John McEnaney BA MNI

A graduate of the University of Edinburgh, Elaine Ives holds a Teaching Q,ualification in Further Education from the Jordanhill
Campus of the University of Strathclyde (Merit in Professional Studies). She joined the staff of Glasgow College of Nautical Studies in
7978 as a lecturer in Meteorology and Applied Science. Her current post is Head of the School of Maritime Studies in the Maritime
Studies Faculty.

John McEnaney joined Ellerman City Liners as a deck cadet in 7967. He obtained his Class 7/Master s Certificate in 7978 and left
Ellerman sin 7980 while serving as Chief Officer. He thenjoined the staff of Glasgow College of Nautical Studies as a Lecturer. While
working at G. C.N.S. he has obtained a B.A. from the Open University and a Teaching Qyalification in Further Education from the
Jordanhill Campus of the University of Strathclyde (Merit in Teaching). His current post is Resource Manager jOr the Faculty of
Maritime Studies.

Chapter overview
The formal lecture is a form of education which has
often been criticised. One popular definition of a
lecturer is "a person who talks in another person's
sleep". This statement can be all too true, particularly
when the lecturer has not given sufficient thought to
the process. Thorough preparation of a lecture is
essential if the lecturer is to retain the attention of the
audience throughout the whole of the time available.
At its best a well prepared, well delivered lecture can
be a very forceful means of communication and of
arousing interest.
Introduction
When preparing, the most important fact to resolve is
the purpose of the lecture. This must be clearly
established in the lecturer's mind before any further
planning can proceed. As T.H. Huxley said "Some
experiences of popular lecturing had convinced me
that the necessity of making things plain to
uninstructed people was one of the very best means
of clearing up the obscure corners in one's own mind".
Once the strategic purpose of the lecture has been
established the specific objectives can then be
identified.
The lecturer must give a realistic appraisal of
whether or not there will be sufficient time to deliver
the material. It is vital that the lecturer does not over
estimate the knowledge that the student has at the
commencement of the lecturer. The needs of the
students are of paramount importance. It is of no
benefit to students to hear a lecture which is beyond
their grasp and so the content of the lecture must be
adapted to suit their needs. Any knowledge or
concepts essential to the understanding of the lecture
must be revised or introduced during the course of
the lecture.
It is a common failing of inexperienced lecturers
to attempt to cover too much material in too short a
time. It is a case of "more haste less speed". Students
are de-motivated if they feel that they are being rushed
and cannot keep up with the pace of the lecture. It is
also important that the lecture finishes on time.
Students are often given very little time to move from
one lecture to the next. If one lecturer runs over time
the next lecture may be disrupted, so allow for this
when planning.
The introductory stage of the lecture is crucial to
its success. The introduction provides the framework
for the whole of the lecture and sends a series of signals
to the audience. Some of these signals are
unintentional. Rather like the entrance of an actor or
ac~ress onto a stage, the lecturer must use the first few
mm~tes of the lectu~e to gain the attention of the
audIence and establIsh a relationship with them.
Making eye contact is a powerful way of establishing
a rapport. Once established, the lecturer can continue
to use eye contact as an aid to maintaining interest
and obtaining immediate feedback.
The need to bring a lecture to a sensible conclusion
is often not considered to be essential, but an effective
lecture should have a well planned ending in addition
to a well planned introduction and structure.
Summarising the main points of the lecture and the
concepts which have linked them assists the students
in subsequent recall of the material. This can be
important where the lecture is not a stand alone event
but part .of a cours~ or series of lectures, where
concepts mtroduced m one lecture carry forward to
the subsequent lectures.
The summary should be concise. This is not the
point at which the entire lecture is repeated. It is

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 33

important not to indulge in vague rambling. It is also
bad practice to signal to the students that the lecture
is reaching its conclusion and then spend a prolonged
period talking about a different topic. If the students
have concentrated throughout the lecture they may
well have received as much information as they can
cope with without a break. Students become frustrated
with repeated false endings and rapidly switch off. This
is particularly true if the lecture is the last event of the
day or immediately precedes a meal break.
In order to promote learning amongst students a
number of simple techniques can be used. The lecture
should begin with relatively easy material and progress
from the easier concepts to the more difficult ones. It
is always advisable to try and begin with thoughts,
ideas and concepts with which the students are familiar.
These provide a foundation of knowledge from which
it is possible to branch out into new ideas. Any
examples that are used for illustration should be simple
and relevant to the topic, the interests and the
background of the students. Rather than beginning
with a general principle it is often better to use a series
of particular examples as an introduction. The general
principle can then be deduced from the specific
examples. If possible the lecturer should attempt to
prepare some alternative strategies to explain difficult
points.
In order to assist with understanding, different
techniques can be considered to promote student
participation in the learning process. One option is
the use of questions.
Questions are used to promote and test
understanding and also to encourage students to think
for themselves.
They can also be used in most teaching situations
to seek out facts, for clarification, justification or to
focus on important points. They can also be used to
redirect if the lecture wanders from the objective.
In order to use questions effectively they should
be planned, they should also be clear and easy to
understand and if possible short.
Another Option is to use "Buzz Groups". These
are short sharp student discussions (say 2 to 5 minutes)
based around a small, well defined problem or topic
for discussion.
Buzz groups can be used to encourage student
participation, student - student learning and idea
interchange. They help develop verbal expression
abilities and most of all provide feedback on the
lecture, students are more likely to ask/answer
questions in a larger audience if they have previously
discussed the matter with a few fellow students first.
34 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Buzz groups can also be used effectively to link one
section of a lecture to another.
The idea, like all good ideas, is simple. The lecturer
sets a problem or a discussion topic and invites the
students to form groups of 3 or 4 to discuss or solve
the problem set. The solution or summary of
discussion points can be shown to the class on OHP.
For best results, however, the groups should be invited
to present their findings on flip charts. These results
are then drawn together by the lecturer, discussed and
presented on OHP as before.
Although feedback is available from tutorials or
assessments after a lecture, the lecturer requires more
immediate feedback. The lecturer needs to develop
the skills to become sensitive to nonverbal feedback
as a means of monitoring the progress of the lecture.
Fidgeting, doodling, yawning, looks of confusion or
bewilderment are indicative that problems have
developed. If these reactions are widespread
throughout the audience it is preferable to back track
and attempt to remedy the problem. Students lose
interest when they are unable to understand any stage.
If students have failed to grasp an essential point in
the early stages of the lecture they will not master the
later stages.
A lecture which is technically well prepared can
fail due to poor presentation. The unconscious signals
which a lecturer sends to the audience also have an
influence. A lecturer should convey interest and
enthusiasm, even if these are not felt. In some respects
the lecturer is rather like someone giving a theatrical
performance. The lecturer's voice, gestures and
mannerisms all have an effect on the audience. This
non-vocal communication provides signals just as
strongly as spoken words. Control of these factors is
difficult to learn. One strategy is to arrange a video
recording of a practice lecture. It is possible to identify
lecturing faults by reviewing the tape, and hopefully
to find remedies for them.
When simply listening to a lecture students have
no visual stimulus. Audio visual material, correctly
used, can be a powerful tool for maintaining interest.
It is particularly useful in the case of diagrams and
illustrations.
If audio-visual aids are used they must be well
prepared. Before constructing a lecture around a range
of audio visual materials it is advisable, whenever
possible, to check the facilities which will be available.
Even if a video recorder or overhead projector is
supplied it may be that the physical constraints of the
room will restrict their use. They must be easily
accessible to the entire audience.
 In today's world there can be a temptation to use
audio visual material when it is not really required
and is producing no real advantage to the lecture.
Merely scribbling a few words on an overhead
projector acetate provides no more benefit than writing
the same words on the blackboard. Darkening the
room for prolonged periods may induce sleep in the
audience, particularly if the lecture follows a heavy
meal. If a piece of video or film is used it should be
given a clear introduction by the lecturer and students
should be briefed on what to look out for during the
course of the film. Video can be particularly useful
since it is relatively easy to select clips that are relevant
to the topic and time is not wasted on extraneous
material which can disrupt the flow of the lecture.
The lecturer must decide what type of permanent
record of the lecture would be desirable for students.
One option is for students to take their own notes.
Some students may be mature enough to write their
own notes while the lecture is delivered, but many
students are unable to cope. Some simply cannot write
quickly enough. These students may well become
frustrated and lose heart as they begin to fall behind
the lecturer. For others the actual taking of notes
becomes more important than listening to what is said
and trying to follow the logical thread of the lecture.
Many students are unable to discriminate between
different statements made by the lecturer and so they
miss important points. There are also some students
who just cannot cope with writing and listening at the
same time. Despite the difficulties there can be
important benefits from note-taking. If note taking is
considered as the most suitable it is important to ensure
that the physical environment is appropriate. If the
room is darkened for the showing of a video, film or
slides the level of illumination must be restored so
that students can see well enough to write. There must
also be a suitable surface for students to rest their paper
in order to write. If they have to rest note-pads on
their knees while they write, it quickly becomes very
uncomfortable.
If a suitable text-book is available it is possible to
organise the lecture based upon the text. This is rarely
satisfactory, however it does ensure that the students
have a suitable reference. A possible drawback is that
it can mean that students do not attend the lecture
because they feel that they can just read the book.
Some lecturers choose to give their students a
handout. This provides the student with a ready
written record of the lecture. It should not be used as
a substitute for lecture preparation. Occasionally,
lecturers will put all of their available effort into the
preparation of the handout material to the detriment
of the actual lecture. This is based upon the theory
that it does not matter too much how poor the lecture
is since the students always have the handout to fall
back on. In these circumstances the students might
have been better served by giving them a book to read.
Better produced handouts provide an essential outline
of objectives of the lecture, the main substance, key
references and suggest further reading. It is possible
to distribute the handout material prior to the lecture
in order that students can do some reading before the
lecture is delivered. Alternatively, the handout can be
issued towards the end of the lecture when the lecturer
is summarising the main points or upon completion
of the lecture.
One useful compromise is to issue some structured
notes. This itemises the main points of the lecture and
provides spaces for students to write in the information
to complete the notes. This ensures that students are
participating by partially writing their own notes.
Once the subject matter of the lecture has been
planned most lecturers begin their reading. Even if
the topic is a very familiar one, with which the lecturer
feels well informed, further reading is worth while.
This is particularly true when dealing with topics where
research is moving at a very fast pace. Even with more
established material it may be that reading will change
the lecturer's approach. Reading can prove to be very
time consuming. It is important to try and concentrate
on information. It can be more efficient to make notes
while reading in order to avoid having to reread an
entire text. At this stage the lecture may be subject to
drastic revision. Some areas which now appear
important may have been omitted previously and
some material may now appear to be of lesser
importance. It can be seen that to deliver a well
structured lecture a thorough plan has to be prepared
to cover all aspects.
The stage is then reached when the lecture plan
can be written. This is probably the most important
part of the lecture, like all things in life good
preparation is required before a professional
performance can be given and this is particularly so
with a lecture. A one hour lecture may require three
to four hours to prepare. Try giving a ten minute 'talk',
on a subject with which you are reasonably familiar,
without any preparation and see for yourself.
Therefore before commencing any lecture a
comprehensive lecture/lesson plan should be drawn
up, as this allows you to set down the format of the
lecture and helps you to focus on the strategic purpose
and specific objectives.
The basic requirements of a lesson plan are:-
a) A list comprising - course, subject, lesson title,
expected number of students and type of student
(rating, cadet, mate or master).
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 35
b) A full list of the specific objectives together with
any prerequisites and equipment (OHP, chalk
board, flip chart, handouts, etc.).
c) The lesson plan should incorporate the following
features:-
i. A detailed introduction to the lesson including
examples, illustrations and revision questions.
ii. All verbal questions, buzz group and discussion
questions together with expected answers.
iii. Details of what you will say to the students
during the lecture and what you will ask them
to do (including any instructions as necessary).
IV. An indication of where supporting materials will
be used during the lecture i.e. are any visual
aids necessary other than the standard Overhead
Projector (OHP) and/or chalkboard?
v. Details of revision questions, summaries,
references to textbooks, etc.
The sequence of the plan should follow the planned
sequence of events in the intended lecture.
On completion it is important to check that all the
objectives have been fulfilled then review and adjust
the plan as necessary.
There are two main types of lecture currently used
- the Straight (Classic) Lecture and the Broken (Step
by Step) Lecture.
For some situations a straight (classic) lecture can
be the most appropriate. This is a period of
uninterrupted talk or presentation. It can be useful
when large groups of students are involved (50 or
more) particularly at the early stages of a course to
outline both the syllabus and the course content. It
can also be useful in helping to present material
gathered from several sources in one presentation and
to allow experts to present findings or opinions thus
encouraging discussion and critical awareness in
students.
The basic requirements for a straight lecture:-
a) The lecturer must be seen & heard - "if they haven't
heard it, it hasn't been said".
b) His/her voice should be clear, interesting, easy to
listen to and paced.
c) Any written or diagrammatic material for OHP
should be readable.
d) The lecture should be structured.
36 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
e) There should be sufficient back up tutorials for
students to gain proficiency in the topic.
As always the content and/ or purpose of the lecture
will playa significant part in determining the structure
of the lecture. It may take the form of a verbal
presentation only or a talk illustrated with visual
display material.
In order to structure the lesson the lecturer ;rl1ould
consider what the general aim of the lecture is, and
what you expect the student to be able to do as a result
of the lecture.
A typical structure may be as follows:-
5 mins: Introduction and statement of your
intentions.
15 mins: Main point.
5 mins: Review of main point.
15 mins: Second point.
5 mins: Restatement and review of main and
secondary objectives.
5 mins: Student questions.
5 mins: Conclusion/ summary.
There are numerous disadvantages to the straight
lecture and these can be generally be grouped under
two main headings:-
Learning: no feedback as to student learning i.e. the
lecturer does all the talking, not geared toward the
learning needs of the student i.e. it is at the lecturer's
pace. Research indicates that it does not seem to
facilitate effective recall.
Boredom: distractions i.e. note taking, reading OHP
etc. Lack of variety in student activity i.e. listening
only.
Finally, research indicates an average attention
span of most students to be about 20 minutes and also,
straight lectures require a great deal of hard work from
the lecturer.
An alternative format, the broken (step by step)
lecture, can be used.
"It is fallacious to assume that learning takes place
when the student merely hears the teacher. There must
be questions, discussions, problems and exercises in
order to maintain a sufficiently high level of interest."
(Powell)
This format assists with the overcoming of the
many problems which arise with the straight lecture
particularly those causing the most concern i.e:-
a) The absence of direct feedback as to student
learning.
b) The boredom factor.
To avoid these we have to look to what alternatives
we should try to test the students understanding/
learning and take corrective action as we proceed,
while at the same time trying to boost student
confidence and encourage their participation.
Boredom can be alleviated by varying the structure
of the lecture, introducing student activities and
encourage talking to the lecturer and to each other.
This leads us to the use of the Broken Lecture (Step
By Step). This is a structured lesson broken up by
questions and other means to allow feedback.
The basic requirements are the same as for the
straight lecture with the addition of a step by step
structure built around the needs of the learner rather
than the needs of the lecturer, i.e. with built in feedback
from the students through planned questions and buzz
groups. However this may not be appropriate with
large numbers of students as discussion group sizes
should be about 3 or 4 people, therefore this type of
lecture only works for numbers less than about 40.
A typical structure for an alternative lecture would
be:-
10 mins: Introduction and statement of objectives
using planned questions.
10 mins: Main point.
10 mins: Buzz group based on main point and
introducing secondary point.
10 mins: Second point.
10 mins: Student task based on objectives.
10 mins: Revision using planned questions from
lecturer.
As stated earlier regardless of the type it should be
obvious that for an effective lecture a detailed lesson
plan must be drawn up prior to delivery.
Conclusion
In order to assist with the presentation of a lecture the
following procedures are worth remembering.
Introduction
Try to have an introduction which is interesting and
related to the lesson which follows. Let the students
know what they will be able to do at the end of the
lesson and try to present the most interesting aspect
of the material at this stage.
Understanding
Make information comprehensible by using simple,
interesting examples to illustrate each point.
Proceeding from the known to the unknown and from
particular examples to a general principle, keep any
principles and definitions as END points.
Recapitulation
Introduce refinements gradually. Introducing too
many difficulties at once causes confusion and leads
to a lack of understanding. Try to ensure proficiency
at one stage before proceeding to the next. Recap in
stages. Do not postpone all recap until the end of the
lesson. Students lose interest when they are unable to
understand any stage of a lesson and understanding
of any stage may depend on mastery of an earlier one.
Student participation
Try to make the student anticipate each step you are
going to take i.e. try to present what is required to
make each step clear before proceeding to it.
Encourage their activity and participation at all
stages, particularly when producing the summary.
They should be able to explain in their own words
what they have learned.
For most lecturers the preparation and delivery of
lectures is something which they develop over a period
of time. The important thing is to learn from your
experiences. Even the best prepared of lectures may
not go well on a particular day. Analyse your successes
and failures and try to identify ways in which you can
improve. Careful preparation cannot always guarantee
success, but a lack of preparation usually results in
failure.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 37
 Chapter FIVE

FACfORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN DEVELOPING

A CURRICULUM FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING
by Professor Captain Giinther Zade FNI

World Maritime University

Gunther Zade FNI has, since 7983, been professor, vice-rector and academic dean of the World Maritime University (WMU) in
Malmo, Sweden. BefOrejoining WM[1, he worked fOr fifteen years at the Nautical College (Hochschule Jilr Nautik) in Bremen,
Germany, as lecturer, professor, vice-rector and rector.

He was involved in the development of the first postgraduate curriculum fOr WMU in 7982 and early 7983 and has thereafter
contributed to, co-ordinated and continues to coordinate the continuous improvement of its delivery and adaptation to new education
and training needs. In Bremen, he was involved in the changefrom a shipboard-confined curriculum to a shiP-shore curriculum fOr
increasedprofessional ability of master mariners and in the introduction of an academic degreeprogramme.

At WMU he was directly responsible fOr seven years in educating and training nautical, and later also marine engineering,
lecturers. In Bremen he was mainly trained on-the-job as a nautical lecturer and, after additional studies, obtained the German
equivalent of a Master of Science degree in Nautical Studies and Education.

He is a previous and the present chairman of the International Maritime Lecturers' Association (IMLA) and chairman of the
European Commission s concerted action on Maritime Education and Training.

Introduction
to be a widespread understanding that a curriculum
Curriculum development is nothing new. The factors provides planned learning opportunities and
which have to be considered have been known for a experience to students. For the purpose of this text
long time. Curriculum development is a mixture of this basic definition is used.
analysis and design work. It is a practical exercise that
requires common sense and is best done in a team. The following factors should be considered when
Developing a curriculum is by far the best way of developing a curriculum:
learning to do it. So as not to miss important factors
or details, or spend too much time on trial and error, Objectives.
a list of factors which have to be considered when Students.
developing a curriculum can be very helpful in Content.
ensuring an organized and efficient approach. The Level.
following text provides such a list of factors. It is an Methods.
annotated list, providing some details of each factor Materials.
on what has to be taken into account when dealing Media.
with it. Sequence.
Time Allocation.
There are many publications on curriculum Assessment.
development and these often comprise more than two Evaluation.
hundred pages. A summary on curriculum Continuous Improvement.
development like this one has, therefore, to leave out
many details and concentrate on essentials. I have Objectives and students, above all the students'
included what I have found to be essential from my qualifications before starting a curriculum, need to be
own experience in curriculum development for known before the contents of the curriculum can be
students in maritime education and training, students determined. Level, methods, materials, media,
who want to obtain a certificate of competency and sequence and time allocation also have to be
others who have already obtained one. considered. They largely decide the form in which
the curriculum is presented to students. Assessment
Definition and evaluation aim at finding out the effectiveness of
the curriculum and continuous improvement uses the
There is no internationally agreed definition of outcome of assessment and evaluation to improve the
"curriculum" (Print, 1993, pp 7-9)although there seems curriculum.

38 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

1 Objectives
What are the students expected to learn?
Educational objectives can be divided into three
domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. "The
cognitive domain, ... , includes those objectives which
deal with the recall or recognition of knowledge and
the development of intellectual abilities and skills. The
affective domain includes objectives which describe
changes in interest, attitudes and values and the
development of appreciations and adequate
adjustment". (Bloom, 1956, Book 1, p6) The
psychomotor domain includes objectives which are
related to coordination between mind and muscle as,
for example, in operating a winch or turning a steering
wheel. This text concentrates on educational objectives
in the cognitive domain.
Educational objectives in the affective domain are
normally part of a curriculum although they are often
not specifically mentioned. The International Safety
Management Code (ISM Code), quality assurance (QA)
in the implementation of STCW 95 and the emerging
importance of a "safety culture" relate partly to the
affective domain. It would be advisable, therefore, to
reflect these developments in the objectives of Maritime
Education and Training (MET) curricula by specifying
educational objectives in the affective domain.
Educational objectives should specify what each
student should have achieved after having successfully
completed a curriculum, i.e. what the student is
expected to know or to be able to do. Objectives can
be general (the student knows and understands legal
provisions for performing his duties on board) or
specific (the student understands and is able to apply
Rule 19 of the Rules of the Road). "General" and
"specific" should not be taken as rigid categories.
The use of "knows", "understands", "is able to
apply" indicates a hierarchical classification of
educational objectives. "Apply" is more than
"understand" and "understand" is more than "know".
The complete "ranking" of a widely used hierarchy
consists of "evaluate" (highest), "synthesize", "analyse",
"apply", "understand" and "know" (Bloom, 1956,
Book 1). Other verbs than those mentioned can be
used for specifying objectives as, for example,
demonstrate, describe, explain, compare and use.
Preferably they should relate to a class or a level in a
hierarchy of educational objectives.
The literature on curriculum development often
also contains a hierarchy of educational objectives by
naming the aims (most general), goals and objectives
(most specific). This semantically different
classification is neglected in this text because the range
between general and specific objectives can be used
to substitute for such "ranking".
Educational objectives should be as close as
possible to the actual knowledge and performance to
which they relate. The existing gap between training
outcome and job requirements, the training-job gap,
sometimes make it impossible to meet the job
requirements by training to 100%. Educational
objectives must always be a realistic description of
what can be achieved and should not reflect wishful
thinking.
If they are not already given, then educational
objectives for a subject should be specified by those
in the faculty who have had most professional and
teaching experience with it. Caution has to be used
so that the specialists stay within reasonable limits and
do not try to increase the importance of their subject
too much. This can be prevented by continuous
communication among all those who develop the
curriculum.
STCW 95 already provides, in its Code, support
to facultys of MET institutes by including educational
objectives (competence, knowledge, understanding
and proficiency) and a listing of contents.
2 Students
Who are the students? What do they know and what
are they able to do already? How do they learn?
The curriculum is designed to impart knowledge
and develop skills which students need to meet the
curriculum objectives. It is therefore important to be
aware of the knowledge and skills of the students
before they enter the curriculum. Generally, three
aspects have to be considered when identifying such
a "starting point"; general and vocational education,
the professional experience of students and their
learning style - their motivation.
Somebody with a general education of 12 years
with A levels in mathematics, physics and other
sciences can be taught the same subjects in a different
way to somebody who has completed a general
education of 8 years. Somebody with a few years
experience as a ship's officer can be taught the same
subjects in a different way to somebody who has served
as a rating or has not had shipboard experience at all.
The learning style of younger people and adults is
to some degree different so it is important to take into
account the average age of the students and their
learning experiences when developing a curriculum.
In the affective domain, it is important to obtain
an understanding of the motivation with which
students begin a curriculum and which general attitude
they have to it.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 39
 All three aspects - knowledge, learning style and
motivation - may differ from student to student but
will also have elements in common. It is these common
elements on which the identification of the starting
point has to concentrate.
It is worthwhile to "tune in" with students as it
provides teachers with the opportunity to offer a more
effective curriculum.
3 Contents
What to teach? Which subjects? Which skills?
The content of an MET curriculum confined to
preparing students for shipboard service is mainly
determined by STCW 95. Only when providing a
ship shore curriculum for professional mobility in the
maritime field need curriculum contents be specified,
as well as for short refresher and updating courses.
For a ship shore curriculum, graduates of maritime
colleges working in the maritime sector ashore could
be interviewed as to what qualifications they were
missing when they left the sea for the shore. Their
employers could be asked what they found missing in
the qualifications of deck or engineer officers when
they came ashore.
For short refresher courses, the contents should be
rather obvious as the contents of the course are based
on previously provided curricula. For short upgrading
courses, an assessment of the potential students
training needs, preferably in cooperation with them
or their employees, is normally the most effective
approach.
4 Level
With what level of presentation can students cope?
The level has to be determined at which the content
should or can be taught so that students are enabled
to cope with the curriculum. The appropriate level
can be derived from the information about the
students.
A student with A levels in mathematics and physics
can be taught navigation mainly as applied
mathematics and physics. A student with eight years
general education cannot be taught navigation in the
same way; the student may need some upgrading in
mathematics and physics before he can successfully
be taught navigation but even then the mathematics
and physics used will probably be less advanced than
for the better educated student.
The level is often defined by the level of abstraction
and generalization with which students can cope. It
may be inefficient to teach master mariner students
40 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Fourier Analysis, a mathematical procedure for the
description of periodic functions, for applying it to
the calculation of tides, the deviation of the magnetic
compass and the description of electromagnetic waves.
It will, in most cases, be more effective to explain the
subjects separately.
5 Methods
How to teach?
Teaching methods in maritime colleges consist
mainly of a combination of lectures during which
students can ask questions, and of supervised and
sometimes independent exercises in classrooms or
laboratories. This interactive method, supported by
do it yourself activities, has always been an advantage
of MET over the use of one way communication, i.e.
the teacher talks and "sends" and the students listen
and "receive".
Student involvement and interactive teaching are
the key words to effective teaching. Methods which
provide for them should preferably be used. The
method of teaching may be influenced by the media
used (see paragraph 7 - Media).
Teaching can be seen as an information transfer
from teacher to students. The teacher must.be able to
"send" the information on a "frequency" on which
students can "receive" it. The information should be
given in "manageable doses" (for the students) and in
a logical order. The teacher should obtain feedback
on whether his information has been "received" by
the student and has been understood. The students
"intake" of information is facilitated by the teacher's
use of additional stimuli besides "talk and chalk".
Teacher's gestures, visually presented keywords,
diagrams, pictures and also audiovisual stimuli
enhance the effectiveness of teaching.
It is useful (as for education in the affective domain)
to provide students with the opportunity for group
work and independent work.
Teaching methods can differ depending on what is
being taught. The teaching of concepts may have to
be approached in a different way than the teaching of
practical details.
A good teacher knows the entire range of
possibilities and makes use of the most appropriate
ones for the students.
6 Materials
What textbooks are to be used? What scripts have to
be prepared?
 The most important prerequisite for the choice of
an appropriate textbook is the teacher's familiarity with
all textbooks on the subject. It is even more useful if
the teacher is also familiar with publications on the
subject in maritime periodicals. The difference
between textbooks and periodicals lies in the degree
of 'up-to-dateness'. Textbooks contain information that
is old compared to the information in magazines and
journals.
Some subjects in an engineer, deck officer, chief
engineer or master mariner curriculum are "old"
subjects which have changed little with the years.
Nevertheless, the increased use of computers and
automation has had an impact on them by, for
example, considerably reducing the need for manual
calculations. Previous books on navigation which
provided ample space for formulae, calculations and
examples are today out of date. Other curriculum
subjects are steadily developing and textbooks on
them, if any, are quickly outdated whereas publications
in periodicals normally give the state of the art.
Textbooks may not always suffice as written
materials for students and publications from magazines
and journals may increasingly have to be used. They
are sometimes too scientific for students of maritime
colleges, sometimes too general.
The conclusion from this is that teachers will
increasingly have to prepare scripts for their students
if they want to supply them with appropriate written
materials.
7 Media
Which media should be used in teaching and how?
The quality of curricula has profited greatly from
the availability of modern technology including, for
example, overhead projectors, video players,
multimedia devices and, above all, simulators.
These media provide various stimuli and the
advanced ones can be used interactively. Simulators
help reduce the training job gap (see paragraph 1 -
Objectives) and facilitate the transfer of training to
shipboard reality.
It is wrong to believe that the use of advanced
technology automatically improves a curriculum. The
teacher needs to be familiar with the potential of the
technology and how it can best be used for students.
It is here where considerable shortcomings exist.
Having a simulator at one's disposal does not mean
much if the necessary experience is not available for
using it effectively. The use of simulators in a
curriculum has to be approached with consideration
and care, as has the use of other media.
As a general rule, media should be used when they
can help increase the effectiveness of a curriculum.
They do so when they allow information to be
presented in a more appropriate form and better than
a teacher and, in general, if they support and facilitate
learning.
The key provision for the successful use of media
is the qualifications of the teacher and his/her
familiarity with the potential and use of the technology.
The latter should not be used to "pour" additional
information into students but to provide them with
experience which supports their learning progress.
The effective use of media requires considerable
preparatory effort and extended experience, especially
with more complex and complicated media.
8 Sequence
How can content be put into effective order?
An obvious answer to this question could be that a
logical order should be followed. Although this is
basically the correct answer, it is not as simple as this.
It is normally of benefit for students if they are
given a "rough picture" before the parts of it are taught
which will finally form a detailed comprehensive
picture. Students should be given an overview of what
they can expect before the parts of the subjects are
taught. Whether an approach from specific to general
is more effective than the opposite depends on the
subject and the learners' pre-qualifications.
The sequence of teaching should be planned in
detail together with practical exercises and
assessments.
9 Time Allocation
How should time be allocated to subjects or parts of
subjects?
Time allocation should be based on the ability of
the students, or rather on the ability of a fictitious
"average student", to cope with a certain amount of
information and on the effectiveness of the teaching
to provide such information. Two major mistakes can
be made - to allocate too little time or to allocate too
much. Too little time leaves students behind and
unable to cope with the information presented. They
will then "give up". Too much time leads to students
being bored and losing interest. If these mistakes
cannot be prevented by a correct assessment of the
students' abilities in the first "run" of a curriculum,
then they can best be identified through an interactive
teaching style.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 41
 The allocation of hours to subjects and parts of
subjects also depends on whether students are
expected to do homework or not and are given the
time for it. If they are in class only during mornings,
then they can use at least the free afternoons for
independent work. They can learn, go to the library,
do homework, exercise their skills in the operation of
equipment and so on. They can also prepare
themselves for classes during the coming days or
weeks. If, on the other hand, students are in class all
day, as is normally the case in short refresher or
upgrading courses, then the curriculum has to be
completed during the day and little time is left for
additional individual work.
Some flexibility should be left in the allocation of
hours to parts of a subject in the first "run" of a
curriculum. The number of hours for the entire subject
could be fixed but the hours for parts of a subject
should be provisional so that an adaptation of times
between parts of a subject can be facilitated. With each
subsequent "run", the number of hours for parts of a
subject can be more strictly adhered to.
10 Assessment
What needs to be assessed? How can students be
assessed? When should assessment take place? Who
should assess?
The most important element that needs to be
assessed is the effectiveness of the curriculum. How
effective was the information transfer from teacher to
students? What do the students know and what can
they do after having completed certain subjects and
the entire curriculum?
Obviously, assessment has to be made against the
educational objectives. Assessment results give
feedback to both students and teachers. Students can
use them to control their learning progress and as a
source of motivation. Teachers can use assessment
results as feedback of their efforts, the appropriateness
of the curriculum for the students and as a source of
motivation. Successful students are motivated to
maintain their study efforts by confirmation of their
study behaviour. Less successful students are
motivated to increase their study efforts so as to be
more successful next time. Teachers are continuously
motivated for designing an appropriate curriculum or
for adapting it better to students' abilities and also,
perhaps, their interests.
The type and frequency of assessment has to be
considered when developing a curriculum.
Assessments can be supervised (written and oral
examinations, practical tests, interviews, etc.) or
unsupervised (essay, other homework assignments,
etc.). MET institutions could use a greater variety of
assessment types than they do today.
42 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
For the frequency of assessments there is a choice
between continuous and final assessment and a
combination of both. The best approach is the one
that reduces the possibility of "surprises", i.e. that too
many students fail an assessment or too many pass it
with the best possible grade. Continuous assessment
reduces surprises. If the group of students is small
and the teaching method interactive then there may
be no need to have students sit for a written
examination as the permanent dialogue with the
teachers provides effective assessment.
There has been discussion on whether the maritime
administration should take care of the assessment or
the teachers of an MET institute. The maritime
administration examiners are regarded as being
impartial but occasionally out of date; the lecturers
are regarded as up to date but not always impartial.
The trend goes towards the MET institutions taking
over more of the assessment. The impartiality of
examiners has to be ensured. The maritime
administration can control that this is done and that
international requirements are being met.
Assessment has become an area on which many
educationalists have spent much time and effort. The
validity and reliability of assessment has become the
focus of attention, the design of assessment and the
grading. For the purpose of curriculum development
the key questions are what? how? when? and who?
11 Evaluation
What should be evaluated? How and when shall a
curriculum be evaluated and by whom?
The evaluation of a curriculum is to make a
judgement on whether the educational objectives have
been met. The results of the evaluation are used to
improve the effectiveness of the curriculum. A
curriculum may not only meet the planned objectives
but may also have other outcomes than those intended.
Such a "hidden curriculum" may vary in influence on
the "intended curriculum".
There are various methods to evaluate a curriculum
and parts thereof. If the number of students is relatively
small and an interactive teaching style is used, then
continuous evaluation is a possibility. A greater
number of students normally requires a more
formalized approach to evaluation during and at the
completion of a curriculum. Assessment is a major
element of an evaluation but it should not be mistaken
as being equal to an evaluation. More has to be done
to find out about the effectiveness of a curriculum:
questionnaires for students are a possibility, or group
or individual interviews. Students can be asked to
comment on all factors of the curriculum, i.e. on
objectives, content, level, methods, materials, media,
sequence and time allocation.
 Teachers should make their own independent
evaluation of the curriculum. They should write down
what they believe they have achieved. This will
provide them with the opportunity to identify the
difference between their and the students' assessment.
It is a useful exercise for getting a better understanding
of students, above all their abilities, preferences, efforts
and motivation.
The involvement of independent experts in the
evaluation of comprehensive curricula is normally of
benefit.
12 Continuous Development
How is the outcome of evaluation to be taken into
account in order to improve the effectiveness of the
curriculum?
The evaluation of a curriculum by students and
teachers should be repeated during the course and
the completion of the same or a similar curriculum.
Provided training needs are not changing, then
continuous development of a curriculum should be
evaluation driven. Complacency in the form of the
belief to have done everything right this time is a
danger to quality. There must always be the desire to
do things better.
Students may have different views on what needs
to be improved. They may also have different motives
in asking for improvements. Radical changes to a
curriculum which are suggested by individuals have
to be treated with caution. Before changes are
considered, feedback from all students needs to be
obtained.
Quality Assurance
This text does not include a section on Quality
Assurance (QA) in MET although this has become an
important item, particularly after having been required
by STCW 95 for the education and training content
and objectives given in the Convention. QA is not an
integral part of curriculum development but it is
connected to the documentation on curricula. QA has
to answer to "say what you do" and "prove that you
do what you say you do". It is obvious that the "say
what you do" has to be defined with a view to quality
and specific requirements which may exist. Good
documentation of a curriculum is therefore the best
preparation for the major part of a QA system.
Summary
I Objectives:
Define general and specific educational objectives,
observing the hierarchy of educational objectives.
Concentrate on educational objectives in the
cognitive domain but give also attention to the
affective domain.
2 Students:
Know your students, their general and vocational
education, their professional experience, their
learning styles and their motivation.
3 Contents:
Base the contents for ship officers' education and
training on the contents of STCW 95. Aim at
specifying contents for other purposes in
cooperation with prospective students.
4 Level:
Determine the level of teaching on the basis of the
students' pre-qualification (see paragraph 2 -
Students).
5 Methods:
Provide for student involvement. Use a variety of
methods and stimuli.
6 Materials:
Aim at knowing all publications on a subject.
Prepare own scripts if the available publications are
insufficient.
7 Media:
Familiarise yourself with their potential and their
use. Use them only if they help increase the
effectiveness of teaching. Develop effective
exercises, above all for the use of simulators.
8 Sequence:
Follow a logical, step by step order. Give students
a "rough picture" before providing details. Aim at
providing a detailed picture but, at the same time,
a comprehensive one too.
9 Time allocation:
Try to get it right on the basis of the students pre
qualifications. Take into account what is being done
within the curriculum outside the classroom. In
the beginning, maintain some flexibility in the
number of hours for parts of subjects.
10 Assessment:
Prepare the what, how, when and who. Employ a
variety of methods. Choose continuous assessment,
perhaps in combination with an assessment at the
end of the curriculum.
11 Evaluation:
Use assessments as well as other methods such as,
for example, questionnaires and interviews. Make
own teacher evaluation, compare with student
evaluation. Involve external experts in evaluation
of, above all, comprehensive curricula.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 43
12 Continuous development:
Never be 100% satisfied with the positive outcome
of an evaluation. Improve the curriculum for the
"average student" steadily.
Concluding Remarks
Curriculum development is a mixture of analysis
(what? who?) and design (how?). The "what" factors
(objectives, content, levels, materials) and the "who"
factor (students) are mainly subject to analysis, the
"how" factors (method, media, sequence, time
allocation) mainly subject to design. Assessment,
evaluation and continuous improvement are
combined analysis and design factors. The persons
who analyse and design are the curriculum developers.
It is of advantage, both academically and
economically, if they are also the teachers of the
curriculum. Curriculum development may appear to
be a technical procedure with which everybody with
common sense and some experience in education can
be entrusted. This is too simplistic a view. Already
the analyses are subject to individual interpretation,
the designs even more so. It is therefore knowledge,
experience and good judgement which matter.
Nobody can claim to have developed an ideal
44 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
curriculum at the first attempt but claiming that one
has learnt a lot in the first attempt is certainly an
acceptable statement. Curriculum development is not
always "only" good craftsmanship, it can occasionally
become an art.
Literature
There are many books and other publications on
curriculum development. A good book for somebody
who is more interested in the theoretical aspects is the
one by Print. Somebody who is more interested in
the practical aspects is well served with the book by
Rowntree.
Print, Curriculum Development and Design, St.
Leonards, Australia, 1993.
Rowntree, Developing Courses for Students,
Maidenhead, UK, 1981.
Bloom (ed.), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,Book
7: Cognitive Domain, London, UK, 1956.
Bloom et aI., Ttlxonomy ofEducational Objectives,Book
2: Affective Domain, London, UK, 1964.
 Chapter SIX

TRAINING IN THE ROYAL NAVY -

ITS MANAGEMENT AND METHODOLOGY
by Rear Admiral j.H.S. McAnally LVO MNI

Rear Admiralj.H.S McAnally LVO, Flag Officer Training and Recruiting, was born in 1945 and educated at Willington and
U7estminsterSchools. He entered the Royal Navy, through a scholarshiP to Dartmouth, in 1962. A graduate of the long and advanced
navigation courses, he has navigated seven ships including a U.S. destroyer, an Australian frigate, an aircraft carrier and HMY
BRITANNIAfrom where he was made LVO. Shore appointments have comprised a year teaching navigation at HMS DRYAD, Fleet
Programming Officer to CINCFLEET andfour Ministry of Defence appointments. He has been Executive Officer of the destroyerHMS
BIRMINGHAM and commanded the minehunter IVESTON, thefrigates TORQUAY, ALACRITY, ARIADNE and HERMIONE
and the 6th Frigate Squadron.

Admiral McAnally completed the RN Staff Course in 1978, was a member of the Royal College of Defence Studies in 1992 and
subsequently of the British Army's Higher Command and Staff Course before becoming Director of Naval Logistics Policy in 1993.
From 1994 to 1996 he was Director of Naval Staff Duties and deputy to the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff He was promoted to Rear
Admiral on taking up the appointment of Flag Officer Training and Recruiting and Chief Executive of the Naval Recruiting and
Training Agency injanuary 1996. Admiral McAnally lives in Old Portsmouth and London.

Chapter Overview
The Royal Navy today remains capable of delivering
formidable firepower worldwide. Every Navy wants
well designed ships fitted with the most effective
equipment it can afford, managed and operated by
what remains the most important single factor, highly
trained men and women. This training must be
undertaken in an increasingly stringent budgetary
regime and must, therefore, also be delivered cost
effectively.
To achieve this the Royal Navy introduced the RN
Systems Approach to Training (RNSAT). The system
is cyclical in operation and follows the path of job
analysis, course design, instruction and evaluation. By
using this model the Fleet is assured of receiving the
best quality personnel, in the required numbers, at
the right time because training is focused on achieving
the operational requirement, effectively and efficiently.
Introduction
The Royal Navy has a longer history of successful
achievement in maritime warfare than any other navy.
Often success was gained against greater odds and/or
more capable technology. Hence the RN phrase" the
greatest single factor" to describe the importance of
its people.
In the earlier days of sail and up to the beginning
of this century the majority of naval training was
performed at sea because of common low technology
equipment and a large fleet with large crews able to
provide the necessary spare capacity for training.
However, as ships companies decrease in size, as the
Fleet has got smaller and with advances in weapon
and propulsion technology, shore-based training has
become increasingly necessary to achieve an
appropriate level of operational competence before
joining a ship.
The obvious question which needs to be
continually addressed is "what is the appropriate
level?" It becomes more acute with higher technology
and a smaller ship's company. For example, a Type
23 frigate packs more punch than a World War II
cruiser with around one fifth of the ship's company.
Operational competence becomes more important
with a smaller Navy and an even tighter budget. This
chapter describes how the Royal Navy deals with this
problem which is compounded by an environment of
continually changing operational requirements and the
necessity continually to justify the human and material
resources needed. Our tool, the Royal Naval Systems
Approach to Training (RNSAT) was introduced during
the 1970s, and is now viewed by many both in industry
and the military as a controlled, adaptable and
manageable quality system which enables the
appropriate level to be determined and then achieved.
To appreciate why a system is needed, what it is
and how it should work, this chapter focuses on the
objectives of naval training, establishes the justification
for a systems approach to training and describes the

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 45

main features of training in the Royal Navy with
respect to how training needs are identified, specified
and managed.

Objectives of Naval Training

The primary reason for training in the Royal Navy is

to meet the operational requirement. But how do we
want this to be achieved? One way of looking at this
is to strike a balance between 'Not Enough' versus
'Too Much' (see figure 6.1 below).

The training balance suggests that insufficient

training leads to inadequate operational effectiveness
and that overtraining uses additional resources and is
less efficient. This leads to two concepts:-
a) Course Effectiveness
The degree to which training prepares personnel
for their jobs.
b) Course Efficiency
The extent to which training objectives are achieved
in relation to the expenditure of resources.
Therefore the Royal Navy wants its training to focus
on three objectives:-
Without a methodology such as the Systems
Approach to Training, control can be lost leading to
no real focus on objectives and some or all of the
following undesirable characteristics:-
a) Subjective Design
"Instructors own" perspective regarding operational
requirement and effective training, resulting in an
incomplete job and training specification.
b) Extended Length
Unnecessary training or too much underpinning
knowledge provided to fulfil the operational
requirement resulting in inefficient use of resources.

a) To do the job c) Loose Management Control

b) To be effective Uob focused) If there is no system, everyone involved with course
c) To be efficient (resource focused) design from customer through to the training school
loses focus on the real training need, resulting in
A systems approach to training both inefficient and ineffective courses.

The purpose of a Systems Approach to Training (SAT) d) E~cessive De~ands ~n. the Fleet
is to provide a framework for delivering the training WIthout e~fectIv~ tramm~ ashore ther~ :v
ould be
required to ensure that personnel can carry out a an unsust~mable mcrease m OnJob Trammg (OJT)
specific job, duty or task in the operational afloat, whIch would reduce operational capability.
environment. Fundamentally, the SAT process
features a loop of interdependent activities to ensure . T~erefore the RNSAT follows four fundamental
that the operational requirement is met, and to deliver pnnClples:-
the flexibility to reflect changes in that operational .....
requirement. This can be represented dia- a) All :rammg ISdenved from an m-depth analysis of
grammatically as shown in figure 6.2:- the Job.

THE TRAINING BALANCE

Not Enough Too Much

Inability to perform to Diversion of resources

Figure operational performance level away from need
6.1
Places unexpected extra load Employee frustration with level
on other people of employment

Quantifiable penalty Standards set too high

Overall detraction from Unnecessary attrition

operational effectiveness of personnel

46 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

b) Training is designed to achieve training objectives
based on the product of job analysis.
c) Achievement of objectives is its constant concern.
d) Quality control (evaluation) assesses the efficiency
and effectiveness of analysis, design and execution
to meet the requirements of the job.
The phases of the RNSAT may be represented
diagrammatically as shown in figure 6.3 above.
In summary, all good systems are based upon
simple models. The RNSAT is no different. External
Quality Control helps evaluate trainees against the
operational requirement and therefore is a measure
of effectiveness. Internal Quality Control investigates
how well the training execution has met the training
objectives and is therefore a measure of efficiency.
One further factor also needs to be addressed.
Training alone can never create the "Master
Performer". To do his other job and develop full
potential, the trainee also requires development
achieved through job experience and a degree of
education. These three concepts can be explained as
shown in figure 6.4:-
Breadth and depth of Royal Naval
..
tr ammg
.....
a~ rships contam a commumty of speCIalIsts all
mterdependent on one another e.g:-
..
a) War~are specialIsts to use the weapons and sensors,
b) NavIgators and seamen,
c) Weapon engineers to ensure that weapons and
communication systems perform to their optimum,
d) Marine engineers to ensure that the hull integrity,
propulsion system, steering gear and all other non
weapon ship's services are maintained,
e) Supply departments to support everyone else e.g.
with food, spares and administration, and
f) Medical support.
Each of these specialist areas require different
training. Thus every job within the Royal Navy has
its own "Training Pipeline", embracing a combination
of both general and very specific training courses
which, with on job experience, provides the
appropriate core, peripheral and marginal skills from
New Entry up to the Job Holder. The full range of
types of training which the Royal Navy has adopted
is as follows:-
Initial Training
Training given immediately on joining at BRNC
Dartmouth (28 weeks for Officers) and HMS
RALEIGH (8 weeks for Ratings).
Career Training
Training, of varying length, given at set points in
both Officer and Rating career paths.
Prejoining Training
In-depth training given for specific pieces of
equipment fitted in different ship types, very much
focused on achieving 'Just Enough, Just in Time"
training.
On Job Training
Training conducted in operational billets which
cannot be provided in shore training
establishments. It is usually controlled by a Task
Book and set on-board training routines.
Continuation Training
Repeat core and peripheral skill training which is
carried out to maintain Fleet operational
effectiveness. This includes both ship and squadron
exercises plus the use of shore Command Team and
Tactical Trainers.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 47

Higher Training
e.g. Staff College or leadership and management
schools.
Team Training
Training for ship teams in shore simulators in
warfare and engineering.
The RNSAT management and
methodology
The RNSAT needs to cover a number of "customers"
and " suppliers". For example ships, submarines,
operational Commando units and aircraft, all of which
are commanded by Type Commanders who are
effectively the "customers". A simplified organisational
tree of the Royal Navy "customers" and "suppliers" is
shown in figure 6.6.
The main players for ensuring that courses satisfy
the three objectives of training, (do the job, be effective,
be efficient) are the customer, the training policy staff
(FOTR HQ), the deployer of personnel Director
General Naval Manning (DGNM) and the responsible
Training Establishment. As the RNSAT is applied
through its various phases, the responsibility and role
of each of these main players evolves. It should be
noted that the RNSAT is a recognised quality system
that satisfies ISO 9001. A summary of the
documentation procedure is represented
diagrammatically in figure 6.7.
Course Control Certificate (CCC)
This is the authoritative document to manage all
phases of course development from requirement,
analysis, design, execution and evaluation. It is
managed by a Training Policy Advisory Group (TPAG)
consisting of representatives from Training Command,
customer (Type Commander), Naval manpower and
the responsible training establishment.
Requirement Phase
The need to raise a CCC emerges from an
operational requirement for a new course or a major
change in an existing course, derived from new
equipment or a changed operational commitment. The
operational requirement and associated manpower
implications with respect to numbers and when they
should be available for training are specified in the
requirement phase. Following acceptance by the
customer (Type Commander) and the manpower
authority, FOTR HQ delegates detailed training
analysis, design and delivery to the appropriate
specialist training establishment.
Analysis Phase
The analysis phase is perhaps the most important
element in the RNSAT. It includes job analysis to
ascertain and break down all job requirements prior
48 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
to the design of a training course. Effective job analysis
revolves around three fundamental questions - what
are the complete requirements of the job, who can
provide that data and how can that data be gathered.
The majority is obtained from personnel who are
serving, or have served, in similar operational jobs.
The output ofjob analysis is usually a diagrammatic
representation of the component parts of the job
presented as a hierarchy of activities known as aJob
Scalar. ThisJob Scalar is validated and then followed
by further analysis to decide on the priority of training
and what resources are required to deliver (or execute)
it. To assess the training priority the Difficulty,
~mportance and Frequency (DIF) of tasks within a job
IS analysed at sub task level. DIF analysis is
instrumental in ensuring that the training will be
effective, because it is entirely job focused. A training
analysis focusing on resources examines human and
material availability to satisfy the training requirement,
i.e. how the training should be delivered.
It is very important to appreciate that the less the
training is conducted ashore, the more the balance to
meet the requirement has to be conducted "on the
job". OnJob Training (OJT) impacts directly onto the
customer (Type Commander) since he will have to
resource it. Considerations ofDIF and training analysis
provide a training category which identifies the shore
training to on job training ratio. The result of the
complete analysis phase is summarised as a list of the
duties and tasks, along with the appropriate training
category. This is further portrayed at figure 6.7. This
document becomes the Operational Performance
Statement (OPS) after discussion in the appropriate
Training Planning and Advisory Group leading to
endorsement of the training resources needed.
. The cu~tomer (Type Commander) is particularly
mterested m ensuring that the OPS reflects the job
and that he can meet the OJT requirement, whereas
the manpower authority is required to ensure that the
tasking is within the capability of the personnel he
intends to deploy. It is important to note that:-
Operational Performance Statement
<=>
Shore based training + On job training
Training Design
Once the analysis phase is complete, the shore-
based training course can then be designed beginning
with a Training Performance Statement (TPS),
approved by Training Command. This specifies to the
training establishment the performance, conditions
and standards required to fulfil the training objectives
identified from the analysis phase. The fundamental
TPS structure is described below. Note again that the
training gap between the requirements of OPS and
TPS is fulfilled by OJT.

Training Objectives in Three Part Format
Performance
What the trainee should be able to do
on completion of training
Starts with an observable and measurable action verb
Conditions
with WHAT and WHERE
Specifies the circumstances under which
the performance is to be achieved
Standard
HOW well
Indicates the expected standard of performance
Figure 6.5
Instructional Specifications (I Specs)
To ensure that the delivery of the training is in full
accordance with the requirements of the TPS, I Specs
or lesson plans are prepared which include reference
to appropriate methods and media. They are usually
written by instructor groups of subject matter experts.
For the majority of training courses, instructors are
serving officers with current operational experience.
Test Specification
To ensure conformance to the standard specified
in the TPS, trainees are assessed in accordance with
the criteria specified in the Test Specification. It is
stressed that inadequate assessment affects trainee
effectiveness and that too much reduces efficiency.
On Job Training
The final part of the documentation is the On Job
Training (OJT) Specification, which is approved by
the customer (Type Commander) and consist of all
the duties, tasks and sub task areas which require OJT.
Formal OJT is monitored by a task book, which is
prepared by the training establishment, because as
custodians of the training documentation, the training
gap between the OPS and TPS can be readily
identified.
Course Evaluation
The success of any system depends on the
thoroughness of design and methods of evaluation.
All courses operating within the RNSAT have the
following evaluation methods:-
a) Internal Quality Control to ensure that the standard
of the TPS is achieved by properly preparing and
administering Test Specifications, providing
questionnaires for both trainers and trainees, and
publishing recommendations in QC reports with
follow up actions.
b) External Quality Control to ensure that the trainee
meets the operational requirement by distributing
questionnaires to appropriate ships and conducting
ship interviews.
c) Routine Course Review which is an "in house"
investigation of a particular course within the
establishment to ensure that the RNSAT
documentation reflects the requirement. Dates for
routine course reviews vary and are specified on
an establishments document upkeep plan.
d) Audits are an investigation by Training Command
of a training establishment to ensure that all training
is managed, designed, delivered and evaluated in
accordance with RNSAT documentation and
procedures.
Course Changes
Any of the above evaluation methods or feedback
direct from the Type Commander can recommend
course changes. Within the RNSAT they are
categorised as major or minor. A major change affects
either the OPS, TPS or OJT and therefore has to have
TPAG approval to raise a CCC to control the change.
Minor changes only affect the I Spec and Test Spec
and are implemented to improve efficiency in meeting
the TPS.
Training Needs Analysis (TNA)
Training Needs Analysis is a process which is
complementary to, integrated with and based on the
RNSAT. Its prime purpose is to identify the needs
which arise as a result of the introduction into service
of new or changed equipment, to identify and evaluate
options which would meet those needs and to
recommend the most cost-effective solution. In other
words the TNA defines the OPS and the best way to
achieve it and involves Type Commander,
Procurement Executive and Training Command.
Fundamentally, it analyses the benefits of reducing
expensive sea training against expenditure on shore-
based training equipment costs and provides as
deliverables the OPS, TPS and recommended
equipment, methods and media to meet a training
requirement.
Operational Training
Having attained the Training Performance standard,
taken up a complement billet and completed On Job
Training, the trainee is considered competent to do
the job but now requires the necessary experience to
perform effectively in the extremes of an operational
environment and with his or her actual shipmates.
Periodically the whole ship performs basic operational
sea training scenarios (e.g. response to threat, damage
control, system breakdowns) which are assessed at sea
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 49
by a sea training organisation (FaST). This enables
individuals to exercise procedures under realistic
stress. Team Training using simulators has reduced the
time needed for some aspects of training at sea.
Increased availability of RN training to
non-RN customers
On 3July 1996 Flagship Training Limited signed a 15
year contract with the Ministry of Defence to deliver
and support Royal Navy training in a partnering
arrangement with the Naval Recruiting & Training
Agency (NRTA), utili sing irreducible spare capacity.
Flagship Training Ltd. markets Royal Navy training
expertise to overseas navies and, through its parent
companies (Vosper Thornycroft, GEC-Marconi and
Procord Ltd.), possesses a worldwide customer base
and an international sales and marketing organisation.
Working with the Royal Navy and the Directorate of
Foreign & Commonwealth Training, the Company
offers a comprehensive range of training options in
addition to a standard list of courses. Flagship Training
Ltd. has been specifically established to increase
training opportunities for non-Royal Navy students
within the NRTA and is able to project manage and
deliver bespoke training in the UK or overseas as
required by the customer. All training is delivered by
Royal Navy and/or Flagship instructors to Royal Navy
standards and within the RN's internationally
recognised Quality Management System.
Flagship Training Ltd. brings together UK naval
shipbuilding & support expertise and weapon sensor
technology as well as the proven ability to supply naval
simulation and training products.
50 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Summary
The key strengths of the Royal Naval training system
are:
Flexibility to react to both short and long term
demands for change - political and strategic.
Purpose-built training facilities utili sing reliable and
cost effective technologies are housed within the
Naval real estate in specialist-subject training
schools.
Wherever appropriate, training is given by
uniformed personnel with current front-line
experience and/or extensive subject matter
expertise.
The feedback mechanisms are well established and
work.
Training is designed to provide a complementary
blend of shore and sea training to maximise efficient
use of resources.
The Systems Approach to Training which the Royal
Navy uses is recognised as a quality system which
has a firm foundation of appropriate and fully
supportive documentation. It is fully compliant with
ISO 9001.
The Royal Navy's ability to cope with any task set
to it by the UK Government is derived from quality
people given highly specialised training, based on
centuries of operational experience. Application of the
Royal Navy Training System ensures that the training
achieves the operational requirement, effectively and
efficiently.
Legend:
CNH / lSL Chief of the Naval Staff
CINCFLEET Commander-in-Chief Fleet
2SL / CNH Second Sea Lord and Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command

FOSF Flag Officer Surface Flotilla Type Commander

FONA Flag Officer Naval Aviation Type Commander
FOSM Flag Officer Submarines Type Commander
CGRM Commandant General Royal Marines Type Commander

FOST Flag Officer Sea Training Operational sea training of surface ships

FOTR Flag Officer Training and Recruiting Head of Training Command

and Chief Executive of the Naval
Recruiting and Training Agency (NRTA)

NAVSEC Naval Secretary and Director General of Naval Manning (DGNM)

CE NMA Chief Executive Naval Manning Agency

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 51

 NRTA
Royal Navy Training
Establishments
HMS SULTAN, the School of Marine and Air
Engineering at Gosport, covers training ranging from
initial career training through specialist PJTs to senior
management courses for officers, artificers and
mechanics. SULTAN occupies 170acres and employs
around 800 service and civilian instructors teaching a
portfolio of 250 courses to a daily average of 1,300
students. Many courses are externally accredited from
City and Guilds, meeting the training requirements
for Incorporated and Chartered Engineer.
HMS COLLINGWOOD is the lead school for
weapon engineering, communications, explosive
safety, radio hazards and magnetic signature reduction
training. The 300 courses available span new entry
operator mechanic and technician career training
through to level 3 maintenance on the latest ship-fitted
equipment. Situated on the outskirts of Fareham, the
site covers 245 acres and employs over 700 civilian
and RN staff with an average loading of 1,000 trainees
per day.
HMS DRYAD is responsible for the conduct of all
aspects of warfare and navigation training to a daily
average of 400 RN officers and ratings and also
provides training to some 20 navies worldwide. Over
2,000 separate courses are available ranging from short
equipment acquaints to the year long Principal Warfare
Officers course. Full use is made of the extensive
simulation facilities, including the AMETHYST bridge
simulator which is probably the most advanced of its
type anywhere in the world.
HMS CAMBRIDGE overlooks the entrance to
Plymouth Sound. CAMBRIDGE is the RN Gunnery
School and provides live firing facilities for small arms,
close and medium range (4.5") gun training, together
with a number of naval military and board and search
training courses. The annual throughput is
approximately 1,800 students attending some 70
different courses.
Britannia Royal Naval College conducts the initial
training of RN and foreign and Commonwealth
officers, sponsors RN university students including the
engineering sponsorship scheme at Southampton
University and administers the 14 University Royal
Navy Units (URNUs). A small inshore patrol craft is
used for sea sense familiarisation and navigation
training. The 126 acre site overlooks the town of
Dartmouth and employs a service and civilian
workforce of some 330 people. Capacity for 300-480
new entry RN officers per year is available.
HMS RALEIGH at Torpoint in Cornwall is the RN's
rating new entry training establishment and home for
the RN Supply School. There is capacity for 3,000
non-technical ratings and 300 artificer apprentices per
year. The staff of some 900 service and· civilian
personnel operate from the 250 acre site, with
outstations atJupiter Point, Piers Cellars at Cawsand,
and Gutter Tor on Dartmoor.
RN Supply School. The school offers 57 different
courses covering chefs, stewards, stores accountants
and office administrators, with an average ~f 280
trainees under instruction on anyone day.
RN Seamanship School, also situated in HMS
RALEIGH at Torpoint, is the lead school for RN
seamanship matters. The school teaches seamanship
to a wide variety of students ranging from new entries
to commanding officers designate. Seamanship career
training and seamanship joining training courses are
conducted. It has a staff of 85 and a daily average of
186 students on 35 separate courses.
RN Hydrographic School is situated in HMS
DRAKE, Devonport and is a world leader in
hydrography. The school takes specialist officer and
rating career courses in hydrography, survey recording
and some specialist navigation courses for RN, NATO
and foreign and Commonwealth navies. A staff of 18
train a yearly average of 120 students on 25 courses.
HMS EXCELLENT is one of the oldest
establishments in the Royal Navy. The 84 acre site
known as Whale Island was man-made by convict
labour between 1856 and 1902 using soil dug from
basins in the dockyard. The island is now home to
Phoenix NBCD School, the lead school for all nuclear,
biological, chemical, damage control and fire fighting
training, the Royal Naval School of Leadership and
Management (RNSLAM), the Royal Naval Regulating
School, the Naval Military Training School and
headquarters Royal Marines. Phoenix NBCD School
employs 56 instructors teaching an average of 55
students a day on some 33 courses lasting from one
day to 3 weeks, while RNSLAM employs 42
instructors to run 16 different courses with a daily
throughput of 182 trainees.
RN Regulating School, co-located at HMS
EXCELLENT, teaches career courses for RN
Regulators and Submarine Coxswains. It has a staff
of 11 and a student throughput of 195 on 10 different
courses.
Defence Diving School was formed on 1 September
1995 at Horsea Island, Portsmouth by amalgamation
of the Royal Navy School of Diving and the Royal
Engineers Diving Establishment. All diving branch
career courses, Royal Engineer diving courses and
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 53
ships divers are taught there. It has a complement of
85 with a daily average of 75 students on 37 courses.
RN Submarine School at HMS DOLPHIN, Gosport
overlooks the entrance to Portsmouth harbour. As the
lead school for RN submarine training, it takes warfare
and weapons engineer officers and ratings from basic
submarine courses through most of their career courses
as well as pre joining training on specific equipment.
It runs 171different courses and has a staff of 199 with
an average daily total of 163 trainees.
HMS TEMERAIRE is located at Burnaby Road in
Portsmouth and comprises the Royal Naval School of
Physical Training and the Directorate of Naval Physical
Training and Sport. The buildings include a 33 metre
swimming pool, squash courts and a gymnasium. The
school runs 11 different courses employing 6 their subcontractors, assisting them in meeting their
instructors teaching an average of 28 trainees a day.
RN School of Educational and Training
Technology is a lodger unit within HMS NELSON.
The school trains instructors both in classroom
techniques and the practical environment including
computer based training (CBT) as well as carrying out
audits of the training system in training establishments.
The school employs 24 instructors teaching an average
of 25 trainees a day on 7 different courses lasting up
to 6 weeks.
54 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Royal Naval College Greenwich includes two
autonomous units administered by FOTR:
a) The Staff College employs 16 instructors teaching
an average of 170personnel a day covering Special
Duties officers on promotion training, the Initial
Staff Course and Staff Course. Staff training is due
to relocate to an interim site at Bracknell in
September 1997 with a permanent site, yet to be
determined, planned for 1999.
b) The Department of Nuclear Science and
Technology (DNST), provides training in support
of the Naval requirements for officers within the
Naval Nuclear Propulsion Programme. In addition,
DNST provides support to the Procurement, Fleet
Support and Naval Base Directorates General and
mandatory nuclear training requirements. DNST
employs 22 civilian and 11 Royal Navy instructors
teaching an average of 50 students per day on 25
courses. DNST is due to relocate to either RRA
Derby or HMS SULTAN in approximately
October 1998.
Flagship Training Limited is the marketing arm of
the partnering arrangement with the NRTA. The
headquarters are located at:
223 Southampton Road
Pauls grove
Portsmouth
Hampshire P06 4QA
United Kingdom
Tel: (+44) 1705321313
Fax: (+44) 1705327469
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

- SECfION II -

Learning resources and educational technology

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 55

 Chapter SEVEN

MAKING THE MOST OF LEARNING RESOURCES

FOR BOTH COLLEGE AND STUDENT
by Dr. Alston Kennerley PhD FNI

Institute of Marine Studies, University of Plymouth, UK

Alston Kennerley served at sea as apprentice and deck officer with Alfred Holt & Co., a period which included nearly a year aboard the
four mast barque Passat. He then pursued an academic career,for many years teaching professional coursesfor merchant seafarersfrom
cadets to masters. Forfourteen years he also taught on the in-service teacher training coursefor teachers in further and higher education
and for seven years was head of information services in the Learning Resources Centre of Plymouth Polytechnic where he developed a
range of study skills courses.

Captain Kennerley is past Secretary and Chairman of the Maritime Information Association. In recentyears he has been director of
undergraduate courses in the Institute of Marine Studies at the University of Plymouth. Amongst his researchactivities Alston Kennerley
has long been involved in the study of the history of education and training in the mercantile marine, but has also been active in the
study of modern provision through involvement with The Nautical Institute and the International Maritime Lecturers' Association. He
has published a number of reports on maritime education and training in Seaways, is a long serving member of the Education and
Training Committee of The Nautical Institute and has been its Chairman for a number of years.

Introduction though, some thought needs to be given to the nature

Learning resources are at the heart of the processes of
education and training in whatever mode it takes place,
whether formal courses in colleges, private study at
home, guided distance learning aboard ship, or on-
the-job training in the work place. Perhaps because
studying is apparently so commonplace, there is a
tendency for both the providers of education and
training and students or trainees to underrate the focal
importance of learning resources and of the skills
which need to be developed, refreshed and extended,
if the greatest benefit is to be gained by employers
and individuals from processes of education and
training. Where there is a strong college and student
culture which gives a prime role to learning resources
and their efficient use, student performance is greatly
enhanced and the benefit shows in subsequent
employment.
This chapter concentrates on the provision of
learning resources in colleges and their use by students
attending colleges, but much of the discussion is
applicable in the other education/training contexts
indicated above. What follows takes the viewpoint that
the college is a place of work. The academic (faculty),
technical and clerical staff are there to optimise the
product for the employment market while the students
(or trainees) are in full time employment at the college
and to perform efficiently must master the learning
and training which the college provides. Thus there
are two main sections. First the discussion addresses
the role of the college in creating an efficient learning
environment, then it turns to the role of the student
making the best use of attendance at college. First,
of learning resources.
Learning resources
The term learning resources was coined to embrace
the ever widening range of forms in which information
is now made available, together with the numerous
ways in which instruction may now be delivered,
including today all the electronic means. In reality,
learning resources centres have long existed: witness
the great religious buildings with their oral and visual
imagery and their libraries and schools. In colleges
today, the library has been developed almost as a one
stop information centre, where computers, databases
and the like are often more prominent than shelves of
books and journals. The information restriction
imposed by the book stock available in a traditional
library is being lifted, so that information in locations
world wide is becoming a part of the modern learning
resources base. Even this is too narrow a view of
learning resources as a college's own staff must be
recognised as key contributors to the stock oflearning
resources, similarly extendible to include their
industrial contacts. Further, students themselves are
part of the resource base to be drawn upon by staff
and students alike for their contribution to the learning
process.
The college and learning resources
Given that the college exists to enable its students to
qualify fully developed to the chosen level of education
and training, it follows that its provision and
management of learning resources must be a central

56 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

management role. This demands priority over the
more obvious features of a college - its teaching spaces
and the academic staff. The provision of learning
resources starts with planning the way student learning
will be managed. While traditional 'chalk and talk'
teaching methods will no doubt form part of the
package (at least in the immediate future), they are
increasingly peripheral to the provision of central and
individual learning resources. This is where the core
provision and management of colleges now lies.
So long as books and journals in paper format
remain a key method of storing information and while
the provision of specialised electronic databases is
restricted to one location, the modern learning
resources centre (under whatever title is in vogue) is
the vital college facility, to be seen as a common
laboratory essential to all branches of learning. Its
senior staff are professionals, highly qualified in both
traditional subjects and the world of information, and
should be members of the academic staff playing a
key role in the promotion of learning. They are
facilitators in the business of linking learners with
learning resources. Of course they have a major role
in organising the resource centre, but they also playa
key part in the selection of information, whether books,
journals or electronic forms.
The central literature base of traditional maritime
subjects is not that large, and all maritime resource
centres should hold this basic stock. Nor should there
be much difficulty in acquiring new publications.
However, maritime subjects are not isolated from the
rest of knowledge, and draw on the theoretical bases
of non-maritime subjects. Thus there is always a need
for a wider range of information to be held, especially
in the sciences, technologies and business subjects. The
more isolated the college is from other resource
centres, the more extensive this extended base needs
to be.
Funding is, of course, a problem for all colleges.
Senior management can no longer afford to treat the
central learning resource as the obvious place for
cutbacks in staff and stock. Indeed, it is the location
for protected funding to allow proper development in
today's information climate, and to promote maximum
use by students. Books on shelves and an impressive
array of computers are of little use unless the facility
is open and the users know their way round. Extended
opening hours to at least to twelve hours per day, seven
days per week, despite its staffing implications, is the
right way to provide access. Resource centres should
be good places to study. There needs to be ample
provision of study places and the general atmosphere
needs to be conducive to focussed study activity. Good
layout with efficient guiding helps to make the facility
accessible for students but needs to be augmented with
suitable training programmes.
This is where the college resource-centred culture
comes in. All courses of study must include structured
training programmes in the business of being a student.
These should address the modern range of transferable
skills, applicable in all subjects and specialist skills
relating to particular subjects. The latter usually fall
within the remit of subject staff, but the former are
the concern of every member of college staff.
Structured programmes in transferable skills will be
progressive through the levels of study and, in the
sandwich education and training typical of the
maritime world, will need revising and reinforcing
each time the student returns to college. The skills
which the efficient student needs to master include:-
Basic study skills (time management, study
techniques, private study, lectures, revision,
examinations).
Learning resource usage (library arrangement, data
base usage, literature searching, internet usage).
Typing and word processing.
Written communication (essays, reports, business
usage) .
Oral communication (speaking in public, seminar
presentations).
Basic statistics and spreadsheets.
Working in teams.
Having a central skills programme ensures that all
of these are addressed to the right level for a particular
course, and will draw in specialists such as learning
resources staff. As far as possible, students should be
set practical tasks in the appropriate laboratory
context. Thus the initial introduction to a library might
be a self guided tour of the library involving
appropriate maritime information tasks, devised by
learning resources staff working in collaboration with
subject staff.
In isolation, this central skills programme is not
sufficient in developing student learning abilities.
Indeed, students can resent it on the narrow basis of
'is it knowledge I need to pass the exam?' The college
learning culture includes the role of the subject staff
in promoting the realistic use of learning skills by
setting, wherever possible, subject tasks which build
on and develop the individual skills initially presented
in the skills programme. Promoting student learning
skills is a team matter, and it goes without saying that
college staff themselves need to be well versed in the
full range of learning skills. A simple example of staff
involvement is found in directing students to use
particular texts, including ones in electronic form, and
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 57
the requirement that all work submitted for assessment
must list the sources used.
Having argued that learning resources must be at
the heart of the college's approach in the provision
and Illanning of facilities, it follows naturally that the
use of these resources should be at the heart of
curriculum design and individual subject schemes of
work. Of course, the subject content is important in
the development of courses of study and training, but
the way the learning is achieved is equally important,
and proper consideration of the development of
student skills including the use of learning resources
must be given parallel status at all levels of curriculum
design and delivery.
The student and learning resources
The efficient use of learning resources provided by a
college depends, in the end, on the student, who needs
to recognise that there is a training associated with
studying and that mastering the skills is an investment
not just for the current course, but for the long-term
future. The value of mastering particular skills is often
not fully appreciated until later in life when they are
applied in important situations. Thus the long and
often painful process of learning to read and write is
only coming into its own in post school study and in
the workplace. Surely, it might be argued, with ten or
more years of schooling the student is already well
equipped with study skills. Unfortunately, while
schools might address some aspects, students do not
arrive at college fully equipped in all the aspects noted
above. Further, as with other skills, lack of practice
leads to loss of efficiency. The college situation
increasingly emphasises student-centred learning in
which existing skills become more important and to
which are added new resource usage skills not
previously encountered.
Indeed, the very existence of previous study
experience can interfere with giving focussed attention
to some of the detail of the best ways to use learning
resources and general study efficiency. As with all
skills, it is the attention to often innocuous detail that
provides the measure of improved efficiency. Who
would have thought that the use of black ink rather
than colours contributes to study efficiency? Yet the
answer is simple: a strong contrast makes reading less
tiring. Thus there is a strong case for attention to be
given to the way the individual functions as a student
in all its aspects.
The role of the student in mastering the learning
situation starts the moment when admission has been
gained to a course of study. There should be a period
of self analysis to identify weaknesses. Enquiries at
the college should reveal the nature of the learning
resources in use and the skills training which it
58 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
provides. If this is less than comprehensive, it might
be worth considering seeking supplementary training.
Typing skills are often missing from college
programmes, yet every time a computer is used
involves typing. Surely such a ubiquitous skill deserves
a short course in touch-typing?
The next question to ask concerns the standard
range of equipment which a student needs. Writing
materials and drawing instruments have long been
standard items, but are they the right ones? What about
more elaborate items? Pressure on college computer
provision, in the learning resource centre and
dedicated machines in specialist laboratories, is often
intense. The individual student is rarely in a position
to provide personal copies of, say, ship design
packages, but it might be possible to purchase a private
word PC with general word processing and
spreadsheet capabilities. Some colleges have already
reached the stage of insisting that students do just that.
Once at college the student should seek the
maximum benefit from whatever skills training is
provided. Obviously attendance at timetabled sessions
is an essential starting point, but if study skills and the
use oflearning resources are to be mastered, repeated
practice is essential until they become second nature.
Most people setting out on their careers are prepared
to invest time and money in learning to drive a car.
Surely the business of being a student deserves a
similar investment. Another way of looking at the
student contribution to the learning process is being
applied in some colleges. This is the learning contract
in which the college agrees to provide learning
resources and programmes of study, and the student
agrees to practice the essential skills and invest a
reasonable proportion of each week (say about fifty
hours) to all aspects of studying.
The mastery of learning resources and study skills
demands more space than is available here. Clearly,
the more technical aspects of handling electronic
media and using a library are particular to the college
situation. But one or two aspects of study skills are
explored here.
Long experience has shown that students often
make inefficient use of their time in college Yet it is as
valuable as their time in real life employment and may
easily be costed. Professionals, such as bank managers
and lawyers, book out their time in advance (and,
incidentally, charge heavily for consultations). Students
are professionals in that they often have considerable
control in their time deployment. Keeping a planning
diary in which all college timetabled commitments are
entered, together with a planned sequence of
individual study sessions in laboratories, the learning
resources centre and at private study ensures that the
right amount of study is undertaken and the effect of
distractions is reduced. The study entries will be the An important feature of these approaches is the
most important commitments around which may be active involvement of the student as a thinking partner
woven other activities. A proper balance between ·in the learning process. Passive study approaches,
study and recreational activity is important for efficient simple hearing of a lecture or reading a text without
learning, with the latter including a reasonable amount clear purpose, achieve much lower levels of learning
of exercise. and fail to demonstrate that thirst for knowledge which
should be the sign of the keen student.
Note-making is another skill usually acquired
haphazardly and performed inefficiently. It is quite a Equipping and stocking a learning
difficult art and practising special techniques will resources centre for maritime studies
certainly improve a student's performance in lectures
and when using almost all of the variety of learning
There is a wide variety of levels and courses through
resources now available. Notes have two purposes -
which maritime subjects are delivered, and the range
to focus attention while a learning activity is taking
of subjects studied is particularly diverse. The
place and to provide an accessible summary for recall
suggestions here are restricted to the needs of staff
and revision purposes. They are no use if the result is
and students involved with professional qualifications
rendered meaningless through poor layout, illegibility
for serving seafarers up to master mariner! chief
or missing data. Yet they have to encapsulate
engineer levels. As noted above, actual provision
information in summary form.
depends on college learning culture. On non-subject
matters ample guidance is available through the
Most note-making involves the identification of
professional bodies of the information world.
keywords which, through their sequence, provide
triggers to memory and recall of the topic. An efficient
It is not normally the task of a learning resources
note-taker should be able to reduce a chapter in a book
centre to supply a set of recommended texts (typically
or a one hour lecture to one page of key words. The
about ten in number) to each student. Students either
purpose of note-taking is not to reproduce word for
fund these themselves or they are provided, for
word the original text or lecture, but to provide an
example, by employers. A further point concerns
overall picture of the topic which may be synthesised
language. Clearly, a full range of texts (including
with other sources to provide the learner with a
electronic forms) in the national language, must be
broader understanding. Thus making notes in a linear
acquired. However, the adoption of English as the
manner is not always the best approach. A better way
language of the sea demands the acquisition of texts
is to construct a word picture, in which the notes may
in English, and many maritime courses are now taught
be absorbed at a glance.
in English as a means to improving fluency in that
language. In the following note the examples therefore
One approach has been called the 'Creative
refer to English language sources.
Pattern', and the diagram at figure 7.1 summarises
study techniques in this manner. It might be likened
Clearly, copies of all recommended texts must be
to a tree of knowledge in which the topic at the centre
held in the library, but no more than ten copies of
is the trunk, the main themes are the branches and
each as every student should have personal copies.
the sub-themes are the twigs. The general leads to the
Emphasis should be given to acquiring a few copies
particular, and the mind supplements details not
of each of the parallel texts still in print, and
included. This approach allows a proper concentration
consideration can be given to obtaining second-hand
on the lecture as it is delivered or the text as it is read
copies of texts still valid which are out-of-print. There
and avoids the danger of total concentration on
should be an ongoing policy of buying relevant new
transcription.
books as they appear. The publishers of suitable works
include professional bodies such as The Nautical
Another technique also serves to avoid becoming
Institute, the Institute of Marine Engineers, The Royal
a stenographer. In the SQ3R method a selected text
Institution of Naval Architects, the Chartered Institute
is surveyed by scanning the introduction, sub-heads
of Transport, the Royal Institute of Navigation, the
and conclusion. Then the student poses a few questions
Royal Meteorological Society and others.
about the information required from the text.
Journals are essential, with those of professional
The text is then read carefully keeping in mind
bodies having priority. Thus Seaways, MER,Journal of
the questions raised. With the text obscured the student
Navigation and Naval Architect, for example, should be
then recites the main themes from memory making
taken along with a selection of commercial
notes in key word form. Finally, with the text in view,
publications such as Fairplay, Lloyd's List, and Motor
the notes are revised to eliminate errors and insert
Ship. It is worth noting that some journals may be
important aspects which have been missed.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 59

obtained free, including port publications and IMO
News.Journals are increasingly being made available
on the Internet, but accessing them incurs similar costs
to paper copies. Staff also need access to a selection
of indexing/abstracting publications such as Marine
Technology Abstracts (now on CD ROM)
Governmental and intergovernmental publications
are essential. In British terms these include all the
statutory and departmental publications affecting
shipping. In addition all IMO publications are an
essential part of the reference stock.
As well as electronic databases, a maritime resource
centre will need to acquire a selection of videos and
interactive computer-based instructional packages, of
which a large number are now available and are
increasingly a part of student centred learning.
Ratios for stocking resource centres are affected
by many variables and notoriously difficult. Computer
provision (dedicated and general use) might be made
at one for every 150 students. Study seating must be
maximised with a target of one for every twenty
students. For a large student population the original
stocking ratio might be 20 books per student, but small
collections would need a higher ratio, perhaps 30 per
student to achieve the necessary diversity. Operating
expenditure including purchase of newly published
works and ongoing subscriptions might run at £200
per student. Guidance on current standards may be
found in Trisha Hamm, David Marsden and· Steve
Wisher, Resources for Learning in College Libraries: the
Report of the LA CollegeLibrary Survey 1994/95 (Library
Association, 1995).
The professional institutes noted above are always
willing to offer advice on information sources, and
will facilitate contact with well established maritime
education institutions.
Conclusion
This chapter has emphasised the essential partnership
in the provision and use oflearning resources between
the college and the student. The college's role extends
beyond the simple purchase of the hardware and
software in which today's learning resources are made
available, to the staffing of the facilities and the
promotion of a learning culture among staff and
students through careful course design and the
provision of training in resource usage. The student
role involves self preparation and a willingness to take
full advantage of the provision made by the college.
Together, such an approach will go a long way to
providing industry with personnel fully vested in the
transferable skills which it rates so highly and which
form the basis on which it may build its own specialised
training.
Bibliography
The publications noted below are a selection of what
is quite a large literature on learning resources and
study skills.
• Brown, Sally and Smith, Brenda (eds), Resource-
Based Learning, Kogan Page/SEDA, 1996.
• Gibbs, Graham, et al (eds), Institutional Support for
Resource-Based Learning, OCSD, 1994.
• Northedge, Andrew, Good Study Guide, Open
University, 1990.
• Stephenson,J and Laycock, M (eds), Using Learning
Resources in Higher Education, Kogan Page, 1993.
• Williams, K, Study Skills, Macmillan, 1989.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 61
 Chapter EIGHT

ELECI'RONIC AND MULTI-MEDIA SYSTEMS AND THEIR

VALUE IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMMES
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI

Director, Technovo Training Systems Ltd., Southampton, UK

Captain Michael Vanstone commenced his seagoing career in 7976 with Shaw Savill beforejoining British Underwater Engineering
where he achieved command in 7997. In 7993 he moved to BT (Marine) where he was assigned, with others, to develop modern
training methods for the company.

Due to the successof the developed materials Mike and two colleagues have now established their own company, TechnovoTraining
Systems Ltd., Southampton, to deliver these modern training applications, including computer assisted learning and electronic NVQ,
recording and assessment systems into the marketplace.

Introduction
utilised method for the transfer of information,
Computer generated and electronic training methods
increasingly so because of the availability of this
of one sort or another are rapidly becoming the
equipment in homes and offices. CD-ROM
trainers number one tool in delivery of information
technology has been with us for some time and due to
and instruction into the workplace. Many differing
its large data capacity, perhaps replacing
technologies are available for use so much so that it
approximately 400 or 450 of the standard computer
would be impossible to cover all of them in a paper of
discs, it is becoming a popular platform for the delivery
this size. For this reason this paper will deal with some
of training and instruction into the workplace.
of the most common media available at this time, as
these are the most likely to be experienced by trainers
The CD-ROM resembles the audio CD-ROM now
entering the training field for the first time. The areas
commonly available, the information being stored on
that will be covered are computer aided learning, CD-
the disc in the form of a binary system code. The disc
i or compact disc interactive. The principle of
is inserted into a CD-ROM player installed as a
"Telematics" and its component parts, video training,
hardware component in the computer. There may be
the Internet and "on-line" training, virtual reality and
a brief and straight forward installation process or the
the principle of training when experiencing "total
training process can be started immediately, directly
immersion". Finally a brieflook forward into the future
from the inserted CD. Users have the ability to select
to see some of the emerging systems that will become
specific parts of the training or even specific subjects.
available in the next few years.
Due to the large storage capacity available on the disc
and the ability of the average computer to play audio,
Generally training material can be developed as
still and display good video images it is ideal where a
either a "generic" programme, that is training that is
large amount of information needs to be stored and
common and can be delivered and used over a wide
relayed 'on demand'. The material shown is of high
range of companies or organisations. Alternatively it
quality and most programs can be purchased at a
can be commissioned for a specific use and be
reasonable price.
"bespoke" where the developed training programme
is produced for a specific area of interest or an
This form of technology supports training directly
individual company internal procedure or operation.
in the workplace during the training period.
Commonly, companies will have trainers coaching
Computer based CD-ROM: multimedia individuals as and when required. These trainers can
in the workplace help the trainee to identify when CD programs can
be used to their best effect and how the process can
The principles and designs of computer assisted form an integral part of the individual's training plan.
learning (CAL) have already been covered under "The This retains the direct contact between student and
development of computer based instructional trainer in the workplace to the benefit of both parties.
programs" which forms the next chapter of this book. This technology does not replace the trainer but will
In general the CD-ROM is fast becoming the most support and enhance their overall capability.

62 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Computer aided learning is commonly produced
in 'multimedia' form - that is to say the program can
deliver images, video and sound direct to the user. It
allows the trainee to respond to, and explore the
displayed screens by interaction, which encourages
greater participation at all levels.
Computer aided learning systems generally require
little or no assistance from the trainer during their
operation. This is an enormous benefit to both the
trainer and trainees alike. The trainees can proceed at
their own speed, completely free from the concern of
falling behind or perhaps holding others back and
experiment safely, which in turn promotes a more
relaxed learning environment and greater receptivity.
The trainer is freed from the need to train basic and
repetitive items and as a consequence can devote more
time to concentrate on complicated or detailed
functions of the training process.
The multimedia process has been designed to
stimulate more of the human senses and therefore
appeals to many differing learning styles.When
utilising computer assisted learning as a part of the
trainees development plan the trainer can enhance
the theory or underpinning knowledge given by
furnishing their own information and experience.
Additionally they can confirm the depth of
understanding achieved from the program by their
own direct questioning. Both these procedures
enhance the trainees overall knowledge and
understanding of the process.
This particular training method can be used for
groups, for example training computer and software
operations. Here a process exists for connecting the
trainer to any number of student terminals (see
Telematics: a review, later in this chapter). It is also
highly effective for individuals and for use where
computer networks have been established. This allows
any number of users to access the information, even
from differing geographical locations, and to utilise
the programs on offer.
Training programs are readily available for the
most widely used subjects for example, Rule of the
Road and buoyage, customer service, management
and quality skills (generic) or commissioned separately
(bespoke).
The process can be very effective within the marine
indll.'>1ryand ships at sea by its availability 24 hours a
day which significantly increases its effectiveness in
refresher, revision and "just in time" training. It is easy
to acc~ss and use even by someone with little computer
experience. The process can be shown to be a cost
effective highly efficient training delivery solution and
as a consequence can reduce the time required for
company training, allowing a more effective allocation
of training personnel.
CD-i: the compact disc, interactive
system
This technology, commonly referred to as CD-i, or to
give it its full name, Compact Disc Interactive, has
been in existence for a number of years. CD-i
technology is produced in a variety of differing subjects
for the training market and can be a very effective
method of training delivery where large groups are
involved. In stating that point it is fair to say that CD-
i is also effective for single users and can realise benefits
similar to those for group training sessions.
CD- I discs look very similar to audio CD discs and
CD-ROM though they are formatted differently and
so cannot be used with other technologies. In all cases
a dedicated CD-i player is required for those intending
to use the system. CD-i has similar benefits to CD-
ROM, that is ability to select specific tracks, high
quality reproduction, reasonable price and
additionally the ability to interface to a standard
television set. The system is controlled in a similar
manner as a video cassette player. Control of the
system is commonly by the use of either a remote
control handset, a mouse or a roller ball. The system
is at its most effective for group and trainer-led group
sessions and it is where trainers are likely to come
into contact with it most often.
A common design and use of a CD-i training
program will now be described. However, it must be
remembered that this is an example only and may
not relate to the design and structure of all available
CD-i productions.
A typical CD-i program opens with a menu
displaying a question such as "is the training session
for an individual learner, group or trainer led group"?
If it is to be individual or group training then audio
guidance and feedback is given by the system
throughout as the users proceed through the program,
very similar to the method employed within CAL. An
introduction follows, with the appropriate training
goals and expectations. Any part or "chapter" of the
program can be selected for use individually which
increases the flexibility of the medium considerably.
This is similar to the CAL approach and design.
A standard layout for the CD-i is to introduce a
workplace scenario, perhaps in text, and then playa
short video clip from the actual workplace of that
operation. This video can be anything up to 30 minutes
in length and covers all the information regarding the
process and the training that needs to be completed.
Alternatively the videos may be shorter in length and
greater in number, with breaks in between for
reflection and for question and answer sessions to allow
the group to participate.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 63
 The group trainer can, if required, stop the video
at any stage and ask questions and gain feedback on
the displayed material. When answers are requested
by the system then a menu of possible answers is
displayed and the group is required to select one of
them. For example, a question could be posed "what
do you think will or should happen next"? After a
discussion within the group the selection can be made
from the possible answers displayed on screen and
feedback received via an audio track. Alternatively
the video can be continued to confirm, or otherwise,
the validity of the group answer or decision with added
trainer feedback on completion. Either way, feedback
is received by the trainees along with the reasoning
behind the decision or the answer that is considered
most appropriate.
The system can foster "role playing" very
effectively, for example, the training of individuals or
groups of people in interview techniques and skills.
The following layout could be followed for just such a
training programme. Relevant personal information,
e.g. a CV, is shown for an imaginary individual who
is to be interviewed. The trainee is then asked by the
system to select from a displayed menu of options the
opening statement they would give to the person under
interview. This is then played back to them in audio.
Dependent on the trainees selected opening statement,
an appropriate pre-made video/audio response from
the person under interview is played by the system to
the trainee. This can be followed by any feedback on
the initial choice made and the reasoning behind that
feedback. The feedback could be this form of audio/
video track or could be directly from the group trainer
in the actual room. The training session and CD-i
program continue in this way to completion, through
an entire imaginary interview, allowing the trainee to
determine the direction and final result. Trainers can
always assist the process by stopping the training at
certain points to allow group discussion and decision
making, as can the CD-i system.
On completion of training programs the key point
summaries are normally made, perhaps in addition
to suggested further reading or study materials. The
system has the ability to complete questioning of the
candidate during or on completion of the training to
confirm what has been understood.
At the time of writing there is a comprehensive
range oJ training materials available (generic) or
trainiQg can be commissioned for a specific use
(bespoke). A dedicated CD-i player is required, which
can sometimes be acquired from the CD-i training
supplier plus any supporting equipment.
The system is ideal for both individual or group
training sessions for a wide' range of training subjects
and allows very effective interaction and participation
by the end users.
64 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Video training programmes
Video based training programmes have been readily
available for many years. It was probably the
forerunner of the "electronic" on board training
facilities and the productions made are of high quality,
informative and effective. This form of training was
available originally on 16mm film and is commonly
remembered by most as the short safety film before
the commencement of the Sunday afternoon
entertainment movie.
These short but very powerful films generally
helped to emphasise a specific danger, hazard or
dangerous act and the possible consequences. In the
last decade, video machines have become fairly
commonplace both in the home and office. As a result,
a whole new range of training information has became
available. Safety videos are still an important section
of the available training but latterly legislation,
management skills and instruction on the many other
abilities the modern seafarer now requires have
become available. Video training programmes can
also be produced specifically for in-company use for
subjects such as induction, company procedures and
specialised equipment operations.
Many of the videos supplied come with a booklet
or other written information for the trainee and
sometimes guidance to a trainer on the most effective
way to use the video singularly or in group sessions.
Videos can form the basis of instruction for any trainer
and are available in just about any subject. They can
be used in a similar manner to CD-i during group
training sessions but to gain participation during the
film the trainer needs actively to stop the video to ask
questions such as "why do you think ....? what should
be happening .... ? etc. Some programmes are
developed with natural pauses and on-screen 'prompt'
questions to encourage discussion or to allow time for
individual reflection. This also makes the process very
effective for individual users who may not have the
support of a trainer at that time.
Videos can cover subjects from the very basic to
the highly detailed with the benefits of moving images
to support the learning points interspersed with
animations, photographs and diagrams. To support
shipboard training, libraries of specific training videos
are now becoming increasingly available for group
and individual use. These libraries are exchanged at
intervals for new material which provides continuous
ongoing support for trainers, enhances a wider range
of knowledge available to trainees and increases the
overall effectiveness of personnel. Videos will be
available for many years to come and should continue
to be regarded as a very powerful tool in any trainer's
armoury.
Virtual reality and 'virtual worlds'
Simulators are becoming more and more
commonplace and by the year 2000 the majority of
watchkeeping officers will have had some experience
of them. There is a form of simulation which, with
appropriate software and delivery systems will shortly
make available the concept known as "virtual reality"
and it will not be long before this technology becomes
commonplace and a standard training method.
Virtual reality is a medium which allows the trainee
to participate in a three dimensional computer
generated simulation - "the virtual world". Within this
virtual world are displayed three dimensional objects
which are the most important part of the system. It is
unlike animation where a sequence of graphical
representations is played concurrently with slight
adjustments to each frame.
In virtual reality a student has the ability to move
around the content of a virtual world and even interact
with objects while doing so. Items can be taken apart,
inspected and viewed from different angles which
allows the student to proceed and explore safely with
no fear of causing harm or damage. For example, this
process is becoming increasingly used in the training
of medical students and is used even by experienced
surgeons planning a forthcoming difficult operation.
Virtual reality, particularly in training, is still a fairly
new concept so before we can begin to identify how
this can be of use to further an individual's education
and to support the trainer in the classroom or
workplace, we need to understand some of the basic
ideas behind the technology. Of course, these ideas
can work for or against the individual, dependent on
their particular learning style. In general it is now
becoming utilised in many areas of knowledge and
information transfer to enable the trainer to
demonstrate actual events as they are expected to
occur in the real world. It is wise to point out that
virtual reality has many uses, not just in training and
education, and therefore it is almost certain all of us
will be seeing and coming into contact with it in any
number of differing scenarios in the next few years.
Virtual reality is perhaps the leading edge of
computer assisted learning where a combination of
learning aids and techniques can be combined to cater
for differing learning styles of which virtual reality
could be one. Virtual reality can probably be sub
divided into three levels of "immersion". Immersion
is the term used to describe to what extent the user is
involved or interacts with and in the process. With
a?{)ropriate software programming of the computer a
trainee operates the system by observing a monitor
display of a three dimensional world and can cause
ac:tions to occur on the screen by using the mouse
and/or keyboard. This user is commonly described
as being immersed to the basic level. This basic level
does not require any major equipment except for a
reasonable stand-alone computer system. Naturally,
this enables the technology to be used at a lesser cost
and consequently is the more favoured option in the
initial stages of development.
The next level is "partial immersion" which utilises
a standard monitor or perhaps a larger screen onto
which the virtual world is projected. The computer
program is inter-linked between the visual display and
the controlling equipment the student would actually
use in the workplace. This could be a keyboard or a
control panel, etc. Students in this situation are trained
on the controls they will actually be using in the
workplace but with the added ability to see the results
of their actions (or inactions) within the produced
virtual world. This is, to all intents and purposes,
similar to some of the specialised simulators now
available for industrial use e.g. flight simulator training
for pilots.
The third level is "total immersion" which requires
the donning of a special helmet which covers the eyes.
It is within the helmets built-in viewing system that
trainees can see their virtual world. They can now
"physically" move around this apparent world,
walking around objects and climbing stairs, etc. By
turning the head and, therefore, the helmet, different
views and aspects can be displayed to make the effect
more real. A recent European childrens' educational
programme used this process and technology to great
effect on individuals who were required to complete
an educational game of lateral thinking and specific
challenges correctly.
At this time this immersion process is being further
advanced with the use of a specialised "sensitive" glove
which, when interfaced with the computer, allows
individuals as they move around this world to pick up
and "feel" actual objects. This technology is still at an
early stage but the possibilities for training are
enormous and industry will potentially use this process
with great effect to train in the workplace.
An example of how this technology is already being
used is for the training of assembly workers where
considerable use is made of automated manufacturing
equipment. In this situation, persons trained using
virtual reality technology were shown to make less
mistakes on return to the workplace than candidates
who had been trained by more conventional methods.
In this particular example the comparison was made
between individuals actually trained on the production
line and those trained on the "virtual production line".
One particular point to note is that those individuals
trained with more conventional methods and on the
real equipment were shown to make more mistakes
on completion of the training than their counterparts
trained with 'virtual reality'.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 65
 Perhaps this can partly be put down to the
candidates training in the virtual world having more
freedom to experiment and perhaps making more
initial mistakes than their workplace counterparts and
as a consequence learning more quickly when the
result of their action could then be seen. The major
difference is, of course, that a mistake in the "virtual"
world costs the participating company nothing but in
the real world a considerable amount in cost of failure
and potential loss of production. The individual under
training in the virtual world is perhaps then in a truly
safe environment where many alternative actions can
be tried and the results observed without causing harm
or injury. This then makes this form of technology
very effective for the training of individuals while at
the same time ensuring that delivered training is more
meaningful.
Telematics: the global connection
Before exploring this area we need to identify exactly
what is meant by "Telematics". Telematics is a term
used to describe the bringing together of all
communications technologies such as, for example,
teleconferencing, video on demand and the Internet,
etc. for direct supply and display on a single receiver
such as personal computers, or perhaps eventually
television sets. The term is used more commonly
within the European continent at this time. However,
with communications systems decreasing the apparent
"global size" the term is likely to become
commonplace over the next few years.
Telematics will now, and in the coming years,
support the delivery of electronic and traditional
training techniques and information immediately to
where they are needed and as such make them
available to all. By using these differing
communication technologies the most appropriate
information or training technique can be identified,
selected immediately and used to ensure the trainee
gains maximum benefit from all there is to offer. It is
natural that all parts of the world will not have
immediate direct access to the technology and all there
is on offer. These technologies take time to install and
implement but it will not be long before most people
can gain the access they need.
Telematic systems can be utilised in many ways
within the training community. For example,
communications structures will allow trainees of one
country to study with a tutor in another country and
perhaps all together as a group. It will allow
exploration of a wider range of databases of
information at locations across the globe which up to
this time have not been easily accessible. Of course,
lectures and conferences of a sort have been available
for many years via satellite technology but tended to
be quite expensive. Commonly this ruled out places
66 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
of learning that were on restricted or limited budgets.
Today, for a fraction of the cost, these technologies
have become available to the benefit of trainees and
trainers alike.
How is this going to assist training? I have
mentioned some examples in this paper of various
electronic technologies now available. With the
support of a Telematics communications network a
combination of these technologies and systems could
be a phone call or computer "key press" away.
Video on demand will give the user with
appropriate communication links installed the ability
to connect to a central library, select from a video of
their choice and have it relayed immediately using
the same line. The whole process is electronic and
has been on trial in a number of locations to supply
entertainment, training materials, information and
documentary type films direct to individual homes,
businesses and places of learning. The trainer and the
trainee will be able to select a specific training video
or programme from an increasingly wider menu and
have it relayed directly to their location for immediate
use.
Multimedia in the form of computer assisted
learning and CD-i technologies can be made available
via the Internet or World Wide Web. Connection is in
real time to a vast range of interactive training that
can either be downloaded for later use or completed
actively while "on line". This technology can be
supported by an on-line trainer who can observe the
actions being undertaken on their screen as the trainee
works on another computer. Alternatively they can
be called only when the trainees need advice,
information, etc. The trainer can respond to the call,
come on line, and assist the trainee directly. This is
increasingly happening with computer software
training both within a classroom situation containing
many separate student computer terminals and also,
now, on the Internet where computer software and
other training is being undertaken.
Teleconferencing is becoming commonly used by
business to inter-link different departments, perhaps
in different parts of the world. Teleconferencing allows
the individual to use the computer as a combined
telephone/video camera system. That is you can talk
to at the same time as seeing the other person on your
computer screen wherever they may actually be.
Diagrams, plans and even real objects can be shown,
described and worked on together or as a group.
Eminent individuals who cannot travel to every
possible location can give lectures and receive
questions in real time via this process. Students and
trainers will now have easy access to these individuals
and will certainly find this of enormous use,
particularly as conferencing in groups becomes
commonplace.
Review
There is still some way to go with Telematics
techniques and the boundaries of electronic training
methods are being pushed out further all the time.
Teleconferencing, Internet access and fibre optic
telephone lines for video on demand are becoming
more common and many businesses and centres of
education are now actively using electronic training
methods to support their function.
It is always worth remembering that these
processes are here to support the training delivery and
when used correctly can be very powerful.
The time and method of their use needs to be
identified by the trainer, so as to structure the
assembled information in a form the student
understands and from which they can actively gain
benefits. The trainers and in-company mentors will
support the transfer of the practical and soft skills using
experience gained over time and this process will
always remain as necessary and important as it ever
was to the student. Electronic training methods are
being shown to be effective and at the same time cost
effective. These modern techniques were moulded
around the traditional principles of training that have
been used for many years.
Where next? future advances
Technological advances within the Internet and other
services over the next few years may make registration
with a specific supplier of services obsolete.
Information, perhaps, may be transmitted by a range
of companies in such a way that it is always on line
even if you are not 'watching'. In other words it may
begin to operate in a similar way to the broadcasts of
an average television company. However, the user will
be able to determine where to look and the process
will still be interactive such that the user can select
the information they require. Costs for this service
could be billed on a 'pay as you view' basis.
Video on line mentioned earlier is an early
example of this process but it is now increasingly likely
that as signals become digital, television sets suitably
modified will then allow direct access to the Internet
and the information it contains.
The world, perhaps, is no longer seen to be divided
by latitude and longitude lines but perhaps by
communication links and accessibility to them. It has
been suggested that these links will make the world
"borderless". Fewer controls on the transfer of
information, ideas and theories country to country,
continent to continent, will exist. Some possible
examples of how this may happen are demonstrated
in this chapter in the teleconferencing and Internet
sections.
This is not as critical as it first appears but it does
have very exciting prospects for both trainers and
trainees because this "electronic information
migration" (ElM) will greatly improve the knowledge
and awareness of trainers and trainees on an
international basis rather than just a national basis.
This should support and foster greater understanding
and co-operation between nations on all aspects of
training policy, standards and certification, particularly
in industries where national interests coincide or
overlap such as shipping and other maritime activities.
As a consequence and with the appropriate
communication links, electronic training delivery
utili sing interactive training techniques and the wide
variety of information potentially available will almost
certainly increase the effectiveness of training in our
future world, "virtual" or otherwise.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 67
 Chapter NINE

THE DEVELOPMENT OF
COMPUTER BASED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI

Director, Technovo Training Systems Ltd., Southampton, UK

Captain Michael Vanstone commenced his sea going career in 7976 with Shaw Savill beforejoining British Underwater Engineering
where he achieved command in 7997. In 7993 he moved to BT (Marine) where he was assigned, with others, to develop modern
training methods for the company.

Due to the success of the developed materials Mike and two colleagues have now established their own company, Technovo Training
Systems Ltd., Southampton to deliver these modern training applications, including Computer assisted learning and electronic NVQ,
recording and assessment systems into the marketplace.

Overview

Companies are recognising that the driving force for
their operational success when competing in global
markets is customer satisfaction, operational
excellence and continuous improvement.
Development of a company's human resource remains
a key ingredient in these goals and objectives.
Consequently the provision of the most modern
training methods and systems continues to assist and
benefit the development of peoples knowledge, skills
and attributes. Technovo Training Systems Ltd. has
for some years been developing bespoke computer
based instructional programs to support this principle
and support the methods used to train individuals in
the workplace.
In this chapter I outline some of the principles and
procedures that are required for companies to develop
a Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) program.
Commonly this process is undertaken by dedicated
companies such as ours. However, perhaps you may
at some stage be responsible for technical input into,
or control of a project to develop such a program.
The following information will guide and assist you
in producing a good quality and effective product to
meet business and customer requirements.
Introduction to computer based
training media
Before we look at some of the methods of developing
a computer based instructional program an
introduction to the concept is in order.
Computerisation on one system type or another is
steadily becoming commonplace, even in smaller
companies, who are now recognising the considerable
benefits computers can deliver. It is fairly certain,
therefore, that most of us will come into contact with
them at some stage of our careers. In general
computers are considered as a tool for undertaking
certain arduous or repetitive tasks. In recent years the
use of computers has expanded dramatically. One such
use is the delivery of training and the benefits gained
by training individuals in the workplace with
information at their fingertips.
The process of computer assisted learning has been
available for some two decades now, However, the
production of such programs tended to require very
high programming skills and, as a consequence, made
many of the programs costly to produce. Because of
this, programs tended to concentrate in areas of
simulation to replace activities that could not be safely
completed in the workplace. Such examples are pilot
training facilities using flight simulators and where the
produced program provided the most cost effective
solution. For many individuals the first contact with
computer assisted learning, sometimes known as
computer based training (CBT), probably would have
been the "tutorial" programs supplied with new
software. These initial "self help" packages were
probably the forerunner of the more detailed and
flexible computer based training packages that are now
available. We have moved on considerably since these
earlier programs, both in efficiency and reduced costs
for production, but even today tutorial sections are
commonly used.
What is computer assisted learning?
CAL is a method of presenting a preprogrammed
schedule of events using a computer. The events can
comprise audio, text, photographs, graphics and
moving pictures in the form of video and/or
animations in any combination. This technology

68 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 combination has become known as multimedia.
Because the style of production stimulates all the
human senses, research has shown that it has become
a particularly good media for promoting learning and
supports many differing learning styles and abilities.
Many computers are now supplied with
multimedia facilities already fitted. To have the ability
to run multimedia programs you will need to upgrade
an existing non-multimedia PC by fitting a CD-ROM,
a set of speakers and a sound card. A good supplier
will be able to advise on the best products to purchase
and be able to install them for you. More recently,
Windows '95 with the 'plug and play' facility has made
the installation process much more straightforward.
The costs are low for equipment which allows the
benefit of easy access to the increasing amount of
training and information now available in electronic
form. This training is commonly supplied on a CD-
ROM (Compact Disc - Read Only Memory), i.e. you
cannot write or save anything to the supplied CD.
More recently with the installation of file servers
in many company IT organisations, the training
material is stored on this server to enable individuals
to access a wide range of training products at their
work stations. This encourages wider use and/or multi-
site use and avoids the need to download the training
materials on individual computers which could fill
valuable "hard disc" storage space. These types of
systems have become known as local area network
systems (LANs). The system has expanded over time
to larger wide area networks(WANs). Probably the
most well known WAN is the Internet.
A standard computer needs the addition of a
modem (computer telephone connection facility) to
access the Internet. Computer aided learning can be
a very effective solution in many situations. It does
not remove the need for a tutor or mentor but it
supports the practical training and guidance given by
the supply of underpinning or theoretical knowledge.
Initial training considerations
You need to be aware of the numbers of people who
require access to the training and their geographical
location. Computer assisted learning for a 'one off'
training delivery vehicle for two or three individuals
may possibly not be a cost effective option as
compared to a traditional solution. However, to larger
_ groups perhaps dispersed from the central location,
CAL can become a very efficient and cost effective
option. If your overall cost of failure is considerable
then, even with a small amount of individuals, CAL
can prove to be very cost effective. The choice of this
training process leads to other factors that require
consideration. Is generic material available already or
do I need to have the program specially produced
(bespoke)? What processes could be covered, i.e.
safety, quality etc. and to whom is the training
directed? What level of learning have they already
achieved and what level is ultimately required? These
and other considerations can only be answered on a
project by project basis and probably need a group of
individuals for input and discussion.
Identifying training needs
Having decided that the best method of training
delivery would be by the use of this type of media
you could perhaps go ahead and begin producing the
material yourself. More commonly, a company
specialising in this type of work is employed to
undertake the process on your behalf, due to the skills
and resources required to produce such materials
effectively. Either way a certain common procedure
needs to be adopted during the production of the
material, so, for the basis of this chapter I assume it is
yourself, with assistance from a company when
required, who is responsible for completing the
production.
Your initial idea and the concept of its
implementation need careful planning and probably
group discussion before a satisfactory draft outline of
a structure can be identified. This process is
fundamentally important. It enables managers and
other responsible persons to contribute as much as
possible to the process and ensures their individual
skills and abilities are recognised and utilised to the
maximum extent. When this process is adopted it
helps to nurture and promote a sense of "ownership".
This, in the longer term, is a distinct advantage to you
particularly where the technology is new and
innovative within an existing company structure. The
active and visual commitment of senior and line
managers to the developed process cannot be
underestimated and should be encouraged whenever
possible.
Development should be commenced by returning
to basic principles i.e. "The training cycle". It can be
seen that even in the most modern methods of training
delivery the traditional processes still have a very
considerable influence. For those who are unsure of
the principle of the training cycle the following basic
model holds true.
a) The training need is accurately identified.
b) An effective solution is developed to meet the need.
c) The developed model is delivered to the individuals
most in need.
d) Training content and method is then evaluated for
its effectiveness.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 69
e) Training is adjusted according to the evaluation.
The cycle is then completed again with any
adjustments included. This "training cycle" process is
accurate for most training applications and can be
applied with great effect in the development of
multimedia programs. Having identified the need for
specific training in a particular subject it is necessary
to decide on the syllabus. The syllabus and the
subsequent training content is commonly dictated
from the results from the original training cycle and
inputs from individuals connected with the skill in
question. Just about any topic is capable of
development into a computer assisted learning
program. However, the proposed syllabus and content
need to be carefully presented with sufficient clarity
to ensure the information is understood by the end
user and results in the original training need and
identified objective being met.
From drawing board to storyboard
Having fostered an 'ownership' process at an early
stage it should be continued, during the development
of the next stage, the 'storyboard'. The storyboard is
the written plan of the proposed production and can
be likened to that produced for a play or film. The
storyboard specifies a list of events which include at
what stages information is shown, how it is shown,
the required user involvement in the process
(interactions) and where text and other audio/visual
insertions are required (multimedia).
It is probable that you will need to call on the
services of a professional storyboard editor and
multimedia developer at this point. The storyboard
editor (training developer) and the individual
responsible for producing the computerised version
(multi-media author) are not normally one and the
same person. It is essential, therefore, that these two
persons regularly converse. This allows the multi-
media author to get a feel for the training developer's
intentions and thinking, which allows an accurate
conversion of the written plan into electronic form.
The multimedia developer, in addition, will converse
with the customer to identify the screen design and
layout i.e. screen colours, company logos, fonts etc.
At a previous stage, training content has already been
identified. As a technical expert you now need to assist
the storyboard editor to research the information that
will be used to support the identified subjects. From
these subject headings a development plan can be
produced which correlates the total package into an
acceptable production order and ensures all of the
required contents have been included. This can be
recorded in the form of a flow diagram on which can
be indicated the positions of inclusions such as graphic,
audio sequences, etc.
70 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
The CAL packages produced are generally
straightforward to use, even by the most novice of
computer users. However, to allay any initial concerns
regarding the, perhaps, new technology it is sometimes
preferable to insert a short introductory program at
the beginning to allow the individual to develop their
basic skills in using a keyboard and mouse. Lasting a
few minutes only, and available only if selected, it
allows the user to gain immediate confidence and
sufficient skills to use the program effectively. For a
novice it may also indirectly enhance and nurture
other computer skills, even before the intended
training package is commenced.
The production order
The production order may be able to be varied. For
example, if trainees are required to complete
increasingly higher levels of training within the subject
area, then the most basic should be completed first to
allow it to be used during the development of further
material. This may seem fairly obvious but
consideration to the implementation process at an
early stage can save time and money in the longer
term. Schedules could be complicated by other factors
even external to the program, such as availability of
an individual or group for training at a particular time.
Of course, one of the major benefits of computer aided
learning technology is its availability 24 hours a day
every day in the workplace. It is available at the
trainee's convenience and whenever the individual can
be released from their workstation, even for short
periods. As a result of its immediate availability it can
also be used for refresher and 'just in time' training
whenever the need arises. This helps to avoid some
of the considerable costs of postponements and
cancellations due to work commitments and reduces
the overall costs of training that previously were
completed outside the workplace.
Design of the storyboard
The storyboard process can now be commenced for
the introductory and subsequent sections of the
training package. This information will ultimately be
used by the multi-media author during the
computerised development of the process. To enable
the program to be more user friendly a menu of the
storyboard contents can be made available to the end
user which helps them navigate through the completed
training package. The storyboard should contain all
of the relevant information regarding the specified
subject and the proposed style of presentation should
allow it to be understood easily.
During the development process it is important
constantly to remember the end user, their levels of
ability - both current and expected - and perhaps
even their nationality. The text, when used, needs to
be precise and positive. In general it needs to maintain
a logical approach throughout, have the right
ambience and proffer a relaxing theme. Occasionally
other spoken languages may be required. In these
cases, should your own natural language differ from
the trainees' first language, you will need to avoid
colloquialisms and slang whenever possible which may
be difficult to translate or simply not recognised. Care
must also be taken with any technical translations to
ensure the material remains accurate after the
translation has been completed. It may be that a
'mother tongue' speaker of the language will be
required to make suitable audio and assist with text
clips for inclusion in the package. For reasons already
mentioned this person should preferably be
comfortable with the completion of technical
translations.
Development of the storyboard
Detailed research is required for the general content
of the program and this information must then be
assembled in a coherent and effective way, perhaps
using a flow diagram procedure as already mentioned.
This researched information is most likely to be in
the form of text but could also be pictorial, audio or
perhaps video. Each individual screen of the computer
program should be planned to contain the selected
parts of this gathered information, which in turn allows
the user to view the displayed information in an
ordered manner. This helps avoid any screen
"overload" with too much information displayed at
one time causing confusion and/or difficulty in seeing
any pictures and text.
The story should develop gradually allowing a
steady assimilation of information by the individual
rather than giving it all in one burst. The overall
structure in each case is likely to change depending
on the learning style required. The model should
commence with basic instructions on the method of
program use as previously described. The speed of
progress can be dictated by the user by the use of
navigation buttons (forward, back etc.) and hypertext
links (words that when 'clicked' on will display further
information held elsewhere within the program
without the need to search). Here is a very basic
storyboard model that could be followed.
a) The training should commence with an
introduction to the content of the program. It should
state clearly what benefits the individual will gain
by completing the program and what the ultimate
objectives of the training are.
b) It should outline what the user should be expected
to do and/or know on its successful completion.
c) The information should be presented in gradual
stages, either with stand alone text or a combination
of text, graphics, illustrations, photos, video and
audio.
d) The selected graphics should be interesting,
memorable and avoid the inclusion of unnecessary
information or background. Audio playback
sequences should be specific, with appropriate
emphasis.
e) Individuals can be asked during the process to
"interact" (partake in an extra activity by placing
the mouse pointer and 'clicking' or use a keyboard
entry to activate a 'hot spot' or small section of the
displayed screen). This, for example, will reveal
other information, graphics and/or pictures
allowing further exploration and discovery within
the program.
f) The process should also support overall memory
building, decision and action planning and allow
periods of reflection on the supplied materials.
Developing user participation
Types and methods of interactions are covered in
greater detail in "user actions and interactions"
included later in this chapter. However, the storyboard
editor must ensure that interactions, when used, always
help to emphasise and strengthen the learning point.
Alternately, some procedures such as audio and video
playback can be made to operate and play
automatically on reaching specified points in the
program. Whenever music and perhaps some video
clips are included an intellectual licence fee may be
payable for their use within the program. This is a
fairly common practice and as such will need to be
accounted for when considering the overall costs.
If and when they are used the inclusions should
be accurately planned and documented. They should
be inserted to ensure a particular training objective
can be achieved rather than an attempt to make the
overall completed program look or seem 'cosmetically'
better. As with all training materials, each section
should have a logical conclusion on the subject that
has been dealt with, include a brief review of the
presented material and, if required, an assessment
section to check the level of learning achieved. This
can be completed for each individual section and/or
at the end of the entire training program.
Developing suitable assessment
questions
Assessment questions should be carefully formulated
to ensure they are clear in what they require, and can
be answered without any particular typing skills. With
this in mind a good solution is a multiple choice
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 71
question bank which can be very effective. However,
It is important to ensure that questions given should
only relate to the information originally presented
within the training program. When the student
responds with an answer, feedback on the selection
made, particularly if the student's selection was
incorrect, can be provided. If for example, the given
answer to a particular question was incorrect then the
program can replay a single or multiple screens,
sentences, audio or visual clips from the training
material originally presented. This can directly relate
to the answer or response that was actually required
and avoids the individual missing a further learning
opportunity and perhaps, gaining a better
understanding, the second time round.
Whichever method of question type is selected the
student should always receive some "positive"
feedback and/or information, even if it is only an
encouraging 'well done!' statement. Questions need
not only be available on completion, they can be
scripted to appear at specified times during the
program. Part of the storyboard process is the
development of methods to assess the effectiveness of
the training during and after receipt by the individual.
These assessment and other forms of questions
strongly support this process. Questions can be
formulated in various styles to present differing
challenges on the screen. For example, questions can
be formed in the following manner:
a) Individuals can be asked to match or rank in order
of importance.
b) Questions can confirm completed actions, i.e. what
did this individual complete correctly, or what did
they do wrong?
c) They can encourage some common sense
evaluation i.e. how much do you think ... etc. etc.
In addition, advanced questioning processes can
be developed that allow the individual to make a
particular decision on the route or next action to take.
It is quite possible for a storyboard to be developed in
such a way as to allow an incorrect decision to be
accepted. This then allows the student to continue
along their selected path to an ultimate conclusion,
perhaps with unexpected or dire consequences, the
'dire consequences' occurring quite safely on the
computer screen. This principle has been used with
great effect for many years within flight simulators and
now more latterly by the radar, bridge and engine
room simulators that, despite all your best efforts,
always seem to end the voyage in some form of
calamity! Irrespective of this possible outcome, the
learning point had been 'driven home' powerfully and
very, very effectively.
Keeping records and quality checks
72 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
The responses to any or all of the assessment questions
and/ or scenarios can be designed to record
automatically within the computer memory which
allows either post training assessment by instructors
and observers or the construction of databases and
profiles across a range of individual users. This
information can be used, for example, to identify
further training needs (i.e. assist in the review process
of the original training cycle) or as a quality control
process to identify, for example, questions that often
receive an incorrect response.
It may be necessary to rephrase the question, or
perhaps the original training material is vague or
inaccurate (does not reflect what actually happens in
the workplace) and therefore requires further review.
The completed storyboard structure needs to identify
where and how these quality checks should be made
and by so doing it assists the multi-media developer
to build an accurate database model that stores the
requisite information in an appropriate format.
Assessing the completed storyboard
Before concluding the storyboard process it is
necessary again to refer to the senior line managers
and other responsible persons to confirm a formal
acceptance of the content and style of the produced
material, and to verify technical accuracy. The
storyboard, now in the form of a script, should receive
a final assessment to ensure the material continues to
meet the original objective of the project. A standard
quality control process can be effected at this time to
confirm all the initial objectives have been met and
help to reinforce the ownership principle.
During development of the storyboard the editor
must always take into account the amount of time the
average individual is likely to have available for
training. You, as a storyboard editor, mayor may not
know the working pattern of the end user. In general
with all training, large sections of information should
be broken down into smaller manageable parts
whenever possible. Try to indicate to the user at the
start of each section of training the estimated time
required for completion and the next natural break.
Of course this may be difficult to specify accurately as
it very much depends on the complexity of the
information, the interactions and the learning rate of
the individual to name but a few influences.
However, a good standard to follow is to allow a
user at least a minimum of 30 seconds per screen
therefore, a training section of 60 screens is likely to
take the average person a minimum of about 30
minutes to complete. The users progress within this
section can also be shown on the screen by indicating
how much has been completed
, and what still remains
outstanding. When you and your colleagues are
completely satisfied that the initial training objective
has been met, the supplied training information is and
remains sufficient, current, relevant, valid and
authentic then the actual physical construction
(authoring) of the storyboard onto the "small screen"
can commence.
From paper to personal computer
Multi-media has already been described earlier as the
method of presenting a preprogrammed schedule of
events using a computer. These events could comprise
of audio, text, photographs, graphics and moving
pictures in the form of video and/or animations in
any combination. We now look at the multimedia
process in more detail. In general there are two equally
good methods of producing a multi-media program.
These are:-
a) Programming the computer using a language and
methods understood by the computer software
system. This method is normally used by those with
detailed programming skills.
b) The utilisation of a specialist software package,
which, partly by-passes the need for programming
skills but still requires particular expertise in its
utilisation.
As the former is normally completed within
specialised programming companies the latter method
may be the most likely to be experienced by trainers
contemplating developing all or part of the process.
Therefore this is the process that is described in the
following sections. Even so, the development
principles between these two methods are very similar.
When the completed storyboard text is received
from the editor the multimedia author needs to
understand the concept and the principles behind the
developed training and, from this information, be able
to build up a picture of how the material is finally to
be presented with greatest effect. It is possible that
the storyboard editor and the multimedia author are
the same person. However, as already mentioned in
the previous section, it is more likely that they are
different people and because of this they should have
conversed regularly. This ensures the concepts and
principles behind the training are already known and
understood and as such will progress the work that
much more easily. There are a number of commercial
systems available for the development of multi-media
which allow the insertion of text, graphics,
photographs, video and audio on a limited scale fairly
quickly. However, until sufficient skills are obtained
in the use of the development software only very basic
and short programs can be expected to be produced.
For more complicated program developments the
learning curve for the average user is commonly many
months, perhaps years.
The development software
The process begins by the creation of a new program
within the specialised development software which
allows access to a single pathway, taking the form of,
for example, a straight line and onto which can be
superimposed the required computer events. To one
side of the display are seen very small pictorial buttons.
These are commonly known as "icons" and have been
preprogrammed to complete a specific function. Any
number of these "icons" or combinations of "icons"
can be used during the development process. For
example, by choosing the appropriate individual icon
for the required action you can show a particular
screen, erase a particular screen, play an audio track,
run a video sequence etc.
These icons or a combination of icons can be
installed on the new pathway in the required order
by selecting with the mouse pointer and dragging and
dropping them along the initial displayed path on the
worksheet area. Information relating to their function
or action in the form of text, graphics, photographs,
speech and video etc. is then entered by the developer
within each icon as they are installed. When the
computer is directed to run the developed program,
"icons" operate in the sequence in which they were
established. They complete their preprogrammed
function and show or play any additional information
included by the developer. This is the initial
development process from which the full blown multi-
media training program be~ns to evolve. Information
can be entered by "opening-up" the icon to a larger
worksheet area onto which the particular part of the
training can be developed.
There are various programs in existence so these
processes may differ slightly, depending on the
software used. Much of the training information can
be inserted using either the keyboard and/or mouse.
However, any audio, video, graphical and
photographic inserts require the use of additional
equipment and computer software for their
preparation for use, e.g. scanner, sound recorders etc.
Development continues until the icon events
containing all the necessary training have been
completed according to the storyboard specification,
in the correct order, and in the style originally
envisaged by the storyboard editor and client
company.
Development of the computer program
In general any information included on individual
screens must be clear and avoid congestion.
Overloading screens with too much information only
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 73
results in important facts being obscured and/or the
underlying message being lost. Any use of audio
sequences should, so far as is possible, relate to the
on-screen information and summarise or reinforce the
specific learning point. Video sequences, when
included, should concentrate on the process under
training (i.e. avoid background distractions), should
be of reasonable screen size and displayed without
blur, 'shuddering' or distortion. When any graphics,
photographs or plans are used they should be
displayed in a size that is large enough to be easily
seen without squinting as this will detract the user from
the information on display.
Unless absolutely necessary, very complicated and
intricate plans and displays should be avoided. When
necessary they need to be broken down into smaller
areas for better clarity. As already stated, text should
be of a reasonable size, retain the same font and colour
to allow it to be read easily and to stand out from the
selected background colour of the screen. Design will
be decided between the client and the multimedia
author. However, so far as possible and except where
company colours or logo's require, excessively bright
colours should be avoided anywhere on the screen
except where specific highlighting is required. As a
consequence, background and/or border colours
should, so far as possible, always be made soft and
plain so as to avoid distracting the user from focusing
on the training presented within the screen.
The actual structure of the training and how all
these processes are combined can be left to the
individual developers. However, so long as the above
pointers and guides are observed, the final programme
of training material should look sufficiently
professional, impart the information clearly and allow
the initial stated training objective to be achieved.
User actions and interactions
One of the benefits of multimedia is that it seeks to
include the student by interaction. In general,
interactions should be developed to enable the student
to investigate and explore objects and information
displayed on the screen. For example, putting together
an electrical circuit, or user insertion of additional
words or sentences to form correct factual statements.
Alternatively the screen can be provided with areas
known as "hot spots" or places on screen such that if a
point and click of the mouse is completed anywhere
on this small area further information is revealed. This
could be a more detailed breakdown of that part of
the process or equipment under discussion. In more
advanced interactions valves can be opened and
closed, switches operated, machinery started and on
screen gauges can indicate actual readings.
Questioning in its many forms is another type of
74 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
interaction and helps to ensure the user really did
understand the information that has been displayed.
Interactions are fundamental to and greatly enhance
the multimedia process by making the user participate
directly in the process and consequently reinforcing
the specific learning point. Computer aided learning
systems have the ability to allow the user to proceed
at their own pace and, within reason, in a direction of
their own choosing. This means internal navigation
must be effective with the provision of suitably sized
on-screen buttons, clearly marked with their use, to
allow movement through the program. These buttons
provide movements similar to that of a video recorder
to allow the user to move both forward and backwards
by screen, by section or entire program. Question
banks can be inserted at the required points of the
program. If required a model will need to be designed
to record the individuals completing the questions and
their responses. This information will need to be
accessible by a designated person for future reference
so a database area will need to be included to allow
for multiple user inputs.
Conclusions
One of the major benefits of computer aided learning
technology is its availability 24 hours a day, every day,
actually at the user's place of work. It is therefore
available whenever the user needs the support even
for short training periods. This helps to reduce medium
and long term company costs of training by allowing
better deployment of the existing training work force
resulting in a more productive training environment
being achieved. More and more companies are
undertaking development of their staff utilising
computer assisted learning techniques. Colleges and
universities worldwide are now using the process for
reference and many other forms of education.
Many schools, even those for younger children,
are investing in the process and installing computer
terminals and basic computer assisted learning
technology directly into classrooms. These young
people, the future work force, are already becoming
very adept at using computers in all parts of their life
- so much so that they are rapidly becoming a
common feature in private homes for entertainment
and education. Major advances within the Internet
service are now allowing the provision of
computerised information and education on an
increasing scale, made available wherever you are.
An enormous amount of reference material is
available via this process in addition to some computer
assisted learning and training facilities. This can be
utilised while 'connected on line', sometimes with the
assistance, if required, of an individual tutor who can
be based at a central location. Alternatively the
material can be used when disconnected from the
Internet or 'off line' by downloading the information
onto your own computer for use at a later time. Most
probably, in both cases some form of subscription fee
is inevitable. The Internet and the facilities it can
provide anywhere in the world is likely to have a major
impact on how the companies deliver their training
and allocate resource to support the training process
of their people.
Developments within 'virtual reality' processes are
now becoming more available. However, at this time
access is limited because the developed programs tend
to be for very specific subjects and needs and as a
consequence do not yet cover the wide range of
training needs. Irrespective of this, the principle of
virtual reality is very exciting and forms a future
supporting process and natural extension to computer
assisted learning techniques now available. At the time
of writing the computer assisted learning programs
described within this paper are readily available at a
reasonable cost to companies even if they have only
elementary forms of computerisation. These modern
technologies do, and will continue to, support the
effective delivery of training and information direct
to the user quickly and easily, all at the touch of an
electronic button or movement of the "virtual hand".
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 75
 Chapter TEN

THE USE OF SIMULATORS AS

TOOLS FOR TRAINING AND EXAMINING SEAFARERS
by Dr Michael L. Barnett PhD BSc MNI

Warsash Maritime Centre, Southampton Institute, UK

Dr Barnett is a Master Mariner with extensive project management experience.

During a seafaring career sapnning 15 years, Michael served on a variety of vessels,from passenger shiPs to VLCCs and latterly on
chemical tankers as chief officer.

He came ashore in 1982 to conduct research at the Department of Maritime Studies, University of Wales and was a awarded a
doctoratefor his work in the development of marine simulator training programmes.

Since 1985 he has lectured and advised extensively on petro-chemical tanker safety in the UK and overseas. He now directs the
Research Section and is a member of the UK delegation to the STW Sub-committee at IMO. His research interests include instructional
system design and manpower issues.

Overview
This article describes the findings of a research project
to investigate the effectiveness of marine simulators.
The project was funded by the Marine Safety Agency
and their Project 340 Report was published in
November 1995. The research team from the Warsash
Maritime Centre was Dr. Mike Barrett, Captain
George Angas, Steven Stallwood, Peter Barber, Rob
Sawers and Mrs. Thelma Poole. The MSA Project
Officer was Pat Dolby. These extracts from that report
are reproduced with kind permission of the MSA.
industries within the UK, and an internal seminar
with members of the Warsash Maritime Centre
(WMC) with simulator experience.
The first seminar was directed primarily at the users
of simulators in the UK maritime colleges and
academic institutions. The second seminar invited
delegates from other industries with an interest in
simulation, for example, from civil aviation, nuclear
power and the Royal Navy, and involved both
operators and representatives of industrial lead bodies.

Introduction Both seminars had a similar format. A number of

The research project had three objectives:-
1. To assess the effectiveness of simulators as training
tools having regard to the quality of replication they
provide.
2. To recommend the extent to which such training
can substitute for work experience.
3. To make observations on the extent to which such
apparatus could be used to assess competence for
qualification purposes.
To achieve these three objectives, the project
methodology comprised the following elements:-
small groups were invited to respond to specific
questions during three sessions: the first covered
general issues, followed by two sessions devoted to
training and assessment issues. At the end of each
session, the findings from each group were presented
and discussed in plenary. A member of the project
team attended each group to provide clarification, but
took no part in the working group discussions.
Both seminars were useful in providing general
information on the range of simulator activities and
in clarifying several of the pertinent issues. A further
seminar was held involving WMC simulator staff to
explore these issues in more depth.
The training effectiveness of simulators

• A literature review. System issues

• Three seminars - two external seminars involving The literature review revealed that experience from
both Southampton Institute staff and invited the Services had indicated that one of the problems
delegates from the maritime and other relevant associated with the introduction of new or upgraded

76 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

equipment and systems is that accompanying training
devices tend to be acquired in an ad hoc manner. This
leads to overlaps between training devices, and
problems of proper maintenance support. It has
therefore been proposed within the Services that
initially a Training Needs Analysis (TNA) should be
conducted to determine whether training is in fact the
most appropriate solution to the operational problem,
and if it is, then a full Training Analysis (TA) should
be undertaken as part of a systems approach to training
before the procurement of any training devices.
There are obvious differences between the
situations within which the Merchant Navy and the
MOD operate, but simulator-based training in the
Merchant Navy has tended to develop in a similar ad
hoc fashion. Most simulator courses are non-
mandatory and have been developed to satisfy
customer demands as technological ability has made
appropriate devices available. With an increasing
number of training devices, particularly PC based
equipment, now on the market, the concept of an
integrated or systems approach to training provides a
useful model for the training requirements of the
Merchant Navy. Consequently, the issues of simulator
effectiveness and replication need to be considered
within the wider context of a systems approach to
training.
The use of simulators within a systems approach
to training raises several important issues:-
1. New training devices, including simulators, should
be designed and constructed as a result of a Training
Analysis to a specification based on specific training
objectives. Where existing training devices are used
for new programmes, they must be capable of
satisfying the specific training objectives. Equally,
additional features of the training device should not
detract from the attainment of specific training
objectives.
2. The effectiveness of training is dependent on the
successful interaction of many components. It is
often said that the single most important component
in simulator training is the instructor and not the
hardware. Both the quality of the course design and
the motivation of the trainee are also important
factors.
3. If the specific training objectives comprise
standards, expressed as explicit performance
criteria, training can be geared to the individual,
for example, training may continue, or remedial
training be provided, until the required level of
proficiency has been reached.
4. Systematic testing of trainee performance prior to
and after the training programme, as well as
subsequently in the work place, is necessary to
evaluate the effectiveness of the training.
5. Conditions in the work place must be conducive to
the transfer of trainee performance. Criticism of the
effectiveness of training is misplaced if the policies,
practices and attitudes of an organisation inhibit
transfer to the work place. Indeed, the positive
commitment of an organisation to the objectives of
the training is vital if transfer is to take place.
The definition and classification of simulators
During the design stage of a training system, strategic
decisions have to be made concerning the type of
training devices required, including the provision of
simulators. Before making these decisions, it is useful
to have some definition of a simulator. Evidence from
the literature review and the seminars suggests that it
is surprisingly difficult to give a concise definition of a
simulator.
A useful starting point is to distinguish between
simulation and the real operation, where simulation
might be defined as an attempt to mimic reality.
Simulation can therefore include activities such as role-
playing and simulation "games" where no equipment
is used at all. An example of this might be the type of
exercise where personnel can rehearse emergency
responses using only information provided by each
other or by the facilitators.
Simulation can also include situations where real
objects are being used in a simulated environment,
for example, warships used in exercises at Plymouth;
whole aircraft engines for maintenance training, and
signals applied to real navigational equipment in a
laboratory.
The notion of a "simulator" contains an element
of an object specially designed for a purpose. It is
suggested therefore that a simulator, in addition to
other features it may possess, must satisfy all the
following requirements:-
1. It includes a piece, or pieces, of apparatus; (e.g. not
role-playing).
2. It has been designed for a purpose, or purposes;
(e.g. if that purpose is training and/or assessment,
it should satisfy specific objectives).
3. Some aspect of the reality it mimics will have been
deliberately omitted (otherwise it is the real object
in a simulation).
4. The device allows an operator to acquire a new
skill; or practice and/or demonstrate an acquired
one; (this may also include knowledge and/or
attitudes).
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 77
5. The environment in which the simulator is operated
is controlled; (this implies some safety for the
operator, though not necessarily total, as graduates
from fire fighting or underwater escape courses will
testify!) .
6. The operator interacts with the simulation over
which an instructor, and/or assessor, exercises some
control, either by setting up initial conditions or by
intervention.
Taking into account these features, the following
definition of a simulator is offered:-
"A device, designed to satisfy specific objectives,
which mimics part of a real situation in order to allow
an operator to practice, and/or demonstrate
competence in, an operation in a controlled
environment. "
There are a number of different ways in which a
simulator might be classified on the basis of its
characteristics. A simulator can be generic, i.e. it does
not represent any specific equipment or system; or it
can be a replica. It may operate in real or accelerated
time. A simulator can allow practice or demonstration
in part of a task, a complete task, or the integration of
many tasks.
Transfer and fidelity
Classic definitions of transfer refer to the degree to
which learning to perform one task is made easier by
the prior learning of another task. Simulator-based
training is the systematic development in a simulated
environment of the knowledge, skills and attitudes
required to perform a task in the real world. In this
context, transfer also refers to the degree to which
learning in the real environment is made easier by
prior learning of the same task in the simulated
situation.
Total transfer is rare, i.e. some further learning in
the operational setting is usually required. Transfer is
not uniform, i.e. some skills will transfer more readily
than others. For example, evidence from aviation
studies suggests that flight simulators are most effective
for the transfer of procedural skills such as instrument
flying, and least effective for perceptual-motor skills
because of the difficulties in reproducing visual and
kinesthetic effects. Some aspects of the learning
situation may transfer inadvertently. By deliberately
omitting some tasks for the purposes of training,
trainees might infer incorrectly that these tasks were
not considered important, and neglect them in the real
situation. Equally, beneficial aspects may transfer even
though they are 'not specific training objectives, and
therefore part of any evaluation process. Training in
teams may also influence the transfer of learning for
individuals, for better or worse. For example, if one
78 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
member dominates, then others may not learn so
much. Equally, collaboration with other trainees may
enhance individual transfer.
The importance of transfer in simulator-based
training is that it is the key measure of the effectiveness
of that training. However, there are few recorded
transfer experiments in the marine simulator literature.
The most abundant source of transfer studies appears
to be in relation to aircraft simulators, and even here,
results from studies are surprisingly inconclusive in
providing hard evidence of positive transfer.
Transfer of training experiments need to be
carefully designed because they are notoriously
difficult to control. Problems involve the lack of
experimental control, insufficient sample sizes,
insufficient training time in the simulator, insufficient
time for evaluating transfer in the operational setting,
and insensitive measures . It has been suggested that
even when studies indicate that little transfer has
occurred, this is usually attributed to failures in the
transfer experiment, rather than to the possibility that
expensive, replica flight simulators do not train!
The following list is a general summary of factors
which can influence transfer:-
1. The degree to which details of complexity in the
real situation provide sufficient cues for the trainee
in the simulator, i.e. the device fidelity.
2. Other facilities of the device which may affect
transfer: these are itemised separately at the end of
the section.
3. How trainee performance is measured e.g.
subjective assessments or objective measures of
performance.
4. At what point it is measured i.e. whether the time
taken to achieve a certain standard is measured or
whether a "first shot" measure is used can produce
different transfer results.
5. The level of experience and aptitude of the trainee.
6. The motivation of the trainee to learn and to apply
that learning.
7. The amount of feedback available to the trainee.
8. Instructor and trainee attitudes to the simulator.
9. The quality, including competence and credibility,
of instructor staff.
10. The quality of training programme.
11. The effects ofteam or individual training.
12. organisational factors in the work place, including
the commitment of the organisation to the training
objectives, commercial pressures, attitudes of senior
personnel and peer pressures.
One implication of the concept of transfer for the
cost-effectiveness of simulation as a training method,
is that any simulation equipment should be designed
and constructed so that it simulates the operational
situation only to the extent necessary to provide
transfer of the knowledge and skill specified by the
Training Analysis. This concept establishes the linkage
between transfer and the level of fidelity required to
provide that transfer.
In the simulation literature, there are a number of
definitions of fidelity in terms of realism, equipment
fidelity, environmental fidelity, behavioural fidelity,
and psychological fidelity. Depending on its purpose,
a simulator may emphasise one or more of these
different aspects of fidelity.
In the context of training, one definition which
broadly captures this multi-dimensional nature
suggests that:-
"Simulation fidelity is the degree of similarity
between the training situation and the operational
situation which is simulated. It is a two dimensional
measurement of this similarity in terms of: (1) the
physical characteristics, for example, visual, spatial,
kinesthetic etc.; and (2) the functional characteristics,
for example, the informational and stimulus and
response options of the training situation." (I)
Physical requirements include the visual display,
spatial arrangement and appearance of controls and
instruments as well as environmental factors such as
the ability to walk round a control room. Functional
requirements are concerned with the information
which is available from displays, for example, changes
or trends being shown on gauges and recorders.
Response aspects are concerned with the opportunity
for the trainee to act on that information through the
controls provided by the simulator.
In civil aviation, simulator design and development
progressed with the aim of producing the highest
physical fidelity level possible under the assumption
that realism must lead to good training. However,
doubts have emerged about the validity of that
assumption. It has been suggested that what is
important in relation to the fidelity of a simulator is
not stimuli themselves, but the presentation of cues.
For example, a stimulus may be a flashing light or an
alarm bell. The purpose of training is to learn the
meaning attached to that stimulus so that the proper
response can be made. As stimuli gain meaning, and
that meaning is learnt, then the stimuli become cues (2).
One aspect of the effectiveness of a simulator in
relation to its fidelity is therefore the extent to which it
provides the cues which are critical for the learning of a
particular type of task. Different types of task require
different levels of physical and functional fidelity. In most
real tasks, there will be both cognitive and manual
elements, but to give an example, if a task is largely
cognitive, such as monitoring the progress of an
operation, then a VD U representation of the system may
provide an appropriate simulation. The physical fidelity
can be low, but the functional fidelity must be high, so
all necessary information, for example, pressures and
temperatures, must be realistically modelled. If, on the
other hand, the training task is largely manual, for
example, the correct actions to make to operate a piece
of equipment manually, then physical fidelity must be
high, but the informational aspects may be less important.
The relationship between the stage of training and
fidelity requirements is another important issue.
Empirical evidence from aviation suggests that it is more
cost-effective to train novices on low fidelity devices
before switching to high fidelity simulators because too
much information is provided by the high fidelity
simulator. Experienced personnel can also gain benefit
from lower physical fidelity devices, for example, for
conversion or familiarisation training, because they are
able to "fill in the gaps" for themselves. On the other
hand, for resource management or emergency response
training, high levels of both physical and functional
fidelity are considered necessary.
In addition, it is argued that the level of trainee
aptitude can also influence fidelity requirements. The
theory is that the more general ability the trainee has,
the less of both physical and functional fidelity he requires
in comparison with trainees of lesser general ability.
Finally, it may be that a departure from some aspect of
realism is deliberately introduced, in order to increase
the transfer, for example, through the addition of extra
cues to aid learning. Hayes and Singer have produced a
series of graphs relating to hypothetical physical and
functional requirements against type of task, stage of
learning, and level of trainee aptitude. These are
reproduced as figure 10.1.
In summary, conclusive empirical evidence of
positive transfer seems to vary from one study to another.
Although it may be impossible to quantity, expert opinion
across a range of industries suggests that high fidelity
simulators do provide a cost-effective training benefit.
What is more of an issue is to what extent can effective
training still be maintained when the physical dimension
of fidelity is lowered. This suggests that comparisons
between different levels of fidelity and different types of
simulator might be more important than general studies
of transfer from high fidelity replica simulators to the
work place. Figure 10.2 illustrates a matrix relating
physical fidelity to different types and stages of training.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 79
 Although the measurement of transfer is the
ultimate way of assessing the effectiveness of a
simulator, other measures may be used. Besides
experimental studies, the other major way of
evaluating the effectiveness of simulator-based training
is through the use of surveys to establish user opinion.
There are plenty of anecdotes in a number of
industries to testify to the value of simulator training.
There have been incidents where operators have
handled emergencies successfully, and afterwards have
attributed their success to their simulator training. In
the marine world, Masters have conducted difficult
manoeuvres for the first time on a real ferry, after an
appropriate simulator course, and testified to the
effectiveness of the training. Course critiques
completed by the students themselves are widely used
at the conclusion of marine simulator courses. A third
source of user opinion is that provided by the major
sponsors of simulator training, the shipping companies.
It is considered across a range of different industries
employing simulators that subjective opinions, despite
their limitations, from simulator instructors, often
expert practitioners themselves, from the trainees,
whether novices or experienced personnel, and the
reactions of their sponsors, do provide overwhelming
and positive evidence of the training effectiveness of
simulators.
There are also other features of simulators which
are considered important in training effectiveness and
these include, in no particular order:-
1. Versatility and upgrade ability of the device.
2. User friendliness of the device for the trainee.
3. User friendliness of the device for the instructor,
including ability to set up initial conditions easily
and inject malfunctions etc.
4. Flexibility of the device; i.e. that it can be altered
to provide different levels of training by adding or
removing cues as necessary.
5. Monitoring, recording, playback and freeze/fast
forward features of computer based simulators.
These contribute to improved feedback to the
student.
Simulators and their substitution for
work experience
Where simulators provide the only safe way to train,
for example, in emergency response, or handling
particularly hazardous situations, then the substitution
can be total. In this context, the use of simulation
demonstrates one of its fundamental benefits.
Although it must be recognised that real emergencies
will generally follow an unpredictable path, there is
an undoubted value in building the self-confidence of
trainees through the use of simulators, for example,
in fire fighting, and escape training, as well as realistic
computer-based control simulators.
Where simulators are used for training in "normal"
steady-state operations, such as standard watch
keeping tasks, then mere substitution, i.e. one day on
a simulator is worth one day on a ship, is more
questionable. Experience on ship's bridge simulators
suggests that this type of watchkeeping substitution is
not very effective for two major reasons:-
1. The simulator cannot provide all the external cues
which make up the total shipboard experience.
2. The length of time to make substitution worthwhile,
i.e. days or weeks on a simulator, makes it non cost-
effective.
There may be potential value in remission of sea-
time, i.e. a day on a simulator is worth more than one
day on a ship, through the use of simulators.
Traditional forms of training, using time spent in
the work place as a way of ensuring competency, are
based on the principle that through a series of
experiences, a trainee will absorb sufficient knowledge
and develop adequate skills so that when presented
with a novel situation, he will be able to deal with it
effectively. This type of experiential learning relies on
a sufficient length of time for enough sets of
circumstances to arise, and a sufficient length of time
for reflection and synthesis, before an individual takes
on responsibility.
Despite its apparently haphazard nature, this form
of "apprenticeship" has undoubtedly been effective
in producing mature, competent individuals. The idea
of allowing qualifying periods of sea-time to be
shortened through the use of simulators is based on
the concept that a simulator is not merely a
replacement for the work place, but that the training
programme associated with it provides improved
conditions for learning.
Experience with current levels of sea-time
remission suggests that relatively modest levels have
not proved detrimental. For example, a two week
Bridge Watchkeeping Preparatory Course may be
eligible for six weeks sea-time remission. However,
attempts to shorten sea periods through the use of
simulators should be viewed with caution for the
following reasons:-
1. Experiential learning requires time for reflection
and repetition.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 81
2. Lack of standardisation of ships. Most forms of
marine simulation are generic and therefore
familiarisation in the job with specific equipment
is necessary. In civil aviation, "zero flight time"
(ZIT) is allowed for conversion purposes, but it is
through the use of replica simulators and the pilots
are already very experienced.
3. Certain tasks are more cost-effectively learnt at sea
than in simulators. For example, although a trainee
could learn to helm a vessel through a desktop
trainer, followed by a part-task trainer, and then
transferring to a full-mission simulator, it is probably
more cost-effective to learn this task on a real ship.
Many general watchkeeping tasks fall into this
category.
It is often stated that the simulator itself does not
train, it is the way it is used which yields its benefit.
Consequently, any awarding of sea-time remission
should be on the basis of an approved programme of
training, i.e. courses with clearly defined objectives,
carefully designed scenarios and qualified instructors,
not on the basis of mere possession of individual
training devices or types of simulator.
The substitution of experience in the work-place
by simulator-based training should therefore be
considered within the context of a continuous
integrated training process from the beginning of a
programme to its completion. Such a systems approach
to training is inherent in the civil aviation concept of
Advanced Qualifications Programmes (AQP). This
model has a number of important features:-
1. It is proficiency-based, i.e. candidates must perform
consistently to certain specific criteria to achieve
and maintain qualification;
2. Since the model is proficiency-based, there is no
necessity for any stipulated length of training or
qualifying period.
3. A number of different training options are available.
Some training programmes may use traditional
methods entirely, others may use simulators as part
of the training process.
4. Approval of a particular programme is on the basis
of a thorough Training Analysis which includes the
definition of appropriate training methods, media
and devices, and staff resources.
5. Within an approved programme specifying the use
of simulators, the individual apparatus is required
to meet certain minimum criteria.
82 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Simulators and the assessment of
competence
There are a number of reasons why an assessment of
somebody might be conducted, for example, an
assessment for the purposes of recruitment; assessment
for promotion; an assessment of proficiency to satisfy
a particular company's standards; assessment of
competence for the purposes of certification; or
assessment to evaluate training effectiveness. Indeed
it may not be an individual who is required to be
assessed but a team. The way in which a simulator is
used for assessment is determined by the purpose of
that assessment, although the performance criteria for
different purposes may overlap, or even be the same.
With the exception of junior officer assessments
on NCC courses, most of the experience in maritime
simulator assessment has not been for qualification
purposes, but for the specific purposes of a customer.
The continued and increasing use of simulators by
companies for assessment purposes provides positive
evidence of their capabilities in this role. This
experience, which has been gained over several years,
has been useful in clarifying some of the issues and
problems in the use of simulators for assessment.
The remainder of this section considers the use of
simulators for the assessment of competence for the
purposes of certification, within a competence-based
system such as the National Vocational Qualifications
(NVQ) Framework.
Simulators could be used in two main ways for the
assessment of competence, which are not mutually
exclusive:-
1. As an examination tool, involving the use of
scenarios designed to assess specific performance
criteria.
2. The successful completion of simulator-based
training courses being accepted as part of a portfolio
of evidence.
If simulators are used as examination tools, a set
of standardised simulated scenarios will be required
by the assessor for the following purposes:-
1. To make final checks on competence.
2. To fill in gaps in the portfolio.
3. To assess performance not able to be assessed in
any other way.
 If simulator-based training courses were used for
providing portfolio evidence, it would need to be made
explicit which specific standards were being covered
by the course. The introduction of assessment on such
courses, though not necessary, would help to make
them more powerful items of evidence. However,
there is some concern that such assessment will lead
to both instructors and trainees only focusing on those
elements of the course which are covered by criteria,
and thereby losing the overall benefit of the training.
There are a number of other issues which need to
be considered:-
1. To provide a valid and reliable method of
assessment, a simulator must allow a candidate to
exhibit the behaviours that would indicate
competence in the work place. Consequently, any
simulator being used for assessment must have
sufficient behavioural fidelity. High fidelity full-
mission simulators would not appear to present a
problem in this respect, but as with training, lower
fidelity devices might need to be evaluated to ensure
that they do provide a valid and reliable method of
assessment.
2. Candidates may require familiarisation time on a
simulator used as an examination tool. To provide
fair assessment, it may be necessary to repeat
exercises to allow a pattern to emerge. Some
simulators are more capable of providing
repeatability than others. In team situations,
repetition of scenarios may favour those candidates
who are not assessed first.
3. The problems of the subjectivity of assessors are
well known. They include "halo" effects, "similar-
to-me" effects, first impressions and "stereotyping".
Many of these problems can be overcome through
the proper training of assessors. Providing that staff
receive training in assessment, the professional
judgment of a qualified practitioner is probably as
effective as currently available objective measures.
4. The problem with "objective" measures supplied
by the simulator itself, for example, distance off
track, or pressure/temperature readouts, is that they
can only provide a limited view of overall
competence. Such measures tend to be what the
simulator can measure rather than what the
performance criteria demand. Many important
general skills, for example, the ability to
communicate clearly with other members of a team,
simply cannot be measured in this way.
Conclusions
Simulators are a type of training device. Like all
training devices, their use should be considered within
the context of a total training system. A systems
approach reveals a number of general issues which
may influence the effectiveness and practical
application of simulator-based training:-
1. The effectiveness of training is dependent on the
successful interaction of many components. It is
generally recognised that the single most important
component in simulator-based training is the
instructor and not the hardware. Both the quality
of the course design and the motivation of the
trainee are also important factors.
2. In an ideal training system, any training devices,
including simulators, should be designed and
constructed as a result of a Training Analysis.
3. Practical problems including time constraints,
trainee availability and suitability, and lack of post-
training follow-up, may affect adversely the overall
effectiveness of simulator-based training.
The key measure of the effectiveness of simulator
training is transfer. Transfer has occurred if learning
in the simulated environment influences performance
in a real operation. Experience from aviation studies
suggests that empirical investigation of transfer is
difficult and nonconclusive. Many factors may affect
transfer. Exploration of these factors is important in
any evaluation of the effectiveness of simulators as
training tools. These factors include fidelity.
Fidelity is a multi-faceted concept. Fidelity includes
notions of environmental realism, physical fidelity,
psychological fidelity and functional fidelity. Different
simulators emphasise different facets of fidelity for
specific training purposes. Historically, high physical
fidelity was considered important to achieve transfer,
but more recently, experimental studies have shown
that low physical fidelity devices with augmented
trainee feedback can enhance transfer.
The range of maritime simulators is extensive.
Simulators are used in navigation, machinery space
and cargo control training as well as in radio
communications, fire fighting and survival training.
Without doubt, simulator-based training provides a
very effective, and in some instances the only safe,
method of training. The evidence for this conclusion
comes from the experience of those industries using
simulators. There is little empirical evidence of transfer
in the maritime simulator literature. However, there
is overwhelming evidence across industries of the
positive benefits and effectiveness of simulator training
from instructors and users, both trainees and their
sponsors. The continued support and increasing use
of simulators by shipping companies provide the most
convincing evidence available of the cost-effectiveness
of this method of training.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 83
References
(1) Hays, R.T. and Singer, MJ., "Simulation Fidelity in
Training System Design. Bridging the Gap between
Reality and Training', Springer-Verlag, New York,
1989.
(2) Allerton, DJ and Ross, MJ., "Evaluation of a Part-
Task Trainerfor Ab Initio Pilot Training'. Proc. Training
Transfer Conf., The Royal Aeronautical Society,
November 1991.
Definitions
Competence
The ability to perform the activitles within an
occupation or function to the standards expected in
employment.
Fidelity
The degree of similarity between the simulated
situation and the real operation. It is a multi-faceted
concept and can refer to different forms of realism,
including both physical and psychological similarities
Proficiency
Superior and sustained competence.
Simulator
A device, designed to satisfy specific objectives, which
mimics part of a real situation in order to allow an
operator to practice and/or demonstrate competence
in, an operation in a controlled environment.
84 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Synthetic Training Equipment (STE)
Any object specifically designed for a training purpose.
Systems Approach
A type of analysis which looks at the different functions
of the components of any system and examines their
interrelations, not only with each other but with other
systems and processes (often in a hierarchical sense).
Training
The systematic development of the attitude/
knowledge/skill behaviour pattern required by an
individual (or team) in order to perform adequately a
given task or job (adapted from "Glossary of Training
Terms" DoE 1971).
Training Analysis
A study to identify the training options available to
satisfy the needs of a particular system, and to use
those options to define the most cost-effective training
solution (from the Simulation Working Group of the
Defence Training Technology Sub-committee).
Training Device
Any object, either used in real operations or synthetic,
which is employed in training for the acquisition of
knowledge, skill and/or attitude.
Transfer
Transfer refers to the degree to which new learning is
dependent on old. Measurement of transfer deals with
the degree to which learning one task is facilitated by
the prior learning of another (from Allerton and Ross
(1991) op cit.).
 Chapter ELEVEN

THE ROLE OF THE SIMULATOR INSTRUcrOR

AND THE NEED FOR INSTRUcrOR QUALIFICATIONS
by Captain Roger Syms BSc (Nautical Studies) MRIN FNI

Australian Maritime College

Roger Syms is a lecturer and manager (simulation) at the Australian Maritime College. After a varied career at sea hejoined the college
in 1986. His deep sea experience was mainly in tankers, starting with British Petroleum and then moving to the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.

In 1969 he gained his degree in Nautical Studies at Plymouth Polytechnic. The major part of his career was served in Hoverlloyd
and Hoverspeed as Navigator, Captain and subsequently Flight Manager.

Sincejoining the collegehe has been involved in shiphandling and high speed navigation courses as well as a number of consultancies
and is currently involved in the development of new simulation facilities at the AMG.

A teaching tool Where are we now?

At the outset, if we are to examine the subject of
simulation and who is best qualified as a simulation
instructor it is important to understand that simulation
in itself is not a subject. At least, not in the sense that
it is a subject to be included in any modern marine
education curriculum. Simulation, in whatever form
it might be, sophisticated or otherwise, is simply a
teaching tool no different than sayan overhead
projector or a video machine. Why should we,
therefore, refer to someone as a simulation instructor?
We might as well refer to others as whiteboard
instructors or overhead projector instructors, which is
plainly ridiculous.
The fact is that just as we expect most people in
any education field to be at least basically computer
literate we should expect all instructors in any marine
institution using simulators to be comfortable in their
operation and use.
It is true to say that compared with the aero world,
which has been using real time simulation since the
1930s, simulation is a very new toy in maritime
training. Fully capable "out of the window" simulators
have only been in use generally for the past 15 or 20
years. There is a feeling that we still are yet to come
of age before we can fully accept and integrate
simulation into our training programs. The definitive
book on how to use simulation as an effective tool for
any vocational training has yet to be written.
Particularly in the maritime world we are all still
wrestling with problems of assessing the effectiveness
of simulation both in terms of time and content.
Although the maritime world is a latecomer to
simulation it has arrived at a time of unprecedented
developments in technology. The exponential curve
of computer capability and capacity, starting slowly
in the sixties and seventies, has now reached the point
of free climb vertically up the graph. The last five years
have probably seen greater development than the
preceding fifteen. Mainframe computers that would
have been regarded with wonder even 10 years ago
are now seen as dinosaurs compared with desktop PCs,
which may have 100,000 times more capacity. The
effect on marine simulation of this development has
been two-fold. First it has provided massive increases
in the ability to simulate the real world. Second, and
perhaps more importantly, this development has been
accompanied by a corresponding and equally
dramatic drop in cost. Today, relatively sophisticated
simulation is available to even the smallest of
institutions, whereas just a few years ago it was only
available to the few that could afford it.
In generational terms we are probably in the
transition between the 3rd and 4th. First generation
marine systems appeared in the early 60s and were
simple radar simulators using a simple analogue
technology to provide a few moving targets on the
radar screen. The advent of the microchip saw the
further development of these radar-only systems into
more sophisticated radar/navigation simulators with
both ship and coastline targets and more manoeuvring
ability. Third generation systems can be considered
to be the shiphandling or full mission simulators that
started to appear in the late seventies.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 85

 Today, because of the massive increase in computer
capability and affordability, possibilities present
themselves which are spelling the end of both radar
navigation systems and possibly even stand alone
shiphandling systems. For some time there has been
a move to include visual presentations as an add-on
option for radar simulators. Because it is now more
affordable this option is increasingly being taken up.
In many cases this option has been for perhaps one
"own ship" to be fitted with a visual system but now
many institutions are installing visual systems in all
cubicles. This represents a 4th generation development
where both shiphandling and radar navigation
functions are combined into multi-ship, multi-capable
integrated systems.
Where are we going?
This questions is becoming increasingly difficult to
answer, for two reasons. The increasing development
of technology is open ended. Personal computers with
ten times more capacity than mainframe. computers
of ten years ago are now common place. Who knows
what capabilities will be available to us in another ten
years? Secondly, this continuing expansion of
technology not only makes our ability to simulate more
sophisticated but it is also changing the environment
to be simulated, i.e. in this case the ship. What will
the average bridge look like in ten years? It is anyone's
guess.
These questions are by no means academic,
particularly for buyers of systems available today.
Despite the marked drop in price, a marine simulation
system capable of handling the requirements of STCW
'95 and servicing the students of any medium to large
institution will still have a capital cost measured in
millions of dollars. For such a capital outlay few can
afford to plan for replacement in a period of less than
ten years. How can we ensure the validity of such a
system over this period when we have already
suggested that possible developments and training
requirements are virtually open ended? The best we
can do is to design systems that have as much built in
flexibility as is possible.
Most manufacturers today are turning towards
more and more modular systems based upon what
are now known as Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS)
components. These are simulation systems put
together from, say, standard desktop computers
running software that has the capability of continuous
development. The theory is that the user of such a
system can update various components, either in
hardware or software terms, on a continuous
development basis. This spreads the cost of
replacement over several years which is probably
86 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
more manageable than a heavy single capital outlay
every ten years or so.
Although it may be anyone's guess what the future
holds, some broad estimations of development can
be made. It is likely, for instance, that future simulators
will be able to present the world more realistically.
Graphic systems are now available which picture the
world around us with virtually photographic fidelity.
There is no reason to doubt that this will continue to
be improved upon. Three dimensional pictures are
an inevitability. It is already possible to produce 3D
images on a PC screen by a comparatively simple
process. Head mounted systems, popularly known as
virtual reality (VR), will develop to the eventual point
of being the ultimate in simulation. In the not too
distant future the world that may be seen, and
communicated with, through a VR device could be
so realistic that the operator may have to feel the
equipment on his head to reassure himself that he is
looking at a simulated world.
How do we use simulation?
The question that must be addressed is how necessary
or useful is this near (or virtual) reality to an instructor
using a simulator as a teaching tool? Do we really need
a Rolls Royce car to teach our children to drive? Do
we even need a car? This last is not the silly question
that it might at first appear to be. Two years ago an
American Army surgeon addressed a virtual reality
conference in Australia on the subject of teaching
surgeons laparoscopic techniques (keyhole surgery).
His discovery was that teaching younger surgeons in
their twenties was infinitely easier than their older
counterparts. The former were able to concentrate on
the monitor screen while the older generation tended
to concentrate on their hands as they had been used
to doing in normal surgery. Where had the younger
people learned the necessary hand/eye co-ordination?
The answer was from playing computer games as
teenagers.
The preceding story illustrates a vital truth about
simulation based training of which no instructor should
be unaware. The mere emulation of reality teaches
little or nothing. It is simply not enough to create a
near reality situation in a simulator, place the student
in that environment and expect he or she will learn
simply by being there. The fact is that simulation
provides us with a means of distorting the real world
to best aid training objectives. It goes without saying
that the training objectives and outcomes must be
clearly stated and understood. We now have the
STCW '95 guidelines which tell us what should be
learned. It is down to us as teachers and trainers to
work out how. At this point we must examine how
the simulation tool can best aid the process.

Distortion of reality
This capability of simulation to distort the real world
is the key to effective training. It is essential that every
instructor is made fully aware of this fundamental
attribute and the possibilities it affords. There is plenty
of scientific evidence to suggest that placing the trainee
in the real world, or in as near real world as a simulator
can achieve, is by no means an optimum way of
training. This is because, in the real world, events
which may teach or add to the experience of the
trainee will occur in a random, haphazard or untimely
manner. The subject may be overloaded at one point
and under utilised the next. What simulation can do
is to rearrange these events in a more effective order,
even excluding some altogether, in order to achieve
maximum training effectiveness.
The various methods of reassessing the real world
to create simulation evenness which have positive
outcomes can be classified into three main areas:-
Part or component tasking.
Compression of events.
Time factoring.
Part or component tasking
This is probably the most commonly used distortion
when only part of the real world task and environment
is simulated and exercised. It can be further sub-
divided into these main types:-
Instrumental - part task simulators such as
individual navigation aid simulators have been
around for some time. It is also possible to
component task on individual instrumentation
within a full mission type simulator.
Sequence repetition - any part of a sequential series
of tasks which in reality may occur infrequently can
be repeatedly practised in a short time frame. For
example, altering course at a way point in an
accurate manner does not require a three hour real
coastal exercise when the actual turns required may
be infrequent. This is actually part tasking in time.
Concurrent - by moving some tasks which would
normally run concurrently with others we can
concentrate the student's attention more clearly on
the task to be learned. It makes sense to have
navigation exercises free of anti-collision problems
and vice versa. An intelligent exercise programme
will not separate elements too completely but
employ a method of adding and highlighting the
elements to be taught and merely downgrading
others rather than including them all together. The
aim is to build up a mosaic of required skills and
knowledge until the student is able to be aware of,
and cope with, all elements in the real world
situation.
Compression of events
This is sometimes referred to as collapsed experience
and is almost forced on most simulator instructors by
the tyranny of the timetable. In fact it is a very
necessary method of ensuring optimum training. It
refers to the method of compressing the real time
frame down to a much shorter period by removing
the routine or straight line sequences. A search and
rescue exercise may involve a long period of time
between reception of a "MayDay" to arrival at the
scene. During this time nothing is happening but
routine tasks which have no relevance or value to the
exercise and these can be compressed in some manner,
either by removal altogether, by jumping in time or
by speeding up time if the system will allow it.
Time factoring
This takes the idea of speeding up time in the routine
sequences a stage further by factoring time across the
whole exercise. Currently there are few in the
simulation training world who are taking this
possibility seriously but it remains a capability of
simulation that cannot be ignored.
It has been shown in human factor research that
mild speed stress is a useful spur to the learning process
and for that reason alone it is worth some
experimentation. More sophisticated modern
simulators can provide the ability to factor time in
small increments say 1·1 or 1·2 times reality. This
adjustment will hardly be noticed by the students but
could result in greater training benefits. In fact, in
experiments at the Australian Maritime College during
routine coastal navigation tasks, students were
completely unaware that the time had been doubled.
They were vaguely aware they were working harder
but were totally ignorant of the time distortion.
Who needs the instructor?
This may seem a silly question in a chapter which deals
with the need for instructor qualification and which
therefore implies a need for the instructor. However,
we must not forget that simulation is essentially
Computer Based Training (CBT). The whole concept
of CBT today is to shift the instructor back a level in
the teaching process and allow students to teach
themselves via interaction with the program. Why
should we use simulators differently? One of the most
successful teaching programmes at AMC in recent
years has been the Self Assessment program for Master
Class 1 candidates learning shiphandling in the
ship handling simulator. Broadly, this program allows
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 87
students to handle the simulator themselves free of
instructor involvement. The program consists of a
series of component exercises which the students can
tackle in their own time and at their own pace. Each
exercise is compared with an idealised plot of the
particular manoeuvre and when the student is satisfied
that this ideal has been matched the plot is shown for
verification to the instructor who gives permission to
move on to the next.
The program is very popular with both students
and teaching staff and shows very positive, though as
yet unverified, benefits in effectiveness of training.
The instructor
STCW requirements
STCW '95 now requires that anyone involved with
the in-service training of a seafarer or the in-service
assessment of competencies of a seafarer shall not only
be qualified at the particular level to be trained or
assessed but must also have gained practical
operational experience on the particular type of
simulator being used for the training and/or
assessment. Thus there is a prerequisite qualification
requirement and a particular simulator operational
requirement.
As with all such lowest common denominator
requirements this may not go nearly far enough. It
will be up to individual institutions to assess how
appropriately qualified a person is to undertake
instruction using simulation. The code asks that an
individual be qualified in the task which is to be trained
or assessed. This presumably would allow anyone with
a Class 1 Master's Certificate to undertake the training
of shiphandling when it is a fact that many with such
qualifications have never handled a ship in their lives.
Institutions will have at least to consider what
minimum level of practical experience they feel would
be appropriate.
As to practical operational or assessment
experience in a particular simulator, although STCW
does not say so specifically, this does suggest that there
is also a need for a simulator instructor qualification.
If this practical operational experience is a requirement
then there must be some proof of satisfying it. As
simulators become vastly more complex and
sophisticated, achieving familiarity with its operation
and the capabilities of its many features is becoming a
huge task indeed. AMC is considering qualifying
instructors on two levels. First, a cadre of Class A
88 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
instructors who are experienced and have achieved a
level of expertise and knowledge of the system such
that they can use all aspects of the simulator to create
new exercise scenarios to meet any eventuality.
Second, Class B instructors, who are sufficiently
experienced and knowledgeable to be able to run pre
formed exercises and seminars without difficulty. This
is in line with the earlier statement that all instructors
involved in vocational courses using the simulator
should be reasonably simulator literate. Most will be
at Class B level. A small group, more involved with
the system, will be Class A.
Other requirements
STCW can only concern itself with a broad statement
of minimum qualifications and levels of experience.
There are, however, less easily defined attributes which
eventually make a good or bad instructor. These are a
question of individual personality traits such as
empathy, imagination, judgment, projection etc.,
which are the assets of any good teacher.
Empathy
Empathy with the student is most particularly
necessary where, in simulation, the instructor is "God
of the student's world" and can change that world at
will. There is always the danger of developing an
adversarial approach and simulation exercises can be
reduced to straight warfare between instructor and
student which the student cannot win. If there is one
golden rule that should be placed prominently on the
wall in any simulator instructor's station it is the
statement "simulation is not competition".
Likewise, imagination coupled perhaps with
reasonable acting ability is a great asset to any
instructor. Simulation is, after all, a form of drama.
We are acting out the real world and to make that
world more relevant and accessible sometimes
requires an agility of mind to take full advantage of
changing and unexpected circumstances.
Finally, we must not forget that we live in an ever
changing world. Not only must today's simulator
instructor be familiar with the simulator he or she is
operating but must also be fully familiar with the front
end equipment - the radars, GPS, DGPS receivers,
and integrated navigation systems that are part of the
seafarer's world today. It is important, therefore, not
only to maintain constant contact with the unreal world
of simulation but also to maintain a firm foot in the
real world and not to forget which is which.
 Chapter TWELVE

MANAGING NAVIGATIONAL SIMULATION

by Captain Samar J. Singh, Ex C MPhil PhD FNI

Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Samar Singh has been responsiblejOr navigation simulator training at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University jOr almost twenty years.
He is Chairman of the International Simulator Lecturer's Conference, a Visiting Professor at the Shanghai Maritime University, and
was a Visiting Professor at the World Maritime University jOr its first ten years.

His research into the aetiology of collisions and groundings was the basisfor his MPhil and doctoral work. He led the researcheffort
to develop a visual simulation facility in Hong Kong, and is the author of several papers on the subject of simulation.

Introduction

This chapter seeks to provide some signposts on the
uncertain path to developing a competent simulation
training facility. Commencing with an explanation of
the enabling role that simulation plays in the marine
environment, and of the simulator manager's place in
that role, we will consider some of the factors that are
germane to the process of implementing, running and
developing a simulator facility. In concluding, this
chapter provides some indication of the limitations of
simulation in the context of current systems and
practices, and briefly addresses the knotty question of
simulator based assessment.
This chapter is written for those who train and
educate using radar and navigation simulators. They
will henceforth be referred to as facilitators. The
detailed task of conducting simulator based education
and training is outside the scope of this book. A good
understanding of the relevant sections of the
International Convention on Standards of Training
and Watchkeeping 1995 (STCW '95) code is assumed,
and is recommended reading. No attempt is being
made to replicate the information included in this
code. The term "ship station" has been used to refer
to the simulated bridge of which there could be two
or more in the typical simulator. These are sometimes
referred to as "own ships".
Simulation and learning
Simulation means many things to many people. To
many of us it conjures up visions of multi-million dollar
investments in high technology with stunning visual
imagery. In fact, the mechanisms of simulation are less
important than the process and the outcome. Business
simulations may require nothing more than a few
pieces of paper. Role play to simulate a given situation
may require just two people. What simulation does
require however is interaction, whether it is with one
or more machines and/or one or more persons. It
requires some objective and finally it carries the
requirement to conclude with a debrief or evaluation.
As modern industry and human activity move from
a phase where the contribution of a human operator
is data retention, to a phase where this contribution
moves towards data management, simulation as a
medium can be expected to playa greater role in the
learning process. As our educational system objectives
evolve from emphasising teaching to emphasising
learning, simulation will need to be more widely used.
As technology provides us more fulsome methods for
re-creation of environments, simulation can expect to
become a more powerful tool for both learning and
research.
The advent of technology has brought the maritime
educator another welcome capability. That is the
freedom to develop ideas into applications without
dependence on manufacturers in respect of virtually
anything that we have sufficient motivation to do by
ourselves. Hardware of many types can be replicated
by a processor, some software and the odd relay and
stepper motor. This was a unique freedom denied our
predecessors whose only resources very often were
knowledge and chalk. Our challenge today in maritime
education is to manage our new resources as efficiently
as our predecessors managed theirs.
The argument for learning from aircraft simulation
practices is seductively superficial. In that latter context
simulators are used principally for the inculcation of
psychomotor skills for a specific type of aircraft. In
the maritime environment, the simulator's role is
directed more towards broad based educational
development rather than equipment specific skills.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 89

The role of navigational simulation Simulation: the rationale

Simulators probably are at their most functional as In the operational environment our senses, such as
integrative, broadening, interactive tools, which our eyes and ears, yield sensory cues. The following
provide a risk free environment, to discover explanation of the human response to sensory cues
relationships between concepts: to expose students to has been derived from Woods [2]. When a problem
problem solving under confusing and ill defined occurs these cues are used by the brain in association
circumstances: and, to develop professional with memory to determine if the problem is a familiar
competence [1]. Whilst this is not intended to deny one or not (figure 12.1). A familiar problem means
the powerful role that simulators can play in skills that access to long term memory is likely to provide
training, it does reflect the fact that a cost/benefit prior episodes which were similar in nature. In such a
analysis would favour its use for the higher order skills case, a mental model is available which determines
that maritime professionals need in the operational the action that we take (figure 12.2).
environment.

In overall terms, simulation provides the

participant with a mechanism for developing
confidence in the execution of procedures, such as
collision avoidance techniques. The concept of
debriefing that is intrinsic to simulation practice
permits the participant to share the other ship's
viewpoint, which is difficult in real life. Accurate
information about the time sequencing of events that
is provided by the simulator lays the foundation for
tne development of reliable mental models, through
which real life problems may be resolved. Finally, the
simulator provides a communication forum where the
facilitator acts as a continuing link between successive
participant groups, ensuring thereby the passing on
of the experience of one group to another. The
facilitator therefore has a heavy responsibility for the
fidelity and quality of feedback which needs to be
rendered in a scientific and unbiased fashion.

Figure 72.2 Familiar problem

Where the problem is unfamiliar, two fundamental

issues need to be addressed. Firstly, the nature of the
data needed to make a decision, and secondly, the
nature of constraints on the choice of decision.
Resolving these uncertainties creates delay in taking
action. In the process however, new perceptions are
stimulated. An evaluation of these perceptions and of
the event generates an episode, which is stored in long
term memory. Hence an episode is basically the
process by which we made sense of information at
the time of the event (figure 12.3).

The existence of a large body of episodes helps

the individual to deal rapidly with a wide variety of
problems. The normal process by which this state is
achieved is through experience. However, it is possible
that such episodic memory may also be built up
through simulator based experiences.

The same case has been made with elegant brevity

in the statement that one cannot perceive what one
cannot conceive [3]. Simulation helps one to conceive.
This is its vital role. When this role is fulfilled, there
Figure 72.7 Problem identification

90 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

may be a transfer of training to the operational
environment. That transfer is the rationale for
simulator training.
Whether such transfer exists or not is still a matter
for ongoing research. Certainly the intuitive feeling
of most of those involved in simulation, both as
students and as lecturers, is that such transfer does
take place. Whether it does or not is probably a
function of many factors. One of the more important
factors is the simulator facilitator [4].
The simulator facilitator
The role of those who manage simulator installations
can often include the need to have skills and
knowledge in computational hardware and software,
power electronics, navigation, hydrodynamics,
maritime law, counselling, experimental psychology,
and with increasing frequency, marketing. Often cited
is the need for such a person to have served at sea in a
senior capacity [5]. STCW '95 imposed additional
requirements for training and experience.
Figure 72.3 Unfamiliar problem
In many large institutions, the above skills may
reside in a variety of individuals dedicated or partially
allocated to the simulator facility. However, in many
cases, the gift of a multi-million dollar resource to the
Maritime Education and Training (MET) institution
is assumed to be generosity enough. In such a case,
the simulator instructor must combine in greater or
smaller measure all of the needed characteristics for
supervising the installation and testing of the simulator
equipment: for implementing new courses, and, for
research and development activity.
The important role that the facilitator plays
encompasses many roles. A versatile and inquiring
mind, an empathetic and communicative attitude, an
enthusiasm for investigating the complex processes
by which people are motivated to learn, and a keen
eye for the failures of equipment as well as human
perception and judgment, are desirable characteristics
for the aspiring facilitator. In fairness, there are features
of the job which will dissuade many from such a
venture. The facilitator is frequently perceived to be
responsible for:-
Explaining the operation of the hundreds of
functions on simulated ship stations.
Rapidly identifying faults and minimising wasted
time resulting from failure of equipment.
Ensuring that techniques being taught are workable
on the simulator on the one hand, and are
operationally relevant on the other.
Mature handling of participants' sensitivities,
stemming from cultural differences or hierarchical
ranking.
Treading a fine line between being patronising and
being diffident.
Behaving as a teacher, counsellor or peer as
appropriate to the occasIon.
These demands contrast with those of typical
lecturing duties, where irrelevance to the operational
environment has been historically tolerated in the
traditional maritime education setup and where the
lecturer's role has sometimes been restricted to the
comfortable task of information dispensation. The
facilitator is also burdened with a relative paucity of
published literature on the subject and by the
knowledge demands imposed by the advancing
technology of simulation. However, the rewards of an
interactive learning environment are that facilitation
is as much a matter of learning as of teaching. As
Douwsma [6] observes:
For us as facilitators and instructors, structured
experience by simulation is a lot harder than being a
didactic teacher, but moreftn than any person should
be allowed to have.
Planning the facility
In practice it is necessary for the facilitator to be
involved in the prior process of analysing simulator
requirements. This is a major analytical exercise which
involves:-
• An analysis of existing and future requirements.
• An investigation of potential new areas of service.
• An assessment of how simulator education will fit
into the curriculum.
• A structuring of maintenance services and
specification of new services/expertise.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 91
 A survey of revenue-generating educational,
training, research and consultancy activities.
A modulation of current methods of teaching and
learning to accommodate the simulator component.
A review of statutory and international norms and
requirements relating to simulation.
A fiscal quantification of expenditure both for
acquisition and for post-acquisition maintenance
and development.
The documentation of a case for funding
acquisition, space and environment conditioning
requirements, annual maintenance, installation, staff
training, and research and development.
A search for funding sources from international,
governmental, institutional or private sources.
This exercise should generate a comprehensive set
of functional specifications. The interested reader may
wish to refer to the set of specifications that resulted
in the Norcontrol NMS90 prototype [7]. The
functional specifications generated have to be
compared against national specifications, the STCW
'95 requirements and any regional or local
specifications.
Finally, when the exact amount of funding is
known, tenders may be placed and compromises made
between supplier's offers and the functional
specifications. The analytical exercise above can allow
better compromises to be effected. An upgrade path
which involves internal development and/or a
program of annual improvement is a desirable process.
An important consideration is the expected nature
of future expansion. If for instance it is intended to
have visual simulation in the future using projector
systems, then a minimum radial space from the
conning position must be left on the affected ship
stations. Retro projection systems will take less, and
monitors lesser. The latter arrangement will require
appropriate compromises. Where feasible an 8 metre
radial space is desirable. Having a vision of the final
configuration may save much expense later.
The choice of simulator
Simulators vary from software programs for desktop
computers to three storey establishments with moving
bridge platforms to simulate roll. The optimal system
for an institution will depend on the overall profile of
local need, maintenance infrastructure, the funds
available for acquisition and, most importantly, the
level of post-acquisition resourcing. The crucial factor
to recognise is that all simulators are, in effect, part
task, as none can produce the full range of sensory
and operational cues. Simulators should be seen to
constitute one element of a comprehensive structure
of theoretical education and laboratory training,
operational experience, on-board training and peer
92 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
feedback that is needed to produce a competent
professional. A desktop simulator which represents the
reasonable limit of what an institution can operate and
maintain is infinitely better than a behemoth which is
out of operation much of the time. For this reason,
adequate research into quantifying local needs and
drawing up of a functional specification is an important
prelude to deciding on the choice of simulator.
Preparing for the simulator
Enthusiasm for ensuring the success of the simulator
facility is usually at an all time high during the
anticipation stage, prior to arrival. Tapping this
enthusiasm to secure the peripherals needed to evolve
into an effective simulator facility at this point is
advisable. Without attempting to be comprehensive
in nature, some of the more salient considerations are
outlined below.
The issue of reliability
The nature of preparation will depend very much on
the type of simulator that is being acquired. However,
regardless of the type of simulator that is acquired,
the following factors are likely to be relevant when
accommodating a simulation facility:-
The expected lifetime of the facility.
Arrangements for spares and maintenance must be
made for the expected period of use. If
circumstances permit, the facility should be
amortised over the period so that funds for
replacement are available near the end of the
projected period.
Clean Power.
Most computer based systems will require stable
power supplies. High voltage alternating current
from the mains will typically be converted to low
voltage DC using switched mode power supply
modules. Power line disturbances such as voltage
variations of a short term or long term nature, line
interruptions, frequency variations and most
importantly transients, are liable to wreak havoc
on a new installation. When designing the simulator
space, the following factors merit consideration.
Planning considerations
Transients are hard to detect and have great
potential for damage. Such disturbances may be
generated by equipment within the simulator space.
Silicon controlled rectifiers regulating a fluorescent
tube lamp have been found capable of creating
transients more than 100 volts above nominal. As
they last for milliseconds or less, they have no effect
on purely resistive loads. However, when routed
through switched mode power supplies, the effect
may be to damage the power supply or components
 such as disk drives, main memory etc. The
provision of individual surge suppressors for items
such as radar displays, ship station hardware, and
other highly capacitive loads that are switched on
and off frequently, is desirable.
Electronic circuit breaker modules are mandatory
in many countries. If they are not, ensure that these
cheap and effective devices which give early
warning of certain types of malfunction are installed.
They disable power in fractions of a second if any
leakage to earth exceeds the stated value. This is
often the first indication of malfunction resulting
from sparking or leakage to earth in power supplies
or mains driven equipment. Individual modules for
major units of equipment are desirable.
It is important for some types of instrumentation
that if power is disrupted then it should only be
restored manually after an appropriate time
interval. Relays are inexpensive means for ensuring
manual restarts.
Environment conditioning.
Freedom from dust, heat, and humidity will directly
affect the reliability of equipment. Most equipment
will survive better if such conditioning is year round.
Serious consideration should be given to leaving
all but high tension components switched on
permanently if environmental conditioning is
available round the clock. The purpose of these
measures is to reduce the risk of breakdowns during
a course. Nothing is more frustrating for both
facilitator and student than to have sessions
disturbed by equipment failure.
The simulator library
It may be advisable to separate this into three sections.
A recommended, though not comprehensive,
collection of information sources is cited.
Facilitator's library
STCW'95.
International simulator specifications.
Proceedings of INSLC.
Proceedings of MARSIM.
Pedagogical texts.
Simulated voyages [8].
Radar observers handbook [9].
ARPA manual [10].
Navigation control manual [11].
Selections from professional journals such as those
of the Nautical Institute and the Royal Institute of
Navigation,
Operational manuals of equipment.
Relevant International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) model courses.
Maintenance library
Technical manuals and manufacturers manuals.
Students library
List of lights.
List of radio signals.
Relevant tide tables.
IMO search and rescue manuals[12].
Collision regulations[13].
IMO ship routeing guide[14].
Marine radar performance specifications[15].
IMO ARPA specifications[16].
Sailing directions for relevant areas.
Selected casualty reports by the International
Chamber of Shipping (ICS), National
Transportation Safety Board of the US (NTSB),
Marine Accident Investigation Bureau (MAlE) and
Seaways extracts.
Staff Development
Training and experience are necessary requirements
under STCW '95. Such training comprises two
elements. The first element deals with knowledge of
the simulator system. The second element deals with
the pedagogy of simulator education. The former in
many cases, may be adequately handled by
manufacturer provided courses. The latter is more
likely to be satisfied by working side by side with an
experienced facilitator. Organisations such as INSLC
are usually willing to provide information about
potential partners, who are willing to support such an
initiative.
While it is clearly desirable to have some training
for the novice facilitator before the equipment arrives,
it is also true that staff development is an ongoing
process. Working in isolation is dangerous and
isolationist. This problem is compounded by the
relative lack of published literature on the subject.
However, much can be gained from attending the
regular meetings of INSLC and MARS 1M and by
undertaking research in related areas such as casualty
investigation, port design, vessel traffic management,
and ship manoeuvrability.
Managing the facility
For many MET institutions the simulator facility can
represent the largest single item of capital expenditure.
This makes it an object of attraction but, at the same
time, there are understandable concerns about its
optimal utilisation.
What can a simulator be used for?
In 1996, fourteen MET centres in the Asian region
responded to a questionnaire with the intent of
determining the nature of simulator usage in the
region. The institutions had twenty one simulators
between them of which five had visual simulation
facilities. The results of previous surveys were used to
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 93
 Figure 12.4 Comparitive usage of instrumental vs visual simulation per training element
abstract several course elements indicative of the
nature of MET usage for both instrumental and
visually augmented simulation systems. Figure 12.4
shows the relative frequency of implementation of
these elements within the simulator based courses
being conducted at these institutions [17].
What processes need to be in place?
• Quality assurance.
STCW '95 specifically calls for the introduction of
quality assurance processes to be in place for
maritime education institutions. The close
integration of simulator facilities into the pattern of
maritime education is generally desirable. Section
BlI8 of STCW '95 provides useful guidelines on
the setting up of quality assurance systems.
• Documentation generation and maintenance.
The processes of exercise generation, exercise
maintenance, briefing, debriefing, and classification
on the basis of level and client relevance call for a
fairly extensive level of documentation if one is not
to be left at the mercy of a Facilitator who leaves
after several decades in the job.
• Logging.
The logging of maintenance activity, including fault-
finding symptoms and action taken can help to
reduce maintenance costs and downtime as time
goes by.
94 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
• Archiving.
A process for the regular archiving of system
programs, and recorded exercises is desirable. An
analysis of an exercise conducted over several
groups can yield valuable research data as well as
data needed to modify and maintain the exercise.
• Development and research.
Exchange of staff with other institutions, research
and consultancy work for external organisations,
and, the development of client specific courses can
do much to keep the facilitator's feet in the real
world.
• Public relations.
Simulators today are still expensive and relatively
rare tools. A programme of regular seminars for
industry to introduce, new developments, the
outcome of teaching programmes, and research
activity, can do much to stimulate new demands
for simulator usage.
The conduct of simulator courses
The manner in which a simulator course is conducted
will vary with course objectives, participant profile,
and length of the course, amongst other factors. The
scope of this chapter precludes a detailed treatment
of the subject. However, prerequisite requirements for
the course, upper and lower limits of group size, and
the nature of assessment and certification, have to be
defined in advance. The actual conduct of the course
will require an allocation of time for familiarisation
with simulator facilities both at the ship stations, and
at the debriefing station. Generally, each exercise must
commence with a briefing and end with a debrief. The
use of other facilities such as exercise recording and
playback will depend on the nature of the exercise.
No attempt has been made to address the important
issue of debriefing. Instead, suitable references are
provided [18] as they are for exercise design [19], [20],
[21].
Classification of exercises by progression
Familiarisation exercises.
These may be used to introduce the participants to
the nature of ship station facilities, including ARPA,
radar and engine and helm controls.
Demonstrations.
When a particular technique is to be taught, the
lecturer may choose to demonstrate the process to
the participants at one ship station. These may also
be used to demonstrate the results of past
performance on the same exercise. Such
demonstrations can be helpful in showing that a
mistake made by the current group is not
necessarily a demonstration of individual
incompetence but a limitation of human perception
and decision processes, which has to be
compensated.
Skills development exercises.
The capacity to determine closest point of approach
(CPA) and related information, to use parallel
indexing techniques, or to use the trial manoeuvre
facility on an ARPA are instances where exercises
have a well defined objective, which involves the
inculcation of defined skills within the safety of the
simulated environment. Such exercises may need
to be repeated by the student several times either
during the course, or, in his own time, if the
simulator is available as an open access facility.
Judgment development exercises.
An analysis of past accidents shows that the
untrained navigator can fall victim to stereotypical
pitfalls, such as small alterations of course to port
by end-on vessels culminating in the "cumulative
turn" category of collisions. At the other end of the
spectrum are higher order capabilities required to
appreciate for instance, how the relationship
between two target vessels can impact on the level
of risk for one's own vessel [22]. In such cases, the
role of the collision regulations may be relatively
ambiguous, and discussion may be extended. The
role of the facilitator is to illuminate the discussion
by introducing factors that may have been ignored
or to move the discussion to the next issue at
appropriate times.
Integrative exposure exercises.
When the requisite skills have been learned and
certain judgmental capabilities developed, exercises
which permit the participant to use what has been
learned is desirable. For instance, an exercise that
requires the participant to depart from Calais for
Dover would require him to:-
Enter the Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS), using
the ARPA trial manoeuvre facility to avoid
traffic in the lane.
Cross the TSS in the vicinity of Dover, paying
attention to both traffic and navigational
requirements.
Leave the traffic separation scheme, using
ARPA mapping to discriminate targets inside
and outside the TSS, and, compensating for
changes in the tidal stream.
Such exercises may only need to have a general
traffic pattern, and the nature of encounters may be
unpredictable. The outcome may be complex, and
the facilitator's role would lie in monitoring the many
parameters of these exercises and listing the issues that
should be covered in the debriefing session.
Classification of exercises by degree of interactivity
Exercises can be classified on the basis of the degree
of interactivity they permit. To an extent such
interactivity is a function of simulator capability.
However, interactivity enhances complexity, and
complexity in simulator exercises may make it difficult
to identify clear lessons to be learnt. Hence, complexity
should be enhanced gradually through the course. The
levels of interactivity can be classified as follows:-
Zero.
In exercises, where for instance, only parallel index
techniques have to be mastered, interactivity with
targets or other ship stations may be undesirable.
Target induced-no alteration of velocity by targets.
At the simplest level, there may be one or more
targets which maintain course and speed.
Target induced-velocity alterations.
Preplanned alterations which are seamanlike, when
used in single encounter situations, provide a
minimum degree of uncertainty. In general, such
manoeuvres should be planned to act as distracters
or to reduce the degree of risk, not increase it.
Ship station/target groups.
In such exercises, one ship station may see the radar
echo on another ship station. In a 4 ship station
installation, it may be possible for two scenarios to
take place with ship stations 1 and 2 seeing a
common set of targets as well as each other, and
ship stations 3 and 4 seeing each other along with
the same set of targets, but unable to see ships 1
and 2. The starting position and velocity of ship
station 1 could be the same as ship station 3 and
that of ship station 2 the same as ship station 4.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 95
 Full Interactivity.
In such cases, it is possible for all ship stations to
see all targets, subject only to radar range
limitations.
Zero interactivity exercises are probably best for
the learning of specific techniques such as using rate
of turn meters to plan a turn, while target induced
interactivity can be useful for providing the participant
with simple judgmental skills such as applying the
collision regulations in unambiguous as well as in
commonly misunderstood contexts. In such exercises,
peer feedback may need to be actively encouraged
within the participating group.
Ship stations/target groups are useful where, for
instance, exceptions to the collision regulations have
to be demonstrated. In such cases, having two identical
starting scenarios, where the behaviour of ship stations
1 and 2, to their group of targets, and to each other,
has been different from that of ship stations 3 and 4,
can make for productive debriefing sessions. During
such sessions, the participants begin to understand the
various factors that have to be taken into account in
making a decision under conditions of uncertainty.
However, in such cases, there may be no single clear
cut "correct" decision.
Full interactivity is useful in the final stages of a
course. In such cases, the degree of uncertainty may
be very high, and it may be difficult to channel
debriefing discussion to provide clear cut outcomes.
The facilitator's role is largely to highlight the need to
understand the salient features of a complex
interaction in real time, which must include the
viewpoint of other ship stations in the encounter.
Classifications of participant groups
In the context of simulator training/education,
participant groups fall into three categories. In the first
category are those, who have had little or no
watchkeeping experience, whilst the second category
will include those who have had watchkeeping
experience or command experience. The third
category are those who attend client-specific courses
such as for the navigation of high speed craft or for
navigation in specific geographical areas, or vessel
traffic management, for instance.
Participants in the first group may have limited
capability in the selection of cues in the operational
environment. A simulator invariably provides a
limited subset of cues and forms a poor environment
in which to develop cue selection skills. In such cases,
it may be desirable to bias the simulator experience
to the inculcation of skills and the acquisition of clear
unambiguous lessons.
96 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
In the second category, the quality and nature of
experience of the participants can be very wide. Such
participants may suffer from having unsafe practices
reinforced by the fortuitous thwarting of an accident,
for accidents are by definition, rare events. The
facilitators role in identifying such weaknesses and
skilfully altering such behaviour patterns is challenging
and crucial.
In the third category, there may be a high demand
for the inculcation of client specified skills. In such
cases, the participant's knowledge of the operational
environment, may be superior to that of the facilitator,
but may still be seriously deficient due to factors of
perception. For instance, conducting a needs analysis,
and a field observation of the operational situation of
the client may be useful to the facilitator in conducting
the course [23].
In general, the facilitator's strengths lie in access
to the large volume of his accumulated experience in
the simulated environment. A careful analysis of that
experience will yield lessons that can be applied to
new environments. The danger lies in applying those
lessons without fully understanding a new
environment. Applied research and consultancy
activity can keep the facilitator in touch with changing
environments and allow him to study new
environments in scientifically rigorous ways. That may
yield outcomes that are new to all concerned.
Developing for the future
As the ship's bridge environment responds to the
anticipated shortages of trained watchkeepers, and the
bridge team increasingly tends to become a team of
one, the future is likely to lie in the trend towards large
numbers of smaller ship stations per simulator,
possibly culminating in a virtual reality environment
where high hardware costs may be replaced by
software sophistication.
In the nearer term, the emphasis will tend to focus
on the provision of more and better environmental
cues requiring enhanced visual, communication and
debriefing facilities. Such facilities, as well as the
tendency towards a larger number of ship stations,
are already creating new challenges in terms of
monitoring and debriefing that are being met by
having more sophisticated facilities for the instructor
station.
Institutions have the option of buying these
additional facilities or, in these days of powerful
workstations, developing them in-house. The positive
features of in-house development are invariably lower
costs, both in terms of acquisition and maintenance.
Indirect benefits result from the staff development
aspects as well as from a better understanding of the
limitations of algorithms that the simulator uses. The
negative aspects of in-house initiatives are the delay
and the uncertainty that is intrinsic to research and
development. Indirect negative effects stem from the
inability to provide the degree of aesthetic appeal that
a commercial implementation instantly provides.
Reference is occasionally made to full mission
simulators at the one extreme and desktop simulators
at the other end of the spectrum of simulator facilities.
In practice, an institution has to seek solutions that
are appropriate to its needs, and to its resources. All
simulators have limitations. Knowing and
understanding those limitations is of higher
importance than the type of simulator, for the penalty
of ignorance can be a negative transfer of training.
Limitations of simulators
It would be unwise to attempt to define the limitations
of individual simulators. Similarly, the limitations of
simulation as a medium can be determined from a
study of the literature [24]. The following points
represent a brief synopsis of some empirical limitations
of simulation as it is deployed today:-
• Algorithms.
Simulators are produced for specific purposes. At
best the algorithms are appropriate to those
purposes. Stretching the functions of the simulator
for another purpose may result in a negative transfer
of training. For instance, a radar simulator is a poor
medium for providing a participant the skills
needed to set up a radar display or use clutter
reduction controls. Live radar or a radar recorder
is a better device for such purposes. Occasionally,
algorithms can be inappropriate in complex ways.
For instance, a visual simulator may present the
view from a position at the mid-length rather than
the bridge of the simulated ship. In many instances,
such imperfections may present few problems, but
if such errors are not identified and measured, both
teaching and research may be affected .
• Uncertainty.
In a digital simulator, there is a high degree of
replication certainty, but complex forces may be
simulated in simplistic ways. Currents are one
example, where the many different vectors that
impact on the ships hull at different depths are
represented by one or more composite vectors. It
is therefore possible in a simulator to execute
manoeuvres in a tidal regime, that would be
impossible in real life for the simple reason that it
would be impractical to expect that one can observe
and measure the effects of such a tidal regime. The
uncertainty that is the mariner's real life should not
be replaced with a certainty born of simulator
training.
• Mathematical models of ship behaviour.
In a real ship it is hard to replicate the effects of
manoeuvres exactly. Additionally, our knowledge
of the many forces that affect ship behaviour is still
far from perfect. If it was otherwise, pilots would
probably have been phased out in many ports.
Refining manoeuvres to fit precise margins can be
easily done in the simulated environment but such
techniques may lead a participant in the operational
environment to decrease his margins of safety and
overestimate his capacity to mentally predict the
future track of the vessel.
• Instrumental bias.
The role of many simulator courses is to inculcate
skills in the use of certain instrumentation e.g. radar,
the Rate of Turn meter etc. Not only can these
instruments be less perfect in real life than simulated
ones, but, participants may provide such
instrumentation a weighting in the operational
situation that is not appropriate to all circumstances,
e.g. an undue reliance on radar information when
navigating in close waters. Such negative transfer
of training can be diluted by ending simulator
courses with fully interactive exercises and with
emphasis on the visual scene. The latter is one
aspect where real life is likely to be more accurate
that simulation in perception terms .
• Debriefing of communications.
Analysis of communications on the simulator can
give powerful insights into the mechanism by which
errors are made. Much of this communication is
speech driven in conventional simulation systems.
Debriefing, or even monitoring speech in a
multiship station environment is no trivial task.
However, technology does today provide potential
for the digital storage, recall as well as time, date
and origin/destination stamping of speech data. The
absence of such technological tools creates voids
in the understanding of the mechanisms of mariner
error, as well as, in the comprehensiveness of the
debriefing process.
Simulators for assessment
STCW '95 permits the use of simulators for assessment.
There are many advantages to using simulators for
assessment, such as:-
• Motivating certain types of participants.
• Weeding out those who are clearly unfit by
providing a formal process of assessment.
• Monitoring the attainment of objective skills.
• Creating a greater standardisation of participant
achievement worldwide.
However, arguments against the use of simulators
for assessment can also be made as follows:-
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 97
 • Competence in the operational environment
requires higher order processes such as initiative,
decision making and teamwork that are difficult to
assess.
• Simulator based training may become biased
towards skills that are more easily examinable even
if they have less importance in the operational
domain.
• Time spent in examinations is time lost for
education and training.
• Debriefing sessions may become constrained and
artifi cial.
• Assessment may encourage an environment of
overt achievement and gaming.
• Assessment may lead to the dilution of peer
discussion, and the reinforcement of instructor
derived values that may have less relevance in the
operational domain.
Competency based assessment is, however, an
important element of STCW '95 and is liable to
become an increasing trend in simulation.
Conclusions
The simulator lecturer, or facilitator, is an important
person in ensuring the effectiveness of simulator based
education and training. Simulator based education is
itself a small but important element in developing the
total competency required of a watchkeeper or master.
Its primary potential arises from the capability to serve
the needs of non-interactive skills development on the
one hand, and on the other, to act as an integrative
tool in an interactive environment. Simulators do have
limitations and a healthy scepticism on the part of the
Facilitator coupled with an inquiring mind can help
to preserve the effective transfer of training into the
operational environment. However, new, better and
cheaper simulators lie ahead. These will be needed to
help the facilitator meet the challenges posed by
STCW '95 and by the widening array of uses to which
radar and navigation simulators are being put.
References
[1] McCabe, D., "Simulation and Games in Teaching
and Learning" TeachingMethodology Papers, Hong
Kong Polytechnic Educational Technology Unit,
Hong Kong, 1986.
[2] Woods, D.D., "Coping with Complexity" in Tasks,
Errors and Mental Models. pp. 81-82, edited by
L.P. Goodstein et al., London: Taylor & Francis,
1988.
[3] Green R.G., et al., Human Factorsfor Pilots. p.37
Avebury Technical, Aldershot, 1991.
[4] Meum, RJ., "Simulated J1oyages':Proceedings,9th.
International Simulator Lecturer's Conference
Vancouver, 1996. (to be published)
[5] ibid.
98 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
[6] Douwsma, D., "Simulation Trainingfor Experienced
Instructors" Proceedings,9th. International Simulator
Lecturer's Conference, Vancouver, 1996. (to be
published)
[7] Singh, SJ., "Navigational Radar Simulator
SPecifications", Proceedings, 2nd. International
Simulator Lecturer's Conference,Bremen, 1980. pp.
193-210, IMLA, Malmoe.
[8] National Research Council, Simulated J1oyages.
National Academic Press, Washington, D.C.,
1996.
[9] Burger, W, Radar Observers Handbook. Brown,
Son & Ferguson, Glasgow.
[10] Bole, A.G., Radar and ARPA Manual.
Heinemann, Oxford.
[11] Bole, A.G., Dineley, W.O., Nicholls, E.C.,
Navigation ControlManuaL Heinemann, London.
[12] International Maritime Organisation, Merchant
Ship Search and Rescue Manual. London, 1993.
[13] International Maritime Organisation, IntI. Con!
on Revision of the International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea. London, 1990.
[14] International Maritime Organisation, Ships
Routeing. London, 1991.
[15] Dept. of Trade and Industry, Marine Radar
Performance Specifications. HMSO, London.
[16] International Maritime Organisation,
Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting
Aids (Resolution A422 XI). London.
[17] Singh, SJ. et aI, "Regional Report - Asia"
Proceedings, 9th. International Simulator Lecturer's
Conference, Vancouver, 1996. (to be published)
[18] Bole, A.G., ''Effective Debriefing Techniques"
Proceedings, 5th. International Radar Navigation
Simulator Lecturer's Conference, Launceston, 1988.
IMLA, Malmoe, 1988.
[19] Singh, SJ., Klerk, J.A., ''Effective Exercises",
Proceedings,4th. International Radar and Simulator
Lecturer's Conference, Mariehamn, 1986. pp.8.1-
8.22, IMLA, Malmoe, 1986.
[20] Bole, A.G., "The Design of Effective Simulator
Exercises" Proceedings,4th. International Radar and
Simulator Lecturer's Conference,Mariehamn, 1986.
pp. 9.1-9.29, IMLA, Malmoe, 1986.
[21] Redfern, A., "Measure of Effectiveness in SAR
Exercises" Proceedings, 6th. International Radar and
Navigation Simulator Lecturer's Conference,St. Malo,
1990. pp. 167-173,IMLA, Malmoe, 1990.
[22] Gerhardt, D. et aI, "Analysis of Decision Making in
Maritime Collision Avoidance Manoeuvres"
Proceedings, Symposium on Vessel Traffic Service,
Bremen, 1981. p.90, SVTS.
[23] Singh, SJ., '~ssurance of Quality in Development of
a Simulator Course for High Speed Craft",
Proceedings, 9th. International Simulator Lecturer's
Conference, vancouver, 1996. (to be published)
[24] Brehmer, B. et aI, "Use of Simulation in the Study
of Complex Decision Making" Distributed Decision
Making, pp. 373-385, edited by Rasmussen J.,
Brehmer, B. and Leplat 1., Chichester, John
Wiley, 1991.
 Chapter THIRTEEN

THE ROLE AND USE OF SIMULATORS

FOR BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TRAINING
by Captain Piet Pols

MarineSafety International, Rotterdam

Captain Piet Pols was a merchant marine officer with Nedlloyd Lines fOr ten years. He then studied at Vereeniging Corne/is Douwes to
become a teacher at the Nautical Academy at Rotterdam. There he worked fOr another ten years, of which the last year was as the
manager of the education of integrated maritime officers. He has been the Nautical Training Manager of MarineSafety International
Rotterdam b.v. since August 7993.

He has been a volunteer freelance officer of the tall shiP schooner "Eendracht" since 7989 and became one of the captains in 7995.

Introduction and convince everybody of the necessity to employ

Human error is the most prominent cause of ship
groundings and collisions. Most of these accidents
occur in restricted waters near port entrances and
where traffic converges. It is at these times and in these
places that the bridge personnel have the greatest
workload. This does not mean that during an ocean
crossing they can relax and sit back. In all
circumstances they must use all the equipment and
resources available effectively and function as a team
to handle the work required in order to complete a
safe transit.
According to NASA (1987), Bridge Resource
Management is " .... the effective utilisation of all
available resources - hardware, software, and liveware
(human resources) - to achieve a safe, efficient
voyage ....".
This implies that bridge resource management
training is different from bridge team training,
although bridge teamwork is part and parcel of bridge
resource management. Bridge resource management
is about using all resources - not only the crew but
also the equipment and its software. Bridge resource
management is also about thinking ahead and
anticipating the unexpected. This does not make
bridge resource management the same as voyage
planning, although voyage planning is a substantial
part of it.
Bridge resource management involves an attitude
that has to be learned by the whole bridge team. You
cannot achieve an attitude change and implement
bridge resource management in a two-day classroom
discussion session. In a classroom session you may
discuss the principles of bridge resource management
them. But back on board, with often only a minority
of the crew aware of the concept, these principles will
fade away rapidly.
This leads to typical situations like this: A major
shipping company had a serious grounding of one of
their ships. While all the data about the accident clearly
indicated an error chain that could have been broken
by good bridge resource management, the company's
management said "this cannot have been a bridge
resource management failure because all our officers
have been on a bridge resource management course."
The fact is that only the senior officers had attended a
two day computer assisted instruction and discussion
session.
The work of planning, executing and reviewing
simulated transits is designed to heighten the
awareness of participants to the job of safe navigation
and to the hazards presented to the ship and its crew
during those times of increased workload. If
thoroughly practised, this heightened awareness will
reduce the potential for human errors.
Course objectives
Any participant, of whatever course, has a right to
know what is expected of him by the end ofthe course.
This expected behaviour should be covered in course
objectives. The course objectives are stated in order
to gain the learners' attention, to provide motivation,
and to inform them about what is expected of them
during training and after the training session has been
completed.
The motivation for learning may relate to the
student's objective for career advancement, financial

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 99

gain, personal safety, pride, sense of responsibility, or
some other reason. In every instance, the instructor
should clearly state how the student can specifically
apply the knowledge/skill he will learn.
The objectives of a bridge resource management
course are that officers, having successfully completed
this course, will be able to:-
1. Understand and explain the value of bridge
teamwork, sharing the work load and to build good
teamwork with or without a pilot aboard, thus
enhancing safety and efficiency.
2. Demonstrate good situational awareness (that is to
have an accurate perception of the forces and factors
influencing the ship and its crew at any moment in
time) and anticipate what is coming next.
3. Make and monitor a voyage plan for port
departure/arrival, traffic choke point transits, and
any other part of the voyage, obtaining relevant
information early by using all available equipment
and resources.
4. Build a shared mental model of the situation by
the team and monitor progress by cross checking
each other.
5. Handle unexpected and emergency situations and
make decisions that are realistic and sensitive to
constraints.
6. Explain the value and practical use of standard
operating procedures (SOPs), specified by the
company.
Learning and memory
People tend to associate learning with memory. Many
instructors consider their endeavour successful if the
student can recall the subject matter. Learning,
however, involves much more than just memory. It is
possible for an average person to forget over 55% of
the information that has been learned in the first hour.
Therefore learning must involve the acquisition,
retention and application of a combination of
knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In other words,
learning is more than the acquisition of knowledge.
To have truly learned a concept the student must be
able to recall and to use the knowledge in new
situations.
This is the student's application of what the
instructor has presented. In a classroom situation, the
student may be asked to explain new material or to
perform tasks or operations associated with the
material. For example, at the end of a classroom period
on voyage planning performance, the student may be
asked to complete a voyage plan for the afternoon's
100 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
simulator session. This step involves the student's
performance of a procedure explained and
demonstrated by the instructor. In classroom,
workshop and nautical instructing situations, portions
of the instructor's explanation and demonstration
activity are usually alternated with portions of the
student's performance activity. It is rare for the
instructor to complete an explanation and a
demonstration and then allow the student to
accomplish performance activities without
interruptions for corrections and further
demonstrations. It is very important that the students
perform the manoeuvre or operation correctly the first
few times, because this is when habits are established.
Faulty habits, once reinforced, are difficult to correct.
After reasonable competence has been attained,
the manoeuvre or operation should be practised again
and again until correct performance becomes
automatic.
Laws of learning
In any didactical education the laws of learning come
forward. Two of them directly apply to simulator
training.
Law of exercise
The law of exercise states that those things most often
repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of
practice and drill. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate
and apply new concepts or practices after a single
exposure. Every time practice occurs, learning is
reinforced. The course of instruction must ensure that
there is time provided for practice. It is also important
for the instructor to ensure that the practice periods
are directed towards the objectives or desired learning
outcome of the lesson at hand. Bridge resource
management principles will be much better
implemented if supported by simulator exercises.
Law of intensity
A vivid, dramatic or exciting learning experience
teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The
law of intensity implies that a student will learn more
from the real thing than from a substitute. Unlike
bridge, simulator or shop instruction, the classroom
or briefing room imposes limitations on the amount
of realism that can be brought into teaching. The
instructor should approach reality as closely as
possible. Bridge trainers and posters, maintenance
mockups, spare parts, slides, videotape and interactive
video can be used to add realism to the classroom
environment.
The purpose of education and training is the
acquisition of knowledge and skills that can be
transferred to other situations. No amount of mental
gymnastics involving the learning of unnecessary
material will help to accomplish this. In other words,
the student must not only learn, but he must also be
able to use what he has learned, e.g in simulator
exercises.
The closer the learning experience comes to reality,
the easier it will be for the student to transfer the
acquired knowledge and training to new situations.
For example, a line drawing of an anchor winch engine
will help the student visualise what the real thing looks
like. A mockup will help even more. Still better would
be having the actual winch in the classroom. The
ultimate would be the actual forecastle.
The use of a simulator for training
Improvements in full mission bridge simulators have
nearly perfected the transfer of learning and training
since they allow the student to transfer the learned
knowledge, skills and training almost in their entirety.
With the aid of a full mission bridge simulator, the
instructor is able to improve transfer by devising
learning exercises in keeping with the demands of real
life situations. He can create coordinated, planned
problems and emergency situations calling for actions
and solutions that are identical to those demanded
under actual navigational conditions.
As the highest order of training device, bridge
simulators frequently have more training value than
the actual equipment. Simulators duplicate the
equipment being simulated as closely as possible. They
often allow practice of malfunctions, manoeuvres and
emergency procedures that would otherwise be
impossible or unsafe with the actual equipment. The
following hints can help take maximum advantage of
bridge simulator training capabilities:-
Plan each lesson carefully and thoroughly.
Review the simulator minimum equipment list to
determine the simulator malfunctions and the effect
they will have on the training session.
Set up the simulator to lesson configuration prior
to the time the learner enters it.
Conduct a thorough briefing of all procedures and
manoeuvres that are to be accomplished during the
training session. Also, a debriefing with a
constructive critique helps the learner understand
his progress.
Explain the lesson objectives thoroughly before
beginning an exercise.
Insist that the simulator be regarded in the same
way as the actual equipment. Strive for maximum
realism. Avoid multiple malfunctions in the
beginning, as this may overload the learner and
distract him from the learning situation.
Do not apologise for simulator deficiencies or
inconsistencies. Be sure to explain them and their
effect on the lesson.
Never allow a person to become fatigued to the
point of making mistakes.
Never embarrass anyone by allowing or causing
serious errors in procedures or decisions.
Offer assistance or explanations only when needed.
Avoid interruptions unless absolutely necessary.
Link the simulator lesson to the theory taught
earlier.
Select real live cases that demonstrate failure of
concepts taught in the theory phase.
Exercise design
Exercises should be designed in such a way that they
cover the bridge resource management subjects and
objectives. This may seem rather evident, but
inexperienced instructors or course developers often
tend to design exercises that are focused too much on
shiphandling. In fact, the training team may ground a
ship on the rocks as long as they apply bridge resource
management principles. It will, of course, be very
unlikely that they ground a ship if they follow the
bridge resource management principles.
For example, if the emphasis in the course is on
voyage planning, teamwork and monitoring progress,
the simulator exercise should require such. There is a
great danger in making ad hoc decisions. People spend
quite a long time on planning a passage, incorporating
all available data like wind, current, depth, possible
dangers, etc. They discuss it with the bridge team and
prepare equipment, parallel index lines, etc. Then
suddenly, mostly under pressure, someone diverges
from the passage plan, making a new decision in a
split second, often just triggered by one or more visual
clues, without consulting his team members or even
his equipment. This decision is always worse than the
original plan. So, in this case, the exercise scenario
should contain situations that expose the possible
weaknesses of the passage plan and/or challenge the
participants to diverge from it - all this within the
limits of realism of course.
Evaluation and assessment
Evaluation is an integral part of the learning process.
Whenever learning takes place, the result is a
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 101
definable, observable, measurable change in
behaviour. Evaluation is concerned with considering,
observing, measuring, assessing or judging this new
behaviour.
A reliable measuring instrument, including a
written test, is one that yields consistent results. If
identical measurements are obtained every time a
certain instrument is applied to a certain dimension,
the instrument is considered reliable. An unreliable
instrument cannot be depended upon to yield
consistent results.
A measuring instrument, including a written test,
is valid when it actually measures what it is supposed
to measure and nothing else.
A test used in educational evaluation follows the
same principles of validity. If a test is intended to
measure the ability of students to apply knowledge, it
must measure application and not the ability to recall
and write down facts.
Evaluations used in the classroom are valid only
to the extent that they measure the achievement of
the objectives of instruction.
102 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Performance testing is a method of evaluation,
particularly suited to the measurement of students'
abilities of doing, either mental or physical.
Performance testing is desirable for evaluating training
that involves an operation, a procedure, or a process,
like the bridge resource management subjects.
The instructor will have a checklist of items to be
covered during the performance and will carry the
student through each item, marking only whether the
required task was performed satisfactorily or not.
Under criterion measured evaluation, all items must
be completed or the test is not passed.
Conclusion
Bridge resource management training is mainly
training in attitudes. This can, never be achieved in a
classroom only. Even in a week of combining lectures,
discussions and simulator exercises attitudes cannot
be changed. With the aid of the simulator, however,
the seeds can be sown for a major attitude adaptation
in the long run.
 TRAINEE EVALUATION INSTRUCfIONS

The following rating system is to be used on the comment sheet:-

(1) = PROFICIENT

The trainee is able to perform the manoeuvre or procedure properly and safely and/or the
trainee has a full understanding of the procedures and principles involved.

(2) = NORMAL PROGRESS

The trainee is making satisfactory progress towards proficiency and should achieve full
proficiency by the end of this present course of instruction.

(3) = ADDITIONAL TRAINING REQUIRED

The trainee has not performed to a satisfactory level of proficiency yet but additional
examining and training of the objectives will enable the trainee to achieve level (1)
proficiency.

(D) =DISCUSSED

Item was not actually performed on the simulator but was discussed with the trainee. The
discussion revealed a satisfactory knowledge of the appropriate procedure, manoeuvre,
etc.

The trainee evaluation sheet should be rated to the observations of the instructor.

When making evaluations and assigning a rating, take into consideration the shipboard
background and experience level of the trainee.

The trainee evaluation sheet and the ratings showing the trainees' progress and deficiencies on
a daily basis is only a reference for the instructor on how to stimulate the trainees to improve on
their skills.

The trainee evaluation sheets should not be shown to the trainees.

The clues of situational awareness should be tagged if they occurred during the exercise.

Figure 13.1 Trainee Evaluation Instructions

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 103

Remarks:

Instructor's name and signature:

Figure 13.3 Comments sheet - bridge team management training

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 105

Remarks:

Instructor's name and signature:

Figure 73.4 Situational awareness evaluation sheet - bridge team management training

106 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Chapter FOURTEEN

TRAINING IN SHIPHANDLING SKILLS - OPTIMISING

EXPERIENCE, SIMULATION AND TIME ON MANNED MODELS
by Captain Nigel W. Hunt BSc FNI

Unit Manager, Marchwood Lake Shiphandling Training Facility

Simulation Section, Warsash Maritime Centre

Captain Nigel Hunt started his seafaring career with Blue Funnel (Ocean Fleets Ltd.) in 7966 and gained his BSc in Nautical Studies
from Liverpool Polytechnic in 7973. Working up to chief officer with Bank Line during 7974 to 7984 he later served with Nectar
Shipping & Projects and then with Coe Metcalf Shipping as master.

From 7988 to 7990 Nigel was Harbour Master at Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. In 7990 he moved to Warsash Maritime Centre, where
he works in the simulation section.

Introduction groundings occur with a pilot on board. The master

Why is it necessary to give specific training in
shiphandling? Is this not something all mariners do
naturally or learn as part of the courses leading to their
professional qualifications? Alas this is not the case.
Not all mariners are natural shiphandlers. The syllabus
for shiphandling training for the Class 1 (Master
Mariner) Certificate of Competency covers only the
most basic theory and there is no scope for any
practical shiphandling training. For the master's
examination, it is only required to move a small
wooden model ship across a table top to the satisfaction
of the examiner. This did not prove very useful when,
five days after taking command for the first time, the
author was required to berth his ship without a pilot.
However, ship handling is a skill which can be learned
from practical on the job training and with formal
training using simulators and especially manned scale
model ships.
Often there are few opportunities for on the job
training for ships' masters. There are always
commercial pressures not to lose time on passage. In
many cases the only manoeuvring the master has to
do is to slow down and make a lee for the pilot boat.
The pilot then arrives on the bridge and takes the con.
Anchoring is usually the most difficult manoeuvre that
a master will have to undertake on his own. Some
masters hardly ever manoeuvre their ships. Others,
usually in ferries and the coastal trades, handle their
ships all the time. There is a big difference between
the lack of opportunity for most merchant navy
masters to practice shiphandling and the extensive
training given to the commanding officers of warships.
Even though the master may not do much
shiphandling himself, it is very important that he
effectively monitors the pilot. Nearly 80% of
needs the knowledge and confidence to question the
orders given by a pilot. We are all human and therefore
prone to make mistakes. We have all given incorrect
helm orders. The master must also be able to
manoeuvre his ship in all circumstances without a pilot.
The pilots usually learn their shiphandling from their
more experienced colleagues during their training,
when they are "tripping" to learn their district. The
danger with this method is that bad habits may be
passed on and the principles of shiphandling may not
be fully explained. The more enlightened pilotage
authorities use both full mission ship's bridge
simulators and manned models to augment on the job
training given to their pilots.
On the job training
Few masters actively encourage their chief officers to
handle their ships under supervision. Many chief mates
are still condemned to the fo'c'sle for "standby". The
demise of many of the traditional shipping lines has
seen a decline in formalised in-house training schemes
and task book training. A multi-national crew on single
contracts is not always the best environment for
training. However, it is normal to spend a couple of
weeks with an experienced master prior to taking
command for the first time. This may give the trainee
master the chance to practice some ship handling. In
ferries the senior Mates may have frequent
opportunities to handle the ships under supervision
and gain pilotage exemptions prior to taking
command.
Many pilots come from a sea going background,
often with command experience. Those who go
straight into pilotage as a career normally have to
undergo an extended apprenticeship. A trainee pilot
has to learn his district and how to handle ships. He

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 107

 will need to know how to berth and unberth all types
of vessels at different conditions ofloading, in varying
tidal states and wind strengths at all the berths in his
district. Most of his training will be done tripping with
more experienced pilots. He will first qualify to handle
small ships and then work up to larger vessels. All
large pilotage districts have officers who supervise the
training of junior pilots. Usually there is an
examination to be taken before the initial licence is
issued and for each subsequent increase in tonnage
until the first class licence is obtained. These
examinations seldom include any detailed questions
on the principles of shiphandling. They are mainly
concerned with the pilot's knowledge of the district. I
have met very experienced pilots who have never
heard of the pivot point. This may be acceptable
providing the same manoeuvres are being repeated
with every act of pilotage, with due allowance for wind,
tide, etc. However if the circumstances change and a
manoeuvre has to be carried out which has not been
rehearsed, the result may be unsatisfactory if the
principles of shiphandling have not been fully
understood and applied.
Ship simulator training
The modern full mission ship's bridge simulator is a
useful tool for ship handling training. However, it is
much more useful for teaching bridge team
management and bridge resource management. These
simulators are ideal for training officers in monitoring
the ship's track during channel passages. They can be
useful for teaching some basic shiphandling skills, such
as coming into a crowded anchorage. If the simulator
database includes the trainee pilot's district in perfect
detail, then a week on such a simulator can be a very
cost effective way of familiarisation. The trainees can
tryout the less well used channels as well as developing
blind pilotage techniques.
\
Emergency procedures courses are beneficial for
masters, senior officers and pilots. These courses
expose students to most of the disasters that may befall
them at sea, in a safe environment. They can tryout
different manoeuvres to keep their ship safe and
compare the results afterwards from the plot sheets.
Ship simulators have some disadvantages for
shiphandling training. The hydrodynamic
mathematical ship models may not be exactly correct,
particularly at very slow speed. They may not have
been tested and verified to confirm that they do
respond correctly. Ship simulators are inadequate for
the final phase of berthing and for some close
proximity manoeuvres. Again this may be due to the
mathematical models, but it is impossible to move out
to the bridge wing as the ship approaches the berth to
see how the ship is actually moving. There is a general
lack of "feeling" for the ship when manoeuvring and
108 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
you are also out of touch with the elements. At speed
close to the shore, the visual scene may not move
smoothly because the computers will not be able to
update it fast enough. The visual database may not
have been prepared with sufficient detail or accuracy
for realism, particularly when the ship is close to the
shore. The effectiveness of any simulator training is
very much dependent on the skills and knowledge of
the instructors, as well as the content and structure of
the course. For pilot training, it is essential that the
instructors have tripped with the pilots in their district
to understand the problems faced by the pilots in their
work.
Manned model shiphandling training
Without any doubt, the most effective method of
learning the principles of shiphandling is to undertake
a one week manned model shiphandling course. These
courses are focused on the needs of masters, senior
officers and pilots. Usually the seagoing students will
have already obtained their Class I (Master's)
certificate or licence, pilots may be trainees, very senior
pilots, or presidents of national pilotage associations.
The aim of our courses is to enable pilots, masters
and officers to develop their existing skills and
understanding of the behaviour and handling of ships
with special emphasis on slow speed control. This is
very much a practical course. We do not dwell on the
mathematical aspects of hydrodynamics, but
concentrate on the importance of the pivot point. All
the instructors at the Warsash Maritime Centre
Marchwood lake site have command and/or pilotage
experience. All are required to return to sea for two
weeks annually to keep their shiphandling skills up to
date. Either we take passage in our customers ships or
"trip" with pilots from districts who use our training
facilities. Several instructors are active pilots who work
for the facility in their off duty time.
The objectives of our course can be tailored to suit
the customer. However, all the students cover the same
basic subjects for the first two and a half days. These
subjects are :- the use of a kick ahead, transverse
thrust, reducing speed but maintaining control, the
correct line of approach to a berth, emergency
stopping, channel transits, turning onto leads, standard
turns at constant speed, standing turns, turning short
round, critical bends, berthing, unberthing, shallow
water effects, the effect of wind, the use of thrusters,
the use of tugs and change of trim.
Further objectives include anchor work, covering
the limitations of anchors and mooring equipment,
anchoring in an exact position, anchoring large vessels,
dredging anchors, laying out anchors and arresting
the drift of disabled ships. Also covered in this section
is interaction including bank effect, squat, shallow
water and inter ship effects. The second half of the
course includes a number of optional objectives which
are designed to cover the individuals' specific
requirements. These may include ship to ship
lightering, berthing on a floating storage unit, berthing
at a single buoy mooring, berthing at a conventional
buoy mooring, night operations and berthing at a
variety of ferry terminals. Berths and channels can be
adapted to resemble difficult operations that the
student may have to face at his work. The requirements
of a pilot, ferry master and a VLCC captain will
obviously be different and we do our best to
accommodate them all.
Each session starts with a lecture. The students then
go out in the model ships to demonstrate the principles
and techniques to themselves, assisted by the lecturers.
Two students are allocated to a model ship with one
instructor supervising. One student takes command,
sitting immediately forward of the bridge, with his eyes
at bridge level, so that his perspective is correct to
scale. The other officer sits in front of the captain, but
at a lower level, and operates the helm, engine and
thruster controls as required by the captain. After each
exercise, the two officers swap around. The instructor
will give the students a thorough briefing before every
exercise and draw up a passage plan on a chart of the
lake. The instructor will point out the objectives for
the exercise and emphasise the distances involved (to
scale). The instructor will then monitor the exercise,
recording it on video in some cases. He will not
interfere in the running of the exercise, unless the
model ship is standing into danger. On completion of
the exercise, the instructor will lead a debrief with both
students, using the playback facility of the video
camera if it has been used. This will be a discussion of
the whole exercise to assess if the objectives have been
met and highlighting any areas for future
improvement. These debriefs are of vital importance
to the learning programme and all parties are
encouraged to participate actively and honestly.
There are six model ships at the Warsash Maritime
Centre Marchwood lake, ranging in size from a 30,000
gt twin screw super ferry to a 300,000 dwt VLCC.
Officers on the course will spend most of their time in
model ships approximating to those they would
normally sail in or pilot. However, to achieve all the
course objectives, sometimes they may well find
themselves in models ships of a size that they are
unfamiliar with in real life. Whenever the students
change model ships, they will be given time to
familiarise themselves with the new ship before
embarking on their first exercise.
The scale of the model ships are 1/15 for the ferry,
1/25 for the 40,000 and 60,000 dwt vessels and 1/40
for the VLCC. The scaling factors affect the time,
resulting in everything happening 4,5 or 6 times faster
than in real life. This means that the officers have to
think and act quickly, requiring a high level of
concentration. However this is an advantage because
an exercise in say the 1/25 scale model ships which
lasts 30 minutes, actually represents 2 hours and 30
minutes ship handling. Therefore many exercises can
be completed in a day, representing many hours of
actual shiphandling. The scaling factors also affect
model ship speed. One knot in a 1/25 scale model
ship is equal to five knots on the real ship. Again a
high level of concentration is required at very slow
speed in the model ships. The influence of the wind is
also affected by the scaling factors. Five knots of wind
on a 1/25 model ship is equivalent to 25 knots on the
real ship. This can be a problem, but the lake is well
sheltered by trees from the prevailing winds and there
are always sheltered areas to work in. As the course
progresses and the topic of "The Effect of Wind" has
been discussed in a lecture, we expect the officers to
be able to handle their ships in more exposed areas.
Most officers adapt to these scaling factors very easily
on the first morning of the course.
Manned model ships have a number of advantages
over other forms of simulator ship handling training.
They have a realistic "feel". The hydrodynamics of
the hulls are correct. Four of our model hulls were
test tank models, so we know all their details. The
reasons for unsuccessful manoeuvres are usually
obvious. The students do not often need us to tell them
where they have gone wrong by the middle of the
course - they are fully aware themselves. The scale
factors allow for many manoeuvres during the course.
There is great realism for close proximity manoeuvres
and the final phase of berthing operations. You are
there on the bridge wing. They are very effective for
demonstrating anchor techniques and interaction
forces. Perhaps the best advertisement is that
thousands of masters, senior officers and pilots state
that this type of shiphandling training is extremely
effective. Even the most sceptical officers at the
beginning of a course are quickly won over, once they
see how realistic the model ships are. The opportunity
for pilots, and masters who have to berth their ships
without a pilot, to practice new manoeuvres in a safe
environment is very important.
For seagoing officers, the time of greatest need of
shiphandling skills is on taking command for the first
time. We particularly encourage shipping companies
to send their senior chief officers on our course. On
promotion to master, this gives them confidence to
handle their ships and to monitor the pilots, at a time
when they have many new responsibilities. Some
shipping companies insist on the successful completion
of a manned model shiphandling course prior to
promotion to master. Assessments can be made by
the instructors (and company representatives if
required) based on the student's performance on the
course. Trainee pilots with a master's certificate benefit
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 109
from a manned model shiphandling course early in
their training programme, so that the principles of
shiphandling can be applied to every manoeuvre and
to avoid bad habits being picked up. For apprentice
pilots from a non-seagoing background, a shiphandling
course during the second half of their training is most
appropriate.
To optimise the benefits of manned model
shiphandling training, the course should be repeated
approximately every five years. We all get "rusty"! By
repeating the course at regular intervals, pilots, masters
and senior officers have an opportunity to refresh their
knowledge of the principles of shiphandling and to
enhance their skills. In particular this is a chance to
assess new manoeuvres and techniques in a safe
environment. Some shipping companies send their
masters and senior officers to repeat the standard
course every five years as part of their safety and
quality programmes. Other companies have special
refresher courses, combining three days shiphandling
training on the manned models and two days on the
ship's bridge simulator, designed to meet their
particular needs. Their masters and senior officers have
to complete the course successfully every five years
as a condition of employment. A number of pilotage
authorities are developing similar specialist courses
to assess and/or evaluate their pilots on a regular basis.
Figure 14.1 Manned ship model underway
110 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Conclusion
Frfquently on our courses we see senior masters and
pilots of Ipany years experience who do not fully
understand the principles of shiphandling. There is a
definite need to improve the training in this important
area. On the job training is cle.arly inadequate if those
doing the training are not fully aware of the principles.
It is not necessary to have a detailed knowledge of
hydrodynamics to handle a ship successfully.
However, it is essential that all shiphandlers have a
clear understanding of the principles of slow speed
control and the location of the pivot point at all times.
Full mission ships' bridge simulators can help to
reinforce the Winciples, but are unsuitable for pure
shiphandling training. At the Warsash Maritime
Centre, where we have both a full mission ships' bridge
simulator and a manned model ship handling training
facility on the Marchwood site, we have found from
many years experience that officers get the greatest
benefit from completing a shiphandling course first,
then a simulator course. The principles learned on
the manned models can then be applied to the
simulator exercises. Books can help with the theory
and the mathematical proofs if required, but there is
no substitute for the hands on training that is only
available during a manned model shiphandling course.
Successful completion of a manned model
shiphandling course gives officers the confidence to
handle their ships, knowing all the forces available to
them to keep their ships safe at all times.
 Chapter FIFTEEN

THE USE OF TACTICAL WARFARE SIMULATION

FOR NAVAL TRAINING
by Lieutenant Commander C.V. Andrew Prince, Royal Navy

Royal Navy School of Maritime Operations, HMS DRYAD

Andrew Prince was born in 7956 and, after a short period with the Royal Air Force and at Bristol University, entered the Royal Navy
in 7975 to train as an Observer in the Fleet Air Arm. After flying training he served in 826 and 874 Squadrons flying in the Sea King
helicopter and in HMS BIRMINGHAM Flight and 702 Squadron flying in the Lynx. During this time he took a degreein English and
History with the Open University. In 7985 he qualified as a PrinciPal Warfare Officer (PWO) and served in HMS AMAZON and
ARETHUSA as PWO and Operations Officer. This was followed by a return to flying as Flight Commander of 826 Squadron C
Flight, with an autonomous detachment of2 Sea Kings serving in various Royal Fleet Auxiliaries.

Since then he has served as Executive Officer of the Type 22 Frigate HMS CHATHAM (including dePloyments with the NATO
Standing Naval ForceAtlantic and in the Gulf) and commanded 874 NavalAir Squadron, flying Sea Kings from HMS INVINCIBLE
in support of UN operations in the Adriatic. He took up his present appointment as Staff Officer, Tactical Procedures Group at the
School of Maritime Operations, HMS DRYAD in October 7994.

Introduction

The Royal Navy's School of Maritime Operations
(SMOPS) is situated at HMS DRYAD in historic
Southwick village in the Hampshire countryside about
five miles north of Portsmouth. SMOPS has grown
around Southwick House (now used as the Wardroom)
which was the headquarters for the World War II D-
Day landings. SMOPS is the main shore training
establishment for officers and ratings of the Warfare
Branch, that is, those who fight our warships. Much
of this training is supported by simulators and virtually
every course at SMOPS includes time in the
simulators, usually as the culmination of their training
and under scrutiny and assessment. This chapter
explains how SMOPS uses its simulators to achieve
its warfare training. Although the Royal Navy is
addicted to acronyms and Three Or Four Letter
Abbreviations (TOFLAs), every attempt will be made
to explain them as the chapter progresses.
The SMOPS training programme
In order to understand what simulators are available
in SMOPS and how they are used, it is appropriate to
look a little more closely at the way SMOPS conducts
its training. After all, the simulators were procured to
support the training, not the other way round.
Warfare Branch career course training passes
through four identifiable phases. First, introductory
training comprises conventional instruction,
increasingly complemented by Computer-Based
Training (CBT) in the classroom environment. Second,
skill training introduces the student to the hardware
that he or she will be using at sea but individually or
in small groups. The third phase is sub-team training,
where students come together in groups to practice
individual warfare disciplines such as Anti-Submarine
Warfare (ASW) but without the multi-threat
complexities of the full operations room, although this
often takes place in parts of the simulators because
therein lie the appropriate equipments. Finally, the
training culminates in Full Team Training (FfT), with
the complete operations room simulators manned by
the students of each course, who come together for
the purpose. This is the culmination of the courses
and usually includes a period of assessment and test
of competence before leaving SMOPS to go to
appointments and drafts in ships at sea. When this
assessment is involved, FTT is called Operational
Team Training (OTT).
The Principal Warfare Officer
Fundamental to the way in which the Royal Navy
mans its operations rooms is the Principal Warfare
Officer (PWO). Senior seaman Lieutenants or junior
Lieutenant Commanders take the course to fit them
to become PWOs in frigates and destroyers of the
surface flotilla. The course is over one year long and
introduces the officers to all aspects of surface ship
operations, both in time of tension and in war. The
first half of the course prepares the officer to be a watch
leader in the operations room and culminates in two
weeks of FfT, followed by a week at sea. After that,
the course splits and officers are specialised in either
Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), Above Water

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 113

Warfare (AAW) or Communications and Electronic
Warfare (CEW). ASW and AAW officers undergo a
further week of sea training in their specialised stream
time. The students then return for their final
assessment at OTT, in conjunction with all the other
courses that culminate there.
OTT is a most intensive period of training and
assessment. Exercises are run both morning and
afternoon and, in the final week, the PWO students
have the additional task of drafting the full range of
signal messages to set the scene for these exercises,
just as though they were in a ship in charge of a small
task group. The exercises are structured to expose the
students to the complete gamut of potential enemies
and are set in a wide range of geographical locations.
The package starts with exercises in the English
Channel (Flag Officer Sea Training's famous
"Thursday War") and progresses through a joint
maritime course OMC) exercise off the north of
Scotland.
The students then move on to more operational
scenarios based in potential trouble spots around the
globe. One such is set in the Iceland/Faroes gap and
involves a mainly cold-war type threat. Another is set
in the Mediterranean with the opposition being
provided by a hypothetical fundamentalist Islamic
country armed with a mix of Western and former
Soviet equipment. Another simulates the Adriatic,
which introduces the additional difficulty of operations
close to land. Yet others are set near the Falklands, in
the Gulf and so on. Each scenario is reviewed regularly
to make sure that the threat is credible and up-to-date
and that the procedures being used are those actually
used in that theatre of operations.
From this it can be seen that shore training in the
simulators does not replace training at sea, or vice
versa; both training environments are used and each
complements the other.
Cunningham Building
For PWO students an important stepping-stone to
participation in exercises in the full operations room
simulators is the Action Speed Tactical Trainer (ASTT)
in Cunningham Building. It consists of ten identical
cubicles, each of which represents a small generic
operations room. The cubicles are connected to each
other and are controlled from a central room where
the pace of the exercises is controlled and an
assessment can be made of each student's
performance. While air, surface and subsurface
contacts in the ASTT appear just as they do in the
real world and have all the same characteristics of
speed, manoeuvrability, radar transmissions and so
on, each is displayed automatically within each cubicle
without the need to operate the appropriate sensors.
This facility allows students to practice their warfare
and tactical procedures skills without having to worry
about how the tactical picture is compiled and
disseminated. Not only is the ASTT useful as a
stepping stone to FIT but it provides a trainer which,
by its very generic nature, can be used to train
operations room teams from other countries, including
those that operate fast attack craft or small corvettes,
thus expanding its appeal to potential customers.
The future of the ASTT in Cunningham Building
is under review at the time of writing. It is a useful
tool in its present form but is getting elderly and
substantial investment in improvements would
probably not be justified.
Cook Building
The full operations room simulators are housed in
Cook Building, which has four simulators, each of
which reproduces faithfully the operations room of a
frigate or destroyer. These are:-
• A Type 42 Destroyer (this simulator is also used by
command teams from the aircraft carriers
INVINCIBLE, ILLUSTRIOUS and ARK
ROYAL).
• A Type 22 (Broadsword Class) Batch 2 Frigate.
• An IKARA Leander. Although here are no IKARA
Leanders in RN service, this simulator will keep
running for a while to complement the Type 42
Simulator.
• A Type 21 frigate. Again, there are no Type 21 Ships
in the RN (they were all sold to PakIstan), nor will
there be any with similar Command Systems by
the end of 1996 (the other ships being the Type 22
Batch 1 frigates, being sold to Brazil). This simulator
is currently used for Type 23 command teams but
will decommission in early 1999.
Each simulator allows the team within it to compile
a tactical picture using faithfully reproduced sensor
information: radars show just what radars at sea would,
taking into account the curvature of the earth and
atmospheric conditions, sonars detect submarines at
the right range and radios work when the unit to be
talked to is within range and so on. Once the picture
has been compiled, the PWOs and the Captain can
act upon it, firing the full range of weapons appropriate
to that class of ship and observing their effects: for
instance, guns will only destroy targets within their
designed range. This realism is one ofthe great benefits
of these simulators and makes them very flexible in
the number of different scenarios that can be offered
to the teams.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 115
 All the simulators are linked together (federated)
and are controlled and monitored from the building's
control room. Ratings within the Control Room act
as the "outstations" for each ship, that is, those people
with whom those in the operations room cooperate
but are not in the operations room itself. These include
the Officer of the Watch, Missile Gun Director (Visual),
helicopters, Maritime Patrol Aircraft, Fighter aircraft
and so on.
Also in the Control room are a number of other
facilities:-
The master terminal for ASMA (Air Staff
Management Aid or, colloquially ''Anyone Seen My
Aircraft?"), an information exchange system for
managing the long-range air battle.
Pseudo Link 11: a generic computer terminal that
simulates an additional Data Link 11 capable unit
such as a P3C Maritime Patrol Aircraft or an E3D
Airborne Early Warning plane. Despite some
shortcomings, this is a useful vehicle for providing
the Data Link 11picture to the exercise participants.
The master terminal for the message handling
system, whereby the passage of hard copy signals
between ships and from ship-to-shore can be
simulated.
Internal telephones simulating the ships' satellite
secure-speech telephones.
The control room is the hub of Cook Building,
wherein much of the simulation is controlled and from
where much of the assessment of team performances
takes place.
A major benefit of Cook Building is the debriefing
room. Here, students are debriefed on their
performances immediately after each exercise with the
aid of a replay projection system, which allows the
instructors to display the positions of all the ships,
aircraft and missiles and to play through selected
incidents either in real-time or faster, just like in the
movie "Top Gun". The debriefs are not only critical,
good points are also given the credit they deserve when
teams or individuals do particularly well.
The Cook Building facility does have some
limitations inherent in a shore-based facility, for
example, boarding training and similar exercises
which would, at sea, involve the use of the OOW and
bridge team are difficult to simulate. Despite these
shortcomings, this is the only place where ships' teams
can be subjected to accurate missile simulation, targets
that fly at representative speeds (i.e., faster than a small
fighter plane) and they are always surprised at the first
sea skimming missile raid coming in at more than twice
116 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
the speed of sound! A major benefit here is that the
threat is continually being driven by experienced
warfare officers, the "man behind the machine", so
that the threat is credible and responsive. Like all
simulation, incidents can be taken further than in the
real world: ships can "collide" and "sink", aircraft can
be "shot down" and teams can see the consequences
of their actions followed through to their logical
conclusion with a far greater degree of realism than at
sea. Cook Building also offers very cost-effective
training. Without going into detail about the sums
involved, the amount of training given in Cook
Building would tie up a whole squadron of frigates
and destroyers virtually full-time. Since one new frigate
costs in the order of £230 million, Cook Building is
very cheap by comparison and the training delivered
is approximately one-seventh the cost of doing it at
sea, excluding the cost of the ammunition expended.
The rotation of uses of Cook Building is governed
by the SMOPS training cycle, which runs for eleven
weeks divided as follows: Week 1 has Command Team
Training (CTT), of which more later, weeks 2 and 3
are allocated to sub-team training, weeks 4 and 5 are
for FTT, week 6 is CTT, weeks 7 and 8 sub-team
training again, weeks 9 and 10 OTT and in week 11
the maintenance staff have a chance to restore any
defects that have arisen. Because so many courses
culminate in Cook, the SMOPS training cycle drives
much of SMOPS course programming.
In summary, the greatest assets of these simulators
are their relative cheapness and their high fidelity. The
operations rooms in Cook Building are the same as
those of ships so the teams train on the real thing. A
multi-ship environment is faithfully reproduced and
a credible, flexible and responsive threat is presented,
without tying up expensive warships that are better
employed upon operational tasks.
The future of Cook Building
Maintaining the relevance and credibility of any
advanced simulator requires investment in updating
both hardware and software within Cook Building.
The Type 42 simulator is due to be upgraded shortly,
and later a new simulator for the Type 23 (Duke class)
frigate will be added to incorporate the new and
powerful datalink Link 16.
The requirement for a simulator representing the
Common New Generation Frigate (CNGF), the RN's
projected replacement for the Type 42 Destroyer, is
currently being addressed.
Command Team Training
In addition to training those about to go to sea,
SMOPS also uses the Cook Building complex for
Figure 75.2 IJpe 27 simulator

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 117

continuation training of operations room teams from
ships in commission. Frigates and destroyers of the
surface flotilla bring their operations room teams to
SMOPS to exercise in Cook Building. One week
packages are run which refresh the ships' teams on
warfare procedures and bring them up to date with
recent developments before exposing them to a wide
range of warfare scenarios during six exercises in the
Cook Building simulators.
CTT is programmed by the Flag Officer Surface
Flotilla (FOSF) and ideally ships should attend CTT
when they are emerging from the builder's yard or
from a period in refit and before they go to Plymouth
for work-up with Flag Officer Sea Training. CTT is
also appropriate when a fully worked-up ship is
preparing for a deployment to an operational area,
such as the Falklands, the West Indies or the Gulf.
Like PWO training, it can be seen that shore-based
simulation does not replace training at sea but
complements it as ayart of the whole work-up process.
Teamwork is the main area of concentration during
CTT. It is assumed that the individuals within the team
have mastered their individual skills: they will have
all done the relevant career course culminating in FTT
in Cook Building before going to their ships. CTT
packages are run for a minimum of two ships and a
maximum of four: SMOPS would not normally run
CTT for a single ship. This is not only because it would
not be cost-effective but because ships get a great deal
of value out of interacting one with another in Cook
Building's federated system, within a multi-ship force
in a multi-threat environment working towards the
successful completion of an assigned mission; the
whole package becomes greater than the sum of its
parts.
Other simulation systems
Of course, SMOPS does not only train officers and
ratings who are going to frigates and destroyers. Those
going to mine warfare vessels and patrol craft also
receive training which culminates in simulation
systems. The URSA simulator is an authentic
representation of the Sandown class Mine
CounterMeasures Vessel (MCMV) operations room
and associated equipments. The sonar transmissions,
acoustic background and sea bed are simulated to a
high resolution by a sophisticated computer suite. The
simulation is then displayed to the command team in
an environment identical to the Sandown class itself
allowing trainees to become familiar with the working
environment before ever setting foot on the ship. To
allow the bridge team to be exercised alongside the
118 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
command team there is also a partial simulation of
the Sandown bridge.
Dependent upon the level of training being
conducted, a series of scenarios can be constructed to
demonstrate aspects of the shipboard systems or to
exercise the whole team and assess students in a
realistic environment. A series of faults can be inserted
to increase the pressure and to encourage lateral
thinking. A comprehensive database of mine and non-
mine targets, with appropriate acoustic signatures,
allows students to gain a feel for the real thing. URSA
thus provides realistic training for officers and ratings
on their career courses in SMOPS and spare capacity
is utilised for Command Team Training of ships'
companies from sea, in the same way that Cook
Building does.
ARCTURUS is the name of the Hunt Class
command and operator trainer. Although the more
elderly of the MCMV simulators it gives an accurate
representation of the sonar conditions, acoustic
background, seabed and the deployment and recovery
of the remotely piloted submersible associated with
the Hunt Class. Other aspects of warfare in this class
of ship can also be exercised but to a lower level of
fidelity than with URSA.
Also worthy of note, the AMETHYST simulator
provides a very realistic bridge environment
equivalent to the quality achieved with the latest flight
deck simulators for aircraft, including projection of
the view beyond the bridge windows. While currently
used for training bridge teams in navigation, pilotage
and shiphandling the bridge and operations room
teams cannot be divorced in a modern warship and
AMETHYST and her future sisters have the spare
capacity to become more closely involved in warfare
training in due course.
Conclusions
The effective conduct of Royal Navy training in
warfare demands equipment that will conduct high-
fidelity simulation in a realistic environment. Such
equipment must be able to support sub-team training,
full team training as the assessed culmination of career
courses and continuation training for ships of the fleet.
While there are many different ways to this end, the
simulators at SMOPS, HMS DRYAD are currently
the best there is. Improvements are on the way and it
is confidently expected that SMOPS will be able to
live up to its mission statement - "to provide the
world's best naval training" - well into the next
millennium.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

- SECTION III -

The organisation of education and training

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 119

 Chapter SIXTEEN

AFLOAT AND ASHORE:

WHERE ARE TOMORROW'S SKILLS BEING DEVELOPED?
by Mr J. David Precious AMNI

Precious Associates Ltd.

David Precious, after attending HMS WORCESTER Training College, served at sea as a cadet with BI for several years. Transferred
ashore to the personnel department of P&O in 7962, he subsequently joined Panocean Shipping and Terminals in 7973 as Personnel
Manager. In 7983 David was appointed Personnel Director of PAL Shipping Services and transferred to the Wallem Group in 7984.
He became a director of Wallem Shipmanagement (Isle of Man) Ltd in the same year, leaving to set up his own consultancy company
in 7989.

Precious Associates Limited (PAL) is an independent consultancy offiring specialist services in all human resource/personnel
management areas, with particular knowledge of the marine industry. Located at Haywards Heath, Sussex, UK thefirm has been ISO
9002 standard since 7993 and has also met the UK national Standard for Investors in People.

Mr. Preciouspassed his 2nd mate's Foreign Going examination and is a Fellow of The Nautical Institute. A key areafor PAL is the
training and development of young people, including some 40 British and Irish cadets.

Introduction

All of us involved with shipping depend for the success
of our respective ventures on one specialist group of
people - the seafarer. Without them ships will not
trade, cargoes will not be carried and, in effect, there
will be no marine industry.
No apology is made for emphasising the crucial
importance of the seafarer, indeed, the title of the paper
states Afloat and Ashore and not, it will be noted,
Ashore and Afloat. The initial focal point of attention
for our industry is the seafarer and most of us will
acknowledge that, in many cases, the skills of the
seafarer are transferred ashore, but very seldom the
other way round.
From where are tomorrow's skills, both afloat and
ashore, being developed? The answer, not
surprisingly, must be primarily from the seafarers of
today. What is more difficult to determine is from
which sources, and how. We also need to consider the
future shape of the industry. This chapter sets out to
address a few of the relevant issues.
Background
Initially, and by way of background only, let us
look at the past. Most of us will be all be too familiar
with the world trading recession and the main focus
of attention, at that time, being directed at survival. In
manning terms, and relative to shipping, this was
reflected by:-
Large scale redundancies.
A virtual embargo on recruitment, especially
cadets.
A severe curtailment of all training.
Little or no continuity of employment.
A drive towards the lowest manning cost.
People being considered as easily replaceable, in
effect, a short term resource.
For most of us, the above phase has passed
although, understandably, a certain amount of recent
public and press criticism has been directed at the poor
industry image. Fortunately, there are now
encouraging signs that most trading sectors are more
buoyant and, with the lessons learned, we should be
able to plan more positively for the future. To fully
complete this renaissance, we must again experience,
as we call it in the UK, the feel good factor. This is
especially important in developing future skills.
Tomorrow's sources of crew supply will not and,
in fact, cannot be very different to those of today. There
is still likely to be the balance between Europe and
the Far East, although it is acknowledged that Europe
may shift from western, to central or eastern. If this
belief is substantially correct, then what we need to
consider is the changing nature of our industry and
how, broadly, today's labour supply sources can
effectively be harnessed to provide skills for tomorrow.
This must apply, equally, afloat and ashore.
Importantly, what changes must we bring about?

120 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

This chapter is thus in four parts:
Labour supply (and demand) of today and
tomorrow.
2 How, and in what manner, might tomorrow's skills
develop to meet the requirements of the ship
owners/managers and, as important, the aspirations
of the seafarers?
3 What do we propose?
4 How do we get there?
Labour supply (and demand) of today
and tomorrow
Labour supply
Two BIMCO/ISF manpower studies (of 1990 and
1995) have drawn attention to the international labour
market and, whilst it may be argued that the 1990
report overstated the supply/demand imbalance, there
now appears agreement that the 1995 report was
broadly accurate, with the main summary showing:-
• Changing geographical patterns of supply, i.e.
continuing decline in 0 ECD countries.
• Supply from the Far East - increasing all the time.
• Changing circumstances in Eastern Europe, i.e.
potential opening up as a supply area.
• Dependence on OECD senior officers, i.e. still a
demand for European seniors.
• Needs of shore based sectors, i.e. there is still a
reliance on the seafarers to come ashore.
• Quality as opposed to quantity - this is a key issue.
• Impact of STCW Convention - now in force.
• Changing patterns of trainee recruitment, e.g. some
increase in numbers but, for many nationalities, still
not enough.
• Need for better data - there is a shortage of reliable
statistics.
For some time now, and especially in West
European countries, the attraction of a marine career
to young people has diminished and the shipping
industry, in many observers' opinion, is a low profile
business - sadly, as stated earlier, it is only when
something of an adverse nature occurs, that the media
show any attention to the marine world.
This poor image was expressly pronounced after
the flagging out phase of the mid 1980s when the
recession forced a major change in manpower supply
- almost overnight there was a displacement of
thousands of European seafarers and rapid growth in
supply from the Far East.
It is believed this lack of career image is now also
true in some Far Eastern countries, particularly those
with a high technical base and a high standard of living,
such as Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan,
Malaysia, and so on. As one observer has stated, these
countries are rapidly changing from supply to demand
centres.
By and large, the world maritime labour market
can simply be divided as follows:-
Western Europe
As is known, the curtailment of recruitment has
resulted in major shortages throughout many
countries. It is still possible, on occasions, to recruit
small numbers of junior officers, but the supply of
senior specialist personnel is almost exhausted. Those
that are available are likely to be in the 50+ age
bracket.
Within the last two or three years, in some countries
(Norway and the United Kingdom to name but two),
there has been a slow return to increased recruitment
and, on a positive theme, numbers of intakes to the
UK industry have shown a gradual increase.
There are a number of research projects taking
place in Europe, all focussing on increasing the
attractiveness of a marine career - there are thus still
prospects that the decline of the European seafarer
can be arrested.
India and the Philippines
These are customary supply centres, but serious
concerns have recently arisen in India through the
influx of non traditional Indian employers. It is
reported that the country is in danger of being over
stretched for demand of officers with both Greek and
Japanese owners focussing on India, in the short and
medium term. The Indian manning shortage is
worsening all the time and it is reported that the
number of Indian manned ships has almost doubled
in the past year.
In the case of the Philippines, there is still the
reported worry over STCW and the white list.
East and Central Europe
It is stated that there is an increasing availability of
personnel from some Central/Eastern European
countries, with examples being Poland and Croatia.
Other East European countries, such as Bulgaria,
Ukraine, Latvia and Russia are now increasingly
commented on as being part of the global marine
scene.
China
Is still seen as a major future supply centre, but requires
the confidence of a number of key operators/owners
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 121
to initially engage Chinese personnel - it is believed
other companies will then follow.
• Other Middle / Far East centres
There are, of course, other similar supply centres
which provide limited numbers of experienced
personnel - examples being Sri Lanka, Pakistan,
Thailand, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar (Burma)
and Vietnam.
• Spain and South America
Is an option to some owners/managers, perhaps in
Atlantic trades and, primarily; in the dry cargo sectors.
• Canada and Australia
There appears to be a supply of available officers,
albeit that for many Canadian officers the level of
worldwide trading experience is limited.
Summary of labour supply
In summary, we have thus established:-
• There will be declining numbers of West European
officers but not a total elimination. Central and East
European officers will continue to assist with the
overall demand.
• Whilst there are three or four expanding sources,
these are principally for ratings.
• Whilst China appears to be an answer to the
manpower shortage, there has yet to be, in many
observers' views, a breakthrough as regards the
international scene.
• The Philippines, for the foreseeable future, will
continue to dominate, mainly rating, supply.
Of course the above generalities only reflect
quantity. Quality aspects are even more important and
are being considered by companies and other
responsible bodies.
All of us involved with marine issues would be
delighted to come across a source of well trained,
reasonably priced, predominantly English speaking,
highly motivated seafarers but, realistically, there are
no new secret sources (on this planet) to serve our
industry - we can only promote what is available and,
as many owners are currently doing, encourage and
fund those areas where it is believed the growth of
skilled seafarers can be developed.
Labour demand
The other side of the manning equation, which is of
equal importance, is the recruitment, or demand, for
seafarers. In an ideal world, supply and demand would
122 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
be in balance, but this is never the case. By and large,
owners and managers have freedom of choice for
seafarers, ranging from single nationalities through to
the customary international mix of senior European/
OECD Officers from one source and junior officers/
ratings from elsewhere. In this respect, many owners
today still favour senior European/OECD officers.
This, again, was confirmed in the 1995 BIMCO/ISF
report which stated that OECD countries still supply
more than half of the senior officers serving in the
world fleet.
This, in itself, poses a major problem with which
many of us will identify. The 50% of senior officers
will reduce quite dramatically in the next decade for
two main reasons:-
a) Virtually nil recruitment, in the late 1980s, of West
European officers.
and, equally as important;
b) The age profile with, for example, the average age
of British officers currently 40+ years. We
understand that, on present trends, this average age
could be 50+ by the year 2000.
The problem is likely to be even more exaggerated
if, as suggested, future growth areas are from Central!
East Europe and the Far East. Initially, the main
availability will be in the rating ranks and sources of
officers, at least in the early stages, will be limited.
Nevertheless, numbers of junior and senior officers
will also increase outside the OECD.
A final comment on demand. Significantly, a
number of shore management positions today are also
filled from European/OECD Officers - clearly, in
future, this cannot be in the same ratio and many
senior jobs ashore will attract job applications beyond
traditional sources.
Tomorrow's skills
How, and in what manner, might tomorrow's skills
develop to meet the requirements of ship owners and,
as important, the aspirations of the seafarers?
Future management strategies must relate to the
needs and requirements of the industry. By and large,
we are traditional in our approach to shipping and
there is little evidence to indicate any radical change.
In determining tomorrow's skills, however, we
need to consider what shape the industry might take
and, subsequently, how we act. How do we thus see
the future?
Features relative to manning are:-
Technology
Technology will, of course, impact on vessel design
but only, it is suggested, to a limited degree. In practical
terms, the day of the totally automated/unmanned
vessel is some way off, if at all. Current thinking is
that even the most technically advanced vessel, when
in service, will still have a core manning complement.
Therefore, the benefits of technology will, principally,
be a safer operating system and more sophisticated
equipment, both requiring new skills.
On board manning
Today, and primarily due to vessel ages, there are
relatively high on board complements. Our industry
is labour intensive with a substantial number of
personnel being semi skilled and undertaking routine
tasks. Traditionally, the on board structure comprises
deck, engine and catering departments.
Tomorrow's manning complements, for these
technically advanced vessels, will be somewhat less
than today. Indeed, many observers believe that
numbers of between ten and fourteen, for a standard
vessel, will be the norm, even for ships due to enter
service in the next few years. What must change, is
the onboard structure with a greater emphasis on the
functional approach, i.e. manager and operators/
technicians - one defined group. Future complements
must have higher skill levels, and will again be
supported by (as today) work squads supplementing
the shipboard numbers.
Government regulations
There is a need to consider industry regulations,
whether introduced as voluntary codes or in legislative
form. Such measures may affect not only on board
numbers, but also the way in which we operate our
ships and the requirement for future skills. This will
relate to such areas as GMDSS, STCW revision, hours
of work regulations, ISM code, OPA 90, etc. - the list
is almost endless.
We must also be mindful of the many pressures
which these regulations impose on our seafarers -
adequate training and support must be provided.
National characteristics
We have determined from the earlier part of this paper,
potential growth areas of certain seafaring nationalities.
Whilst accepting we are today an international
industry, we are still divided by barriers of culture,
language, role, skills, wage levels and the like. This
must change and, in planning for tomorrow, an
international seafaring culture must be in our minds.
Role of the individual
It is the individual who makes up our industry and, in
recent times, there has been too much emphasis on
casualisation. Company loyalty and identity have been
severely stretched and, unless we act quickly,
individual pride and a feeling of company
commitment may only be past features of the industry.
What a tragedy that would be.
What do we propose?
If we accept the foregoing comments and agree that
tomorrow's skills must evolve from today's seafarers,
we then need an industry approach, embracing our
future needs, both afloat and ashore. The following
propositions come to mind:-
More emphasis on a marine career, based on a
selection of marine qualifications. Entrants to the
industry should be encouraged to view their future
as a lifetime career within the marine industry, and
recruitment and training programmes should be
planned accordingly. At the top end, these may
develop from a degree (or equivalent) but, most
importantly, at all levels throughout the structure,
there should be opportunities to obtain one or more
marine qualifications. These should be based on
assessment similar to the STCW approach and also
to the idea of vocational qualifications which are
being introduced into all levels of industry. For
seafaring, these marine qualifications must bridge
the boundaries between ship and shore and also
between the present divisions of deck and engine.
The acceptance of younger marine professionals.
The age profile of the industry will inevitably result
in younger men and women, all adapting more
easily to advanced technology and the proposed
marine qualifications. However, their experience
in the industry will be less, and must therefore be
compensated accordingly, by appropriate training
and by generous support from us all.
The global role of women should receive greater
recogNition, not only in numbers but also the skill
and application they bring to an organisation.
Organisations, which we now see are based on
flatter structures - again providing opportunities
for rapidly developing and changing roles. Out-
sourcing of activities will expand.
There should be a greater harmonisation of
competence accompanied by harmonisation of
nationalities. This does not infer a dilution of
cultures, but a blending of the divisions between
West and East. Europe, as we all know, has freedom
of labour movement and, within the international
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 123
 community, the marine industry should be seen to
be taking the lead. Benefits will accrue through
flexibility oflabour sources, skill levels at the highest
denominator, improved language awareness, (likely
to be English) and, possibly, a levelling out in wage
costs.
The movement of staff from sea to shore will
continue, this being implicit in the development of
the marine qualifications. Broadly, shore positions
today and in the future are based on three groups:-
Technical, i.e. pilots, harbour masters, surveyors,
ports and technical operators, etc.
Management, i.e. ship management,
government authorities, etc.
Supplemental, i.e. lawyers, lecturers, etc.
Increasing nationality flow. As an extension of the
above point, current UK legal changes permit
designated European officers to serve in senior
ranks in UK registered vessels. Will this lead to the
possibility that, conceivably, a future Dover
Harbour master might well relocate from
Murmansk - or Bombay - or Manila? We already
have many Europeans working away from home.
Is there any reason why the reverse should not
apply?
There should be consideration of more equitable
employment packages between ship and shore,
thereby facilitating the transfer of seafarers to a
marine shore environment, with the specific aim
of industry retention. In today's scene the
employment package for seafarers is, in monetary
terms and relative to their country of engagement,
generally attractive with, in many cases,
government allowances as regards taxation. The
shore employment package is, by comparison, at a
disadvantage in that the pay levels are frequently
lower and, almost certainly, no tax concessions are
applicable.
The supply of seafarers, if not direct employees,
must be through personnel managers and not just
manning contractors. There must be, as far as
possible, permanency of employment.
And, lastly, there is risk management where all
incident information, no matter how minor, is
actively collated, analysed and acted upon to make
the workplace safer for seafarers -leading to a zero
defects culture and a think safety attitude, rather
than just paying lip service to the concept.
The foregoing is a brief sketch of possible people
changes for tomorrow. How do we now ensure we
have the appropriate skills?
124 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
How do we get there?
The answer is relatively straightforward. This will
depend upon the recruitment, training and
development, along the same lines of young people
of many different nationalities, all committed to a
future marine career. This training will be at all levels
of the organisation, from the important first step of
induction, through onboard levels of skill and culture
and, eventually, for those so motivated and selected,
to shore roles.
How can this be achieved? A few thoughts are:-
A concentration of effort on commonality of
recruitment whether initially for a seagoing role or
shore role. This must also extend across nations, so
that any recruit from any point of the globe can be
on a similar career path from a single stream entry.
An increasing training effort to provide greater
marine skills, many of which will relate to both
afloat and ashore roles. This training will possibly
be formalised along the following lines:-
Basic marine induction: Covering the customary
pre sea training/courses, Company culture and
including industry induction.
Career development: Acceptance of change,
teamwork, delegation, positive thought, cultural
differences, decision making, quality awareness,
people skills, etc. - i.e. all part of our suggested
marine qualification.
Technical/professional: Navigation, engineering,
maintenance and statutory legislation.
Managerial: Our industry is capable of teaching
technical skills, but:-
Who regularly trains their shore personnel?
What formal training is given in
understanding different cultures/ languages?
Management training in many companies
has almost lapsed - is this sensible?
Supplemental: special training for
specialised jobs.
Note: In all cases, there should be a more
standardised approach to training, so that an owner/
manager can be comfortable that the skill levels of
those on board are consistent, irrespective of the
nationality of the crew. Additionally, for some
countries, it may be beneficial to reduce the number
of training establishments, to enable those that remain
to upgrade their programmes to the highest level.
A greater concentration of training in the emerging
supply areas, particularly with the current known,
and increasing, growth in the requirement for
officers.
In this respect why, with few exceptions, does the
industry continue to ignore one obvious resource
 offuture officers, i.e. those well motivated and able
ratings who, with encouragement, support and
training, should be able to move through the new
competence based programmes to officer status.
Within all training programmes, many of which
should be simulator based, the question is asked -
who will pay?
As earlier stated, recession equals no training. The
cost of all training should be shared and, relative to
our industry, no single party should be excepted.
Training involves a range of costs, i.e. course fees,
additional personnel, incidentals such as travel,
accommodation, etc., and not to be forgotten, the wage
element itself. The relevant parties to contribute and
to share this cost should be - governments, owners/
managers (employers), trade unions and even, under
certain conditions, the individual - self help is a great
motivator.
This completes the cycle of recruitment, on board
training and then supplemented by, where
appropriate, training for shore roles plus the inevitable
cost factor.
Conclusion
There are many encouraging signs upon which to
build:-
Quality is part of our normal business life and those
of us who have been assessed to an appropriate
standard, now appreciate the benefits.
In time, the younger international work force will
adapt more easily to the required changes and the
advanced technology.
The STCW revision, port state control and the ISM
code are collectively aimed at providing a standard
legislative framework of skills and procedures -
consistent across the globe.
The gradual return of the feel good factor about
our industry.
Tomorrow's skills will develop from and with
today's young people. We should not forget that in
the 1980s (for various reasons) companies discarded
many highly skilled seafarers. We need to raise the
profile of our industry again so that people are, once
more, proud to be a part of it.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 125
 Chapter SEVENTEEN

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF A COLLEGE PRINCIPAL -

INTEGRATING A MARITIME COLLEGE WITH
THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT
by Captain Wan Shukry Wan Karma MSc

Principal, The Maritime Academy of Malaysia Melaka

Captain UTanShukry is presently the PrinciPal of Maritime Academy Malaysia (ALAM). He joined ALAM in 7983 as a lecturer,
moving up to become the Director of Studies in 7987. He took over the chair of PrinciPal in March 7990, shortly after his return from
study leave at the World Maritime University, where he was awarded an MSc.

Beforejoining ALAM he was at sea serving mainly with Malaysian International Shipping Corporation and is a Master Mariner.

Captain UTanShukry is fully involved at the nationalleve! in formulating guidelines and policies and represents Malaysia at
international meetings and conftrences, especially on matters concerning seafarers, education and training.

He is very active in the proftssional field, having presented papers in seminars and conftrences and being a member of many related
bodies and organisations.

Chapter Overview
A comparison of maritime colleges, whether in
developed or developing countries, will undoubtedly
reveal many different and contrasting features from
the role and status of the institution, system of
education and training, facilities and equipment, to
the number and type of courses offered. While
differences are many and are due, perhaps, to
prevailing local conditions and circumstances, there
are also - surprisingly - a number of common traits.
However, the commonality is more likely to be in the
form of constraints faced by these colleges. One feature
which is indeed very common is the seeming isolation
of maritime colleges, regardless of whether they exist
as independent institutions or as part of a larger
establishment.
There could be many reasons for this state of affairs
but a particularly important and largely neglected area
is the degree of integration of colleges with the
maritime environment. This chapter focuses on the
importance of this aspect and discusses ways in which
colleges can effectively integrate with and benefit from
their close affiliation with the maritime environment.
Maritime environment - what it is
The word 'environment' here does not refer to the
natural environment (oceans, seas, beaches) but to an
aggregate of all things, factors and conditions existing
within a certain boundary. Maritime environment can
thus be regarded as an aggregate of all the elements,
both physical and non-physical, that are a part of or
are closely linked with maritime activities within a
particular boundary. These include, for example,
various sectors of industry, governmental bodies, Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs), shipping and
maritime policies and even image and public
perception of the sector or entity being considered.
In a wider context maritime environment
transcends geographical boundaries and extends from
the interface to the immediate vicinity, district, state,
national, regional and global level (see figure 17.1).
Maritime environment from the
education and training perspective
To consider the maritime environment from a
Maritime Education and Training (MET) perspective
we need to look more closely at the various aggregate
elements. At the general level the elements are
probably relevant to all sectors while at the sectoral
level some may be more applicable and important
than others. In the case of MET they include the
industry, government agencies, professional bodies,
the national education system and policies, school
Ieavers and parental expectations and the status and
image of MET.
The wider maritime environment
The wider maritime environment comprises all the
aggregate elements broadly outlined above, but also

126 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

includes various sectors of the industry such as
shipping companies, ports, shipyards, supporting
services, government agencies, NGOs, national
policies on the maritime industry and MET
(specifically the role of MET in the context of maritime
manpower development), local authorities, unions and
the media.
Figure 17.2gives a more detailed but not exhaustive
list of the elements of the wider maritime environment.
Why is maritime environment
important ?
No institution can exist on its own or in isolation.
Organisations and institutions exist within an
environment and are interdependent with the
elements and conditions prevailing within that
environment. They are constantly subjected to,
governed and influenced by these elements. Colleges
cannot therefore seclude themselves, whether
deliberately or otherwise, and dissociate from the
environment. They, like any other organisations, need
allies, associates and supporters and they need to
develop synergy and strategic alliances, particularly
with other elements in the environment.
Additionally, environment is important because
MET institutions are in the business of providing
services. For this they must never lose sight of the
following underlying factors:
Programmes and courses must meet industry
standards and regulatory requirements.
Programmes and courses must be relevant to and
meet clients and industry needs.
Accountability is to clients and other stockholders
- those who pay demand the 'right product'.
Work and performance is scrutinised by clients,
industry, examining and certifying authorities,
sponsors, donors and the public.
MET colleges, like any other organisations, need
governmental, industry and public support.
MET colleges must be sensitive and responsive to
changes, especially those taking place within the
environment.
The critical importance of the maritime
environment to MET institutions is less in a stable
and unchanging situation. This was, perhaps, the case
in the period up to the nineteen seventies when
changes were slow or minimal and activities more or
less routine. However, in an almost constantly
changing situation effective integration with and the
management of the maritime environment become
critical. Ignoring the maritime environment or failure
to manage it can result in the institution becoming
isolated, gradually losing significance and, in extreme
cases, its eventual demise.
Managing the maritime environment
On their own it is almost impossible for MET
institutions to control, change or influence the
maritime environment. However, what can and must
be done is to manage effectively the interrelationship
with the various elements. This entails establishing,
maintaining, enhancing and optimising relationships
with other elements of the environment. Once
established, such relationships must be further fostered
and nurtured to ensure their continued healthy
existence. Colleges need to focus on the elements that
are important to them such as the government,
industry, community and the public.
Managing the maritime environment is concerned,
basically, with looking at the external factors and at
the overlaps rather than internally. Overlaps (or
interfaces) include college councils, senates or boards
of governors. These normally comprise outsiders who
have a direct role in the affairs of the college. It must
always be borne in mind that major decisions which
affect the well-being and development (even survival)
of the college are made outside the organisation or by
people from outside the organisation. As such it makes
sense for top management to give equal or appropriate
attention to these elements than just to the routine day
to day running of the institution. To what extent is
this occurring? From what is apparent and with the
exception of a few this aspect has been given very
little attention by most colleges and many may not
even realise its significance and importance.
Managing the maritime environment means
managing and optimising the interrelationship with
the various elements of the maritime environment,
which is essentially public relations.
Translated into objectives, colleges need to focus
their efforts towards:
Establishing good public relations with the
environment.
Seeking the support of all relevant agencies and
organisations.
Strengthening college/board relationships.
Strengthening collegelindustry liaison.
Strengthening college/external committees
relationships.
Enhancing college/ community relationships (which
includes local authorities).
Developing strategic alliances and synergy with
relevant sectors and organisations.
Working on image and status.
The above are key areas where efforts should be
directed in order to derive optimum benefit from the
interrelationship. There are other areas which have
not been included but are nevertheless important,
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 127
depending on a particular situation or environment.
Each college needs to examine its own environment
and determine which elements are more critical than
others. From there priorities can be drawn up.
It would not be practicable to deal in great detail
with every aspect of the aforementioned objectives.
However some pointers, many of which are already
familiar, are further discussed towards strengthening
an institution's position within the environment.
Image, status and public awareness
Building a strong reputation, good image and high
status cannot be done overnight. It is a long term
process, requiring firm commitment and ceaseless
effort on the part of the institution. A firm foundation
of quality curriculum, teaching and research in
addition to the availability of appropriate resources
are prerequisite to achieving these desired goals. In
the shorter term colleges can, however, undertake
certain strategies which will contribute to and
complement their long term efforts.
If on its own it is difficult for a maritime college to
gain a good image or status it can always seek an
alliance with bigger organisations, especially in
mutually beneficial areas. One of the ways in which
this can be done is through the conduct of joint
programmes with, for example, leading institutions,
universities, industry and professional organisations
or by gaining accreditation from relevant reputable
bodies. This makes for a strong selling point to the
public. The same may be true with the government as
there is now a trend in many countries for governments
to provide assistance only to institutions which are
deemed to be viable and effective.
In many countries maritime colleges are usually
not known outside the maritime circle. This is true
even within the immediate locality. Creating greater
public awareness is therefore an effort that must be
given due emphasis. To achieve this, positive publicity
through the print and electronic media is perhaps the
most effective. Institutions should seek to host as many
media-friendly activities as possible. These could
include holding open days for the public, special days
for underprivileged or handicapped children and
world maritime day, in addition to seminars and
conferences. They should also try to participate in
educational and training expos, exhibitions and other
career guidance activities. The institute's newsletter
or journal should be widely distributed to as many
related organisations as possible. Colleges should also
take the initiative to establish and maintain contacts
with the media.
College - board/government/industry
relationship
Efforts must be made and seeds sown in order to
establish and maintain good relationships. College
heads as well as senior managers must make personal
sacrifices and take pains to develop a good rapport
with board members, industry leaders, key civil
servants and political masters. Consents and approvals
are seldom given purely on the basis of debates,
arguments or even justifications. In fact, very often
public relations is the critical factor. It must be
remembered that sometimes debates are won but long
lasting adversaries are created in the process which
can be more damaging in the long term than losing
the debate.
Opportunities for greater interaction can be created
by organising friendly games with and visits to/by
external agencies. Extend official invitations to key
persons for college graduations, college annual dinners
and other important events. Events should be created
where none exist. Seasons greetings should be sent to
as many key individuals as possible and congratulatory
messages forwarded whenever the opportunity
presents itself, even to persons who are not known
personally but are of appropriate standing. A junior
executive/small organisation today may become an
influential person/large organisation tomorrow -
identify those to watch.
Building and maintaining good relationships is a
long term process. This important task should be
included as a part of the corporate policy and objective
and should be stated in the college policy manual. It
helps ensure continuity of effort, regardless of whether
there is a change in the management or personnel.
Building support from government/
industry/other organisations
A number of steps can be taken to help build support
from industry, government, key organisations and
individuals. Colleges should endeavour to maintain
frequent contacts with the environment. Every
opportunity should be taken to consult outside
agencies and individuals on relevant matters. This can
help nurture a strong bond and build mutual trust,
respect and concern for each other. Besides, it also
helps to assure those consulted that they are held in
high esteem and are important to the college. Every
institution, no matter how established it is, should
guard against assuming an aloof attitude.
The creation of a separate advisory board
comprising members from outside agencies for all
major courses (viz. nautical science, marine
engineering) is another effective means of gaining
support in addition to providing quality inputs to the
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 129
programmes. Heads of institutions should make an
effort to increase personal contacts with key individuals
within the environment. Staff, similarly, should be
encouraged to take an active part in the works of
relevant bodies and organisations.
Synergy and alliances
Many of the steps mentioned earlier are also relevant
in contributing towards greater synergy and alliances.
The formation of an association is another approach.
Its effectiveness in the context of the maritime
environment beyond the provision of a collective
voice, however, is usually limited as it is confined only
to organisations having similar objectives. The
establishment of formal twinning, linkage and
partnerships is another useful effort. Colleges should
also attempt to secure as many seats on external boards
and committees as practicable. This can help broaden
contacts and informal alliances. Annual games or
events for all sectors of the industry can also prove
effective. In many countries, especially in the East and
South East Asia, it is said that important decisions are
made not in boardrooms but at golf courses. Thus, in
such circumstances, organising an annual golf
tournament could be a strategic move.
All the steps mentioned above are in addition to,
and do not of course preclude, the need constantly to
improve the quality of services provided by the
college.
Conclusion
Colleges cannot remain a mere passive provider of
educational and training services. Those tasked with
managing them, especially, have to seek to improve
techniques, systems and approaches. They have to find
new and better ways of doing things and innovating
new methods of teaching, training and managing.
Colleges should not be a place just for the imparting
of knowledge and skills but also a place for increasing
the body of existing knowledge.
College leaders must strive to gain the support of
others and work towards transforming their institutions
into centres of excellence. For this important
development to happen and to succeed there must be
willingness on the part of the college and strong
support from the major constituents of the maritime
environment.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 131
 Chapter EIGHTEEN

DEVELOPING COMPANY BASED TRAINING

AND THE TRAINING OF TRAINERS
by Mr Glyn Cunnah BSc MNI

Training and Development Manager, BP Shipping Ltd., UK

Following pre-sea training at HMS CONWAY, Mr. Cunnah spent 72 years with the New Zealand Shipping Company involving
experience in a wide range of vessels, including cadet ships, refrigerated, general cargo vesselsand tankers. His Master Mariner and BSc
in Nautical Science were obtained at Liverpool Polytechnic and some time was spent in the ports industry beftre taking up a teaching
post at Fleetwood Nautical College.

Considerable experience was gained in develoPing and delivering learning programmes over 20 years at the college in a broad range
of marine subjects. Management experience was accumulated through heading key sections, including cadets, senior marine courses and
Fleetwood Offshore Survival Centre before becoming Deputy Head of Department.

After the merger with the Blackpool and the Fylde College and befOre leaving in 7994 the author was Director of Maritime
Operations and the deputy Head of School of Engineering Technology and played a leading role in the change process in the marine
educational provision at the Blackpool College in the late 80s and early 90s.

Mr. Cunnah has worked as a part-time inspector with the Further Education Funding Council and is an external verifier on
marine and ports programmes fOr EDEXEL (BTEC). He is currently project leaderfOr the implementation of vocational qualifications
with BP Shipping, a company pro-active in training and continuing professional development.

Implementation of the new system The college:-

A shipping company needs to be pro-active in the Verifies competence.

training process. Though current trends are towards
the outcomes of learning (what can the person do at
the end of the experience), it is the experience process
that determines the quality of the outcome. Quality
in terms of standards of performance on board - can
do the job; but to achieve this goal, the process must
also be enjoyable.
The training process must be supported by a
structure which reflects the company's desired level
of involvement.
In order to meet the needs of different companies
there would be a range of structures to meet different
involvement levels, three are illustrated by way of an
example based on the following assumptions:-
Delivery of the training programme is shared by
the employing company and the colleges.
Assessment for qualifications takes place on board
and/ or in the colleges.
College based training centre
The college plays the leading role in delivering training
programmes agreed with companies. The college is
the assessment centre and is responsible for
implementing the quality systems of the awarding
bodies and the administration.
Assesses competence.
Delivers and assesses knowledge and
understanding.
The company:-
Ships' officers supervise and attest on board
experience.
Ships' officers sign witness statements authenticating
satisfactory performance of key tasks to national
standards.
Ships' officers support the development of cadets
and supervise their practical experience - they play
a mentoring role.
The resource implications for the company are kept
to the minimum. Good ships' officers have
traditionally fulfilled the mentoring role particularly
well, they will require guidance and support from the
college. Lines of communication should be from the
college to the company representative to the ship's
masters and on to ship's mentors and candidates.
Company based training centre
The company plays the leading role in developing
and delivering the training programme but may
delegate the delivery and assessment of knowledge to
the college. The company is the assessment centre and

132 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

is responsible for implementing the quality systems
of the awarding bodies and the administration.
The company:-
• Delivers all training and development.
• Verifies competence.
• Assesses competence on board.
The resource implications for the company are
quite extensive, but can be limited somewhat by
delegating the knowledge qualification to the college,
where it is possible to separate this from the
professional competence e.g. HND Nautical Science.
Where this is done, current knowledge and
understanding which underpins practical competence
must be assessed by the company along with on board
competence.
Ideally each ship would need two qualified
assessors in each discipline and their judgments would
be verified and supported by two internal verifiers ..•
The internal verifiers would have the job of visiting
the fleet to provide support and guidance and ensure
consistency of the judgments of assessors. The internal
verifiers would take over the role of the traditional
training officers. The roles of assessors and verifiers
are well documented in awarding body literature.
The organisational chart in figure 18.1 depicts a
typical structure and a minimum critical mass is
required to ensure quality.
College and company partnership
This is where the delivery is shared jointly so that each
can concentrate on what it does best. The development
and delivery of the programme is negotiated and,
responsibilities agreed to reflect each partners'
expertise. The college is the assessment centre and is
responsible for implementing the quality systems of
the awarding bodies and the administration. The
company on board assessors must therefore work to
this quality system.
The college:-
• Verifies competence.
• May assess some areas of competence.
• Delivers and assesses knowledge and
understanding.
The company:-
Ships' senior officers are qualified assessors.
• Ships' senior officers conduct both formative and
summative assessment.
• Ships' assessors feedback assessment information
to the college.
The resource implications for the company are kept
to the minimum. Good ships' officers have
traditionally fulfilled the mentoring role particularly
well, and will naturally progress to the assessor's role.
Lines of communication should be from the college
to the company representative to the ship's masters
and on to ship's assessors and candidates.

Planning Knowledge
College based College
1 training and College
centre company
Company based Company
2 training Company
centre college
College and Company
3 company and College
partnership college
Figure 78.2 R£sponsibilities within the three structures
Which choice is right for the company?
As with all change, incremental change will cause least
disruption and be easier to implement. Colleges have
traditionally delivered training programmes for the
shipping industry and the college based training centre
(option 1) closely mirrors the existing arrangement.
A competency based programme has as its outcome
a qualification awarded on the basis of valid and
reliable practical assessment which ensures that
performance to the national standards has been
achieved at work.
A judgment on competence is made by the college
assessor on the basis of witness testimonies and on
board experience brought back by the candidate in
accordance with the training and assessment plan (see
Examples of Cargo Operations and Emergency Drills
shown later). Senior officers must act as mentors to
support the candidate's development and attest the
authenticity and standard of the work performed.
Senior officers are busy persons and require clear
guidance and support from the college, as the
assessment centre, if they are to fulfil their role
effectively. This could take the form of a short
workshop or induction programme conducted by the
assessment centre.
It is a rewarding experience to see people develop
into responsible, competent officers and it is hoped
that some mentors will wish to progress to become
assessors. They would achieve this by following a
programme such as the Training and Development
Lead Body qualification for assessors - units D32 and
D33.
If senior officers work with the candidate on a daily
basis, they can make observations quite informally, if
they are also qualified assessors then this makes for a
very efficient method of assessing candidate
134 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Learning Assessment
On board On board
performance Knowledge competence
Company College College
Company
or Company or Company
college
Company College Company
performance. It should be a natural progression to
move from college based training centre (option 1) to
college and company partnership (option 3). The time
scale involved could be from two to five years and
the degree of involvement would be at the discretion
of the company.
The college and company partnership should be
the goal for most organisations as it holds the most
benefits. When senior ships' officers talk to college
lecturers, hold discussions on the review and
evaluation of the training programme then:-
· There will be greater ownership.
· There will be an improvement in the quality of both
college and sea phases.
· There will be more relevance to the programme in
that it will better meet the current needs of the
seafarer.
· Assessments will become less fragmented and more
integrative to match the actual job role.
· Assessment will become part of normal on board
practice using naturally occurring activities and will
be conducted at the most appropriate location and
time.
· Senior officers as assessors, will have greater
confidence in the junior officers.
These are just some of the direct benefits, even
more exciting are the indirect benefits of improved
motivation, teamwork and trust.
The final step to independence would be the
company based training centre (option 2), but the
resource implications and the considerable
administrative burden is likely to deter most
companies. Of particular disadvantage to the cadet
would be the lack of opportunity to mix with peers
from other companies and gain an insight into different
experiences which is beneficial in the transfer of
knowledge and skills across different contexts, ship
types and trades.
Option 1 with direct progression to option 3 will
not only provide the greatest added value, but is the
easiest to implement in an incremental way.
Improving maritime skills
We are all concerned about maintaining and
improving marine skills in our industry. Essentially it
is about selecting the right people and giving them
the right training.
Resolution 8 of the STCW Convention 1995 gives
a good guide into the role and responsibilities of
persons involved in the training and development of
seafarers.
It encourages companies to "appreciate that the
overall effectiveness of selection, training and
certification processes can only be evaluated through
the skills, abilities and competence exhibited by
seafarers during the course of their service on board
ship".
It recommends that arrangements are made to
ensure that companies:-
1 Establish criteria and processes for the selection of
personnel exhibiting the highest practicable
standards of technical knowledge, skills and
professionalism.
2 Monitor the standards exhibited by ship's personnel
in the performance of their duties.
3 Encourage all officers to participate actively in the
training of junior personnel.
4 Monitor carefully and frequently review the
progress made by junior personnel in their
acquisition of knowledge and skills during their
service on board ship.
5 Provide refresher and updating training at suitable
intervals as may be required.
6 Take all appropriate measures to encourage pride
of service and professionalism on the part of the
personnel they employ.
As professional seafarers, we all have a duty to pass
on our skills to the next generation, but it is important
that this is done in a structured and logical way. It is
important that:-
We do things right - that we explain and
demonstrate new knowledge and skills in a manner
that can be easily understood and practised by the
learner.
We do right things - that the knowledge and skills
that we impart are appropriate to the on board role
that the learner is progressing towards, e.g. cadet
to watchkeeping officer.
The role of the training officer is to support ships'
staff in fulfilling these two main functions.
Doing things right is all about section 1 of this book,
applying the concepts of learning. We all learn in
different ways and at different rates and it is important
that the explanation and demonstration is set at the
right level for the learner to understand. Not only must
they be able to do the task, but understand why they
are doing it in a particular way and the consequences
of error.
If we bear in mind that:-
what we hear we tend to forget
what we see we tend to remember
what we do we understand
then our learning sessions will take up a natural
form where they are kept fairly short. An example
would be where we take the cadets out on deck,
explain and demonstrate a task and allow them to
practise the task under close supervision. We allow
them to ask questions and practise on their own until
they can perform at a competent level.
I hope that this all sounds familiar. It should do, it
is what we have always done, it is how we learnt our
job. But it is important to remember that we too had
difficulties as young seafarers if the explanation was
overlong or complicated and the task complex. The
principles behind a task can be explained simply and
the complex task can be broken into smaller, easily
understood, parts.
This is where the training officer can assist in
providing a structure for the learning and development
programme. Consider the role "Monitor and Control
Cargo Transfer - Tanker".
This is the role and level of competence that we
would expect a senior cadet to demonstrate prior to
the issue of a watchkeeping certificate. It is a complex
role which requires subdividing into parts, with each
part containing a list of tasks and duties which have to
be performed to satisfy the role. The whole role is
shown below with the tasks expanded for Part C.
Monitor and control cargo transfer -
tanker
Part A - General familiarisation tasks:
Part B - Carry out standard procedures to confirm
vessel's readiness to receive cargo and report results:
Part C - Support the chief officer in cargo operations
during loading:-
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 135
Tasks:-
Ensure operations are complete and satisfy the pre-
loading check list. Signing of this list will indicate
that you have personally supervised and verified
all checks.
2 Ensure all lines and valves are set in accordance
with the loading plan.
3 Commence loading operation and confirm flow to
designated tanks.
4 Calculate rates and completion times, submit
evidence.
5 Commence discharge of ballast, start Oil Discharge
Monitoring Equipment (ODME), complete de-
ballasting and dip tanks for inspection certificate.
6 Ensure stagger on tanks and top off.
7 Inform chief officer at critical times of operation
and as requested.
8 Close down system on completion of operations,
check Inert Gas (IG) pressure and clear decks ready
for sea.
Authentication
Throughout the above operations you have
demonstrated understanding and ability to provide
the support that the chief officer would expect of a
first trip watchkeeper.
Procedures were carried out in accordance with
established safety rules and regulations. Correct
instructions were given and the skills of
subordinates were properly utilised.
Part D - Carry out standard checks and tests to confirm
cargo integrity to specification and report results:
Part E - Carry out standard procedures to confirm
your vessel's readiness to discharge cargo and report
results:
Part F - Support the chief officer in cargo operations
during discharging:
Part G - For vessels not fitted with Segregated Ballast
Tanks (SBT), support the chief officer in tank washing
and ballast change:
Part H - Write a report on the planning, preparation,
loading, monitoring and discharging procedures for a
cargo you have carried. You should submit copies of
any records, plans and calculations used.
Breaking a complex role down into manageable
parts and then defining key tasks for each part ensures
that all cadets understand what is expected of them in
order to demonstrate competence. For the officers
supporting cadet development, it provides a clear
guide of what has to be covered and will ensure
consistency, or uniform interpretation, when
136 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
judgments are made about the cadet's competence.
They are learning and being taught right things, which
is our second function.
Doing right things is about steering the cadet's
development and providing the breadth of experience
to enable the cadet to perform competently in that
role as defined by the standards. These are provided
by the STCW Convention 1995 and adopted by the
administration of the flag state. In the UK these are
well documented in the Standards for Merchant Vessel
Operations and discussed in Section IV of this book.
These vocational qualifications are based on meeting
defined performance standards in key operational
roles on board ship.
Vocational qualifications provide an excellent
structure to support on board professional
development. They define the right things to do. They
specify the standard of performance and the breadth
of experience required, in all the key operational roles,
to demonstrate competence for the job level.
Specifying tasks to meet the standards as in the
example, "Monitor and Control Cargo Transfer", is
one way for the cadet to demonstrate competent
performance. This method is particularly beneficial
for those new to life on board where considerable
direction and guidance is required.
More experienced cadets and junior officers can
gather experience and generate evidence with less
direction provided that guidance on key tasks is
provided. This can be done by agreeing a training
and assessment plan with the cadet where existing
good practice is used to advantage.
Let us consider emergency drills and the use of
these to demonstrate competence in the role of
"Applying Emergency Procedures On Board Ship".
As with the earlier example we will just consider one
part of the role, "Fight Fires On Board Ship".
Let us consider the role of 2 cadets, both of whom
perform their duties in a satisfactory manner, but who
are in two different teams with different duties.
Cadet A is in team 1. In both drills he dons fire
suit and Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus
(CABA), enters with charged hose and extinguishes
fire.
Cadet B is in the control team on the bridge
providing support to the master in command and
control of the fire.
Both cadets follow the process outlined in the
Training and Assessment Plan.
 Figure 18.3 example Training and Assessment Plan
TRAINING AND ASSESSMENT PLAN UNIT M7 - LEVEL 3

UNIT M7 APPLY EMERGENCY PROCEDURES ON BOARD SHIP

ELEMENTS M7.l, M7.2 & M7.3

Ship: .

For this voyage we will concentrate on the Elements M7.l, M7.2 & M7.3 which are concerned with.responding to
an emergency, fire fighting and the rescue of personnel.

You will be participating as a team member in emergency drills each week. These simulated scenarios will
cover a broad range of different emergencies and situations in accordance with company guidelines.

For each drill you will be expected to record your experience in the following way:-

1. Briefly summarise the drill and your particular role as a team member.

2. Attend the de-brief on the bridge and participate in a constructive manner. Reflect on how the drill went, was
it good, were any problems encountered, how were they surmounted, can it be improved, what changes if any
will be incorporated next time?

Be prepared to be questioned by your team leader and the master.

Briefly record your summary of that part of the de-brief that affected your team. Record key issues of the total
drill.

For each drill you are expected to complete about half a page of A4 size. Remember quality not quantity.

Give each drill and piece of evidence a title and reference number, e.g. Drill 1 - Galley fire and rescue, and
Boat Drill- Ref M7.l, Drill 2 - Pump room fire and rescue, and Boat Drill- Ref M7.2, etc. Enter the title and ref.
no. in the Evidence Summary Sheet and track and record your achievements against the Performance Criteria
and the Range in the Standards for Unit M7.

This assessment plan has been discussed and agreed with the candidate and the team leader.

Signed: Signed:
Candidate: Team Leader:
Date: Date:

Note:- Performance Criteria are the standards against which performance in the task are measured to determine
competence.

The Range Statement defines the scope and variety of the task and gives an indication of whether the cadet can
transfer the skill and adapt the skill to different situations, e.g. different types of fire on the same ship or similar
fires on another ship type.

Check each item of evidence against each performance criteria for each element of the unit and tick the
appropriate column in the Evidence Summary Sheet.

Enter the ref. no of your evidence alongside the applicable range statement in the bottom right hand box of the
Evidence Summary Sheet for each element in the unit.

Unit M7 Apply emergency procedures on board ship

Element M7.2: Fight fires on board ship. Performance criteria

a. Personal safety during fire fighting is maximised at all times.

b. Clothing and equipment are appropriate with respect to anticipated hazards.
c. Movement and the use of lifelines and guidelines within the hazardous area is controlled and complies with
accepted fire fighting practice.
d. The timing and sequence of individual actions are appropriate to the overall requirements of the emergency
and fulfil instructions received.
e. Successful achievement of fire fighting objectives utilise an appropriate fire fighting medium applied in an
approved manner.
f. Breathing apparatus procedures and techniques fully follow approved Fire Brigade guidelines.
g. Communications comply as closely as possible to recommended procedures as allowed by the circumstances of
the emergency.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 137

 The result of cadet N.s evidence and experiences
in the two drills enable him to claim that he has met
all the performance criteria and most of the range
statements. If he continues in the same role for a
manifold fire drill then he will also have satisfied the
range statement for an open deck fire. He would have
maximised his experiences in three drills for the
requirements of this element. It does not mean to say
that he is competent, he would need to perform in
several more drills to attain this standard.
The result of cadet B's evidence for the two drills
is much less apparent. Though he made a valuable
contribution to the outcome, his activity was not
directed to the performance criteria, though it will
count towards other skills in other units.
This mapping exercise informs the senior officers
that if they are to maximise the experiences of cadets
then they have to rotate between the teams over the
course of their cadetship. It is only when the evidence
and experiences are complete that the cadet is ready
for final assessment for competence.
The training officer's role is to review the
programme of experiences to make sure that the cadet
not only does things right, but does right things; not
just some of the time, but all of the time. It has to be a
team effort, at the end of the day it is the ships' officers
who provide direction and learning opportunities,
where the cadet can regularly and consistently
demonstrate best practice. It is only then that the cadet
becomes competent and has begun to climb the ladder
of lifelong learning.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 139
 Chapter NINETEEN

THE TRAINING, UPDATING AND UPGRADING

OF MARITIME LECfURERS
by Professor Captain Giinther Zade FNI

World Maritime University

Gunther Zade FNI has, since 7983, been professor, vice-rector and academic dean of the World Maritime University (WMU) in
Malmo, Sweden. Before joining WM[l, he worked fOr fifieen years at the Nautical College (Hochschule fUr Nautik) in Bremen,
Germany, as lecturer, professor, vice-rector and rector.

He was involved in the development of the first postgraduate curriculum fOr WMU in 7982 and early 7983 and has thereafter
contributed to, co-ordinated and continues to coordinate the continuous improvement of its delivery and adaptation to new education
and training needs. In Bremen, he was involved in the change from a shipboard-confined curriculum to a ship-shore curriculum fOr
increased professional ability of master mariners and in the introduction of an academic degreeprogramme.

At WMU he was directly responsible fOr seven years in educating and training nautical, and later also marine engineering,
lecturers. In Bremen he was mainly trained on-the-job as a nautical lecturer and, after additional studies, obtained the German
equivalent of a Master of Science degree in Nautical Studies and Education.

He is a previous and the present chairman of the International Maritime Lecturers' Association (IMLA) and chairman of the
s
European Commission concerted action on Maritime Education and Training.

Definitions
salary and image. It is therefore necessary to improve
the qualification of maritime lecturers who are not
A "maritime lecturer" is a full-time lecturer at a
satisfactorily qualified yet, and make efforts, supported
Maritime Education and Training (MET) institute who
by offering better conditions, to attract well qualified
is qualified to teach a number of shipboard-related
individuals to MET. A co-operation between the well
subjects to students in certificate of competency
qualified maritime lecturers and their less fortunate
courses including courses for master mariners and
colleagues could also be a useful approach to help
chief engineers. It is assumed that these courses form
those who need to improve their qualification. Such
the basis of a curriculum for the meeting of
"seeking excellence through co-operation" (as it was
international MET requirements.
the motto of the World Maritime Day 1996) can be
pursued on an institutional or individual level.
In this text, updating is used for keeping abreast of
developments in subjects with which a maritime
Even well qualified maritime lecturers are not
lecturer should already be familiar; upgrading is used
always fully aware of the context in which they operate
for acquiring knowledge in new subjects.
and what their contribution to "safer shipping and
cleaner oceans" (IMO motto) could be.
Introduction
This text is to give both groups of maritime
IMO's revised International Convention on Standards lecturers, the well qualified and the less qualified ones,
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for as well as newcomers to the profession a few ideas on
Seafarers 1995 (STCW '95) describes the minimum how they could improve their performance by
knowledge and competence standards which ship updating and upgrading their qualification.
officers must meet. To achieve these standards,
maritime lecturers are needed who are qualified to
Present selection and present training
teach the required subjects on the level of these
standards. Unfortunately, not all MET institutes have
The quality of the faculty of an MET institute is
a faculty of which all members have the necessary
predetermined by the quality of its teaching staff, so is
qualification for this task. The main reason for this
the quality of an MET institute's curriculum. The basic
unsatisfactory state is the low attraction of a position
prerequisite for a prospective maritime lecturer is
as maritime lecturer in a number of countries -
shipboard experience and the highest certificate of
compared to other positions in the maritime industry
competency in the deck or engine department or as
ashore. On the other hand, there are countries in which
dual purpose officer, provided he/she is not expected
maritime lecturer is an attractive profession, both by

140 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

to teach mathematics, electronics, English language
or other subjects which do not necessarily require an
unrestricted certificate of competency and shipboard
experience.
In a growing number of countries, maritime
lecturers have obtained additional academic
qualifications or are required to do so. Such
qualifications are mostly Master of Art or Master of
Science degrees, occasionally also doctorates in
subjects such as maritime law, maritime economics
and naval architecture. Nevertheless, the majority of
maritime lecturers continues to be trained on the job,
often under the guidance of a senior colleague, a
mentor. Only a minority receives systematic training
in pedagogics as, for example, teaching methods and
curriculum development.
Modern training
Newcomers in MET institutes as well as "old timers"
are often not fully aware of the contribution they are
making and are able to make to the maritime industry
and of the role of MET in the maritime sector. A
modem training of maritime lecturers should therefore
be extended beyond being able to teach maritime
subjects on the basis of experience and to master the
concepts and the basics of their scientific backgrounds.
A modem training of lecturers has to include an
updating on the maritime environment of MET and
how its various parts work, interact with each other,
and influence MET.
Modern training of lecturers has also to give
students the opportunity to learn how MET is done
in other countries. This is a mind-broadening exercise
that allows lecturers to take a detached view on the
MET system in which they work and to realise its pros
and cons.
A third element that is missing in today's training
of maritime lecturers is the management of training
programmes, resources and MET institutes. Such
training can again profit from seeing what others are
doing.
Present training of lecturers does often also not
provide for developing skills for, and a positive attitude
to, life-long-learning. The latter has become
increasingly important because of the continuously
changing maritime environment. Particularly the use
of more and more modern technology requires
permanent updating efforts by maritime lecturers.
These were some of the important considerations
when World Maritime University (WMU) developed
its Master of Science course for nautical and marine
engineering lecturers in 1982 and 1983. The course
has proven its quality by the success of the graduates.
By taking into account feedback from graduates on
the usefulness of their studies at WMU, changes in
the maritime sector, assessments by employers and
external experts and own findings of WMU faculty,
the course has been continuously improved. Today it
can be taken as an example of modern education and
training of maritime lecturers.
In summary, a curriculum for the training of
maritime lecturers should comprise the following
updating and upgrading subjects:-
Professional subjects (mostly updating)
which are dealt with in depth and include concepts
and theoretical basics.
2 Pedagogic subjects (mostly updating)
which concentrate on improving teaching skills,
developing curricula, using modern teaching
technology, etc.
3 How-is-it-done-somewhere-else subjects (mostly
updating)
which provide information on MET systems,
curricula, teaching and other elements of MET at
other MET institutes.
4 Management subjects (mostly upgrading)
which focus on personnel, financial and other
aspects of management and their application to the
efficient and effective operation of MET institutes.
5 Maritime sector subjects (mostly upgrading)
which provide students with information on how
the main environment of MET, the maritime sector,
works.
The course for maritime lecturers at WMU
comprises a combination of subjects from these five
categories. It is based on the perception that an
unrestricted certificate of competency in the deck or
engine department is no more a sufficient prerequisite
qualification for a maritime lecturer and that he/she
needs to be updated and upgraded to become a more
valuable member of his/her profession.
The WMU course on Maritime
Education and Training
The course is a two-year course, divided into four
semesters. Successful students obtain a Postgraduate
Diploma after one year and a Master of Science degree
after two years. A one-year option is also available for
individual, exceptionally well qualified students who
can be granted "advanced standing". Entrance
requirement to the two-year course is an unlimited
certificate of competency in either the deck or marine
engineering department, i.e. a certificate as master
mariner or chief engineer. Students are on average
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 141
thirty-five years of age, many of them have already Subjects for either nautical or marine engineering
worked as lecturers at MET institutes before joining, MET students only:-
the others have had experience somewhere else in
the maritime sector outside MET. Nautical MET students:-

First semester Navigation and Communication Systems I -111(1)

This semester is a common semester for MET, Maritime Transport of Cargo I - II (1)
maritime administration, port and shipping
management students. It gives the students an Maritime Law III (Maritime Casualty Investigation,
overview of the maritime sector and how it works. 1)
The following subjects are covered; the numbers refer
to subject categories in the previous section:- Ship Dynamics (1)

• International and National Maritime Organisations Marine Engineering MET students:-

(5) Maritime Administration I (5) . Principles of
Management 1(4) Ship Machinery and Automation (1)

• Principles of Maritime Economics (5) Ship Design, Structure and Maintenance (1)

• Maritime Law 1(5) Ship Machinery and Electrical Systems (1)

• Principles of Sustainable Development
(5)
• Research Methodology (5)
• Computing Technology (1)
Second, third and fourth semesters
Common subjects for MET and students of other
courses:-
• Law of the Sea (5) (Maritime Law II)
• Principles of Management 11(4)
• Maritime Security (5)
• Modern Maritime Communication
• Maritime Disaster Management
• Maritime Commercial Policy Seminar (5)
Common subjects for the nautical
engineering MET students:-
• Teaching Pedagogics I - IV (2)
• Maritime Education and Training Systems I -1Il (3,
4)
of the Sea Ship Machinery and Propulsion (1)
The course programme also comprises several
weeks of field studies to mainly advanced MET
institutions with modern equipment.
Updating and upgrading of maritime
lecturers
Maritime lecturers who are unable to find the time
for attending a course at WMU can not excuse
themselves from continuous efforts to upgrade and
update their knowledge and skills in matters maritime.
The prevailing situation at many MET institutes is that
the faculty needs upgrading in maritime sector and
management subjects and updating in pedagogic
subjects, professional subjects and how-it-is-done-
somewhere-else subjects.
(5)
An upgrading of knowledge is mostly necessary in
Workshop (5) maritime sector subjects. It is difficult to improve one's
knowledge and understanding of matters maritime
outside MET by a systematic approach without
attending a special course. A study of maritime
and marine transport comes closest to maritime sector knowledge.
The alternative approach available is to work for
shipping companies, other maritime enterprises or
maritime administrations and develop an
understanding of the maritime sector based on a
number of individual experiences. It is obvious that
this is not a full substitute for a systematic approach.

• Computers in Maritime Education and Training (1, An upgrading in management subjects can be
2) achieved by attending special courses, by individual
studies and own experience. The shortcoming of the
• Maritime Technology (1) latter approach may be its dependence on individual
experience.
• Automation and Control Systems (1)

142 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 An updating on how-it-is-done-somewhere-else
subjects can be obtained by visiting other MET
institutes, an approach that can be supported by the
entering of co-operation agreements.
Provided a special training in pedagogics has been
attended before, then a continuous updating in
pedagogic subjects can be achieved by practice and
the reflection on it in the context of theoretical
knowledge on teaching and learning. It is also
necessary to keep up-to-date with modern teaching
technology and its use.
An updating in professional subjects requires
continuous efforts. It can only to a limited degree be
achieved in an MET institution by the study of
publications and communication with shipboard and
shipping company and other maritime sector
personnel. An upgrading in professional subjects and
the maintaining of professional credibility require
return to the profession and visits to manufacturers of
advanced shipboard equipment. Maritime lecturers
sometimes believe that they cannot find the time to
return to the industry. Not too much time is needed if
on-board periods are limited to periods of maximum
activity. It is, for example, not necessary to sail on a
VLCC for an entire voyage. Most can be learnt on
the handling of the cargo when crude oil is discharged
on a coastal voyage. Shipping companies are normally
prepared to provide such opportunities, particularly
if an MET institute has shown a readiness to support
a shipping company in meeting its training
requirements by, for example, providing specialised
short courses. Updating in professional subjects is
facilitated by good industry connections. It takes time
and effort to develop such connections.
Conclusion
The training and updating of lecturers requires
permanent efforts, self- and external assessment of
performance (pedagogic subjects), the development
of a good relationship with the maritime industry and
occasional returns to it (professional subjects) as well
as visits to, and co-operation with, other MET institutes
(how-is-it-done-somewhere-else subjects). An
upgrading in maritime sector and management
subjects is best achieved by attending an appropriate
programme. Individual efforts, supported by a positive
institutional attitude are the way to better maritime
lecturers, to gaining a wider professional acceptance
outside MET circles and for giving MET an even more
useful role in the maritime sector.
References
Zade, G., Attraction, Selection, Training and Updating of
Maritime Lecturers, Fourth IMLA conference on
Maritime Education and Training, Kotka, Finland,
1986.
World Maritime University, Academic Handbook 7997,
1996.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 143
 Chapter TWENTY

HIGHER EDUCATION IN MARITIME DISCIPLINES

THE DEVELOPMENT OF GRADUATE AND POST GRADUATE
PROGRAMMES
by Mr. Steve Bonsall BSc MNI

Liverpool John Moores University

Steve Bonsall was born in 1948 in Buxton, Derbyshire and joined the Royal Fleet Auxiliary in September 1965 after one year pre-sea
training in Grimsby, later leaving as a senior second officer. He passed his master s exam in Liverpool in 1974, subsequently graduating
there in 1977 with a BSc in Maritime Studies. He worked in various positions in ports culminating in Terminal Manager at Cawoods
from 1988 to 1990, and then joined Liverpool]ohn Moores University as senior lecturer.

At the university Mr. Bonsall guided the updated undergraduate degree through the early years of the Integrated Credit Scheme
(ICS) and evolved a new MSc in Maritime Transport, now updated to Maritime Operations. Steve ispresently a Levell Tutor for the
undergraduate course and MSc Course Tutor. He is studying for PhD, has been Branch Secretary of the Nautical Institute North TrVest
Branch since 1993, and is a member of the Nautical Institute Education and Training Committee.

Introduction
The history of higher education in maritime disciplines
can be traced back to the establishment of the Extra
Master's Certificates of Competency. These were not
required "per se" by shipping companies or
government bodies as necessary qualifications for
seafarers but were desired by some individual mariners
as a way of continuing their education and improving
their understanding of their discipline. In the UK, from
the end of World War II, pre-sea training was carried
out in independent colleges such Conway,
Pangbourne, Worcester and Warsash. Gradually, other
further education colleges included maritime
apprenticeship training in their list of courses. At this
time (mid 1950 to 1970) there was a great need in the
UK for officers in the Merchant Navy and courses were
generally full. Many of these colleges, but by no means
all, had instruction up to "extras" level. Some,
however, would teach at only the lower levels. At this
time entry as an apprentice into the UK merchant navy
was at GCE '0' level standard. Thus the majority of
the apprentices and consequently officers had a
nationally recognised ability only to that level. If they
wished to study to graduate level then they needed to
gain GCE 'N levels.
In the 1960s some of the courses in further
education colleges were taken into regional technology
colleges and these eventually, in the early 1970s,
became polytechnics. At this stage tuition to extras
level was reasonably widely available and had become
a necessary qualification for college lecturer and often
marine superintendent or surveyor. However it
became apparent to those in the new polytechnics that
if marine departments were to survive in these
establishments then their portfolio of courses would
have to include a graduate programme. Thus, in the
late 1960s, a BSc in maritime studies was set up in
several polytechnics in the UK. Not all these courses
were to survive the test of time but some have
developed and prospered. Entry to these courses was
initially by certificate of competency which, owing to
the syllabus, was an adequate qualification for the
intended work. Entry could also be gained with the
usual university entry qualifications but initially there
were few if any students enrolling on the courses from
this direction.
The new undergraduate BSc was taught alongside
the extras course and a pass in extras was considered
equivalent to a 1st class pass at undergraduate level.
Many of the occupations that had previously required
an extras certificate started to accept graduates who
had a masters certificate of competency and a good
degree (1st or 2.1 (Honours)) or ordinary degree with
commendation in a technical discipline as equivalent
to the extras. The degree itself often had more than
one pathway which would include both technical and
commercial. This differed from the extras certificate
which had only the one set of subjects.
Where the degree was and is taught
Teaching of the degree was initially quite widespread,
with courses in the University of Wales Institute of
Science and Technology (UWIST) and at the
polytechnics of Plymouth, London and Liverpool and
in colleges of further education in Southampton and

144 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

South Shields. Not all these courses were to survive
and those in London, Southampton and South Shields
eventually closed although the course in Southampton
has restarted recently. The other courses survived but
developed in different directions taking on individual
characteristics due to the situation of the particular
establishment and the expertise to hand. The degree
at UWIST, a college of the University of Wales in
Cardiff, had to develop within the confines of the then
(1970s) university sector.
The professional seagoing courses were not taught
alongside it after 1974, though it quickly developed a
strong research base in line with university life.
Plymouth and Liverpool continued to teach the degree
as one of the portfolio of courses included with the
professional certificates. In the early 1990s a set of
maritime degree courses was set up, again at
Southampton College of Higher Education of which
Warsash campus had become a part in about 1975.
This occurred at the time that the original maritime
degree offered by Warsash in conjunction with
Southampton University was discontinued. The
degrees now offered by Southampton Institute are
validated by Nottingham Trent University. Diplomas,
MPhil and PhD are studied at Guildhall University
and they are now setting up a taught MSc course. MSc
and diplomas are studied at the City University in
London. An undergraduate course has been running
at Glasgow Nautical College since 1993.
Authority to award degrees
UWIST was able to award degrees because it was a
college within the University of Wales. The colleges
of further education needed to establish links with a
university to allow underpinning of their degree. For
the polytechnics a national body, the Council for
National Academic Awards (CNAA), was set up to
administer and award degrees. This body remained
in office until 1992 when the polytechnics were given
the opportunity to become universities after which
they were allowed to award degrees in their own right.
They had, in fact, been awarding degrees and auditing
courses from the late 1980s but under the umbrella of
the CNAA. In the early days the CNAA took a very
prominent role, because the then new polytechnics
did not have the expertise to manage their own degrees
and there was opposition from the university sector
to them being allowed to teach degrees.
Graduate programmes
The initial layout
The early suite of courses included pathways in
technical and commercial subjects. The technical
pathway was intended to take the student towards
careers in ship surveying, the Department of Transport
or Marine Superintendent. As such it included in-
depth study of the ship technical subjects of ship
stability, construction and design and what was known
as the maritime technical subjects of navigation and
electronic navigation. The commercial subjects offered
the alternative study area of law, shipping business
and economics. These subjects led the student towards
career paths in maritime law, freight forwarding and
shipping company management. Whilst these two
areas of business and technical were the main
foundation routes there was always the option of
hydrographic surveying. This was taught as part of
the extra master's certificate of competency and thus
all the colleges teaching extras would have lecturing
staff and equipment to deliver the subject. Extras also
had an oceanography/sedimentation paper and thus
staff were also available to teach this subject. The
addition of a subject in ports thus offered a further
pathway in the ports discipline. Careers here were
Harbour Master and Port Manager.
Hydrographic surveying is such a specialised
subject that it did lead to a particular career path in
that one area. The discovery and exploitation of oil
and gas from reserves under the sea required a large
number of maritime survey companies. Consequently,
students of hydro survey found a ready made career
path in these companies. This avenue remains today
and many sandwich students spend their industry year
with hydro survey companies. Hydrographic
surveying was particularly exploited at Plymouth
where an MSc in the subject has been popular for
many years.
Later development
The undergraduate degree pathways remained almost
intact until the late 1980s. By this time the demise in
nautical training was taking its toll in colleges as well
as courses. Training establishments such as Worcester
and similar colleges were closing down and support
for teaching of the higher certificates of competency
from central government was being withdrawn. This
support was eventually consolidated on the higher
education colleges at Glasgow in Scotland, South
Shields in North East England and Southampton at
Warsash, and the polytechnics at Plymouth and
Liverpool. The course at Blackpool and The Fylde
(Fleetwood) was not supported, but has continued to
lay on courses and has, in fact, flourished. At Plymouth
the further reduction in popularity of the professional
courses led them to abandon teaching of these in the
early 1990s and to concentrate on graduate and post-
graduate education.
UWIST had developed from a College of
Advanced Technology (CAT) which had taught the
professional maritime courses. By 1974 all these
courses had moved to a college at Llandaff and thus
courses developed from the undergraduate base.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 145
 At least two aspects can be identified as taking
forward the development of the graduate routes. These
were the development of research and the Credit
Accumulation and Transfer Scheme (CATS). The four
establishments at Plymouth, Southampton, Cardiff and
Liverpool all undertook research either separately or
in conjunction from the 1970s onwards. The areas of
this research affected the expertise that was developed
in each department. Cardiff was the only one of the
four that was a university up to 1992 and thus was
able to attract research money because of this. They
retained teaching of the undergraduate course,
essentially in the economic and international transport
framework, although they had a strong base in
maritime geography and marine resource
management and have published many high quality
text books in this area over recent years.
At Southampton teaching of the professional
courses was retained at the Warsash campus of
Southampton Institute after the original degree offered
by Warsash under the umbrella of Southampton
University was discontinued in 1974. They developed
a strong base in simulation and have, since 1990,
developed a portfolio of degrees starting from a base
of a BA in leisure management in 1990. At Liverpool
the undergraduate and professional courses continued
to be taught alongside each other with, latterly, the
undergraduate courses becoming more prominent.
Plymouth took a lead in the teaching of hydrographic
surveying.
CATS affected the development of undergraduate
courses at Plymouth and Liverpool. This scheme
entailed subjects within a degree scheme being defined
within the terms of an individual module. Several
modules would then constitute the required teaching
for one year of study and several years of study with
the associated credits attained would add up to
sufficient study to be awarded a degree. The scheme
was intended to allow students to transfer credits
between courses and establishments and thus
introduced a flexibility in study not previously
available. Individual establishments chose their own
credit values with Liverpool Polytechnic - now
LiverpoolJohn Moores University (IJMU) - choosing
90 credits for an honours degree in science subdivided
into 30 credits per level (year) for a 3 level course.
360 credits was chosen for the honours degree at
Plymouth, the new degrees at Southampton Institute
and, more recently, the modular changes at Cardiff.
Each level consists of 120 credits. Cardiff, however,
are not part of the CATS scheme.
Case study of Liverpool John Moores University
undergraduate course development
The undergraduate course was first started in 1967
with the first students graduating in maritime studies
146 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
in 1970. The course underwent several changes up to
the major change in 1990 when it was brought within
CATS. This was the largest change because it entailed
reconsidering the whole layout of each individual
subject within the degree programme and presenting
the subject and subject matter in a modular format.
Under CATS, each subject became a module and each
module had to have a title which was indicative of the
subject matter. Thus "Ship technology 1" was not
considered sufficient but "Introduction to ship
technology" was acceptable.
As well as the title, each module needed learning
outcomes, an indicative syllabus, assessment methods
and latterly a 50 word precis of the subject which may,
if desired, be included in a university wide booklet
entitled Elective Modules. Under the university rules
each 90 credit undergraduate programme should give
the student the option to study up to 6 credits of
elective modules offered by other schools. This was
considered desirable to allow broadening of the
students' study. Initially these could be studied even
in the final year, but with experience electives have
become available only at levels 1 & 2.
Latterly, the presentation of modules in the form
of a proforma has been made more rigid. This is
particularly relevant to the writing of learning
outcomes. Words like understand have been dropped
because they cannot be assessed and more direct
words like list, analyse, synthesise and evaluate have
been encouraged. The module proforma (an example
is given in figure 20.1) also carries the module leader's
name, the amount of time devoted to elements of
delivery (lecture time, tutorial, private study, practical)
the aims of the module and its credit value.
This was developed on the idea of the standard
module being 3 credits. Initially modules had been 2
and 4 credits but with experience it became clear that
standardisation around 3 credits was the most sensible.
In the maritime studies programme it was possible to
structure most subjects (modules) within the 3 credit
boundary. However, some subjects were given 1 or 2
credits. The time allowed for the module was also
standardised within each school with maritime opting
for 3 hours per week for a 3 credit module. This was
considerably less than allowed under the original
degree devised in 1969 and did cause some discussion
at the time of change. With time, however, it became
possible to structure the subject matter of each module
within the time allowed.
A further change from the original degree came in
1990, with the introduction of the Integrated Credit
Scheme (ICS) degree and the introduction of core and
option subjects (modules). Under the 1967 scheme
once a student had chosen a degree pathway then the
subjects studied were listed and studied without
change. Under the core and option regime of the ICS
a certain number of modules were considered core at
each level and must be studied to provide the
individual flavour of the degree pathway. Outside the
core modules then other modules could be studied
which were considered to be relevant but not essential
to that pathway. As outlined earlier, 6 credits (roughly
2 modules) of elective modules could be taken. Figure
20.2 shows the present split of core and option
modules available on the degrees offered at LJMD.
Designation of separate degrees
The undergraduate degree at LJMU had several
pathways from the outset. This idea of varying
pathways under the main heading of a maritime
studies degree was retained until 1995, when separate
degrees were validated in line with the trend set at
Plymouth University and latterly at Southampton
College of Higher Education which set up an
Undergraduate degree programme in 1992.
The separate degrees available at LJMU can be
seen in figure 20.2 and were developed from the initial
pathways. The advantage of having separate degrees
is that the core subjects can be specifically tailored to
the degree. With a pathway structure the core modules
are standard between pathways and the options chosen
give the pathway its identity. Separating the degrees
allows further development of this separate identity
by removing the core study of subjects not essential
for that pathway. Some optional modules can also be
barred because the underpinning study will not have
been done.
Assessment, projects and honours degrees
The 1967 degree had initially been an unclassified
course but this quickly became both an honours and
unclassified degree with those able to take the harder
honours course being selected after the second year.
The development to ICS allowed all students, from
the start, to study towards honours level - with the
attainment of 90 credits (30 at each level) after 3 years
gaining the honours degree at the appropriate level.
Lesser qualifications of an unclassified degree or a
variety of certificates and diplomas are also available
depending on the credits achieved. An important
distinction between the earlier honours and
unclassified degrees was the studying and production
of a thesis. This is done as a project at level 3 and the
introduction of I CS meant that those producing theses
at IJMU trebled. This gave initial problems but, with
organisation, supervision of a larger number of projects
has become manageable.
Postgraduate study to MSc
From 1975 Liverpool Polytechnic offered study to
masters degree level. The course was based mainly
around maritime law, with some shipping business and
economics taught when available.
148 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
The course, which was the first to be offered in the
establishment, had a mixed reception with students.
Numbers were not great and rarely got to double
figures. In 1992 a new modular MSc course was
offered with subjects being common across several
MSc degree courses within the School of Engineering
and Technology Management. These MScs were in
engineering and technology management as well as
maritime studies. This ensured that the amount of
subjects taught to small groups of students was as few
as possible. Initially outside the ICS system the
development of this degree within the ICS has meant
that new modules can be added and the degree has
now been altered so that all modules are taught within
the maritime section.
The degree is in two sections, with an initial taught
part of six 3 credit modules to total 18 credits. This is
taught over 9 months from September to May and
success here leads to the second research section. Here
a topic of the students own choice is researched and
the results of the research are presented in the form of
a thesis. The thesis is different from the undergraduate
thesis in that there must be more analysis. The time
allowed is 5 months from May to October but only
the research is done in this period. Initially, 18 credits
were given to the thesis but at revalidation in 1995
this was altered to 12 credits to give a 30 credit total
for the MSc in line with the 30 credits per level for
the undergraduate courses.
The MSc at Liverpool has always been offered in
both the full and part time modes. The student base
has included those on sabbatical from industry,
graduates wishing to finalise their education at master's
degree level, graduates wishing to gain understanding
of another discipline and industry managers wishing
to gain academic credibility. The latter category
essentially require a course which fits in with their work
commitments. The MSc has tried to accommodate this
by offering, where possible, some evening teaching
and day time teaching on only one day per week. In
1996/97 the Liverpool course will have core modules
taught on Thursdays with options taught on Tuesdays.
The introduction of the master's degree in modular
form brought with it the necessity to designate modules
either core or option, with three of the six required
modules being core and options being chosen from
four other modules.
Success at the taught section of the master's course
gains the student a post-graduate diploma. He or she
can stop at this stage and some do if their
circumstances do not allow research to master's level.
Study to master's level on the full time mode takes 14
months but with part time study up to five years is
allowed from the start of the taught section. Study to
MSc level can also be achieved by research.
Liverpool John Moores University

Level One

CV Module Credit Value

SS Semester of Study

Named Routes

MS BSc (Hons) Maritime Studies

MB BSc (Hons) Maritime Business and Management
ME BSc (Hons) Maritime Environmental Studies
MI BSc (Hons) Maritime and Intermodal Transport
MT BSc (Hons) Maritime Technology
NS BSc (Hons) Nautical Science
OS BSc (Hons) Offshore Studies

Module Module Name CV SS MS MB ME MI MT NS OS

Code
MT125 Basic Mathematics 3 1 C C C C C C C
MR125 Ship Technology 3 1 C C C C C C C
MR127 Principles of Law and Appl. 2 1 C C C C C C C
MR130 Introduction to Computation 2 1 C C C C C C C
MR124 Freight Transport 3 2 C C C C C C
CMSST161 Fundamental Statistics for Engrs 3 2 C C C C C C C
MR128 Economic Principles 2 2 C C C C C C C
MR108 Introduction to Navigation 1 1 C C C C C C
MRllO Ocean Science 2 2 0 0 C 0 0 C
MR120 Coastal Navigation 3 1 0 0 0 C 0
MR107 Int. Activities in Maritime Industry 3 1 0 0 0 0
MA122 Organisation and Management 3 1 0 0 0 0 0
MR126 Ship Construction 3 1 0 0 C 0
MR121 Meteorology and Climate 3 2 0 C 0 C 0
MC123 Engineering Principles 3 2 0 C C C
MRl17 Business Law 3 2 0 0 0 0 0
MR123 Import and Export Practice 3 2 0 C 0
MR122 Voyage Management 3 2 0 0 C
MR129 Marine Technology 3 2 0 0 0

C = Core (compulsory) modules

o = Optional modules

A minimum of 30 credits must be taken, of which three may be Elective.

Elective modules may only be taken during Semester 2.

Figure 20.2 Level One - named routes to BSe (Hons) degreesat LfMU

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 149

Postgraduate study to PhD
This has developed in a different way to study to
master's level. There is no taught section and
attainment of the award is achieved entirely on the
production of a thesis. Many students study to doctoral
level as part of a research team. Possession of a good
first degree is essential for consideration as a doctoral
candidate and many students do not have formal
merchant navy qualifications. The type of first degree
is important with many maths or computing graduates
being taken into research teams to work on electronic
navigation projects. Thus, at doctoral level, the need
to have seagoing experience is less than at all the other
levels.
The PhD study is again a two part process with the
initial study being to Master of Philosophy (MPhil)
and transfer to Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) occurring
half way through the course. The degree can be studied
in the full or part time modes with full time taking
from 2 to 3 years depending on the establishment and
student and the part time degree taking up to 5 years.
Transfer to PhD is made on successful completion of
a transfer report. This report in itself is about 6000
words and has to outline the results of the research to
date and the way the research can move forward to
PhD level. It is essential that the study will add
something to the knowledge of the subject area. It is
necessary to break some new ground and repetition
of known facts is not sufficient.
Supervision and assessment at PhD level is more
intense than at the other levels. Two or possibly three
supervisors are required and the main supervisor will
have had at least three previous successful supervisions
as a second supervisor. Assessment is by panel which
will include external assessors to the establishment.
PhD study is an essential part of university activity
and thus the University of Wales has the longest history
of maritime PhDs of the UK maritime establishments.
Plymouth University have also developed an extensive
Figure 20.3 Division of Time Allocated to the Study of Ship TechnologyLevel 7 LJMU
150 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
research base and with a large overall establishment
have many PhD students. PhD study is also available
at Guildhall University.
Teaching & learning on undergraduate
and post-graduate taught courses
In both these areas the emphasis is on student centred
learning. Within the time allocated for each module
there is only a proportion set aside for pure lecturing
with the rest being different ways of allowing the
student to participate in the learning process. There is
a need for the student to do his/her own research.
The structure of a module
The time allowed for each module is divided between
lectures, tutorials, practicals, course work preparation
time, private study and the exam. Not all these
elements need be present and practicals and written
exams are not always included. The lecturer is not
present for the private study or course work
preparation and whilst tutorials are planned the
emphasis here is on questioning and analysis by the
student. These periods are for the students to
consolidate their understanding of the subject matter.
Only in the lectures and practicals is it necessary for
the lecturer to deliver the subject matter of the module.
At LJMU there is a standard of 30 hours learning
attached to each credit. Thus for the standard 3 credit
module there is a nominal 90 hours learning time.
Figure 20.3 shows how the 90 hours for ship
technology are split.
This structure, then, is different to the standard way
that the subject matter for the professional seafaring
examinations has been taught. Essentially, with
professional teaching, everything required to be
known by the student is delivered by the lecturer
during the lecture periods. Test papers are then set to
ensure that students know the answers to the likely
questions. The type of answer may have been
practiced and the time allowed for wider discussion is
limited. The learning is essentially a cramming process
to ensure that the correct knowledge is passed to and
understood by the student.
Degree teaching is entirely different. Whilst a
syllabus exists the emphasis is on getting the student
to comment, criticise and analyse the subject matter.
Thus it is not sufficient to pass over the content of the
syllabus. It is necessary to get the student to think about
the subject matter and to inquire about it. Thus facts
and opinions can be given during the lectures, whilst
at the tutorials questions and problems can be set for
the students to work with either individually or in
groups. Often students will be asked to make
presentations with topics set by the lecturer or
themselves. The work set by the lecturer needs to be
such that it will lead the student to further investigation.
Assessment course work or exam
This is an important part of the learning process and
much has been said and written about the merits of
both forms of assessing knowledge. Within these
boundaries there are a variety of ways of assessment.
Exams may be essay type questions or multiple choice
answers. Course work may be in the form of
presentation or essay, or calculations completed
outside the classroom. One difficulty is ensuring that
the work presented is that of the student and is not
plagiarised.
At LJMU most modules now tend to be assessed
using part exam and part course work. The tendency
is for the majority of the marks to go to the exam
assessment. The reason is that with course work it is
difficult to ensure that the work presented is the
student's own work. Even if it is, problems occur with
presentation dates because of many welfare factors
not connected with the academic side of the student's
work. The element of fairness in the time allowed for
course work is sometimes difficult to manage because
of the need to give course work extensions to take
account of these welfare factors. At LJMU a penalty
system exists whereby if a course work submission
date is missed then the work is penalised by 5% for
each working day it is late up to a maximum of 10
working days late when the work will not be accepted.
Lecturers of graduate and post graduate courses
have to set and mark their own examinations in
accordance with guidelines set by the validating
authority. These exam papers will be inspected
internally within the university and externally by
examiners appointed by the course team. Model
answers have to accompany exam scripts. Course work
that is part of the assessment process may also be
inspected by the external examiner and may have to
have a model answer. New lecturers find this a
cathartic experience.
Out of class work for the student
This is course work preparation and private study.
Both of these can be directed, in that indicative
references can be given for both elements. The course
work preparation is inevitably more structured than
the private study but a student who does proper private
study is likely to achieve a higher grade than one who
pays little attention to this area. All universities and
colleges will have reasonably extensive library
facilities. These increasingly contain computer facilities
and at LJMU have been renamed Learning Resource
Centres. The student is encouraged to read widely in
books, journals and newspapers and increasingly use
the Internet facilities. CD-ROM and compendex
facilities will be available and both these contain details
of work published nationally and internationally on
all subjects.
They may also have to visit firms to interview
managers about topics of interest to them. This will
be particularly important when preparing major essays
and the thesis for both undergraduate and post-
graduate submission.
Out of class work for the lecturer
This is taken up with lecture preparation, assessment
preparation and marking, administration, student
counselling and welfare and research. Lecture update
is vital if the lecturer is to be on top of his subject area.
All time could be devoted to this area but inevitably
the main time is usually in the recess periods when
teaching has ceased.
As the teaching gets underway assessment has to
be considered. This will mainly be course work
assignments or exams, but may consist of presentations
or in class work.
Two assignments are generally set for each module
(subject area) and should be returned to the students
about 2 weeks after being handed in. If the class is
large (100+ students) then this may be an awesome
task. Smaller numbers such as 15 to 20 students is
usually quite manageable. It is usual at LJMU for a
lecturer to be teaching 6 or 7 modules per semester
(term) and thus course work preparation and marking
can be a continuous affair. Exams will have to be
written several weeks if not months before they are
set. For all courses it is usual to set new questions.
Level 2 and 3 undergraduate and MSc papers will be
externally examined and the papers have to be sent
to the external examiner for comment prior to being
set. This then adds to the time required for
management of the exam papers and also ensures that
new questions are always set.
Administration takes up a large part of the out of
class time. All courses have a course leader and long
courses such as undergraduate degrees will have year
tutors and/or personal tutors. In either of these
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 151
positions time is spent with student counselling and
course preparation. Subject or module leaders as well
as the year and course tutors are involved in boards
of study (BOS), where the running and management
of the course is debated, and exam boards where the
results of the assessments are considered.
Student counselling and welfare can take up a
considerable amount of time, especially at the start of
each semester (term) when students are settling in.
There will be problems throughout the year both at
the academic and social level. A lecturer needs to be
available to service both of these needs.
If there is any time left after teaching and the work
above then it can be devoted to research. This may
be consideration of a chosen subject area or may be
part of a team researching a particular topic. Either
way it is a necessary part of the life of a lecturer in a
university or department involved in the teaching of
graduate and/or post-graduate courses. The research
will probably lead to the writing of research papers
for journals and may lead to participation in
conferences both as a presenter and a delegate.
Key knowledge required by employers
Any selection of employers will have differing views
on the type of knowledge required from a graduate.
Essentially the graduate has to provide something
more than the non-graduate, whether this be attitude,
analysis skills, confidence or a deeper knowledge of
the subject area. Unfortunately, however much one
knows about a subject, the first question often asked
will be the one to which you do not have an answer.
Shipping is a vast subject area and anyone who knows
something of all the areas is likely to have insufficient
depth of knowledge of any particular area. No one
can be an expert in everything!
Employers are likely to require core skills. The
ability to research quickly and efficiently, to be able
to present findings in a clear and concise manner, to
report succinctly and with authority and to be able to
communicate at all levels are likely to be some of these
core skills. In the shipping industry employers take
on graduates from many disciplines and not just
maritime. Similarly maritime graduates may find that
they can be employed outside the maritime area. The
core maritime knowledge acts as a foundation and is
used together with the transferable skills gained from
studying common subjects such as computing and
statistics to provide a student who has knowledge in
depth but is not blinkered in outlook and can be
employed in a variety of ways.
152 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
The value of research to undergraduate and
post-graduate teaching
Shipping is a dynamic discipline and study of journals
is just as important as study of books. Research will
affect the teaching because researchers, by necessity,
become expert in their individual fields. They are at
the leading edge of a subject area and are able to pass
on this leading knowledge to the students. Some
students will, of course, wish to continue their studies
into research fields and departmental research will
allow them to do this. All lecturers are therefore
encouraged to take on research.
The future for maritime disciplines
The maritime studies undergraduate degree has
existed for about 30 years now and is a well established
and recognised qualification. It is a specialised degree
taught in a few establishments in the UK and
increasingly in universities and colleges with a
maritime background throughout the world. It is listed
in the directory of degree courses and the degree is
held by many directors and managers of industry.
It has proved a popular degree with students in
the main establishments in the UK and extensions to
it are now being seen. The area of maritime business
is particularly attractive as this is one where the
specialty of maritime is immediately seen. Many
overseas students to the UK find the study of maritime
business in the UK especially attractive as they gain a
readily saleable skill together with the development
of their English which is the main business language
in the maritime field.
Recent years have seen the development of the
named undergraduate degrees into specific areas such
as maritime business and environment. The area of
transport has always been a speciality in Cardiff but is
now being exploited elsewhere. Leisure and history
are also areas actively being taught in some
establishments. HND teaching of maritime disciplines
for non-seafarers has also developed over the past
decade and this will remain as an option for those
without the necessary qualifications to move straight
to a degree course. The MSc courses continue with
smaller intakes than the BSc but still viable for that
level of teaching. They will continue in those
establishments able to support such courses.
In developed countries the graduate and post-
graduate teaching will continue and develop into the
foreseeable future, especially where traditional
teaching for seagoing declines. Developing countries
will gradually develop this level of teaching as the
universities are able to obtain the necessary teaching
skills and have the industry to support the graduates
once they have completed their courses. The structure
of the courses will continue down the path of
modularisation as this allows specialisation within a
degree structure without the necessity to set up and
validate specialist courses. It also allows the running
of specialist degree routes to small numbers of students.
and confidant as well as being a free-thinking
researcher. What they can be assured of is that when
they enter the teaching and lecturing profession they
will not be bored or have to say "What can I do?"
Rather they will say "What can I do next?"!

Conclusion Bibliography

Graduate and post-graduate study of maritime studies 1 Liverpool John Moores University, School of
is now well established with graduates at all levels - Engineering & Technology Management,
BSc, MSc and PhD - working within industry and Undergraduate Module Proforma Document 1996.
academia. The development of the maritime studies
degree and its offshoots from the initial industrial base 2 Liverpool John Moores University, School of
has found acceptance in industry and education and Engineering & Technology Management,
those with degrees at all levels find that their degree is Undergraduate Modular Degree Scheme Volume I (F),
accepted and understood. Its further development in Course Document for BSc/BSc(Hons) in Maritime
a world-wide context is assured with courses now being Studies.
set up in many countries. As training in the traditional
maritime subjects in industrialised countries declines Acknowledgements
study at the undergraduate and post-graduate level
will increase. The majority of this article has been written from the
author's own knowledge of the development of
Maritime studies as a discipline at graduate and graduate and post-graduate teaching in maritime
post graduate level has more than come of age and disciplines in the UK. The following persons and
will be part of a maritime university's portfolio of organisations have offered advice and information and
courses into the future. Those entering universities as some have proofread the document. Their help in the
lecturers will find departments with a variety of courses production of this article is much appreciated.
which are constantly under review. They will have to
become part of this review process and will be Maritime Studies Lecturers at Liverpool John
expected to make a useful contribution to it. Their Moores University.
role will not just be that of teacher but they will have
to take on administrative roles, be it a course, year or 2 Maritime Lecturers at the University of Wales,
individual tutor, and will have to become adept at College of Cardiff.
developing new modules and updating existing
modules. They may need to be a student counsellor 3 Glasgow Nautical College.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 153

 Chapter TWENTY ONE

THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION

OF THE 1995 STCW CONVENTION
by Mr. Stephen E. Chapman BSc FNI

Marine Consultant

Stephen Chapman is a Master Mariner, a Fellow of The Nautical Institute, a graduate of Southampton University in Nautical Studies
and a Member of the Institute of Logistics. After gaining seagoing experience in coastal and deep sea cargo and passenger liner trades he
joined Esso Petroleum Company, Transportation Department, in 7974 as Training Manager responsiblefor the training and development
of 7,300 seafarers.

He joined Esso Europe as International Planning & Economics Manager in 7982 and developed economic bases and financial
analyses for restructuring the Exxon European tanker fleets. As International Marine Manager in 7984 he had responsibility for
strategic businessplanning and performance monitoring of a 62 vesselfleet (of 7.6 million dwt), including European inland waterways
barges.

As an independent marine consultant he has, since 7986, undertaken assignments for the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) in French west Africa and London, EC funded projects in Europe and the South Pacific, TecnEcon, the Centre for Advanced
Maritime Studies, Lloyd's of London, the Marine Safety Agency (Department of Transport of the UK), the Government of Tuvalu as a
commercial shipping advisor, and other clients in the UK, Netherlands and the USA.

Overview precision in its standards, the interpretation of which

This chapter summarises the main changes contained
in the revised International Convention on Standards
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers (STCW Convention) and the steps that
governments, maritime academies, shipowners and
seafarers must take in order to give effect to the
requirements of the Convention.
Setting global standards for seafarers has been a
concern for many years past. When the 1978 STCW
Convention entered into force in April 1984 it was
expected that its requirements would ensure the
competence of masters, officers and ratings of seagoing
ships and their safe operation through efficient
watchkeeping. As with all conventions it reflected the
highest practicable standards which could be agreed
globally at the time of its adoption. It was the first
attempt to establish global minimum professional
standards for seafarers.
The need for change
Despite its broad global acceptancel, it was realised
in the late eighties that the Convention was not
achieving its purpose. Instead, the Convention was
gradually losing credibility as its acceptance widened.
The main cause for this was the general lack of
1 By 1 July 1995, the Convention had been accepted or
ratified by 113 countries thereby covering 94.6% of world
tonnage.
was left "to the satisfaction of the Administration". This
resulted in widely varying interpretation of standards.
Many parties failed effectively to administer and
enforce Convention requirements. Certificates could
no longer be relied upon as evidence of competence.
Other factors reduced the effectiveness of the 1978
Convention, such as the reliance placed on seafaring
skills and competence being acquired through service
on board ships. The Convention prescribed minimum
periods of seagoing, or other appropriate service and
specified knowledge requirements, without defining
the skills and the competence required. Crew
reductions, faster turnarounds, more frequent crew
changes and the mix of differing education and
training backgrounds resulting from multinational
manning, undermined the effectiveness of this on-
board training.
Since the development of the Convention in the
seventies, many changes had taken place in the
structure of the world merchant fleet and in the
management and manning of ships. Emerging
economies had acquired greater maritime expertise
and expanded their fleets. The fleets of traditional
maritime countries had declined and the major sources
of supply of seafarers had also shifted.
The loss of credibility of the Convention and
political and public concern regarding human related
causes of shipping disasters, generated growing
criticism not only of the Convention itself but also of

154 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

the IMO, which some claimed to be ineffective and
unresponsive to the safety needs of the travelling Annex to the STCW Convention
public and the protection of the marine environment
from accidental pollution. Chapter I General provisions
Chapter II Master and deck department
A limited review of Convention provisions was Chapter III Engine department
already in hand, when the Maritime Safety Committee Chapter IV Radio communication and radio
decided, in May 1993, to give high priority to its personnel
comprehensive review. At the suggestion of Mr Chapter V Special training requirements for
William O'Neil, the Secretary-General of IMO, the personnel on certain types of ship
comprehensive review was accelerated by having Chapter VI Emergency, occupational safety,
consultants prepare a revised text under the direction medical care and survival functions
of the subcommittee on Standards of Training and Chapter VII Alternative certification
Watchkeeping (STW). The use of consultants and four Chapter VIII Watchkeeping
sessions of Inter-Sessional Working Groups of the STW
subcommittee allowed basic texts to be approved by Figure 21.2 Annex to the STCW Convention
IMO and circulated for the 1995 diplomatic
conference within a two year period. The group of
mandatory. Its sections are arranged in the same order
consultants was kept small to allow speedy completion
and have exactly the same force as the regulations in
of its work. All regions were represented in its
the annex. The minimum standards of competence
membership.
for seagoing personnel are given in detail in a series
of tables. Part B of the Code contains non-mandatory
STCW format revised guidance, the purpose of which is to achieve the
uniform application of all STCW provisions. Its
No changes were proposed to the articles of the sections are arranged in exactly the same order as the
Convention2 so as to allow the amendments to be articles and regulations of the Convention.
adopted and enter into force by means of the tacit
acceptance procedure. This procedure can only be
Implementation by parties
applied to amendments made to the annex of the
Convention. Under that procedure, IMO circulated
Whilst the revisions to the 1978 Convention were
copies of the authentic text of the amendments to all
relatively quickly agreed, implementation of the new
States which are party to the Convention, notifying
Convention will take much longer. The timetable set
them that these amendments would be deemed to have
is summarised below. To give full and complete effect
been accepted on 1st August 1996 unless by that date
to the revised Convention provisions a number of
they had been objected to by at least one third of the
actions are required to be taken by the parties.
parties. In the event the amendments were adopted
without dissent and entered into force on 1st February
1st February 1997 1995 amendments enter into
1997. Transitional provisions, however, will allow
force.
parties to defer the introduction of certain new
1st August 1998 New entrants commencing
requirements.
training will have to comply with
new standards. Governments to
The main changes in maritime training,
supply IMO with documentary
certification and watchkeeping are presented in figure
evidence showing compliance
21.1 over. The 1995 amendments replace the entire
with the revisions.
annex to the Convention. As revised, the Convention
1st February 2002 All transitional measures will end.
consists of the original articles, and an annex
containing basic legal requirements in regulations
organised in eight chapters as shown in figure 21.2.
New enforcement role for IMO

The legal requirements are supplemented by
technical requirements and guidance contained in a
Seafarers' Training, Certification and Watchkeeping
(STCW) Code. The Code is in two parts, part A being
2The articles contain the legal provisions ofthe Convention
dealing with entry into force provisions, amendment
procedures, denunciation and other matters. These remain
unchanged, but some of their provisions are supplemented
by new and amended regulations contained in the revised
annex.
An important change means that for the first time the
IMO itself is given some authority over individual
parties. Under regulation 1/7 parties will be required
to provide detailed information to IMO concerning
administrative measures taken to ensure compliance
with the Convention, education and training courses,
certification procedures and other factors relevant to
implementation.
This information will be used by the Maritime
Safety Committee, IMO's senior technical body, to

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 155

 Regulation Summary of main changes

1/2 - Certificates and Requires that certificates referred to be endorsed by

endorsements flag State. Endorsement format revised.

1/4 - Control procedures Safe manning compliance and ability to maintain

watchkeeping standards may be checked through Port
State Control.

1/5 - National provisions Incompetency to be investigated. Penalties to be imposed

for Convention infractions.

1/6 - Training and assessment The regulation requires that trainers and assessors be
qualified, whether on board or ashore.

lI8 - Quality standards Quality standards apply to all training and certification
activity. External evaluation at 5 year intervals.

1/9 - Medical standards - issue The regulation requires that parties establish medical
and registration of certificates standards. Registers of certificates have to be maintained
and accessible.

lIlO - Recognition of certificates The regulation requires flag States to confirm that
standards are met and to issue endorsement or own
certificate.

lIll - Revalidation of certificates Requirements harmonised. Parties compare old/new

standards. Need for refresher training to be determined.

1/14 - Responsibilities of companies Crew certification, familiarisation and ability to

co-ordinate activities. Manning compliance.

Figure 27.7 STew '95 - main chonges in maritime training, certification and watchkeePing

identify parties that are able to demonstrate that they
can give full effect to the Convention.
This regulation is regarded as particularly
important because it means that governments will have
to establish that they have the administrative, training
and certification resources necessary to implement the
Convention. No such proof was required in the original
convention (or in any other IMO instrument), leading
to complaints that standards differed widely from
country to country and certificates could therefore not
always be relied on.
standards to those ships entitled to fly their flag.
However, they cannot apply higher standards to ships
of other flags which enter their territorial sea or visit
their ports while engaged on international voyages.
New or revised legal provisions have to be made
to require that seagoing experience, training on board
and ashore and training record books which are to be
produced as evidence of any competence required by
the Convention be approved.
Training and certification

National law and regulations With so many changes many actions have to be taken
to give full effect to the training and certification
The revised Convention entered into force on 1st requirements of the Convention. The transitional
February 1997. Parties are obliged to take immediate provisions of regulation 1/15, however, allow some
action to review their laws, regulations, decrees and leeway.
administrative procedures and amend them as
necessary to implement all new and revised Broadly speaking new provIsIOns in the
requirements. As with other Conventions, the Convention will come into effect on 1st February 1997,
standards contained in the STCW Convention are whilst changes to existing requirements are phased
minimum standards. Any party is free to apply higher over a five-year period of time to February 2002. This

156 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

means that provisions of Chapter V (special training
requirements for personnel on certain types of ships)
and Chapter VI (emergency, occupational safety,
medical care and survival functions) that do not have
provisions in the 1978 Convention, should be
implemented by the earlier date. For example, training
for personnel on ro-ro passenger ships on international
voyages, familiarisation, basic safety training and
medical care.
By 1st February 1997 the following had to be in
place:-
The training and assessment of seafarers is
conducted by appropriately qualified persons. This
applies whether the activities are carried out ashore
or on board ship.
A quality standards system is in place which covers
the training and assessment and certification
activities of maritime training academies, training
and assessment activities which take place on board
ship and government activities concerning the
training and certification of seafarers.
Medical standards must be established for seafarers.
Global standards are being developed jointly by
IMO, ILO and WHO.
Information is contained in a register to permit
timely verification of the authenticity and validity
of certificates, endorsements and dispensations that
may be produced by seafarers seeking employment
or recognition of their certificates.
Mandatory simulator based training and any
assessment of required competency or
demonstration of continued proficiency that
involves the use of a simulator, meets the
requirements, taking into account that compliance
with the prescribed performance standards is only
required for simulators brought into use after 1st
February 2002.
Legal requirements and administrative provisions
ensure that companies operating ships under the
party's flag comply with certification, familiarisation
and manning standards in regulation 1/14.
All persons employed on board seagoing ships,
other than passengers, have received approved
familiarisation training or instruction before being
assigned to their shipboard duties.
Subject to any exemption granted by the
administration, seafarers engaged as part of any
seagoing ship's complement with designated safety
or pollution prevention duties will be required to
provide evidence of having achieved or retained,
within the previous five years, the standard of
competence prescribed by regulation V1/1, before
they are assigned to any shipboard duties3•
Until 1st August 1998 seafarers can continue to be
trained under the 1978 provisions. Those who
commence their education or training for a certificate
after that date must meet all requirements of the
revised Convention. Those seafarers who have already
commenced education or training prior to that date
may be permitted to complete their training and obtain
their certificates under the old provisions. However,
they have to complete their training and obtain all
certificates concerned before 1st February 2002.
Action which has to be taken by Parties before 1st
August 1998 includes the following:-
All training programmes, courses and provisions
which are to be accepted under the Convention
are required to have been reviewed by the party to
determine their acceptability, and approved if they
meet all applicable requirements.
All STCW certificates, other than those issued,
endorsed or revalidated under the transitional
provisions, have to be issued, endorsed and
revalidated in accordance with the revised
Convention, using the appropriate new format.
All information required by regulation 1/7 and
section A-l/7 is required to have been
communicated to the Secretary-General of IMO.
Satisfactory completion of the above steps will
allow the party to be approved under the authority of
IMO and publicly recognised as meeting the full
requirements of the Convention.
All transitional provIsIOns, other than those
concerning the replacement of gross registered ton
limitations, has to be phased out by 1st February 2002.
The action so taken has to be reflected in the report
on the next subsequent independent evaluation of the
quality standards system communicated to the
Secretary-General of IMO. Such reports have to be
provided at intervals not exceeding five years. If the
maximum permitted interval is adhered to then the
phase out would be reported on not later than 1st
August 2003.
Endorsements to certificates
The issue of endorsements cannot be delegated by
the administration and it therefore has to be carried
out by officials of the administration. Practical
3Note that this requires refresher training to be undertaken
at intervals of not more than five years.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 157
arrangements will be made to allow seafarers to apply
for recognition of their certificates at major ports or
by mail. The original of the certificate or a legally
certified copy should be sighted by the official to whom
application is made for recognition. Photocopies of
certificates and endorsements attesting their issue
should not be accepted nor should any endorsement
attesting recognition be accepted as the basis for
further recognition.
Since the original of the certificate and the
endorsement attesting its issue have to be kept
available on board the ship the seafarer is serving on,
the arrangements made by the administration should
allow applications for recognition of certificates to be
received, and production by the seafarer of the original
certificate and a true photocopy of it confirmed by
the Consul or diplomatic representative of the
administration at major ports. However, production
of the original certificate and its endorsement does
not provide an effective protection against the use of
fraudulent certificates. Provided the authenticity and
status of each individual certificate or endorsement to
be recognised is verified from the register of certificates
maintained by the Party which issued it, it is not
essential to insist on an official sighting of the original
form of the certificate and the endorsement attesting
its issue.
Before recognising a certificate under the
provisions of regulation l/1O, it is essential that the
administration checks its authenticity and status with
the authority that issued it, even if the holder has
previously served or is presently serving on its ships.
The date of expiry of the administration's endorsement
should not extend beyond the date of expiry of the
certificate or the endorsement attesting its issue. The
addresses, contact points and numbers of national
authorities responsible for issuing certificates of
competency are published in an IMO circular.
When application is made for validation of an
endorsement attesting recognition of a certificate, the
status of the certificate is required to be checked to
verify that the certificate has been renewed or
revalidated or that the endorsement attesting its issue
has been revalidated. This action is necessary to
confirm that the certificate has not been withdrawn,
suspended or cancelled as well as to confirm the
continued proficiency of the holder.
Implementation by maritime academies
Although most of the knowledge required for deck,
engineering and radio certificates remains unchanged,
the revised Convention requirements now focus on
the competence necessary to perform the functions
concerned. All existing courses and training materials
have therefore to be reviewed to ensure that training
158 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
outcomes are linked to the competence specified under
the Convention and require the correct application of
knowledge and skills. For its part IMO will revise those
model courses which are affected by the revision of
the Convention. It is recognised that this may take
some time to accomplish.
All requirements of the Convention that directly
affect the activities of maritime academies took
immediate effect on 1st February 1997 except that,
until 1st February 2002:-
Candidates who, before 1st August 1998,
commence an approved education and training
programme or an approved training course or
approved seagoing service for a certificate or series
of certificates provided for under the existing
Convention, may be trained and certificated on the
basis of the existing Convention provisions; and
Approved courses provided for the purposes of
revalidation of certificates may continue to be based
on prior requirements.
Education and training to be accredited under the
Convention has to be approved by the party which
issues the certificate or qualification concerned. This
includes education and training intended to prepare
young persons for a career at sea, pre-sea training,
new entrant training, sandwich type courses or
training, upgrading courses, distance learning courses,
on-board training etc. This does not imply that there
will be no training provided that is not approved.
Unapproved training courses can continue to exist,
but no credit will be given them under the revised
Convention.
Implementation by companies
Each company bears a particular responsibility for the
safe and pollution free operation of the ships it owns,
manages or operates. Certain of these responsibilities
are specified. Safe and efficient manning is critical to
the safe operation of a ship and certificates of
competency issued under the STCW Convention
reflect the minimum global standards required
generally. In addition to these general standards:-
Special training is required for personnel on tankers
and on ro-ro passenger ships;
A conference resolution invites parties to consider
voluntarily applying the ro-ro passenger ship
training provisions to personnel serving in
passenger ships;
Additional training for masters and chief mates of
large ships and ships with unusual manoeuvring
characteristics is recommended; and
Recommend training for officers and ratings
responsible for cargo handling on ships carrying
dangerous and hazardous substances in solid form
in bulk and in packaged form respectively.
In-service training and assessment
All training and assessment of seafarers required under
the Convention have to be administered, supervised
and monitored. As mentioned previously the trainers
and assessors have to be suitably qualified.
These provisions apply to on-board training and
assessment such as that associated with:-
Familiarisation and basic training.
The on-board training and supervision of
watchkeeping duties.
The on-board training required for prospective
engineer officers.
Any in-service training of a seafarer which is
intended to be used in qualifying for certification
under the Convention.
Resolutions of the Conference
It is expected that the need to provide information to
IMO and the powers given to the Maritime Safety
Committee to assess the actions of national
governments will greatly strengthen the effectiveness
of the Convention. It is also clear that it will be difficult
for some governments to comply without assistance.
A conference resolution urges parties to provide
assistance to those States which have difficulty in
meeting the improved requirements and request
assistance.
The conference convened to agree the revised
Convention also adopted a number of other
resolutions. A resolution is not, of course, a mandatory
instrument: it can be used by a government in any
way it sees fit, in whole, in part or not at all.
Nevertheless, the resolutions adopted by the STCW
Conference are mostly closely linked to the
Convention and are designed to back up the
Convention itself. Matters addressed by resolution
include principles and guidance for deck and engineer
officers in charge of a watch in port; guidance on safety
radio watchkeeping; training and qualification of
officers and ratings on oil, chemical and liquefied gas
tankers; radar simulator training and training of
seafarers in personal survival techniques. In time it is
to be expected that a number of these resolutions will
be adopted into the Convention and thereby become
mandatory.
The future
The changes mandated in the new Convention will
not happen overnight. It will take time and a lot of
effort on the part of administrations, maritime colleges,
shipowners and the seafarers themselves to achieve
what is necessary. The structure of the Convention, as
it now stands, will make it a much simpler process to
keep the regulations abreast of modern developments.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 159
 Chapter TWENTY TWO

TRANSLATING INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING

STANDARDS INTO NATIONAL REGULATIONS
by Professor Captain P.S. Vanchiswar ExC PhD FNI

World Maritime University

Professor Vanchiswar is a Fellow and Vice President of The Nautical Institute. He has been Resident Professor at the World Maritime
University from its inception in 7983, with specific responsibility for the Courses on Maritime Safety Administration. He has also been
the occupant of the ITF Professorial Chair. Prior to that he had served IMO as Inter-Regional Consultant/ Expert on Maritime Safety
Administration for about four years.

Previously, for very many years, he was in the service of the Maritime Administration of the Government of India, reaching the
highest nautical position as Nautical Adviser to the Government of India, which he held for about 10 years. He was also Chief
Examiner of Masters and Mates for many years. During this period he was also leader of the Indian Delegation to many IMO
Committees/Conferences. At the International Conference on Standards of Training, Certification and WatchkeePing of Seafarers
(1978) he was the Chairman of the "Committee on Master and Deck Department".

Earlier he had been in command of Cargo and Passenger Ships. He holds the highest seafizring qualification as "Extra Master Mariner"
and a "Doctorate Degree" in Maritime Administration.

Introduction
The standards of training and examinations of various
grades of seafarers (officers and key ratings) along with
their appropriate certification in a country are intended
to establish and provide proof of the competence of
the respective seafarers concerned for the levels at
which they have to perform their duties on ships. They
constitute the "first element" which determines the
standards of safety and efficiency at which the ships
of the country are operated.
While the human factor as a whole is dominant in
the operation of a ship, the professional competence
of the aforesaid management/ supervisory personnel
would be predominant. In view of the great
importance attached to such examinations and the
certification of seafarers, all traditional and progressive
maritime countries had accepted these as a
responsibility of their Governments and had regulated
the same nationally through their respective Maritime
(Safety) Administrations even before the STCW
Convention, 1978, emerged. It was of course expected
that Governments would decide upon the standards
and systems in consultation with the representatives
of the shipping industry, the maritime education and
training authorities, the seafarers, and the professional
institutions concerned.
It is to the credit of the World Maritime
Community and the IMO that in the year 1978 they
adopted through an IMO Conference the
"International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978"
(STCW Convention). Thus emerged the first ever set
of international regulations in this regard. This
Convention entered into force on 28 April 1984.
Even though the above-mentioned Convention was
ratified by the vast majority of countries worldwide
(113 countries covering 94.6% of world tonnage of
ships - as on 1July 1995), there had been the growing
realisation during the past decade that the basic
objectives of the Convention were not being achieved
worldwide. The primary reasons adduced in regard
to this unsatisfactory situation are stated below in brief.
The causa remota was the lack of precision in the
standards prescribed in the Convention, which also
left the interpretation of same "to the satisfaction of
the Administration".
The consequential causa proxima was the varying
interpretations of the standards by the different
Administrations and the varying methods adopted for
achieving such standards.

However, the standards and systems had varied Further, it was claimed that many Administrations
considerably amongst the maritime countries and (Governments) did not or could not have the
there were no international standards established until appropriate regulatory mechanisms to implement or
the year 1978. enforce the requirements of the Convention.

160 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 The need to rectify the above-mentioned main c) Point out the need for efforts towards harmonisation
deficiencies led to the adoption of substantial and of the different existing "systems for maritime
detailed amendments to the International Convention education and training" leading to the examination
and a related Code (Part A & Part B) by the and certification of seafaring officers, so that
International Conference of Parties to the Convention acceptable uniformity of implementation of the
held between 26 June to 7July 1995. (These, in brief, international standards can be ensured.
are referred to as the 1995 Amendments).
d) Offer certain suggestions regarding the above.
At this stage of this chapter the author wishes to
point out that he has specifically highlighted above, Roles and responsibilities of
the primary deficiencies related to the 1978
governments
Convention since they pertain to the "Regulatory
Aspects" and in turn relate to the theme and purpose
Human Resource Development
of this chapter.
The most abundant resources available in most
The "second element" that determines the safe and
countries, especially developing countries, are human
efficient operation of a ship is its manning structure,
resources. Even economists of late have come to
especially the "certificated manning". Since this
believe that national economical development is
element was also viewed as important as standards of
closely linked to human resource development. Here
training and examinations, all traditional and
we are concerned with human resource development
progressive maritime countries have regulated the
in the maritime sector. Accordingly the traditional
certificated manning structure for many decades. By
maritime countries in the past and all progressive
tradition such manning structures or patterns had
maritime countries in the present have perceived the
remained similar and thus harmonised amongst ships
need to assume the lead role and primary
of most countries. However, in recent time there have
responsibility in harnessing such human resources and
been certain changes and there are evidently further
utilising them appropriately to maximum national
changes contemplated in this regard at least in a few
advantage in the maritime (shipping) field, including
major maritime countries. The 1995 Amendments
the securing of benefits to the national seafarers
have taken same into account as well. These aspects
themselves and the national shipping industry. The
are also referred to briefly further on in this chapter,
main reasons for same are evidently as follows:
along with references to existing international
Regulations pertaining to "overall manning" of ships.
The political, social and economic philosophies of
the Government on labour matters in general are also
The fundamental determinant of the quality of the
bound to affect maritime labour (seafarers) in spite of
two elements mentioned before is the quality of the
the latter's special characteristics.
relevant Maritime Education and Training of Seafarers.
Obviously, Maritime Education and Training,
In the interests of the country's maritime
Examination and Certification of Seafarers and
development (or continued development) it is the
Manning of Ships are three vital and inseparable links
National Government which is best equipped to:-
in the "quality chain". The weakest link in the aforesaid
chain shall ultimately be the qualitative strength of
a) Assess the man-power needs in the maritime sector.
the standards and the systems concerned. Therefore
b) Plan for and ensure the availability of such man-
this chapter points out briefly the need for added
power both in quantity and quality.
attention to be given to Maritime Education and
c) Optimise the utilisation of such man-power to
Training, especially by Governments.
national advantage.

In summary, this chapter is an attempt to:-

The National Government is in the best position
to: a) monitor international developments affecting its
a) Describe briefly the main reason for the assumption
(existing and/or future) marine personnel, b) evaluate
of primary roles and regulatory responsibilities by
such developments when they emerge, and adopt
Governments as regards the "Quality Chain"
policies compatible with international obligations and
referred to earlier.
national interest.

b) Examine briefly the mechanisms, processes, and

Regulatory Responsibilities
procedures to be used by various Governments for
the translation of the international (1995) training
It is the National Government that has international
standards and related requirements into national
obligations to ensure conformity with International
regulations for implementation.
Regulations contained in International Conventions,
especially as regards the following:-

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 161


a) Manning of ships.
b) Standards for the competency/proficiency of its
seafarers.
c) Human factors - conditions of work, living
environment, welfare and discipline, etc., of
seafarers.
Such international regulations can be implemented
only through promulgation of appropriate national
regulations, which is obviously the responsibility of
the National Government. Besides, the National
Government has to ensure that such law as applicable
to its seafarers suits their extraordinary working/living
environment and is compatible with its policy based
on its international obligations and its national
political, social and economic philosophies.
Thus emerges the vital need for the assumption of
regulatory responsibilities by the National
Government. These regulatory responsibilities in turn
have two aspects which have to go together, viz,
enactment of the law and its administrative
implementation or enforcement. Both these aspects
together constitute the ultimate regulatory
responsibilities of the National Government, even if a
number of matters are delegated to other institutions/
agencies for implementation.
The author has thought fit to give the above
explanations to clarify that the ultimate responsibility
of the National Government is unassailable. However,
the present mechanisms used by various governments
for the administrative or physical implementation of
their respective laws do appear to need review so as
to make them more effective in meeting the necessary
and desired objectives. Some of these shall be covered
as relevant to this chapter, leaving the rest to other
authors.
The STCW Convention 1978as
amended in 1995
Obviously this amended (revised) Convention,
along with its Code, specifies the present international
Standards for Maritime Training and related
requirements, which in turn have to be translated into
national regulations for implementation/enforcement.
While the essential objectives of the revised
Convention are to rectify the primary deficiencies
referred to in the introduction, the revision has made
the Convention "User friendly", and amenable to clear
interpretations, thereby facilitating implementation. At
the same time it makes the Governments accountable
directly and also satisfies IMO regarding compliance.
In this connection it is to be noted that the Code
provides detailed "Guidelines" for all concerned.
162 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Additionally, the Code can also be used ultimately as
a measuring gauge of implementation!
Having stated above with optimism, it would not
be prudent to conclude as yet that there shall not be
problems to be resolved internationally, especially
during the processes of:-
(a) Translation of the international standards into
national regulations, along with the implementation
of the latter.
(b) Assessment of compliance reports received at 1MO.
(c) Endorsements of Certificates issued by or under
the authority of another Party.
(d) Decision making regarding certificated manning
requirements.
(e) Port State Control.
Nevertheless, the waves need to be ridden only if
and when they come along! Accordingly, the author
wishes to proceed to deal with the main purposes of
this chapter.
Translation of international training
standards into national regulations
Legislative actions required
The first and very important action to be taken by the
Government in this regard is to ensure that the
appropriate legal frame-work is established. In view
of the extensive revision of the Convention, there is
no doubt that all governments concerned would find
it necessary to amend their relevant laws, regulations,
decrees, etc., to reflect the revised requirements. Some
may even have to create new legislation. There is also
urgency in this regard since the revised Convention
entered into force on 1 February 1997. At the same
time there is also an advantage to be noted. Since the
revised Convention, along with its Code, has been
developed in great detail, it can be said that it
accommodates both the monistic concept of
international law (whereby the Act of ratification or
accession of the Convention itself makes it part of
national law), and the dualistic concept of international
law (whereby the Convention becomes part of national
law after detailed implementing national legislation
has been adopted).
In countries where the legal regime is such as to
adopt the "monistic concept", the act of ratification or
accession would tend to be considered not only as the
"Primary Legislation" but also as the sole legislation
in this regard. Therefore, such legislation (in the
absence of subsidiary legislation) would need to be
supplemented by administrative directives, etc., as
appropriate. On the other hand, in countries where
the legal regime adopts the "dualistic concept", there
would have to be both "Primary Legislation" with
enabling provisions to promulgate "Subsidiary
Legislation" (In the form of Regulations/Rules)
covering in detail the legal requirements of the revised
Convention.
Irrespective of the legal regime extant in the
country, the legal framework needs to cover the
following essential aspects:-
The date/s of entry into force of the legal
requirements (taking into account the three time
frames provided in the revised Convention, viz.
1 February 1997, 1 August 1998 and 1 February
2002).
2 The ships to which the law applies.
3 The categories of Certificates of Competency which
the Administration intends to issue.
4 The forms of Certificate of Competency and/or
endorsement requirements.
5 Medical standards for national seafarers.
6 The requirements to be met for the issue of each
category of Certificates of Competency.
7 Evidence of compliance with aforesaid
requirements, including training record books.
8 Special training requirements for personnel on
tankers.
9 Special training requirements for personnel on ro-
ro passenger ships.
10 Provisions for training of appropriate personnel for
emergency, occupational safety, medical care and
survival functions.
11 Establishment and enforcement of rest periods for
watchkeeping personnel to ensure their fitness for
duty.
12 Ensuring observance of watchkeeping
arrangements and principles.
13 Recognition/endorsements of Certificates of
Competency issued by other Administrations.
14 Registration of Certificates of Competency issued.
15 If Certificates of Service are to be issued, the
conditions to be met.
16 The conditions to be satisfied for revalidation of
Certificates of Competency.
17 The number of certificated officers to be carried
by various sizes (or propulsion powers) of ships and
their operating areas.
18 Near-Coastal Voyage limits.
19 Authority to issue dispensations and record of same.
20 Arrangements for the cancellation, suspension and
surrender of certificates.
21 Investigation and enforcement procedures as
regards infractions of requirements and attendant
penalties or disciplinary measures.
22 Port State Control - training and authorisation of
officers and procedures to be followed by them.
23 Supervision and monitoring of the training and
assessment of national seafarers.
24 Establishment of an appropriate Quality Standards
System and application of same to all training,
competence assessment and certification activities,
including those concerning the qualifications of
instructors and assessors (examiners).
25 Continuous monitoring of reports of training and
assessment carried out by external agencies and
entities under the authority of the Government.
26 Requirements to be complied with regarding
mandatory simulator based training and attendant
assessment as appropriate.
27 Authorisation of national ships to participate in
trials.
28 Responsibilities assigned to national shipping
companies.
29 Transitional provisions.
30 Communication of required information to IMO.
While the essential aspects listed above form the
overall legal framework, details of the requirements
to be met for each category of certificates shall have
to be prescribed. Such prescription shall obviously be
dependent upon the decision of the Government
regarding the various categories of certificates that it
intends to issue. However, the revised Convention,
along with its Code, has the necessary details and the
process would only involve drawing upon this
tremendous source. In fact this would also be
necessary.
Similarly the syllabus for the training and
assessment for each category of certificate can (and
must) be based on the aforesaid source. However,
there would be a need to develop detailed curricula
for each course. (In this regard Resolution 13 of the
1995 Conference and IMO's initiatives are most
relevant, especially for developing countries).
Further, an appropriate Quality Standards System
has to be developed and established. (In this
connection also IMO has initiated action to assist. In
this endeavour a distinguished colleague of this author,
Professor P. Muirhead, is directly involved).
All of the above constitute the regulatory
requirements and warrant legislative actions.
Thereafter the regulations have to be implemented
by the Government. This very important role of the
Government and related matters are dealt with below.
Mechanisms used by governments for
implementation of relevant regulations
As already stated earlier the following are the main
aspects of implementation 'ofrelevant regulations:-
Ensuring safe manning, taking fully into account
human factors.
Certification of seafarers.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 163
 Examination of seafarers.
Ensuring proper and adequate education and
training of seafarers.
As regards "Safe Manning" and "Certification" the
direct mechanism used by a Government is its
Maritime Safety Administration. The author is of the
view that this is quite appropriate. However, this has
been a weak area in a number of developing countries.
While IMO and WMU have done a lot to rectify the
situation, the efforts need to continue in this regard as
otherwise the whole "Quality Chain" would continue
to be adversely affected in such countries.
In respect of the mechanisms used for
"Examination of Seafarers" there have been (and still
are) the following main types of variations:-
Examination conducted entirely by the Maritime
Safety Administration.
Examination conducted entirely by the Maritime
Education and Training Institution concerned.
Examination conducted by an external Body, which
is neither the Maritime Safety Administration nor
the Maritime Education and Training Institution
concerned.
Examination conducted by joint arrangements
between the Maritime Safety Administration and
the concerned Maritime Education and Training
Institution.
It is the view of this author that Maritime Education
and Training (MET) Institutions, provided that they
are well established, manned and managed, are better
equipped and geared to undertake the responsibilities
for managing and conducting the examinations. They
and their staff also have the international linkages and
forums, and the capabilities to achieve substantial
harmonisation of systems which is most desirable and
is also dealt with later on in this chapter. Besides, the
MET Institutions have not only the potential to
cooperate, they are already co-operating in many
regions and partly also world wide. At the same time
the roles and responsibilities of governments and the
reasons for same have to be borne in mind. For
discharging them Governments have to ensure that
there are adequate and appropriate monitoring/
auditing mechanisms through or with the involvement
of their respective Maritime Safety Administrations
(MSA). Obviously, as a condition precedent to such
assumption of monitoring/auditing functions, the
MSA concerned itself must be well established and
manned by competent officials.
164 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
The fundamental mechanisms for "Ensuring
proper and adequate Education and Training of
Seafarers" are the Maritime Education and Training
Institutions.
However, there are at present various differences
in the "Systems" (methodologies), as well as alleged
qualitative deficiencies in some cases. Accordingly,
there is the clear need to harmonise to the maximum
extent possible the MET Systems, especially since it
has already been stated earlier that the MET
Institutions are also best equipped for managing and
conducting the examinations for seafarers. Obviously
any effort towards ensuring adequacy and
harmonisation of systems for the competence and
certification of officers and key ratings has to take fully
into account the quality of the maritime education and
training involved. Similarly the quality of the education
and training of all ratings deserve attention along with
the implications of the different manning structures
and patterns that are proposed.
In all these efforts there is the imperative need to
keep in mind the vital importance of human factors.
However, it is appreciated that the achievement of
harmonisation of the various systems is not an easy
matter. There are bound to be many problems to be
resolved and multifarious factors of influence to be
reckoned with. Nevertheless, concerted efforts, on a
priority basis, need to be made in this direction. In
the following paragraphs this chapter attempts to
identify the major factors that can be anticipated in
the harmonisation of systems and offer suggestions to
overcome the problems and cope with the factors in
order to achieve harmonisation to the maximum
extent possible.
Harmonisation of systems - major
factors, influences, problems and
suggestions
The initial problems to be resolved may well be
those related to human aspects as stated below:
The natural tendencies of those concerned to
continue to adhere to national traditions and practices
(whether indigenous or inherited) with which they are
familiar. These may even amount to conservative
attitudes with consequential resistance to change.
Assumptions that since the present systems in the
respective countries have been successful in the past,
they are the best and need not be changed.
The most complex set of factors is that the efforts
towards harmonisation have to cover not only all the
three links of the "quality chain", i e, manning,
examination/ certification and maritime education and
training, but also the various elements of each link.
The order of starting with "manning" and ending with Summary of conclusions and
"maritime education and training" may appear, prima
suggestions
facie, to be the reverse order. However, it has to be
appreciated that the sequence adopted depicts the
The national Government has the ultimate
order in which policy decisions tend to be taken.
responsibility for ensuring:-

In this connection it is to be noted that there are

Safe manning of national ships.
two main systems in existence in various countries/
Competence of its seafarers.
regions. These are:-
Due attention to human factors encompassing
conditions of work, living and working
(a) A step-by-step system of maritime training and
environment, welfare and discipline of seafarers in
examination, commencing with pre-sea training,
national ships.
followed by post-sea training after requisite sea-
service at the prescribed appropriate level/s and
In order to discharge the above-mentioned
prior to the examination for each grade of
responsibilities the following are essential
certificate. The advantage claimed for this system
prerequisites:-
is that theoretical studies, training and practical
experience are well timed and harmonised. On the
An adequate and competent Maritime Safety
other hand the disadvantage can be the difficulty
Administration.
in linking this maritime training system to an
Up-to-date and relevant national legislation based
academic system.
on international regulations and national
requirements.
(b) A system whereby the full range of studies is
In this connection the most appropriate
covered over a substantially long period at the pre-
mechanisms to be used and the main purposes for
sea stage itself, along with attendant examinations.
which they are expected to be used are indicated
In this system the higher levels of certificates depend
in figure 22.1.
primarily on acquisition of subsequent sea-service
at the different prescribed levels.
As regards "Safe Manning" of ships, it is considered
very desirable that the following are given urgent
The advantages claimed for this system are:-
attention:-

(i) The ability to link this to an academic system.

Efforts towards maximum practicable global
(ii) The convenience of organising one single (albeit
harmonisation of manning structures or patterns,
long) course, as against different courses for different
taking fully into account human factors.
levels.
On the basis of such harmonisation, prescription
of Safe Manning of ships in as precise a manner as
On the other hand it can be argued that such a
possible through appropriate amendment of
system tends to divorce "theoretical" and practical
Regulation 13 of Chapter V of the SaLAS
elements, and the students may not yet be ready to
Convention, 1974.
properly absorb the knowledge imparted for the
higher levels.
As regards the human factors, the author
appreciates very much that IMO has already taken a
The author's own preference would be to adopt
number of very important steps, such as:-
and harmonise both the main MET systems described
above, in parallel, so as to be able to serve all interests.
Ensuring that they continue to be taken into
However, as regards the system whereby the full range
consideration during the work of all of its bodies.
of studies are to be covered at the pre-sea stage itself
Developing the ISM Code.
over a long period - he would wish to propose the
Giving specific attention to the "fatigue" factor.
following:
The 1995 revision of the STCW Convention and
development of its Code.
Provision of appropriate links to academic systems
of relevance, so that the seafaring officers can also
obtain academic qualifications.

After the performance of requisite sea-service for

each level of certification, the seafaring officers attend
short refresher courses at an MET Institution, followed
by appropriate limited examinations, prior to the
award of the relevant certificates.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 165

References:

1. Vanchiswar, P.S., Examination and Certification of

Nautical Officers - The Need for Efforts towards
Harmonisation, Seventh IMLA Conference, New
York, 1992.

2. Vanchiswar, P.S. and Zade, G., Regulatory Aspects,

Internationally and Nationally, NIIWMU
International Conference, Malmo, 1994.
 Chapter TWENTY THREE

TRAINING SHIP TRAINING

by Captain james C. De Simone BS MBA MNI

State University of New York Maritime College, U.S.A.

Captain De Simone is a graduate of the State University of New York Maritime College and the Manhattan College Graduate Division
of Business. He holds an unlimited Master's license with First Class Pilotage endorsements and is commissioned at the rank of
Lieutenant Commander in the United States Naval Reserve.

After graduatingfrom the State University of New York Maritime College in 7973, Captain De Simone made a career at sea sailing
with various steamship companies in all capacities from able seaman up to and including master. During his seagoing career he also
gained experience as a vessel and cargosurveyor, expeditor and vetting inspector. In the spring of 7987, Captain De Simone accepted the
position of VicePresident, Commandant of Cadets and Master of the training ship EmPire State at his alma mater, the State University
of New York Maritime College.

During his time on staff at the Maritime College, Captain De Simone pursued graduate studies in management and international
business and was awarded the degree Master of Business Administration from Manhattan College. He was instrumental in program
enhancement at the Maritime College that included a broad spectrum of programs from establishing a Learning Assistance Center for
tutoring to the acquisition of bridge and cargo simulators for cadet training. The current training ship, EmPire State VI, was converted
to a training ship from a breakbulkfreighter (ex Mormactide) and commissioned during Captain De Simone's tenure. In addition to his
responsibilities for all non-academic programs and the operation and maintenance of the training ship at the College, he alsofound the
time for classroom teaching as well.

After almost ten years in the academic environment, Captain De Simone made a career decision to return to private industry. He
was offered a position with the Great Lakes Towing Company as Director of Fleet Operations and Engineering and is currently assigned
to the position of Assistant to the President with that company.

He is a member of the Council of American Master Mariners, served as one of thefirst Commissioners on the Connecticut State Pilot
Commission, is a member of the Board of Directors of the Connecticut Maritime Association and is Vice Chair of the North East Coast
Branch USA of The Nautical Institute.

the engine license program is identical in terms of

Background philosophy and methodology.

The training ship has been a part of the American
maritime infrastructure for over 120 years. During this
time, thousands of qualified ship's officers, both deck
and engine, have been trained and educated on board
training ships. On the international scene, training
ships have also played a prominent role. Egypt, the
former Soviet Union, Mexico and Taiwan are but a
few of the world maritime community who have
embraced the training ship methodology of maritime
training and education.
In this age of simulation, it should be mentioned
that training ships are but one of many successful
maritime training regimens. Company cadets,
academy cadets, civilian training and 'hawsepipers'
are testimony to the varied and successful methods of
training seafaring professionals. This chapter, however,
will address the American, ocean-going, power driven
training ships. In the jargon of the U.S. Maritime
Administration, the State Academy school ships. Also,
it will speak only to the deck license program, although
The school ship program was enacted in 1873 by
the Congress of the United States. This program was
in response to a group of New York businessmen who
expressed grave concerns about the ill health of the
American maritime industry in the post-Civil War era.
The industry had declined significantly during that
war. A considerable number of owners removed their
vessels from U.S. registry for fear of losing them in
the conflict, while many others were, in fact, casualties
of that conflict. The end result was a greatly diminished
maritime presence for a nation that had barely begun
to realize its tremendous international trading
potential. The group of New York businessmen felt
that if the trading potential of the United States was to
be developed fully, the nation must have a strong
maritime industry. The logical place to begin
rebuilding the industry was with the training of ship's
officers. In 1874, a decommissioned U.S. Navy sloop
of war was transferred from the federal government
to the City of New York for the purpose of training
merchant ships' officers.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 167

 photo by Sean McCarthy

Figure 23. 7 Training ship EMPIRE STATE, Long Island Sound, Spring 7992.
Length 772m, Displacement (loaded) 77,200 LIT, Beam 23m, Shaft Horsepower 77,500, Draft 7.5m, Accommodations 787.

The training ship EMPIRE STATE is the newest and most sophisticated training ship under Us. registry. The vessel isfitted out with state-of
the-art navigation, communication, electronic, computer and collision avoidance systems. Additionally, classroom, laboratory and libraryjacilities
are available to conductfull scale underway training and education. The vessel is also equipped with ARPA and diesel simulators. The EMPIRE
STATE is the sixth vessel to bear that name in the 722 year history of the United States' oldest maritime academy, the State University of New
York Maritime College. The College is located at historic Fort Schuyler in the Throgs Neck section of New York. Programs include afull range of
associate, baccalaureate and master's level curricula, along with the professional license trainingftr entry level ships' officers.

Philosophy and structure in a world where the ship master is increasingly

The training scheme that began in 1874has, in essence,
remained unchanged for over 120 years. It embraces
the concept of cadet operator-in-training and the
methodology of controlled mistakes. In short, the
cadets are the crew of the training ship and this is how
they learn their profession. The structure is based on
the Navy model given the fact that this organization
has distinguished itself as expert in the field of
shipboard training on a mass scale. Accordingly, the
cadets are introduced to this training regimen with
something akin to basic training. Discipline is the
foundation of the training ship program. The cadets
must learn to take orders, give orders, live together,
work together and survive at sea together in a confined,
close environment.
The character and leadership development of the
cadets is the obvious by-product of the structured
(regimented) lifestyle which is essential for the safe
and effective operation of a ship crewed with cadets.
Additionally, the self-discipline required on large,
modern ships, crewed with as few as six under certain
registries, takes on greater importance by the day. In
this context, these discipline parameters are just as
valid today as they were in the 1890s. We can only
hope they are somewhat better packaged but, none-
the-less, they remain integral to ship operations even
referred to as the ship manager.
The technical structure
Parallel to the human/discipline component is the
technical component. At the entry level, cadets are
exposed to repetitive tours of their training ship, the
ship they will crew for the first time. At this stage in
their education, the training is academic and focused
on knowing one's way around the ship for both
emergency and living/working purposes, nautical
terminology, shipboard organization, watchstanding,
basic seamanship and navigation. This orientation
takes place on board in a cold iron environment and
in the classroom under the tutelage of licensed faculty.
Additionally, this effort is mentored by upper class
cadets who will sail in junior officer capacities during
the upcoming sea term practicum.
The upper class mentors have successfully
completed two sea terms on board the training ship:
the entry level- sea term I and the semi-skilled (able
seaman) - sea term II. During these two sea terms,
the cadets perform all shipboard functions normally
associated with the unlicensed deck department
ratings. They are supervised by those cadets making
their final sea term Qunior officer) - sea term III and
instructed by licensed faculty. As the cadets move

168 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

through each sea term, they are exposed to more and
more technical training. Safety of life at sea, ship
maintenance, advanced seamanship, celestial
navigation, electronic navigation, ship's systems and
stability, collision avoidance, rules of the road, and
watchstanding are emphasized in the classroom, on
deck and on the bridge.
Each sea term places more and more responsibility
on the cadets, culminating with sea term III. During
this final practicum, the senior class is assigned
responsibilities as cadet officers. These positions are
structured around particular vessel functions in such
areas as administration, maintenance, navigation,
seamanship and lifesaving and emergency gear. The
cadets are exposed to all aspects of ship operations
during their academic course work and operational
sea terms; however, in that the training ship is crewed
by cadets, it is essential that all functional
responsibilities are specifically assigned. Then and
only then can the small officer contingent encourage
the cadets to operate the vessel to the fullest extent
possible and achieve the maximum benefit from the
training ship experience.
Bridge training
The bridge training methodology is functionally based.
In other words, all of the deck officer's technical
responsibilities are identified and focused on
independently during each four hour watch. For
example, the cadet navigator navigates; the cadet
quartermaster steers; the cadet radar watch monitors
the radar and ARPA; and the cadet watch officer, the
capstone position, performs all deck officer functions.
Each class is similarly assigned by function. Everything
from lookout to meteorology reports is addressed. The
watch is under the tutelage of a licensed officer who is
not only fulfilling the certificate of inspection, but is
also the instructor.
The bridge is a functioning classroom as well as
the bridge of a real ship. The licensed officer
concentrates his or her efforts on the senior cadets
who are, in essence, professional interns. These cadets
are, in turn, encouraged to mentor the underclass in
the particular function of the assigned watch.
Additionally, minimum assignments are required of
each person on the watch assuring a basic level of
proficiency. As part of the bridge training phase, there
is the bridge qualifier (bridge Q) which serves as a
check off to guarantee that all cadets are conversant
with the various bridge equipment and related systems.
Deck training
The deck training is a blend of operational ship
experience, actual deck maintenance and laboratory.
Clearly, dockings and undockings provide invaluable
experience in terms of line handling, tugs, pilot and
boarding ladders, anchor detail, gangways and the like.
These real-ship experiences reinforce that which is
learned in the classroom. The limitations here are the
number of evolutions and the number of cadets. This
is where the laboratory comes into play.
Maintenance and repair labs, as they are referred
to, are informal lectures structured to do things on
deck. Rigging of blocks, splicing of wire, overhauling
firefighting equipment, shifting to emergency steering,
working with lines and stoppers, cranes and booms,
etc., are examples of the material covered in
maintenance and repair labs. These labs supplement
and guarantee the real-ship experience on board the
real ship. In terms of lifesaving and firefighting, the
cadets are individually trained and qualified in these
areas. Firefighting school, fire training on board and
lifeboat handling, both on simulators and with the real
thing, ensure a basic level of proficiency in these
important areas. Once again, all of this training is done
under the tutelage of licensed officers. The mentoring
by upper class is always a part of the training ship
methodology and on-deck training is no exception.
For example, whenever a lifeboat is lowered and
launched, it is done at the say-so of senior cadets, by
the underclass cadets and under the watchful eye of a
licensed faculty or ship's officer.
The overall preventative deck maintenance of the
training ship is performed entirely by the cadets. Once
again, the senior cadets supervise the underclass cadets
in their assigned areas of the ship and see to it that the
planned deck maintenance is implemented. Here is
where the senior cadets assume responsibility for task
completion and the underclass in their charge. Coating
systems, seamanship, use of deck tools and
occupational safety are all a part of the deck
maintenance program. It is in this phase of the training
that the cadets learn to work the deck of the ship.
Recognizing that the training ship cannot specifically
prepare one for the various cargo operations of
tankships, container ships and the multitude of other
specialized cargo carriers, the focus has to be on
general seamanship. Specialized cargo courses are
taught in the academic environment and on board our
in-water tanker trainer.
In port training focuses on the deck officer's
responsibilities in excess of cargo handling. The
general supervision of the vessel and crew, tending of
moorings, interfacing with shoreside personnel,
fire fighting and safety issues, etc., are reinforced
through a watch rotation. Once again, the senior cadets
supervise the watch under the tutelage of licensed
faculty or ship's officers. The senior cadets assume full
responsibility for their watch and the underclass who
are a part of the watch.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 169
Instructional training
The third component, and the actual touchstone of
the operational sea term, is the formal instructional
training. It is in this phase of the training ship operation
that the cadets are kept on course - so to speak. The
instructional training takes place in the classroom
environment. The focus is watchstanding, navigation,
operations, rule of the road and meteorology. It is
during these formal lectures that the cadets are guided
through the critical professional areas. Additionally,
general qualifying orals, Qs once again, are
administered through the instructional effort. The orals
are sequential in the breadth of material that is covered
from the first through the third and final sea term. As
in the case of the bridge Q, the general qualifiers are
intended as a check off to ensure a basic level of
professional proficiency.
The classroom lectures are structured to reinforce
what the cadets are actually doing in the watch and
maintenance & repair cycles. For example, navigation
lectures are specific to particular problems such as sight
reduction and then the cadets are brought up to the
navigation lab and actually perform sight reduction.
In this way, the cadets not only learn the technical
aspects, but also develop confidence in what they are
doing. An instructor is always close by for assistance
or motivation - whatever is required at the time. As I
have already indicated, the instructional component
keeps the cadets and their training on course and
focused.
With the recent addition of an ARPA simulator to
the training ship, a new dimension has been added to
the instructional component. This laboratory is
configured with four Sperry, rascar units and own ship
controls. These touch screen units are excellent for
collision avoidance and radar navigation training,
regardless of the geographic area and traffic the
training ship is actually navigating in. This simulator
has been incorporated with the training in a team
structure and has been received well by the cadets.
The fact that the cadets are actually on board a vessel
that is underway makes for a very receptive audience.
Port calls
The training ship generally visits three prominent ports
of call during each sea term. The cadets are granted
liberty by sections and only after the vessel is squared
away or the day's maintenance complete. There is a
watch section that is not granted liberty for obvious
reasons. A variety of activities and tours are available
to the cadets during the port call. There is a cultural
dimension to these visits that should certainly be a
part of any seafaring training program. Tours, formal
or otherwise, are usually conducted in and around the
port facilities. Rarely is a port visited at which the
170 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
cadets are not welcomed on board neighboring
commercial or naval vessels in the harbor. The
seafaring community tends to be very hospitable to
cadets who stop at the gangway and ask for a look-
see.
Summary
The training ship experience is a holistic training effort.
The technical aspects focus on bridge watchstanding,
navigation, safety of life at sea, operations and
maintenance. The human aspect focuses on self-
discipline and learning to live and work, as part of a
team, in a confined, shipboard environment. As any
seafarer can testify, shipboard life is a lonely,
demanding existence. With continued reductions in
ship's operating personnel a reality, I believe that this
human aspect will become all the more important in
the days ahead. The world maritime community
openly acknowledges that over 85% of all casualties/
losses are the result of human error and that technology
is a logical ingredient for improved shipboard safety.
However, how do we train the human to live and work
in the isolated and demanding shipboard
environment? How do we prepare attentive and self-
disciplined officers for the techno-ships of the future?
Clearly, without self-discipline and the ability to
remain attentive and conscientious for long periods
at sea, all the technology known to man will not be
enough to prevent marine casualties/losses from
happening.
Recognizing that ship operations is a multifaceted
profession, for which we are training, experience
gained in all the various aspects must be factored into
the training and education program. Insofar as sea time
equivalency and the international STCW, I firmly
believe that all aspects of a well balanced maritime
training program must be represented. There are those
who have suggested that passive training schemes, in
port watches and ship maintenance should not be
factored into the equivalency equation. I am
concerned that we are losing sight of the whole ship
and the whole officer.
I do not say that anyone training scheme is better
than another. Certainly, a bridge simulator can provide
for repetition, a stint as cadet observer on a commercial
tanker can provide that real ship experience and
training ships can guarantee that all deck cadets take
amplitudes. In a perfect world, a blend would seem
optimum. Unfortunately, the real world is not perfect.
Therefore, we should entertain all training efforts
seriously; look at how they achieve the desired
objectives, within cost and practical parameters; and
view outcomes on the basis of safe and economically
viable ship operation within the context of accepted
international standards.
 The Donaldson Report on the grounding of the
tanker Braer raises serious questions about basic
seamanship and issues concerning general officer
competence. International STCW revisions have set
the stage for vast improvements in the manner in
which ships officers are trained and educated. I only
hope that the world maritime community is up to the
challenge.

Figure 23.2
Engine room scene

Figure 23.3
Personnel inspection

Figure 23.4
Handling lines

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 171

 MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

- SECTION IV -

Fundamentals of assessment and evaluation

172 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Chapter TWENTY FOUR

AN INTRODUCfION TO NORM REFERENCED AND CRITERION

REFERENCED ASSESSMENT, MARKING AND GRADING
by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc (Wales) FNI

World Maritime University

Professor Peter Muirhead has a wide and varied experience in the maritime industry, having spent some seventeen years at sea trading
world-wide, and overfive years as Senior Marine Surveyor and Examiner of Masters and Mates in Sydney, Australia. In 7979 he
became involved in the foundation and establishment of the new Australian Maritime College, developing both traditional training
programmes for officers and ratings as well as new approaches with integrated ratings training and at-sea task and guided study
programmes (TAGS) for deck watchkeeper trainees and post-graduate maritime awards using distance learning methods and satellite
technology. In addition, he has had over 20 years experience in the development and use of marine simulators.

InJanuary 7993 ProfessorMuirhead took up his present position as Inmarsat Professor of Maritime Education and Training at the
World Maritime University (WMU) in Malmo, Sweden. Through the MSc programme in Maritime Education and Training (MET)
he is responsiblefor providing the develoPing countries with maritime education administrators, lecturers and instructors. Through the
concept of training the trainers, the aim of the WMU programme is to provide MET graduates with knowledge and understanding of
basic pedagogical practices and practical instructional skills.

Introduction

This chapter is designed to provide the reader with a
brief overview of some assessment methods and
techniques used in education. However, before
embarking on this specific topic, it is necessary to have
some understanding about the purpose and role of
measurement, assessment and evaluation in teaching
in general as some confusion often exists between the
use of the terms testing, measurement, assessment and
evaluation. For all practical purposes measurement
and assessment can be considered synonymous.
Testing is a procedure used to measure a sample
of behaviour in order to discover how well a student
performs, usually in comparison with others, or
compared with identified performance criteria. In this
context it is important that the test, in whatever form
it is being used, yields consistent results by being valid,
reliable and practical. Whilst we can only take a
sample of a person's knowledge or comprehension
about a topic in this way, testing methods do provide
a more reliable estimate of performance than most
other observational techniques; unsystematic or
irregular observation being too unreliable.
With measurement, we are concerned with getting
a statement of performance, i.e. how much?, against
some established scale or rule, usually expressed in a
quantitative form although it may be non-numerical.
During this process information and data is being
gathered but it must be systematic, valid and reliable.
Assessment can be considered as placing an
interpretation on measurement information and is
usually concerned with assigning a score, mark, grade
or ranking. Assessment procedures (e.g. norm-
referenced assessment, criteria referenced assessment
and goal-based assessment) may be used to make
judgments and decisions about students, lecturers,
courses, resources or curricula. Judgments about the
value of such data are properly the role of evaluation.
Evaluation depends upon both measurement and
assessment and is concerned with the assignment of
worth or merit to particular performances, behaviours,
or processes. The subject is covered in chapter 31.
Purpose of assessment
Students are assessed with a view to finding out the
extent of their knowledge, understanding and skill,
and how well they have learned. In general there are
several recognised main purposes for assessment,
namely motivating students, grading for advancement
(further studies, career, etc.), standards setting and
providing feedback to students and teachers. Their
impact on the assessment process can be varied
however and the lecturer setting the assignment, test
or examination must be clear about the objectives of
such assessment if it is to achieve its purpose.
Assessment is only one inter-linked part of the
teaching process model (objectives, syllabus and
assessment) and may be permitted to dominate it if
care is not exercised.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 173


It is a fact of life that if marks are not an outcome
in some form or other, students will not be motivated
to put in their best effort. If practical work is not
assessed or does not contribute to assessment, then
students will ignore it. The lecturer faces the challenge
of selecting and creating the most effective and
relevant assessment method.
Measurement
As we saw earlier, measurement relates to some form
of performance outcome, usually in a numerical or
non-numerical form. Consider the three examples
below where a student:-
Receives 22/40 in a navigation test.
Completes all six tasks in the marine electronics
laboratory.
Obtains 84% in the ship stability written
examination.
Such data in itself however is of little value unless
it is interpreted by someone skilled in evaluation
processes. What does 22/40 in the navigation test
show? If compared against the rest of the class it could
be either a very poor mark if the median score was 32
or a very good mark if the median score was 15. By
itself it conveys little meaning. A numerical mark may
be accompanied by comments by the teacher, as a
measurement of the value of the work. Measurement
can thus be a numerical or non-numerical way of
gathering information. This may be achieved through
a number of useful measurement techniques such as:
Teacher observation Tests and examinations
Project work Oral tests
Simulation / computer games
Interviews Student presentations
Questionnaires Self reports
Practical tests
Whichever processes are used in gathering
information, it is most important that they are
systematic, reliable and valid.
Reliability
If information is to be useful, it must be gathered in a
systematic way. It must also be reliable. It is more likely
to occur if information is gathered on more than one
occasion. Similarly the more ways it is gathered the
higher its reliability will be. Questions themselves must
be constructed in a clear and unambiguous way. By
174 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
definition we can say that "reliability is the extent to
which the measurement made by the test is consistent
or repeatable". A difficulty can arise when several
markers rank a large number of essay assignments.
However, no matter which examiner marks the papers,
consistency should still prevail.
Validity
This is the extent to which the test measures what it is
intended to measure. In measuring student knowledge,
the hidden curriculum, or unplanned learning, may
distort the responses and measurements. Of the several
types of validity, content validity is most relevant here.
Content validity is concerned with the extent to
which the content covered by the test or exam, reflects
the content of the unit or course in which it is supposed
to be measuring achievement. Content includes not
just syllabus topic areas but also the learning objectives
of the course in terms of the desired cognitive (mental
process), affective (characteristic) and psychomotor
(physical movement) outcomes. If other than the
cognitive domains are involved, then the use of written
examinations render the assessment less than valid
since paper and pencil tests are really only effective
in the cognitive domain.
Where these kinds of objectives are present, it is
essential to incorporate practical performance
assessments and to use observational techniques. If
higher level cognitive skills are to be assessed by
written examinations then objective, multi-choice type
questions cannot be used to test skills of synthesis and
evaluation. If low level cognitive skills, e.g. recall of
factual knowledge, are to be assessed, then the use of
non-objective techniques can lead to unnecessary
validity problems (marking, reliability).
Methods of assessment
In considering the methods to be used, it is worth
bearing in mind some of the factors which can
contribute to a student's score:-
General level of intelligence.
Knowledge, skills and ability in the tested area.
Ability to understand instructions.
Skill and experience in sitting for examinations and
in answering the type of questions used.
'Luck' in choosing questions and guessing answers.
Student health, fatigue, motivation, stress, memory
fluctuation.
Combining of examination results.
Unreliability of marking.
The chance or uncertainty element in the above
can be reduced by:-
 It all depends on the progress of the group as a
whole. The interpretation of the foregoing data is full
of pitfalls and different students will interpret the same
data in different ways, psychological make-ups strongly
influencing student perceptions of performance.
Criterion-referenced assessment
This approach compares a student's performance with
a predetermined criterion or standard of performance.
It says something about what a student can do. It
relates to what is being taught and hence to objectives.
Thus, not only must the teacher be clear about the
objectives, but so also should the students. This means
that students can see that they are being measured
against their own achievement of clearly defined goals.
When numerical marks are given, most lecturers
employ an uneasy mix of criteria and norms in their
marking. Often, they are reluctant to award full marks
- how can any student be perfect? This attitude is
mainly norm-referenced as it compares students with
other past or ideal students.
Calculation may earn full marks, particularly where
the lecturer allocates a certain number of marks to
specific aspects of the work.
This avoids awarding too many marks for tidy yet
meaningless work. Consistency (reliability) of marking
is important as it leads to fair treatment of students
who will take feedback more seriously. It lets them
know what the lecturer considers to be important and
what hel she is looking for. Marking aspects should be
listed for matching against the topic objectives and
weighted for value.
Assessment is done for a purpose. The process of
assessment should provide data for decision making.
With the availability of assessment data, the educator
is now in the position to complete the evaluative
process.
Marking
One of the major advantages of objective answer tests
is the ease of marking and the consistency of scoring
by different markers. Thus true-false, multiple choice,
and matching items offer no marking problems except
for the occasional disagreement over which is the
correct answer. For short completion answers, greater
disagreement is possible, but this can be overcome
with an efficient marking scheme. It is unlikely that
176 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
the total marks scored by students will be seriously
distorted.
Marking of different forms of assessment can be
greatly aided by both the lecturer and the student
knowing what the assessment criteria are. This is
particularly important for the open-ended type of
question such as the assignment essay or written test.
For the student, simply knowing how marks are gained
will greatly improve the quality of assignments and
cut out much interesting nonsense or padding that is
a common feature of this type of assessment.
For the teacher, clear marking criteria, whether on
subject matter, elements of argument or evert layout
of the work allow for fairer and unbiased awarding of
marks for expected responses. Explicit criteria ensure
that the approach is educationally effective, and that
the marker is not swayed unduly by presentation
effects e.g. a neat laser printed script with little of
substance in the content in comparison with an untidy
script that provides all the desired response.
For the essay-type question, there should be an
agreed marking scheme in which the weighting of
various aspects is decided and marks are allotted for
specific points included in the answer. Where more
than one marker is employed, they may award
different marks for the same extended-answer
questions. The marking scheme may need to be more
detailed and a common scale agreed upon to reduce
this likelihood.
Effective marking
The most important factor in the marking of papers is
the achievement of a high degree of marker
consistency. Dunn (1967) makes the following
suggestions:-
(a) Use questions that can be scored with a high degree
of objectivity if these can effectively test the
objectives of the course.
(b) Extended answer, either problem or essay-type
should be structured so that the parts can be scored
with greater objectivity. Sub scores can be given
for the various parts as a guide for students.
(c) In the case of non-objective questions, mark one
question at a time for a complete class or group
rather than the whole examination paper for each
student. Using this method it is easier to keep the
same frame of reference in mind. It also prevents
the information on student performance on one
question from influencing marks on the next.
(d) Avoid optional questions, especially of a kind which
cannot easily be compared. The greater the variety
 Subject Grade Credit Quality points Total quality
Awarded hours per grade points earned

Navigation B- 3 2·7 8·1

Naval Architecture C 3 2·0 6·0
Maritime Law A 3 4·0 12·0
Electronics B+ 3 3·3 9·9
Maritime History C+ 2 2·3 4·6
Mathematics F 2 0·0 0·0
Totals 16 40·6

Semester GPA = 40·6 / 16 = 2·54

Figure 24.2 Example of a credit hours and quality point average scheme

points earned. The semester GPA is then arrived at
by dividing this total by the total number of credit
hours attempted. Figure 24.2 above illustrates this.
A cumulative grade point average(CGPA) will be
computed for all course work completed over each
year. To graduate, a minimum CGPA and semester
credits of graded hours will be specified by the
institution.
Anecdotal written evaluations
Students do not receive grades. They get written
anecdotal comments from the teacher regarding their
strengths and weaknesses on specific assignments, or
on the course overall. The use of checklists, in which
the teacher can check off specific strengths or areas
needing improvement, is also a form of anecdotal
written evaluation.
Pass/fail
Converting marks and rankings into
grades
Chapter 31 provides some insights into the
establishment and use of standardised scores as part
of the evaluation process. Generally however, most
teachers find this a time consuming process and in
addition, it assumes for the individual scores an
accuracy which may not be warranted. The choice of
a scoring scale is often arbitrary and the application
of a fixed translation scheme from raw scores may
not be reasonable (e.g. 81-100%= A, 61-80% = B etc.).
As it is a time consuming practice, many teachers opt
for a norm referenced approach to grading.
In order to ensure some comparability between
teachers, it is desirable to use a uniform system. One
method of awarding grades (on a 5 point scale) on the
rank order within a group (either whole year or within
the class if they are homogeneous) is to use the
following:-

Only two grades are available in this system, namely A to the top 10% of students
pass or fail. Students meeting the course criteria for a B to the next 20% of students
passing grade receive a pass, those failing to meet the C to the middle 40% of students
criteria receive a fail. Pass/fail is generally the outcome D to the next 20% of students
of criterion referenced assessment but for different E to the lowest 10% of students.
reasons. Criterion referenced assessment is to ensure
that students who successfully complete a course can This approximates to the normal distribution
do a range of things competently. Pass/fail courses are shown in figure 1. Similar distributions can be obtained
not to establish performance standards, but are for the range of marks for 10 or 15 point scales (A+ to
designed to avoid certain negative effects of assessment E). This approach in assigning marks and grades is
such as too much competitiveness between students. often termed norm-referenced as it depends on the
norms established by his or her particular cohort of
Mastery approach fellow students. The grading is relative. It is more
justified when applied to national examinations and
In this system, the teacher sets up pre-established large numbers, but becomes more dubious when
competencies and acceptable levels of attainment, applied to small groups.
which students are required to meet in a particular
unit of a subject before they can be considered to have Soine teachers have reservations about such
mastered the tasks or material in that course. Skills arbitrary proportioning of grades, on the grounds that
based training techniques utilise the principles of this it could be unfair where parallel class groups may be
system. of different standards of ability. Thus they should only

178 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Chapter TWENTY FIVE

PREPARING A COMPANY TRAINING STRATEGY

AND ASSESSING ITS EFFECTIVENESS
by Mr. Keith Parsons MNI

Training Manager, V Ships (UK) Ltd.

Keith Parsons, a Master Mariner, served with P&O fOr 73 years, sailing in a variety of ship types including general cargo, tankers and
passenger vessels. In 7990 hejoined the Monaco based shiP management company, V Ships, as Group Training and Planning Manager
and, until 7994, was based at the company's head office in Monaco. He has since returned to the V Ships regional office in Southampton,
UK and has been responsiblefOr the development and implementation of a group training strategy, servicing a varied fleet of some 200
vessels employing over 5000 crew.

The selection of trainees, the inspection of training facilities and the establishment of the company's in-house training programme
has involved extensive travel and has given Keith a detailed knowledge of the world's marine training and manpower supply centres. To
date he has inspected well over 700 marine training establishments on behalf of V Ships, from Eastern & Western Europe, North &
South America, and Asia, including a recent visit to the People's Republic of China. He has a particular interest in India and sat on a
joint ISF/Warwick University study investigating manpower supply and demand in India.

Mr. Parsons has assisted with the production of various training aids, developedfOr the industry in general, including The Nautical
Institute's own publication 'Bridge WatchkeePing, a Practical Guide'. He has been a member of the Council of The Nautical Institute
since 7994 and fOr three years was a member of the International Ship Manager's Association Manpower and Training Committee.

Introduction
The determination and preparation of a company's
training strategy will depend upon a variety of factors,
including the type and size of the fleet, the equipment
carried, the skill of the existing work force, the number
of the crew on each vessel, changing legislation and
the budget available for training. Every fleet has its
unique requirements and some operators, offering
attractive terms of employment, with access to a
qualified and experienced work force may elect to do
no more than fulfil their statutory obligations. Such
operators are, however, becoming rare!
When defining the required qualifications, skills
and experience it is most important to establish
priorities. For the sake of convenience three levels of
priority are suggested.
The first priority is the training leading to
mandatory qualifications, without which a vessel
cannot sail. A company should count itself fortunate
if it has immediate access to the necessary crew to
fulfil this fundamental requirement and will almost
certainly have to devote a proportion of the budget to
meet the mandatory minimum requirements.

Assessing the effectiveness of training is a complex
process, where techniques vary considerably, but all
too often such an assessment is absent altogether. In
reality, the failures of a training strategy are more
readily apparent than the successes and unless an
objective means of assessment is in place, the
shortcomings in a system are more likely to form the
basis of assessment.
Preparing the strategy
What are the steps towards implementing a coherent
training strategy? The first stage is to define the
qualification, skill and experience requirements for
each position onboard. This ideal set of criteria should
then be compared with the credentials of the existing
work force to establish the areas in which additional
skills training is required.
The second priority is the training that provides
the essential skills and experience to operate a modem
vessel successfully, a far wider reaching set of
requirements than the mandatory qualifications alone.
Lastly, if resources are available, they should be
targeted at the desirable qualities that will enhance
the safety, efficiency and the overall quality of the
operation.
Mandatory training
The first priority and the foundation of any training
strategy for any company, large or small, is the need
to man a vessel with trained and suitably qualified
personnel to meet the plethora of mandatory
requirements. A vessel with inadequately qualified
personnel onboard may be deemed unseaworthy and,

180 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

apart from being a threat to life and the environment,
may result in significant financial loss to the ship
owner.
What are the mandatory requirements? This will
depend upon the nationality of the seafarers employed,
the flag of the vessel, the vessel type, its trading pattern,
and in some cases the equipment carried onboard.
A good starting point is the STCW convention,
which, although not ratified by every administration
can be considered as the realistic bare minimum for a
commercial vessel engaged on international trade. The
revised convention, dealt with in greater detail in
chapter 21, now lays out very clearly the
responsibilities of the company and will be the
cornerstone of any company strategy.
The STCW convention, flag and port state
regulations govern the qualifications required to
operate specialised equipment, or to handle specific
cargoes. A knowledge of a vessel's particulars is
essential, therefore, to determine the training required
for a particular vessel or trade.
The flag state interpretation of the convention also
requires scrutiny to ensure that seafarers meet the flag
requirements and carry the necessary documentation.
The ability of the crew to communicate effectively
is not only essential for safe and efficient operation
but is a mandatory requirement, forming part of both
the STCW convention and the ISM code.
The ISM Code, now embodied in the SOLAS
convention, also addresses the subject of crew training.
It deals specifically with training necessary in support
of the safety management system which will include
the organisation of emergency drills, the
understanding of relevant rules and regulations, and
the familiarisation training required at the time of
joining (see chapter 39).
The labour supply country's requirements also vary
and need to be checked thoroughly, as a seaman's
book can only be obtained in certain countries after
successful completion of specific training.
A vessel meeting the requirements mentioned
above may still incur the wrath of the local officials,
and every company must keep abreast oflocal training
requirements to avoid citation, punitive fines, or
unnecessary delay. Environmental protection is at the
heart of much local legislation and failure to comply
with the most obscure requirements may cost the
unwitting ship owner dearly.
Having negotiated the minefield of mandatory
regulation successfully, the qualification requirements
for each position onboard can be defined and the
vessel can be manned in accordance with the safe
manning certificate.
In summary, when defining the mandatory level
of training, consult the requirements of:-
The STCW convention.
The ISM code.
The flag state.
Local bylaws.
Labour supply country.
Essential skills and experience
Having established the foundation of the training
strategy, i.e. the mandatory minimum requirement, it
is then necessary to build the next layer and define
the skills and experience that are essential to operate
the vessel safely and efficiently. This may extend to
personnel that do not get a mention in the STCW
convention or may not be part of the vessel's safe
manning.
An owner or manager that goes no further than to
satisfy his mandatory obligations would be unwise to
let the ropes go! A perfectly certificated crew, holding
all the correct pieces of paper, may have difficulty
finding the first port, let alone delivering a cargo safely.
For example, a master that cannot understand the
terms of a charter party will be a serious liability. A
poorly trained reefer engineer who fails to maintain
the temperature of a refrigerated cargo may cost his
owner dearly, or an electrical officer who cannot
maintain the vessel's cranes may cause considerable
delay.
The job description for each position has to be
examined closely, including particular safety hazards,
language requirements, the type of vessel and technical
specifications, and in certain positions a detailed
knowledge of commercial considerations.
It can be seen that the job description is an essential
element of any training strategy and it is only by
developing a job description that a meaningful set of
skill requirements can be established.
The job description will normally be drawn up in
conjunction with the vessel superintendent who will
have detailed knowledge of technical requirements,
as well as the owner's and charterers individual needs.
The latter is particularly worthy of mention.
Experience requirements for key personnel, over and
above the statutory norm are frequently found in a
charter party and may be the subject of strict vetting.
Most make perfect sense and should be closely
adhered to.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 181
 In summary, when defining the skill requirements
for a position consult:-
The vessel superintendent.
The job description.
The charter party.
Having defined and satisfied the mllllmum
requirements in terms of qualifications, skills and
experience, it is probably safe to leave harbour, but
the prudent ship owner may wish to look further.
Desirable training
The next priority may be considered as the desirable
element of a training strategy, carried out for no other
reason than a genuine commitment to improving
performance. Such expenditure may be more difficult
to justify, but nevertheless may enhance the safety,
efficiency and/or profitability of an operation
significantly.
There is an enormous gap between traditional
maritime education and the expertise required to
manage a modern vessel. The proper management of
human resources, for example, is largely ignored at
sea, but there are few working environments where a
skilled man-manager can influence the output of a
team so dramatically. Computer training is another
example of a relatively small investment initially,
providing enormous benefit in terms of productivity.
Specialised instruction from manufacturers in the
correct use of their products or equipment can result
in vast savings in servicing costs or consumption. One
owner observed that after providing instruction in the
proper use of boiler chemicals, the consumption of
those particular products fell by almost half! Ironically,
most manufacturers and suppliers are happy to
provide this type of service at relatively little cost but
are rarely called upon to do so.
Simulator training is considered by many to be
expensive, but the benefit of dealing with incidents of
catastrophic proportion on a simulator are
immeasurable. Similarly, the ability to handle the press
effectively can be the difference between the successful
handling of an incident or the extinction of an
organisation.
Some of the most effective instruction can be
imparted during courses developed in-house, dealing
with issues relevant to that particular company, its
policies, its employees or vessels. The active
participation of the sea staff further enhances the
experience and helps to build a better rapport and
understanding between the seafarer and the employer.
Such courses can be conducted within a maritime
training establishment but a college cannot be
182 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
expected to deliver such a programme without the
full involvement and commitment of the company.
Mandatory qualifications and essential skills must
be acquired prior to appointment, whereas the
desirable elements referred to above may be tackled
over a longer term and form the basis of future training
objectives to be achieved as a career progresses.
Experience
Experience is a key component of any training
programme and in this respect the fleet profile has to
be examined closely. There is a difference between a
company operating a single ship type with a single
nationality and the company operating a variety of
vessel types employing many nationalities. The
objective for a diversified fleet and its crew must be
versatility and the ability to adapt to a changing fleet
profile as and when required. Versatility of the work
force is best achieved during the early years of a
seagoing career and will enable a company to react
quickly when the fleet profile changes.
Regardless of ship type, experience will be required
to progress through the ranks, with the time on board
being used to maximum effect. On board training
should focus on an individual's weaknesses and
personnel should be trained to handle the duties of
their superiors thus facilitating a 'promotion-from-
within' policy.
Cadet training
Having determined the level of skills, qualification and
experience required, it is necessary to compare this
ideal set of criteria against the credentials of the
existing work force. Against the present climate of
global manpower shortage it is unlikely that a
shipowner will have access to any ready made supply
of suitably qualified personnel and the recruitment and
training of new entrants will be essential.
Recent studies of manpower supply indicate that
acute shortages are being felt in the officer ranks, with
the situation likely to deteriorate further. It is
inevitable, therefore, that priority is being given to
the recruitment of deck cadets and engineer officer
trainees, although the high age profile of certain ratings
is also cause for concern.
On average, it will take between three and four
years to train a junior officer to the level where he or
she can take charge of a watch. The recruitment of
cadets, therefore, is based on an assessment of future
requirements based on fleet size, fleet profile, and
personnel wastage rates. Wastage whilst under training
is also a factor and needs to be taken into account.
 A successful cadet training programme relies upon
very close supervision of selection, and the monitoring
of progress both ashore and on board. It is essential
that the time spent on board is used to maximum
advantage and that a structured programme of training
is followed. The question of in-service training has
been addressed in the revised STCW convention
which highlights the need for personnel involved in
the training programme to have a full understanding
of the scheme and its objectives.
The best results will be achieved if the company
gets to know its cadets well, through ship and college
visits, and through close contact with the recruitment
centre. Individual achievement should be
acknowledged, and lapses in performance or conduct
dealt with promptly.
Assessing the effectiveness of the
company's training programme
The effectiveness of a training programme should be
measured by evaluation of the training and its
outcomes. This will include:-
Immediate assessment of the instruction.
Career development of individuals.
The effect of training on the safety and efficiency
of the operation.
The availability of suitably skilled and qualified
personnel to ensure timely relief of crew.
An exact measure of a training programme's
overall effectiveness is difficult to achieve. The effect
of traditional, formal training, has been routinely
measured by examination of knowledge and once the
all important certificate is obtained any attempt to
assess it's longer term effectiveness can be forgotten
unless proper follow-up systems are in place.
Modern vocational training, based on specific
functions, does attempt to measure competence and
the outcome of training but such schemes are still in
their infancy in most parts of the world (see
chapter 27).
It is essential to assess the practical application of
the skills acquired under training, to determine
whether those skills actually equip an individual to
perform his or her duties more effectively and whether
money spent on training has been well spent. We need
to consider the effect of training both on the individual,
through performance, and through its effect on the
overall operation.
The quality of the training
In the case of training imparted ashore, there are two
obvious and immediate measures of effectiveness.
Firstly, in cases where training leads to certification,
was the necessary level of competence achieved and
the certificate obtained?
Secondly, what was the student's assessment of the
training and did it make a positive impression? This
information can be gleaned very easily during training
or upon completion of a course and many companies
use a course critique for this purpose. The obvious
questions need to be asked regarding the standard of
lecturing, the course content, and the perceived
usefulness of the training. It is also helpful to seek the
student's opinion of who might benefit most from such
training and how the skills acquired can be utilised in
the training of others. Also, was the duration of the
training appropriate and how might the training be
improved upon?
If an assessment of knowledge can be made at the
commencement of training with subsequent
assessments made during and upon completion, the
immediate effect of training can be measured. Such
measures are difficult, however, on board ship and at
the beginning and end of short courses, which may
only last a few days.
Any training establishment utilised by the company
should be thoroughly vetted, to ensure that the
necessary faculty and equipment are in place to deliver
the prescribed syllabus. Where possible, company
representatives should sit in on a complete or part
course to assess the quality of the instruction first hand.
The quality of on board training is more difficult
to assess from a distance, but the ability of the crew to
respond to an emergency must be continually
reviewed by the shipboard management team and
company representatives. Emergency drills should be
well planned and will only be effective if followed by
a thorough de-brief to identify shortcomings and
lessons learnt. The simulation of emergency scenarios,
using the company back-up team and emergency
services, can provide an excellent measure of
emergency preparedness.
If videos are used for training they will only be
effective if programmes are properly introduced and
followed by a discussion, during which time the trainer
can assess whether the material has been understood
and absorbed.
Measurement through individual
appraisal of performance
An effective appraisal system is the next useful tool
and is a tangible measure of an individual's
performance and whether training undertaken has
achieved its objective? Such a system is only useful,
however, if the person under appraisal participates
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 183
fully in the process which will include a review of
previous objectives, the setting of new objectives,
identification of strengths and weaknesses and above
all a comparison of performance against an
individual's job description. A review of the objectives
previously set will provide a good indication and, if
consistently achieved, the prescribed training may be
deemed successful.
It is an important process and those conducting
the appraisal should be fully familiar with the system
and the reason for having it. Very few reporting officers
actually receive training in the crucial area of
performance appraisal, but without proper training the
exercise may be damaging and misleading. As
mentioned above, human resource management
training is crucial, but all too often neglected in favour
of other priorities.
The value of the appraisal report will, therefore,
vary considerably from one company to another and
in some cases will be of no help to the training manager
whatsoever. Conversely, a well run, well resourced
system will highlight weaknesses, identify trends,
indicate whether objectives have been met and will
ensure that resources are directed where most needed.
Systematic follow up is required in order to gain
the maximum information from the system. For
example, a crew member's appraisal report may
indicate that his English language skills need
improvement. If training is subsequently arranged on
the basis of this report successful completion of the
course is no guarantee that the training has been
effective. The real test of effectiveness is whether the
training contributes towards improved performance
and this will only be revealed by close scrutiny of
subsequent appraisals.
The progress of individuals must also be reviewed
collectively and most companies will monitor their
training programme through a computerised crewing
system. In fact, STCW '95 now requires that a record
of training, experience and competence is maintained
and readily accessible. Ideally the system should be
capable of presenting the information in a variety of
forms so that progress in any particular area can be
monitored.
If, for example, an organisation decides that all
deck officers are to obtain a GMDSS operator's license
within a given period, there must be a means of
monitoring progress towards this objective. A
computerised system capable of extracting that specific
data from a personal file and presenting it in whatever
form requested will be of great benefit to the
administrator.
A personal record of training, similar to a cadet
record book, detailing all training and instruction
184 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
carried out on board or ashore is a very useful tool. It
provides a convenient means of recording much of
the informal training now required by STCW and the
ISM code, but unsupported by certification. This
documented evidence is then carried by the seaman
from ship to ship and is available for scrutiny at any
given time. Career progression may depend upon
proper maintenance of such a record, thus providing
a suitable incentive for its upkeep.
Measuring the success of training through
performance will help the career development of
individuals and will contribute towards the retention
of a stable, motivated work force.
The operation
The real measure of success is the overall effect of
training on the safety and efficiency of the operation.
That may apply to a single vessel or a large fleet and
may manifest itself in a variety of ways. It is very
difficult, however, to attribute, for example, the full
employment of a vessel or the safe delivery of cargo
directly to the training of the crew.
The success of a training programme is difficult to
measure, and as a result it is failure, through lack of
training, that unfortunately provides a more
convenient means of assessment. When something
goes wrong, for example, an accident, a vessel taken
off-hire or damage to cargo, lack of training might well
be the cause and come to the notice of the operator.
The actions of a well trained master who routinely
takes decisions in the best interest of the owner will
go unnoticed. After all, that's the master's job. Failure
to protect those interests by a poorly trained, ill-
informed master may be costly and quickly come to
the owner's attention.
The loss ratio, accident and incident statistics do,
however, provide a tangible measure of the
effectiveness of a safety training programme. The
number of days lost through injury, the number of
accident free days, the number of near misses, are all
excellent measures of success and provide even more
useful information when compared with previous
statistics. The ISM code now requires proper analysis
of statistics and the implementation of corrective action
will in many cases require additional training.
Analysis of accident statistics by nationality, rank,
and vessel type, provide additional detail which, used
intelligently, can identify effectiveness of training as
well as the gaps, and will indicate where resources are
most needed.
Internal and external audits of the company's
procedures provide a wealth of information and will
highlight areas of weakness. An absence of findings
or a reduction in non-conformances may indicate that
training is achieving the desired results, though it is
only by comparison with previous audits, assuming
that they are consistent, that a real measure can be
taken. Similarly, charterer's, port state and flag
inspection reports reflect the safety and efficiency of
the operation, and indicate very clearly whether the
crew are sufficiently trained to meet the necessary
standards.
Availability of crew
One of the main objectives of a company's training
activities during times of global manpower shortage
must be to ensure that adequate personnel are
available to fulfil present and future requirements.
Timely relief of crew is essential and a company's
ability to relieve crew without delay may indicate the
effectiveness of the training strategy.
An exception to this may be a company that carries
out very little training, but is always able to fulfil its
crewing requirements by offering above average terms
and conditions of employment. In such a case, the
profitability of the overall operation will provide a
more accurate measure of success, and inadequate
training may manifest itself in higher than average
crew costs.
Summary
Training can be expensive. Sensible priority setting
and allocation of resources amongst a stable work force
is the key to success. It is no good training the chief
cook to use a computer if he doesn't know how to
peel a potato, and the benefit of training will only be
realised if the recipient remains with the company.
We must acknowledge the dynamic nature of the
market place in terms of new rules, regulations and
the changing manpower supply situation. The strategy
has to be continually reviewed and adjusted to meet
changing needs and, once defined, there has to be an
effective means of monitoring the progress of the
programme.
The effectiveness of the programme must be
measured objectively. This will include close
supervision of the training in progress, assessment of
crew members' individual performance and
development, the monitoring of safety, efficiency, and
profitability, and the availability of sufficient qualified
crew. These parameters, viewed in isolation, may
reveal little, but when considered in conjunction with
one another will certainly reveal whether or not the
training strategy has been a success.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 185
 Chapter TWENTY SIX

THE MANAGEMENT OF SEAFARERS' TRAINING BY SHIPPING

COMPANIES THROUGH A GROUP TRAINING ORGANISATION
by Mr Colin Chandler BSc MNI

General Manager, Ship Safe Training Group Ltd.

Colin Chandler went to sea in 7960 at the age of sixteen as a deck cadet with the British India Steam Navigation Company Limited.
He served as Cadet to Second Officer on a variety of cargo and passenger vessels, attaining a Master Mariner's (Foreign Going)
Certificate of Competency in 7969. This was followed by a six year short service commission in the Marine Branch of the Royal Air
Force, during which period he commanded various small vesselsengaged in the operational training of maritime aircraft and search and
rescue.

Thereafter, he spent three years as a Fishery Officer with the Sea Fisheries Inspectorate of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food, working both ashore and afloat. He then served eleven years with P & 0 European Ferries (Dover), previously Townsend
Thoresen, mostly as Chief Officer on ro-ropassenger and freight vessels, but also responsiblefor the organisation of a range of training
activities for seafarers, both ashore and afloat. In 7989 he joined the Ship Safe Training Group Ltd. He is a graduate of the Open
University with a BSc degree in mathematics, and has undertaken basic accountancy studies.

Introduction The concept oflearning by example has produced

Most human activity since the beginning of time has
been characterised by continuous development and
change. Seafaring has been no exception to this with
a wide range of vessels and techniques emerging over
the centuries to meet a variety of needs, both in terms
of the operations to be carried out and the
environment in which they take place. Seafarers,
whose fundamental role in the worldwide network of
trade, transportation and communications is barely
acknowledged, let alone understood by large sections
of the population, have been and remain a vital
component of this indispensable activity. With the
development of ships and shipping, so have seafarers
had to adapt to changing technologies and needs and,
indeed, they have often been the initiators of such
change both ashore and afloat.
How have seafarers acquired the necessary skills
and knowledge required by this most exacting of
professions, in which so much can depend on the
actions taken by individuals and their ability to take
responsibility and act independently? Over the
centuries, in company with many other crafts and
professions, seafarers have learnt by observing and
emulating their seniors, who in turn have adjudged
when individuals are competent to take responsibility
on their own account. Such practical performance has
always been backed up by various levels of knowledge,
the scope of which has been largely determined by
the state of scientific learning at the the time and the
extent to which it was available to seafarers, or even
considered to be necessary for them. This ability to
turn theory into practice remains as relevant and
important today as it has ever been .
many highly professional and competent mariners
over the centuries and indeed, within living memory,
some seafarers have attained their positions of
responsibility on board ship on the basis of acquiring
the necessary skills and knowledge through their
experience at sea alone. However, during this century,
and particularly the second half, vast and rapid
changes have occurred, arising from the seemingly
never ending emergence of new and more complex
technological and scientific processes, in all areas of
human endeavour. Alongside the undoubted benefits
such advances bring, their very existence creates much
greater potential for disaster adversely affecting both
humankind and the environment generally. An
inevitable consequence has been the need for more
regulation and control of a wide range of human
activities, from which the marine industries are not
immune. As a result, seafarers' training has become
progressively more complex, defined and monitored,
to achieve the necessary standards now demanded in
ship operations.
The need to manage marine training
For the reasons described above shipping has become
an increasingly controlled and regulated business. The
approach to and the methods of training seafarers are
similarly changing and developing to reflect the wider
situation. Today we have a marine education and
training system built on a number of interdependent
elements making up a comprehensive whole. These
contributory inputs include:-
• International regulations and agreements.
• National legislation.

186 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

• National education, training and qualification
systems.
• A range of examination and assessment processes.
• The requirement for programmes of approved
marine education and training.
• Education and training providers ashore.
• Technological developments in training methods.
• The individual seafarer under training.
• Supervisory ships' staff.
• Ship owners, operators and managers.
• Regulatory regimes.
The complexity is now such that there is a clear
need for specialist training management to organise
the complete process on an integrated basis, to
produce competent seafarers meeting defined
standards, cost effectively and efficiently. There are a
number of ways of achieving this. At one extreme all
marine training could be managed and organised by
a single state body, whilst at the other individuals
could, in theory, be responsible for all aspects of their
own training. However, such training activity is
primarily driven by the needs of shipping companies
or organisations for qualified seafarers to man and
operate their ships. Thus the management of seafarers'
training falls naturally within the range of functions
carried out by a ship owner or operator. Many
shipping companies have, over the years, established
dedicated training sections, or included this area within
the general remit of personnel, superintendency and
similar departments. Quite often these training
responsibilities have been just part of a broader remit,
or undertaken by personnel appointed for only a
limited period.
One approach has been for a group of companies
to join together to establish their own dedicated
training organisation to provide training management
services in direct response to their individual
requirements, adopting a common approach where
these coincide, thereby maintaining continuity and
building up a fund of specialist knowledge and
expertise. Such an organisation is the Ship Safe
Training Group Ltd. (SSTG), which is described in
the following paragraphs. SSTG does not replace
company departments but supports and complements
them, with member companies retaining complete
autonomy.
The need for specialist training management has
been given added impetus by the introduction of the
ISM and similar codes, and STCW '95. As standards
are defined more precisely over a wider range of
operational activities so comes the increasing need for
specialist training management, encompassing and
coordinating all the multifarious aspects of maritime
training.
The Ship Safe Training Group Ltd.
Formation
The Ship Safe Training Group was formed by a group
of UK shipowners in 1978 as a training organisation
to provide them with services in the field of
recruitment and training of new entrant deck
personnel. These founding owners operated mainly
in the European short sea dry cargo, oil tanker and
aggregate dredging trades. The impetus for forming
such an organisation came from impending changes
to the certificate structure, necessitating the
introduction of specific training schemes in which any
member could participate as necessary. The group
organisation initially employed one dedicated training
officer to provide the required services, with
supervision and direction being provided by a
management committee drawn from the member
companies. Not long after formation the organisation
became a company limited by guarantee, with a board
of directors taking over from the management
committee but still drawn from the member
companies, the latter being analogous to the
shareholders of a company with a share capital. The
activities of SSTG Ltd. are funded by contributions
from the member companies. Membership of the
group was not limited to the founding members, being
open to any company for whom the training services
provided might be relevant, as is the case today.
Development
Since those early days SSTG Ltd. has developed into
a major UK marine training organisation, employing
(in 1997) six full time staff, and providing services to
twenty shipping companies located throughout the UK
from the Shetland Islands in the north to Southampton
in the south. These companies operate over two
hundred and fifty ships between them, a significant
proportion in the European Short Sea area (from
Russia in the north southwards to west Africa and
through the Mediterranean to the Suez Canal) whilst
others trade worldwide. Ships range in tonnage size
from small to medium and across the complete power
range, variously requiring all levels of certificated
personnel. The ships operated by the member
companies include the following types:-
• Anchor handling, tug, supply.
• Cable layers.
• Chemical tankers.
• Diving support.
• Drill ships.
• Dry cargo.
• Inter-island ferries.
• Marine aggregate dredgers.
• Oil tankers.
• Ro-ro passenger and freight.
• Smolt carriers.
• Standby.
• Survey.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 187
 The training services provided cover various
categories of seafarer including:-
Deck cadets.
Engineer cadets.
Deck ratings.
Engineer ratings.
Catering ratings.
Qualified deck and engineer officers.
Services provided
SSTG provides a range of services for its member
companies, who utilise such services to meet their
particular requirements. The main services include the
following, but are not limited to these as they are kept
under continuous review and development to respond
to changes in training needs.
Recruitment and selection
An extensive countrywide publicity and recruitment
drive is maintained to identify potential new entrant
deck and engineer cadets, and other categories of new
entrants. SSTG carries out initial screening and then
passes candidates to member companies for
consideration. It is the member companies which
make final selections to meet their requirements and
employ the chosen individuals.
Training programmes for new entrants
A wide range of approved training programmes is
utili sed to meet company requirements and choice,
involving different colleges and other training
providers. New programmes are developed by SSTG
in conjunction with other parties, in response to
changing needs. Full programme organisation,
monitoring and supervision of individuals under
training is provided, reporting back to employing
companies. Full instructions and guidance are
produced for those under training and shipboard
supervisory staff.
Trainingfor existing seafarers
This is managed much as for new entrants but needs
are more varied and go beyond just certificates of
competency, encompassing specialist courses such as
shipboard management, refresher and updating
provision. The introduction of the ISM Code and the
STCW '95 Convention have resulted in additional
requirements in this respect.
Advice on marine qualifications, certification and
training
An important aspect of SSTG activity is to build up a
comprehensive body of knowledge and expertise in
all the relevant areas to enable appropriate advice to
be provided. It encompasses analysis of training needs,
advice on qualification and certification requirements,
and the arrangement of specialist training packages.
Close liaison with regulatory, training and other bodies
188 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
is maintained to keep up to date with developments
and new requirements.
Dissemination of information
Information bulletins are published and circulated to
member companies, on a regular basis, on training
and associated matters. Such bulletins are the means
of promulgating information and seeking views,
sometimes as part of a formal consultation process.
SSTG maintains a comprehensive database of marine
training provision throughout the UK, covering a wide
range of courses and programmes, their costs and
dates. This information is available to member
companies.
Representation and development
The SSTG participates in a range of industry
development and review bodies and organisations,
concerned with training and associated matters.
During the last few years a full part has been played
in the development of a modular system of marine
qualifications (called vocational qualifications in the
UK) as a route to MSA certification. The implications
of STCW '95 from the training perspective are kept
under close review, as the new convention
undoubtedly necessitates revision and adjustment of
a number of aspects of the current arrangements for
maritime education and training.
Summary and conclusions
Ship operations have become much more
technologically complex during the last few decades,
with greater potential for human and environmental
disaster, reflecting the general scientific and industrial
developments of the twentieth century. As a
consequence of such developments there has come
the need for greater control and regulation of a wide
range of activities, including shipping.
Seafarers' education and training is, perforce,
increasing in complexity and subject to more tightly
defined criteria and processes, to produce individuals
with the appropriate level of knowledge and expertise
for modern ship operations. These factors have created
a need for specialist marine training management, to
draw together and co-ordinate all the various
components of the marine education and training
process, as they relate to any particular training
objective.
There are a number of means to achieve this
integrated approach to training. One of them is for
shipping companies and operators to establish a group
training organisation to provide this specialist training
expertise to meet their particular requirements. The
Ship Safe Training Group Ltd. is an example of such
a group training organisation, providing
comprehensive specialist training management
services to its member companies, in a cost effective
way and responsive to individual company
requirements.
 Chapter TWENTY SEVEN

AN INTRODUCfION TO COMPETENCE BASED TRAINING

WITH A FRAMEWORK FOR VOCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
by Mr. R.C. Matthew

Chief Officer, UK Merchant Navy Training Board

The author served at sea with the P&O Steam Navigation Co. as a deck officerfrom 1961 to 1972. He transferred ashore tojoin the
then British Shipping Federation as Safety Training Adviser. In 1977, he was appointed Secretary and subsequently Chief Officer of the
Merchant Navy Training Board (MNTB), combining this with other responsibilities for training and employment affairs within the
Chamber of Shipping.

The MNTB, which is representative of shiPowners, seafarers 'organisations, marine collegesand Government departments concerned
with the training and qualifications of seafarers is recognised by the Department for Education and Employment as the industry
training organisation and lead bodyfor the development of vocational qualifications (VQJ) for the Merchant Navy.

Introduction A typical dictionary definition of competence is

The purpose of this chapter is to describe, from a
practical viewpoint, some of the concepts underlying
a competence based approach to education and
training, as applied to vocational qualifications in the
UK and the Merchant Navy in particular.
In one sense, competence based training is not new.
Certificates of competency have been a feature of
employment at sea for many years. Excellent
education and training programmes have been built
around the requirements for the various grades of
certificate, which include practical experience at sea
and the skills, knowledge and understanding that
underpin satisfactory performance of shipboard duties.
This does not change in a competency based system.
What does change is the way those requirements are
defined, in terms of outcomes to be achieved rather
than examination syllabuses, and how achievement
of the specified outcome is measured or assessed.
the condition of being capable; ability; and of
competent is having sufficient skill, knowledge etc.,
capable / suitable or sufficient for the purpose. This is
a good starting point. But the notion of sufficiency
and fit for purpose might be interpreted as implying a
minimalist or narrow approach when applied to
qualifications for work. Capability gives a broader
meaning but it is important, when considering
qualifications that attest to competence, to encompass
all aspects of what has been termed occupational
competence.
Occupational competence
At the heart of vocational qualifications is the
concept of occupational competence: the
ability to perform to the standards required
in employment across a range of
circumstancesand to meet changing demands.
Figure 27.1 Occupational competence

The objective is to establish a clearly defined single
set of standards of competence recognised by all
concerned. Achievement of those standards signals a
successful outcome of training.
Competence
Occupational competence is the bringing together
of all the diverse skills, knowledge and abilities needed
to ensure that individuals are capable of fulfilling the
roles expected of them in the way and to the standards
expected in employment. Precise definition is difficult
but the main components are:-

Despite familiarity with the system of statutory Skills, knowledge and understanding that are
certificates of competency which have been required specific to an occupation.
for employment at sea for many years, little attention More general skills and knowledge.
has been given until fairly recently to exactly what Personal effectiveness.
competence means. Most people have their own ideas
of what it involves and would almost certainly claim The precise definition is not important. What is
to be able to pass subjective judgment on the ability important is that a broad or holistic view of
or performance of others as being of an acceptable competence is fostered. This will help to ensure that
standard or not. individuals are assessed to a high standard.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 189

Competence based qualifications in the UK.
Competence based qualifications are now widely
available in all parts of the United Kingdom. Known
as National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) and
Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQs), they were
introduced in 1987 following a major review of
qualifications in England and Wales, building on a
competence based system that had previously been
launched in Scotland.
The review noted the many strengths of the then
existing arrangements. These included the high regard
in which the standards set by many of the examining
and validating bodies and the reliability of their
assessment arrangements were held nationally and
internationally. But, despite this, the review concluded
that there was no effective national system for
vocational qualifications. In particular, it was felt that
many qualifications did not, at that time, adequately
assess or indicate competence. Mostly there was either
an assessment of knowledge relating to occupational
skills and understanding, with performance taken to
mean performance in a written examination, or
performance in stated skills was assessed. Neither form
of assessment necessarily indicated competence, by
which was meant the ability to work effectively in an
occupation or range of occupational tasks, and most
qualifications failed to give recognition to work-based
learning.
To address these shortcomings, it was stated that
vocational qualifications should be structured as true
statements of competence, which incorporate
assessment of three key components:-
Skills to defined standards.
Relevant knowledge and understanding.
The ability to use skills and to apply knowledge
and understanding to the performance of relevant
tasks.
Guidance published by the National Council for
Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) and the Scottish
Qualifications Authority (SQA)! includes the
following, to emphasise the broad approach that
competence based qualifications must reflect:-
The qualification, as a statement of competence,
concentrates on the ability to perform effectively.
However, effective performance depends on the
individual having an appropriate body of
knowledge, theory, principles and cognitive skill
on which to draw. While the ultimate focus of
qualifications must be effective performance, much
of the contributory learning and assessment will
deal with knowledge, understanding and skills.
1 Formerly the Scottish Vocational Education Council (SCOTVEC)
190 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Vocational qualifications are first and foremost
about what people can do. This must go beyond
the technical skills and knowledge to include
planning, problem solving, dealing with unexpected
occurrences, working with other people and
applying the knowledge and understanding that
underpins overall competence.
• Jobs are seldom performed in isolation and are
rarely simply procedural. People need to be able
to communicate effectively with colleagues,
organise and prioritise their work activities, respond
to contingencies, make decisions, solve problems,
apply ethical judgments, work safely and so on. It
is the ability to integrate these demands when
performing in the work environment that defines
the competent individual.
This breadth of competence cannot be over-
emphasised. Without it, there would be a risk that a
competence based system would concentrate on
technical abilities and skills at the expense of other
skills that encompass knowing what to do, how to do
it and when and how it should be done - including
the ability to cope with emergencies and allowing for
all contingencies that might arise.
Standards
Traditionally, maritime qualification and training
arrangements have been based on the twin
assumptions that:-
Adequate experience could be gained, and the
acquisition and demonstration of skills needed for
sea-going employment be achieved, simply by
requiring candidates for certificates of competency
to serve specified periods of time at sea.
Knowledge and understanding of subjects relevant
to the work involved could be tested adequately
through written examinations.
These arrangements have worked well over the
years. Certainly no criticism is intended or implied of
the quality of performance of the holders of certificates
awarded on this basis. It is questionable, though,
whether reliance can continue to be placed on this
approach to determining competence in the
circumstances of today's shipping industry. For
instance, the quality of the mandatory periods of sea
experience can vary widely. Although training record
books are used extensively to guide trainees in the
tasks and skills in which they need to become
proficient, there is no clear definition of the standard
required. That is left to the professional judgment of
those supervising training. Other factors include the
increasing specialisation of types of ships, reductions
in crew numbers made possible by developments in
technology and the emergence of new labour supply
countries which do not have the long, historical
seafaring traditions on which the cascade of skill from
experienced to new seafarer depends.
To a large extent, the standards for seafarers are
already established in the requirements for existing
statutory certificates of competency. But the standards
are set by the examination system rather than by
reference to the desired outcomes of the education
and training process. Moreover the passage of time,
in the form of mandatory minimum sea service, is not
in itself a valid indicator of competence.
Standards of competence
Standards of competence are now specified in the
IMO Convention on Standards of Training and
Certification for Seafarers, as revised in 1995 (STCW
95). The standards are grouped within a framework
of seven functions at three levels of responsibility (see
figure 27.2).
They are incorporated into the chapters of the
convention that specify the requirements for the issue
of the various certificates of competency. Functions
and levels are identified by sub-title in tables of
standards of competence. The scope of the function
at the level of responsibility stated in the title is defined

Against this background, the development of Functions and levels

competence based qualifications has presented an
Levels of responsibility Functions
opportunity to re-examine the way in which seafarers
achieve and prove their competence. It involves:- • Management • Navigation
• Operational • Cargo handling and
· Making the desired outcomes of training explicit,
in terms of standards of competence.
• Support stowage
• Controlling operations and

· Ensuring that assessment incorporates the ability

to perform to the defined standards and to apply
care for persons on board
• Marine engineering
• Electrical, electronic and
relevant skills and knowledge in practice. control engineering
· Ensuring that a range of learning opportunities is
open to individuals, which facilitate access to new
• Maintenance and repair
• Radiocommunications
qualifications and assist career development and
progression. Figure 27.2 Functions and levels

Function: Navigation at the operational level

Knowledge
Competence understanding and
proficiency
Maintain a safe WatchkeePing
navigational watch.
Thorough knowledge of
the content, application
and intent of the
International Regulations
for Preventing Collisions
at Sea.
Thorough knowledge of
the Principles to be
observed in keeping a
navigational watch.
Thorough knowledge of
effective bridge teamwork
procedures.
The use of routeing in
accordance with the
General Provisions on
Ship's Routeing.
Methods for Criteria for
demonstrating evaluating
competence competence
Examination and assessment The conduct, hand over and
of evidence obtained from relief of the watch to conform
one or more of the with accepted principles and
following:- procedures.
A proper lookout is maintained
1 Approved in-service at all times and in such a way
experience. as to conform to accepted
principles and procedures.
2 Approved training ship Lights, shapes and sound
experience. signals conform with the
requirements in the
3. Approved simulator International Regulations for
training, where Preventing Collisions at Sea.
appropriate. The frequency and extent of
monitoring of traffic, the ship
4. Approved laboratory and the environment conform
equipment training. with accepted principles and
procedures.
A proper record is maintained
of the movements and
activities relating to the
navigation of the ship.
Responsibility for the safety of
navigation is clearly defined at
all times, including periods
when the master is on the
bridge and while under
pilotage.

Figure 27.3 Extract .from table of standards of competence A-JIll "Officer in charge of a navigational watch" in the STCW Code

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 191

according to abilities for a number of topics listed in
the first column of each table. The knowledge,
understanding and proficiency, the methods for
demonstrating competence and criteria for evaluating
competence are listed alongside each topic (see figure
27.3).
At national level the STCW standards can be
incorporated within a national system of qualifications,
such as that developed in the UK. The starting point
is a systematic analysis of all the functions that need
to be performed aboard ship. The analysis continues
within each functional area to a sufficient level of detail
to enable performance criteria to be written to describe
the critical aspects of competent performance of each
task. This establishes the standard, which describes
competence performance of a task and the range of
circumstances over which the task may have to be
performed. It also indicates what evidence should be
collected for the purposes of assessment.
The UK framework covers occupations at five
levels of competence, from the most humble to the
professional. Qualifications for seafarers have been
developed at three of these levels, which correspond
to the levels of responsibility in the STCW convention,
and a higher level qualification for masters and chief
engineers is under development (see figure 27.4).
Most occupations in the UK have competence
based qualifications included in the framework. It
therefore provides a basis for identifying relationships
between them where there are common competences
or requirements, thus facilitating transfer and
progression through the various levels. The higher the
level of qualification, the more of the following
characteristics it is likely to require:-
Breadth and range of competence.
Depth and breadth of knowledge and
understanding.
Capability in dealing with complexity and difficulty.
Specialised capabilities.
Ability to transfer competence from one context
or work area to another.
Ability to innovate and cope with non-routine
activities.
Ability to recognise and plan work.
Ability to supervise others.
Some functions may be performed at different levels
so, in setting national standards, the descriptions of
the task and performance required have to take the
above characteristics into account. The amount of
detail is important and largely a matter of judgment.
Too much detail makes the task of gathering and
assessing evidence of competence unworkable - too
little and the definition of competence will be too
broad to be meaningful.
192 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Level 2
Competence relating to the job roles of all qualified
ratings, on deck, in the engine room or elsewhere.
This means that the person has to exercise some
individual responsibility and autonomy, though
collaboration with others through membership of
a work group or team is sometimes required.
Level 3
Competence relating to the job role of a junior
watchkeeping officer. This means that the person
must apply knowledge in a broad range of varied
work activities performed in a wide variety of
contexts, many of which are non-routine. There is
considerable personal responsibility and control
or guidance of others is often required.
Level 4
Competence relating to the job role of a senior
officer. This means that the person must apply
knowledge in a broad range of varied and complex
work activities, performed in a wide variety of
contexts and with a substantial degree of personal
responsibility and autonomy. Responsibility for the
work of others and the allocation of resources is
often present.
Level 5
Competence relating to the job roles of master or
chief engineer. This means that the person must
apply a significant range of fundamental principles
across a wide and often unpredictable variety of
contexts. Very substantial personal autonomy and
often significant responsibility for the work of
others and for the allocation of substantial
resources feature strongly, as does personal
accountability for analysis and diagnosis, planning,
execution and evaluation.
Figure 27.4 Levels of qualifications jOr seafarers
Assessment
Assessment is the process of obtaining and comparing
evidence of competence with the standards.
The aim is to ensure that sufficient, reliable and
verifiable evidence is available to enable an assessor
to be satisfied that a candidate has the ability to work
in accordance with the standards required in
employment.
Performance aboard ship can be a valuable source
of evidence of competence alongside some of the more
familiar and traditional methods of evaluating
competence. But whether sufficient evidence can be
obtained this way is another matter.
· How to develop holistic learning programmes,
based on occupational standards, which make sense
to the trainee, the employer and others involved in
the process.
· How to make best use of all on-the-job learning
opportunities, bearing in mind the variety of such
opportunities aboard ship and, in some cases, their
random occurrence.
· How to identify the knowledge which underpins
competent performance.
· How best to link the off-the-job training which is
necessary to develop underpinning knowledge and
understanding with on-the-job practice in order to
promote transfer of learning (during and after
training) and make the most efficient use oflearning
opportunities.
· How best to develop the planning, problem solving
and team work aspects of occupational competence.
· How best to develop skilled and motivated learners
(i.e. learners who know how to learn) who will in
future be able to take advantage of further
development opportunities as life-long learners.
There are no quick and easy answers to these issues.
Training providers need to consider them in the
context of their own circumstances and arrangements.
In the UK the MNTB envisages, for instance, that
planned, structured and progressive learning
programmes will continue to constitute the main routes
to competence for new entrants. As a general principle,
the learning of basic principles and underpinning
knowledge will be programmed in such a way that it
supports the development and demonstration of
competence during periods of training at sea.
A new Training Portfolio has been developed. Its
purpose is to guide training and provide a means for
the trainee to keep and record evidence of
performance of various tasks and duties. A degree of
flexibility has been built into the design of the Portfolio
as it will need to change from a rather prescriptive,
task-oriented approach to evidence gathering, which
is appropriate at lower levels, towards broader based
projects and assignments which are more appropriate
at the higher levels.
Figure 27.8 Trainingportftlio
At this stage, sea staff are not expected formally to
assess competence against the standards. This will be
undertaken at an approved centre ashore, usually a
194 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
nautical college. The role of the ship's staff will be
primarily to support and supervise the trainees'
programme of training on board and authenticate the
completion of tasks and assignments in the Training
Portfolio.
A number of opportunities arise from the
development of competence based qualifications to
enhance the education and training process. These
include:-
· The full involvement of senior staff on board in the
learning process. They are ultimately responsible
for the safety of operations and have a vested
interest in the competence of their juniors. Feedback
from them is to be encouraged as this will inform
the future development and refinement of the
standards.
· Assuming that the occupational standards are
designed with sufficient precision, it should be
possible for sO,me individuals to prove their
competence more swiftly, strengthening their
motivation to learn at sea.
· After an initial induction and familiarisation with
ship operations, all learners should have the
opportunity to be involved in planning their training
programme with their tutor/supervisor. This will
improve motivation and, providing it is not
burdensome to them, help the ship staff in the vital
tasks of ensuring that maximum benefit is derived
from all learning opportunities.
· Value can be added to the existing certificates so
that they are seen as evidence of full occupational
competence and not only licences to serve in a
specified capacity.
· There may be scope for improving learning
efficiency on board through modern IT-based
telecommunications. For instance, tutors and
trainees could review problems via e-mail and fax
and records of work and achievement necessary
for planning future programmes of individuals can
be transmitted in seconds.
Conclusion
Moving towards an approach to qualification that is
based on occupational competence ensures that
education and training is relevant to competence and
the needs of individuals, and raises standards. The
structuring of occupational standards according to
occupation (or function) and level of responsibility (or
competence) enables common competences to be
recognised easily. This will be of benefit to individuals
seeking to extend the range of work they are qualified
to perform and to progress their careers.
The occupational standards indicate what is
expected in employment. Qualifications are not
awarded until candidates provide sufficient evidence
that they meet the specified standards in full. The
standards provide clear goals for education and
training providers but they are not course syllabuses
or course programmes. Qualifications can be achieved
independently of the duration, mode and place of
learning. This facilitates access to assessment and
ensures a degree of flexibility in the way seafarers
achieve their competence. It will also encourage new
approaches to education and training and make it
possible to give recognition to achievements outside
traditional training programmes by measuring ability
against a recognised set of standards. Where
appropriate, relevant prior learning and achievements
can be recognised and credited towards a qualification.
Improving the definition of standards by specifying
the outcomes in terms of occupational competence
places increased emphasis in the process of evaluating
competence on actual ability to apply relevant
knowledge skills and knowledge in the performance
of shipboard duties. Competence based qualifications
represent a major change in the approach to
competence. By clarifying the standards of
competence to be achieved, they underpin one of the
key principles behind the review of the STCW
Convention: to ensure that certificates are awarded
only to those who have demonstrated competence in
accordance with internationally agreed standards.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 195
 Chapter TWENTY EIGHT

THE ASSESSMENT OF COMPETENCE

WITHIN A MARITIME VOCATIONAL TRAINING SCHEME
by Captain Philip J.C. Smith ExC FNI

Philip Smith was at sea with Royal Mail Lines and Canadian Pacific and holds an Extra Master certificate of competency. After
leaving the sea he worked in various nautical colleges as a lecturer and Head of Department, then became one of Her Majesty's
Inspectors of Schools, working in the Further and Higher Education sector and with special responsibilities related to nautical education.

For the last five years Philip has been self-employed, running Maritime Open Learning, undertaking various consultancies related
to training and also working part-time for the UK Merchant Navy Training Board and the Sea Fish Industry Authority as thejoint
industries' Project Manager, responsiblefor the implementation of NVQJ and SVQJ.

Introduction and definitions absolutely necessary to define the standards of

A Vocational Training Scheme (VTS) is taken, for the
purpose of this paper, as being one which prepares a
person for a particular job of work. The scheme may
include persons who have not yet entered the world
of work and also those who are currently in work but
seeking a higher level or different job. It may include
training in a college or with other training providers
and also training in the workplace itself.
Competence has been defined fully elsewhere in
this guide. However, in brief, competence must
include knowledge, skills and the application of these
in the workplace. In addition, the decision that
someone is competent should mean that a judgment
has been made that the person has the ability to
continue to perform competently in the future. Note
that it is impossible to guarantee that the person will
always perform competently. There is a difference
between a competent person and competent
performance. Many accidents occur because a person
is performing incompetently at that time or on that
particular occasion, not necessarily because that
person was unable to perform competently.
Assessment really means a judgment. Assessment
of competence means a judgment as to whether or
not that person is competent. Also, however, the word
can mean a judgment. as to what a person still needs'
to know, or which skills are required to be learned,
before that person could be considered competent.
Sometimes it is useful to distinguish between final
assessment and the "on-the-way" assessment. These
are called summative and formative assessment
respectively. The person who makes the judgments
is, of course, called an assessor.
What is the assessor judging? Against what criteria?
Again, other papers in this guide address these issues
in detail. It is sufficient here simply to say that it is
competence required, so that the assessor can make a
judgment against those standards. Otherwise, each
assessor will be guided by opinion and their own
experience. In too many cases this could lead to a
person being judged as competent by one assessor but
not competent by another.
Within the definition of these standards must be a
clear indication as to the level of competence required.
For example, is the standard for a competent
watchkeeper that for the person about to take over a
watch for the first time, or that of a fully experienced
person who is competent to deal with any emergency
without advice or support? The new watchkeeper, after
all, is normally expected to know when to call for
assistance. That is when the situation reaches a point
where the watchkeeper is perhaps not competent to
deal with it. The standards must make this clear or,
again, the judgments will not be consistent between
different assessors.
Techniques of assessment
Given that we now know what standards are required,
how does the assessor make the judgments? There are
many techniques which can be used, either together
or separately and the assessor must choose which is
the best for a given situation, or must be guided
properly as to which should be used.
Traditionally, assessment of competence of
seafarers has been by some or all of the following
techniques, depending upon the certificate,
qualification or job for which the trainee is aiming.
These are:-
Written tests or examinations.
Oral questioning.
Observation of performance in the workplace or
on simulators.

196 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

• Judgment of something produced or made by the
seafarer.
Length of sea service.
Written tests or examinations have been used by
colleges, examination authorities and individual
teachers for a wide variety of qualifications. Are they
appropriate for vocational qualifications? Yes, they
certainly are, provided we are aware of what is being
measured. It is not competence which is being
measured by written tests, but the knowledge and
sometimes techniques which support competence. We
can test someone's ability to work out a sight or to
prepare a report on a machinery breakdown, but could
the person actually do the task in the real ship? We
can be sure of the opposite. If the trainee can not do it
in a written examination, it is very unlikely that it could
be done in the ship. This is provided that the
examination or test is well written and properly reflects
the task required.
Oral questioning has again been used by assessors
of seafarers in a wide variety of contexts. In particular,
the oral examination of the National Examining
Authority (NEA) for certificates of competency has
been well known (and feared!) by seafarers for
generations. Also, oral questioning is often used when
observation of performance is undertaken (for
example in a Certificate of Proficiency in Survival
Craft (CPSC) examination), to ask why a certain action
has been taken, or to broaden the scope of what has
been observed; the sort of question which starts "what
would you do if ...?" So, does oral questioning test
competence? Well, it can test some aspects of
competence. In particular, it allows the assessor to
probe beyond what has been observed or what has
been written.
Observation of a person in the workplace, in the
past, has been used mainly in an informal way. An
example would be what happens when a new officer
joins a ship. The master or chief engineer knows that
the officer is qualified and has been judged as
competent to do the job through the holding of the
appropriate certificate of competency. However, the
master or chief is unlikely to leave the new officer
fully unsupervised until observation of performance
has taken place! Other observation of performance
takes place in courses which simulate the workplace,
either with sophisticated simulation or in less technical
or realistic environments, such as in a swimming pool
for a survival course, or in an engineering workshop.
It has not been stated as to who should undertake
that observation. Clearly, it would be helpful if the
assessor observes the person but, if that is impractical,
the assessor might accept statements that others have
done the observation. These are sometimes called
witness statements or witness testimony. In fact, for
some assessments, it may actually be preferable if it is
not the assessor who does the observation. For
example, the immediate superior of the person is often
in the best position to observe and is least likely to
disturb the events which occur during the observation.
Sometimes, performance in the workplace can be
judged at least partly by the outcome of that work.
For example, an engineer required to produce a new
object on the lathe can have the performance judged
by whether the object is to the required standard.
However, simply judging the finished article is not
the whole story. The assessor may not know how long
it took to make, what the quantity of waste material
was, nor how many failed attempts were made before
the final product was delivered.
Length of sea service is usually laid down for
particular sea-going qualifications. However, the
quality or type of that sea service is not clearly defined
in most cases and this aspect is then only a contributing
factor to the assessment of competence. It is rather a
negative one. We could say that a person is unlikely
to be competent unless a certain amount of sea service
had been undertaken, but we could not say that the
person is competent just because of any given length
of sea service.
The blend of assessment techniques
No single technique of assessment is likely to arrive at
an accurate judgment of a person as being competent,
with the possible exception of observation. If that
person is observed for a long enough period, in a very
wide range of circumstances, it is just possible that an
assessor might be satisfied that the person is
competent. However, it is unlikely as well as being
difficult and time-consuming to do! However long the
observation took place, there could be no guarantees
that every situation would naturally arise which would
test out the competence of the person. What judgment
could be made if the bridge watchkeeper never met a
vessel replenishing at sea? Or an engineer watchkeeper
did not have a broken piston?
It should be obvious that, if competence includes
the application in the workplace of knowledge and
skills, observation must at least playa part in the
assessment. All of the other techniques are incomplete
in themselves or collectively. But it has also been
argued that even direct observation by the assessor
has its limitations.
In practice, the assessment must be carried out
using a range of techniques. It should include
observation and, in order to test the aspects which
cannot or might not be observed and to ensure that
the competence can be judged to be likely to continue
into the future, questioning in written or oral form
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 197
 must also be undertaken. Inspection of products can
help to support such judgments. Length of sea service
should only be employed to denote an absolute
minimum time below which no person could be
considered competent.
Practical assessment for seafarers
Most seafarers work with a number of different persons
during their sea service while training for a particular
qualification. They may have different supervisors for
different tasks, the personnel on board may change
and they themselves may change ships several times.
The opportunities, then, for a single supervisor to be
the assessor of the seafarer are limited. The observation
of performance in the work place may therefore be
by a number of persons and the seafarer will need to
record and collect the judgments made by those
persons. Later, this collection of judgments can be used
by the assessor to determine if competence has been
achieved.
The other techniques to be employed can be used
either on board or ashore. Oral and written
questioning and the inspection of products can be done
by ship's staff and the results recorded for subsequent
inspection by the assessor, or the latter can provide
such tests directly. All records of observation, results
of tests, answers to questions, etc. are called the
evidence upon which the assessor must finally
determine if the person is competent.
A common way of recording the work place
evidence is through the provision of a log book. This
will have tasks written down for the seafarer to
. undertake and spaces for supervisors and others to
record the results achieved. Some such log books are
very simple, requiring little more from the supervisor
than to tick a box and sign that it has been achieved.
Others have tasks which ask for a statement of quality,
such as "I certify that the seafarer (named) has
corrected the charts and publications in full accordance
with Company and statutory requirements and
procedures" - followed by the signature of the
supervisor. Yet others do not state in detail the tasks
to be done, but give guidance as to the type of task to
be undertaken and recorded. For example, "record
any maintenance you carried out while on watch as
an engineer and produce evidence of repairing items
of machinery (perhaps from a given range)".
The assessor may assist the seafarer at various
points (see the reference to formative assessment) but,
in the end, it is for the seafarer to produce a set of
evidence to the assessor which covers all of the
requirements to show that competence has been
achieved. This set of evidence is often called a
portfolio. If this evidence is full and complete, the
assessor's task is simple. It is just to ensure that the
198 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
evidence does, in fact, belong to the particular seafarer;
that the seafarer did not copy evidence from someone
else; and that the levels of competence indicated by
the evidence are indeed those of the person named.
This process can be accomplished by spot checks on
the evidence, perhaps through questions or tests. But
it is not necessary, if the evidence is of high quality,
for the assessor to test the seafarer on every aspect. It
is enough to be satisfied that the evidence itself is
genuine.
At the end of this process, a decision must be
reached! Is the person now to be considered
competent? How can the assessor tell? The first
requirement is that there should be sufficient evidence.
If there is no evidence, or less than that laid down in
the requirements for that particular qualification, the
person can not be judged as competent. Secondly, is
the quality of the evidence high enough as to match
the laid down criteria? Thirdly, is the assessor
confident that the evidence belongs to the person being
assessed? If the answers to all three points are yes, the
assessor should be able, confidently, to proclaim the
person competent.
However, the world is not as clear as this! The
assessor may still have some doubts, or the evidence
might be comparable to, but not identical with, the
prescribed amount or quality. There is a strong body
of opinion that all assessment is, in the end, subjective;
that is, that the assessor may have to make a judgment,
based certainly on the evidence, but also upon the
instincts of the assessor. In many industries, assessment
is based very much on this form of judgment from
one's peers. While many of the elements of subjectivity
can be removed by good guidance, good training of
assessors and good quality control of the processes, a
small element of subjectivity may well remain.
Who should be the assessors?
There is certainly advantage to be gained by shipboard
supervisors of whatever rank becoming assessors.
They will be clear about the agreed standards and the
processes for assessment. They will be in a good
position to observe performance and to question others
on board about the competence of any individual. The
formative evidence which they can help provide for
that person will therefore be of high quality. However,
when it comes to the summative assessment of the
person, they may well have to rely on the evidence of
others as they may not have served continually with
that person while all the evidence was collected. The
summative assessment may, therefore, be undertaken
by either ship's personnel or shore-based persons, such
as college lecturers or industry training officers. A
particular difficulty for the shipboard assessor is how
the processes of quality control can be exercised. The
next section deals with this issue.
Quality assurance
Earlier, it was stated that it is necessary for the
standards to be fully defined in order to ensure that
all assessors of a particular qualification would make
the same judgment for a particular seafarer producing
a certain set of evidence. However, there is an
additional requirement. However well the standards
are defined, there will need to be a check on the
activities of assessors, in order to moderate between
them. Some of this can be achieved by written
guidance to assessors, to cover predictable
circumstances, such as what to do if a key piece of
evidence is missing. Every effort should be made to
ensure that such circumstances are anticipated and that
assessors are given as much objective information as
possible to ensure a fair assessment.
In addition, however good and comprehensive is
the written guidance, assessors must have their
judgments open to scrutiny. This can be achieved by,
for example:-
Administrative procedures which require each
assessor to keep good records of what occurs at the
time of assessment; what questions were asked and
what answers were given; what tests, if any, were
applied and their results; the basis of any decisions
reached where evidence did not exactly match the
laid down requirements.
Allowing opportunities for (or requiring) assessors
to meet together to review procedures and to discuss
difficulties which have arisen.
Having an appeals procedure so that those judged
can have their evidence reviewed by other
assessors.
Designing opportunities for assessors (and
assessments) to be viewed by other assessors from
time to time while carrying out an assessment and
the results discussed between them.
Having an additional layer of quality control above
that of Assessor, to which evidence and assessment
decisions are submitted for confirmation
(sometimes called verification).
Summary
Vocational training schemes allow seafarers to count
their performance in the ship towards their
qualifications. Other seafarers, in a supervisory
capacity, can play an important part in judging the
competence of seafarers with whom they work.
Competence of a seafarer is a combination of
knowledge, skill and application of these in the
workplace. A variety of assessment techniques should
be used, properly quality controlled, to ensure that
the standards achieved are those which have been
defined and that all assessors are working to those
defined standards.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 199
 Chapter TWENTY NINE

THE ROLE OF CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT

AND THE USE OF PROJECTS IN STUDENT DEVELOPMENT
by Mr Christopher J. Haughton BA Cert Ed MNI

Head of Maritime Operations, Blackpool and The Fylde College

Fleetwood Nautical Campus

Chris Haughton went to sea in 7977 with Cunard Brocklebank and servedfor nine years in general cargo, container and reefir shiPs,
a VLCC, product tankers, livestock and bulk carriers. He studied for Second and First Mate Certificates at Plymouth College of Further
Education (now Plymouth University). Transferring to passenger shiPs he spent a further five years on the Q,E2 and Cunard Princess
as First Officer. He obtained his Master s Certificate in 7982 at South Shields Marine and Technical College (now South Tyneside
College). Following a brief spell ashore as Training Manager he moved to Dover and servedfor three years on cross-channelfirries. He
is now in his ninth year at Blackpool and The Fylde College and is Head of Maritime Operations.

Developments in UK education policies have seen the introduction of a functional-based training system (National Vocational
Q,ualifications) into the UK Merchant Navy. Fleetwood has been closely involved with this work over the past four years.

Introduction
Historically, candidates for Certificates of Competency
presented themselves for examination at the end of a
college-based programme or whenever they felt able.
Failure meant the candidate simply went round the
block again and again until success came, more by
inevitability than anything else - the candidate, having
exhausted the question banks, was able to predict the
papers fairly accurately. Over the past fifteen years
there has been, within the UK generally and the
Merchant Navy in particular, a shift towards on-course
continuous assessment for much of the work that
people have to do. This is only part of a much wider
educational move towards student-centred learning
with its underpinning ethos of humanist thinking.
Nowadays, the academic components of a
qualification in the UK are satisfied by studying
programmes approved by various academic standard-
setters (BTEC/SCOTVEC). Furthermore, with the
advent of a functional-based training system -
National Vocational Qualifications - students will also
have to provide evidence of performance at sea (or
possibly in simulation) which will combine with
academic achievement to prove competence. This
chapter will discuss the merits of continuous on-course
assessment before moving on to discuss project -setting,
focusing on the adequate briefing of students, some
of whom may not have encountered this form of
assessment before.
On-course continuous assessment
The image of an accomplished and mature seaman
waiting with trepidation to face an oral examination
at the end of a Certificate of Proficiency in Survival
Craft (CPSC) course may be familiar. If there is a
connection between the stress of a face-to-face
examination and the candidate's competence in a
lifeboat it is tenuous to say the least. That is not the
only flaw. The candidate may also be at the mercy of
idiosyncratic examiners who can baffle even
experienced seamen with esoteric questions built up
over a lifetime of similar encounters.
On the other hand, a planned assessment strategy
sets criteria which are mutually understood by assessor
and candidate. Assessment is conducted in an
atmosphere of mutual respect and candidates have a
proper environment in which to demonstrate their
competence - or otherwise. With the CPSC example
above, it may be expedient to assess the course in one
session at the end. However, on some of the longer
academic programmes it may be better to assess at
regular intervals.
Questions of norm vs. criteria referencing,
replicability and validity are dealt with in other
chapters. All forms of assessment must be planned
and implemented with these overriding principles in
mind.
Decisions as to the form of assessment within a
given academic programme are made at (inter)national
level in discussion with other institutions, the industry
lead body (the MNTB in the UK), the academic
awarding bodies and the relevant governmental
administration. Having decided on the overall scheme,
the actual implementation is delegated to the
institutions, course teams and lecturers.

200 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Internal and External Verification (IV and EV) of
assessments is an intrinsic part of the process. The
internal verification will typically be undertaken by a
small IV committee drawn from within and without
the course team. The committee will:-
Stage 1
Verify that the overall assessment plan meets agreed
strategy.
Examine the programme syllabus.
Discuss the type of assessment being proposed, eg
written, verbal, observation of performance.
Check which parts of the syllabus (referred to
sometimes as indicative content) are being
addressed by the assessment.
Ensure that when the assessments in the programme
have been completed all the indicative contents will
have been addressed.
Check written assessment papers for the rubric,
grammar, syntax, spelling, style, ambiguity and
layout. Ensure that the students are aware of the
criteria against which they are being assessed.
Examine marking schemes and suggest
amendments where it is felt necessary or desirable.
Stage 2
Select a sample of completed assessments and verify
that assessment has been carried out fairly against
the set criteria.
Ensure that records are kept of the IV process.
Meetings should be minuted.
External verification is carried out by
representatives of the academic awarding bodies and
government departments who audit the process to
ensure standards are maintained between institutions.
Two disadvantages of continuous assessment are
the increased time and cost of conducting the
assessments and the Individual Students Records
(ISRs) that have to be maintained throughout the
programme. These problems can be minimised by
effective time-management, flexible staff and efficient
administration.
Project work
'Too much teaching and not enough learning' is a
criticism sometimes laid at the door of former
educational practice. Didactic chalk and talk has, we
hope, given way to more enlightened methods.
The objective paramount in most of our students'
minds is their passport to a livelihood - a Certificate
of Competency. Within this framework, we seek to
motivate our students and to facilitate their learning
so that they see their current programme as just one
more, leading to a lifetime of professional and personal
development.
Project work may help to engender these ideas.
Provided that the subject area allows, students may
be given leeway, within their syllabus, to explore and
research an area which is of personal interest.
Not being prescriptive in the title of the project
brings with it the first hurdle. Most students will never
have been given the responsibility for their own
learning. Some of them will be apprehensive and
confused. It is crucial that the facilitator (lecturer)
provides adequate support at this time through
briefings and tutorial support. Of course, some subject-
areas may not be rich in material or, it may be that
the project demands knowledge of highly specific
topics, in which case the non-prescriptive approach
may not work. Lecturers must be encouraged to try
different strategies.
Assuming the first scenario, that the student has
been allowed to select the project title, this chapter
will now move on to discuss the essential elements of
briefing, support and criteria-setting.
Project briefing - general
This would typically take up an entire teaching session
of about one hour. The lecture would be accompanied
by OHP presentation, handout and the students would
be able to examine examples of past projects.
Figure 29.1 (on two pages) is the handout provided
at the author's college. It covers, in general terms, the
information needed to plan and execute any
assignment or project task. It will be followed by a
much more specific briefing sheet for the particular
task in hand.
Project briefing - particular
Having briefed students in general terms concerning
project writing, it is important to focus on the subject
matter or syllabus area that is to be addressed.
This is where the students will benefit from as wide
a brief as possible. The narrower the focus, the less
the student has to do for him/herself. The lecturer
should also provide the following information:-
Submission deadlines with penalties for late
submission.
Word length with ± tolerance.
Any particular presentation requirements.
Details of tutorial sessions and other times when
guidance will be provided.
Details of IT support for those who need it.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 201
4.2 Be systematic.
4.3 Use real case studies to bring the project to life.
4.4 Be critical of all you read.
4.5 Stick to the project title - don't wander.
4.6 Read around your subject.
4.7 Show your capacity to summarise data and use statistics.
4.8 Balance the topics.
4.9 Use appendices.
4.10 Use illustrations.
4.11 Collect your resources early.
4.12 Work out a project plan and stick to it. Manage your time effectively.
4.13 Include a bibliography.
4.14 Make references in the text correctly (see below).
4.15 Produce a good physical presentation.
4.16 Use the spell-check!
4.17 Stay within the word-limit.
4.18 Remember that the best work shows originality.
4.19 Get someone to read your work critically before submission.
4.20 Hand in on time.

5.0 Don'ts of project writing

5.1 Copy slabs out of other publications. This is plagiarism and is easily detected. It is, of course,
cheating and will be a justifiable reason for returning your work to be rewritten or, at worst, failed.
5.2 Suppress facts because they don't fit your theory.
5.3 Write overlong paragraphs.
5.4 Use the personal pronoun'!'.
5.5 Submit late!

Note on Referencing
You may quote short passages from text books or other sources. However they should always be properly
referenced. Suppose you were writing about the safety of bulk carriers. There is an interesting article in
the Nautical Institute's September 1996 edition of Seaways which you might like to use. The full passage
reads:

"In the early 1990s when it became apparent that bulk carriers were being inexplicably lost in numbers every
sector of the industry had its explanations and solutions. Nautical Institute members speculated that these shiPs were
being driven too hard in adverse weather, or damaged by high loading rates." (Seaways, Sep 96 pg. 45).

Arguably, this is too long to reproduce in full in your project. You might decide to cut it down while
still retaining the gist as follows:

''In the early 1990s when it became apparent that bulk carriers were being inexplicably lost...{it was] speculated
that these ships were being pushed too hard ...or damaged by high loading rates." (Seaways, Sep 1996 pg. 45).

Note that the entire quote is contained within "quotation marks".

The series of full stops ... indicates that you have omitted a word or words from the original text. The
square brackets [ ] indicate that you have inserted your own words in order to make grammatical sense
of the part quoted.

The brief reference at the end is always put in parentheses ( ) and is enough so that the reader can find
it in the bibliography at the end of the project. In the bibliography you must include the whole reference
to the publication used, including name of author, title of publication, publisher, year (and month) of
publication, e.g:

Isbester J, Bulk Carriers - A Changing World, Seaways, Sep 1996, Nautical Institute, London

Figure 29.1 (continued) Handout to accompany lecture

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 203

Project outline plan
This last document is vital to the overall success of
the project. Each student should be issued with a
proforma on which he/she provides a thumbnail
sketch of the project they are planning together with
its title and any other information they want to give.
The document then passes back and forwards between
lecturer and student enabling the lecturer to keep
control of the process - but at a distance.
1 Student completes form with brief details of
intended project.
2 Lecturer checks for suitability and appropriateness
and returns to student with comments. Provided
the plan is satisfactory, the student will now progress
his/her project. If there are problems, then the form
will have to be re-submitted.
3 Student submits form with project.
4 Lecturer uses form to mark project and make
suitable comment. Returns to student.
5 Student uses form to make feedback comment and
returns to lecturer.
6 Lecturer stores form for internal and external
verification process.
An example of a project outline plan is shown in
figure 29.2. Lecturers would adapt this model to fit
their particular subject areas, marking criteria, and
overall project requirements.
Project marking
Assessment involves examining the standards of
practice, the practitioner and the process. Few of these
standards have objective measures of correctness, such
as may be found, say, in the application of a
mathematical formula to a problem. Some evaluations
have set criteria against which to measure performance
(e.g. the project must be word-processed or typed)
while most involve a large element of subjective
judgment on the part of the assessor. In a famous piece
of research, Hartog and Rhodes (1935: 1936) asked
experienced examiners to mark a number of
examination scripts. Examiners disagreed over the
marks and even about the rank order of these scripts.
The following year the same examiners were asked to
mark the same scripts again and not only were
disagreements discovered but the examiners altered
their grades from those of the previous year. In this
research, it was evident that the subjectivity was such
that it was not possible for the same piece of written
work to receive the same grade on different occasions.
This would indicate that the replicability of this type
of assessment is suspect. Nevertheless, we are faced
204 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
with several subject areas where mathematical
precision can never be employed and where criteria
have to be created and made as objective as possible.
A project report as shown in figure 29.3 would
accompany the project outline plan.
The criteria are not exhaustive and lecturers should
decide individually, or as members of course teams,
the manner in which they intend assessing. The final
grade could be expressed as a percentage. Because of
the difficulty in being precise when reaching a final
mark, projects are often awarded a percentage in
multiples of 5%. Another method for assessing projects
is simply to award them a pass, merit or distinction.
This is in line with the system, under some awarding
bodies, for the grading of whole units (towards which
the project would count). Once again, these decisions
should be taken after discussion with relevant internal
and external consultees.
Conclusion
This paper has attempted to show how continuous
assessment is a valid tool in the testing armoury. It
can achieve measurable results, set against agreed
criteria, in an environment which is conducive to a
student's learning. While there is no question of
permitting a dilution of standard, the process does
reduce stress levels in students thus enhancing their
learning experience. Project work is important as one
of many learning strategies. Empirical evidence gained
from the written feedback of students at the author's
own institution would indicate that this type of work
is a powerful exercise in broadening the mind which
the students, in retrospect, welcome and appreciate.
Students are encouraged to stretch their own
boundaries, to use their own expertise and knowledge,
and to develop their instinct to learn. This ultimate
goal - of learning to learn - is brought that much
closer by the process.
Bibliography and further reading
• Dembo, M.H., Applying Educational Psychology, 5th
Ed., Longman, New York, 1994.
• Jarvis, P., Professional Education, Croom Helm,
London, 1983.
• Tight, M. et aI, Education jOr Adults VolI, Routledge,
London, 1983.
• Tight, M. et aI, Education jOr Adults VolII, Routledge,
London, 1983.
• Hartog and Rhodes,AnExamination ofExaminations,
MacMillan, London, 1935.
• Isbester,J., Bulk Carriers - A Changing World, Sep
Ed. Seaways, The Nautical Institute, London, 1996.
 Chapter THIRTY

THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF EXAMINATION

SYSTEMS BASED UPON MULTIPLE CHOICE CRITERIA
by Mr Perry A. Stutman

United States Coast Guard

Perry Stutman has had a diversified and extensive career in the US. maritime industry. Following his graduation with honours in
1969, he sailed until becoming an instructor in the Marine Engineering Department of his alma mater, the Calhoon M.E.B.A.
Engineering School; established by the Marine Engineer's Beneficial Association and supported by contracted US. shipping companies.

He remained at Calhoon until 1987 when the cadet training program was terminated and returned to sea until his retirement in
1991. During his 13 years as an instructor, heprovided training to more than 2500 cadets and licensed engineers. Further, he developed
the transportable inert gas and crude oil washing courseprovided to the M.E.B.A. membershiP at ports throughout the us.

At the beginning of Operation Desert Shield in 1990, he was chief engineer of the ammunition ship S.S. Cape Archway, placing it
back in servicefOllowing its eleven year lay-up in the maritime administration's ready reservefleet. His sailing and instructional
experience was tested extensively to move the 25 year old ship over to the Persian Gulf and back. With the end of hostilities he retired
as a seagoing mariner, but took over as the Chief, Engineering Section of the us. Coast Guard's Merchant Marine Examination
Branch inJune 1991. There he has modernised the methodology and the multiple choice questions used in the engineering examination
process and devised increased use of computer concepts in the future examination of the mariner.

He has also authored the book ''Applied Marine Hydraulics", was an instrumental participant in develoPing the Coast Guard's
report "Licensing 2000 and Beyond': and is working on another bookfOr publication describing an engineer's efforts in sailing cargo
vessels. In addition to being a licensed private aircraft pilot, he has been an active sailor, participating as navigator during several
racing seasons in the Chesapeake Bay; and headed the Inner Harbor Sailing School in Baltimore, Maryland during the late 1970s.

Introduction Regardless of the process, knowledge of

During the training process, one question continually
rises: "How effective is the training?"
It is necessary, first and foremost to realise, as
represented by the contents of this text, that there is
no single method of competency verification that can
be considered as a satisfactory means of determining
the success of training. Unlike many shoreside
occupations, in which the output of the individual
through training can be considered as passive, the
maritime industry is particularly performance
oriented. To perform the duties of a mariner effectively,
a distinct integration of skills and knowledge is
essential. Throughout this chapter, valuable guidance
is provided in the education and training of the
mariner.
In the past, the development of skills had been a
function of using one's knowledge and, over a period
of time, the acquisition of reinforcing experience.
Today, through advances in computer technology,
graphic simulation has gradually evolved and
contributed to an artificial means of enhancing the
development of skills. In the near future, simulators
will play an ever increasing role in the development
of better trained and safer mariners.
appropriate subject matter is imperative in the
comprehension and implementation of skill
development. Therefore, prior to allowing an
individual to exercise the responsibilities of those skills,
an assessment of the individual's knowledge must be
made in advance of their participation, even at the
most base performance level.
Traditionally, written examinations have been
provided as the only means for determining the
acquisition of knowledge by the mariner. Typically,
the examination formats have taken the form of either
an essay or multiple choice examinations.
The remainder of this chapter is related to the
development of multiple choice examinations as a tool
in the training of mariners. However, a significant
amount of background and experience has been drawn
from the administration of essay type examinations
used in competency verification. In the U.S., the use
of multiple choice examinations for determining
mariner competency in the certification process has
been a controversial issue since its implementation in
1974.
Even though criticism was stimulated by the
decision to use the multiple choice format for

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 207

nationwide examinations, many of the same concerns
are applicable to its use within local training programs.
It is, therefore, essential to review the advantages and
disadvantages noted between these two formats when
the transition is considered.
Essay items, used in the vast majority of subject
examinations, consisted of three basic types:
situational, descriptive and computational. The level
of certificate being examined determined the number
and mix of the type of essay questions selected. For
each question on file, a card was maintained with the
question printed on one side and the answer(s) printed
on the reverse side. The specific questions would then
be transferred to the examination pages provided to
the examinee.
Essay type questions
Situational essay items were those in which a problem
requiring action would be described. The examinee
would attempt to respond with their version of an
appropriate course of action.
Descriptive essay items required the examinee to
provide a list of specific items or a series of brief
descriptions related to an object or situation.
Computational items involved the solving of a set
of problems, typically related to mathematics or
physics.
Upon providing their answers, the examinee was
subjected to various aspects of the experience of the
individual examiners grading the answer. For example,
situational essay items typically required a unique set
of conditions. Each condition required a weight factor
which, when added together, provided the total score
for that particular question.
For many of the questions, the preprinted answers
on the cards were, as a matter of opinion, either
incomplete or offered examiners only fragmented
solutions. While scoring the examinee's responses,
examiners were often required to draw upon their own
experience to supplement the suggested fragmented
answer during the evaluation of the examinee's
response.
The evaluation of the response was then subjected
to the range and experience of the examiner. Although
some Coast Guard test centres had experienced
examiners, many centres were staffed only by recent
academy graduates. In some instances the examiners
were enlisted personnel without benefit of any sea
service. This system of inconsistent and inaccurate
scoring resulted in some experienced examinees being
failed, where they should have passed; and some being
passed, when they should have failed.
208 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Descriptive essay items should have caused fewer
problems in scoring than either situational or
problematic type questions. However, where
inexperienced examiners were scoring the
examinations, the candidate's answer either matched
the answer on the card or the majority of the credit
was withheld. As the sum of each correct answer was
to have provided a cumulative score for the question,
either full or partial credit would be assigned. Many
examiners considered questions of this type to be
relatively simple, requiring only rote memorisation
to provide the list of answers, without the candidate
being aware as to how to apply the knowledge. As a
result, certain examiners tended to accept only specific
answers with a minimum tolerance as a means to
counter the relative ease of this type of question,
leaving the candidate with a lower score than that to
which they were entitled.
Scoring of computational type questions suffered
from an absence of standards and contributed to an
inconsistency in grading amongst examiners
nationwide. For these questions to be given credit, the
examinee was not only required to provide the correct
answer, but to also show their solutions in solving the
problem. Inconsistent grading was partly attributed
to the fact that many mathematical problems could
be solved by several methods. Examiners, being either
inexperienced or untrained, were further
disadvantaged as they were incapable of recognising
an examinee's use of technical shortcuts or an ability
to perform some calculations in their head. In other
instances, the solution began at a reference point
different from the solution provided on the back of
the card.
With five to ten problems presented to an examinee
as a complete test, the unsuccessful answer to one
problem would have a major impact on the passing
grade. As a result, the examinee may have provided
the correct answer, but in the examiner's opinion did
not provide the correct mathematical process and the
grade for the particular question was reduced. In a
few instances, an examinee may have provided an
incorrect answer, but may have been given as much
as eight out of ten points for having shown the correct
mathematical process and erroneously been granted
a certificate.
Over several decades, the goal of the examinations
to determine mariner competency was severely
compromised as the bank of essay questions and
answers were captured by nearly every training school.
Hence, even though several thousand questions were
available for use, repetitive review of the questions by
a candidate, just prior to being examined, resulted in
successfully acquiring the certificate.
All of the problems associated with the essay
examinations were considered in the 1969 study
conducted on behalf of the Coast Guard, "Licensing
of Deck and Engineering Officers in the U.S. Merchant
Marine". For this project, numerous individuals were
contacted and provided opinions as to the potential
changeover to the multiple choice format. One
objection set forth in the study presented the concept,
as reinforced by the Coast Guard and union officials,
that "the typical applicant has come up through the
hawse pipe, and typically has had less than four years
of high school. ... It is argued that such applicants are
likely to find the multiple choice type of examination
confusing, since the correct answer may depend on
semantic differences or on shades of meaning among
the alternatives (responses)".
Another line of reasoning, offered in support of
the essay tests, stemmed from the fact that on such
tests "the applicant would be able to express himself
in his own words and would be able to demonstrate
his knowledge and understanding by example,
diagrams, etc. Since he may not be very adept in the
use of words, he may not give a very precise answer,
but presumably the examiner would be able to discern
whether he possessed the requisite knowledge and
understanding and would grade his answer
accordingly."
Unfortunately, inadequate writing skills would in
many cases count against the examinee, as the scoring
factor was dependent upon which of the examiners
was present. Also, another assumption made regarding
the responses to essay type examinations, was relative
to the candidate's educational background.
Examinees, who were college graduates, were
considered being capable of writing well organised,
smooth flowing, properly punctuated and correctly
spelled responses. While many college graduates
capably wrote understandable responses, this was not
always true. Whatever skills were demonstrated in
passing their basic writing courses, these same skills
were not always adequately demonstrated during the
examinations. In other cases, an examinee's ability to
answer a question clearly was often affected by the
stress of being examined. Again, the final outcome of
the examination depended upon the sympathy of the
examiner and quite often the scoring of the
examinations became a subjective exercise that did
not necessarily reflect the knowledge of the examinee.
The condensed background information on the
administration and scoring of essay examinations had
been based on examinations conducted within the U.S.
maritime industry. However, where the use of essay
examinations as a function of training courses is being
considered, some instructors may attempt to discount
the major problems previously encountered. For
instance, several points were highlighted regarding the
inconsistency of scoring by a collection of examiners
with mixed experience. This consideration might be
viewed as inconsequential to those who see the course
instructor as the individual who would score the
examination he would develop and administer to his
students. However, many of the problems cited will
not only continue to exist, but due to his familiarity
with his students may actually be amplified.
For example, in a training institution in which
policies and standards are established for the
instructors, implementation will vary slightly from
individual to individual as a matter of interpretation.
Also, it should be realised that where two individuals
have the opportunity to interpret a response, there
will never be 100% agreement by two evaluators as to
the correctness of the response.
Experienced instructors, having administered
situational type essay examinations, may have
developed a comfortable system of scoring. One
method that has been used in developing a system of
scoring, has been to establish benchmarks by writing
out their version of the required answer. Once this
has been done, specific elements of the answer that
the student is to include in their response are then
highlighted and assigned specific point values.
Although this boiler plate concept is relatively simple
and convenient in principle, the student is unable to
organise and think in precisely the same manner as
the instructor. To the instructor's dismay, he is still
confronted with interpreting whether or not the
student has appropriately provided a knowledgeable
answer.
Now the instructor must dissect and determine to
what extent the student's answer should be awarded
points in determining a final examination score.
Until the late fifties, the majority of educators had
maintained a traditional belief that the only true
examinations were ofthe essay type. As U. S. colleges
began to maintain reliance in the multiple choice type
entrance examinations as a standard, a gradual change
in acceptance of the multiple choice examination
gained greater acceptance. However, it should be
recognised that any attempt to argue solely for the
use of one exam type or the other only demonstrates
an inflexibility that is not a desirable attribute of an
instructor.
One should be aware of the shortfalls in the
examination element when the human element is
involved in the process. Examinations are merely tools
and the improper use of any tool results in a sub-
standard output. Driving a screw into wood with a
hammer may appear successful, but this procedure
does not provide the same ability to keep the two
pieces together as when the screw is properly driven
in with a screwdriver.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 209
 One human element affecting the decision to use
one examination type over the other is "how much
time do I have to .... ?" Where an instructor is
confronted with developing a completely new
examination without a prior source of questions from
which to select, he would find that he could develop
10 to 20 essay type questions in under two hours. On
the other hand, to develop 10 to 20 multiple choice
questions may require as much as 12 hours. Of course,
it may be necessary to develop 100 multiple choice
questions properly to cover the subject material that
could be covered by 10 essay questions.
Ironically, the amount of time necessary to
effectively and properly score a situational essay type
examination of ten questions (where the average
answer may be 150 words) would warrant no less than
45 minutes. If only six examinations need to be scored,
this would require approximately 4 hours. However,
if 15 examinations were required to be scored by the
next morning, the sense of urgency would impose
reduced scoring time, and the accuracy ofthe grading
should be questioned.
On the other hand, scoring 15 multiple choice
examinations (100 questions each) will require less than
a hour when using a grading template. Hence, where
time becomes an important factor in completing the
course paperwork, the multiple choice examination
is a more efficient, consistent, and fairer assessment
tool in the determination of acquired knowledge. Also,
during the grading, the opportunity is presented to
compare the answers marked off for each question.
During this review, the comparison will indicate any
difficulties in understanding the question, other
situations where the examinees have considered two
answers to be correct, collective deficiencies as a group
in understanding the subject material, etc.
Having acknowledged that it requires patience and
time to develop a quality set of multiple choice
questions, a set of standards and a flexible plan needs
to be established for developing these items. Again,
although the discussion has been centred on a broad
based use, the following recommendations are still
applicable, whether the focus is on examinations for
a specific training course, or for a national examination
system.
Multiple choice type questions
Just as essay type examinations were categorised into
three areas, multiple choice questions can similarly
be considered as situational, descriptive and
computational.
Situational type multiple choice questions
Situational type multiple choice questions are those
which require the examinee to select, from a choice
210 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
of responses, the action which is most appropriate for
the scenario described in the stem of the question.
For example, many rules of the road and trouble
shooting questions will be of this type.
Example - Rules of the road
Two vessels under sail are approaching head to head.
The wind is directly out of the north, requiring vessel
";:..:'to beat to windward on a course of 045°. This will
require vessel .
A. ";:..:'to fall off to a course of 060°.
B. "B" to steer a more westerly course.
C. ";:..:'to head up to a new course of 030°.
D. "B" to maintain its present course.
With both vessels under sail, the vessel sailing
closest to the wind on a starboard tack will have the
right-of-way. As neither are on a starboard tack, the
vessel closest to the wind, in this example vessel ";:":',
is close hauled, while vessel "B" is on a broad reach
and can easily manoeuvre. Therefore the correct
answer for the situation is that of "B" to steer a more
westerly course.
Example - Troubleshooting
The compressor of a small refrigeration unit is running
excessively and it has been determined that the
refrigerated space temperature is nearly normal, with
a slightly higher than normal suction pressure, and a
lower than normal head pressure. You should check
for .
A. High cooling water temperature.
B. Leaking door gaskets.
C. Air in the system.
D. A shortage of refrigerant.
Answers A and C can be eliminated immediately,
if the condition of an excessively running compressor
is realised as being opposite to this condition, as well
as the fact that these units are air and not water cooled.
To reinforce this acknowledgment, these two responses
are typically identified with higher than normal head
pressure. While a shortage of refrigerant will cause a
compressor to run excessively, the suction pressure
would be lower than normal and D should not be
considered. But the remaining answer, "B. Leaking
door gaskets" seems, at first, to be an odd solution
until the factors described in the stem are properly
considered.
First, lower than normal head pressure can be
attributed to overfeeding the sole evaporator with
refrigerant, which will simultaneously contribute to
the higher than normal suction pressure. The
compressor runs excessively to keep refrigerant
moving through the system in an attempt to remove
the excess heat from the box seeping in through the
leaky door gaskets. Therefore, this residential
refrigerator is just barely able to maintain normal
temperature, and response B is shown to be the only
correct response.
In both questions cited, a decision is required to
be made based upon the information supplied in the
stem of the question. Through one multiple choice
question, many bits of information may need to be
provided for an examinee knowledgeably to choose
the correct response as related in the examples above.
It is also possible to develop a follow-up question
to the type of question sited above to reinforce what
additional action should be carried out to correct the
assumption made by the initial conclusion. For
example, regarding the last question, the follow-up
might be written as:-
Example
To correct the problem in the example above, you
should . GPM = LANE/231
A. Increase cooling water flow.
B. Add refrigerant.
C. Purge air from the system.
D. Replace door gaskets.
Both questions would have to be answered
correctly for full credit to be given, otherwise it is
inferred that the examinee only made a correct guess.
Descriptive type multiple choice questions
Descriptive type multiple choice questions differ only
from the comparable essay version by listing three or
four of the items as responses that the examinee would
be required to list for an essay type examination.
Example - Descriptive type
What function(s) is/are provided by the scrubber used
in an inert gas system?
A. Cool the gas.
B. Remove solid particles from the gas.
C. Reduce corrosiveness of the gas.
D. All of the above.
Nearly everyone who is knowledgeable of the
components of an inert gas system would recognise
the importance of the scrubber and acknowledge
response A as correct. The examinee should also
recognise Band C as being true and should mark D
as the actual correct response.
Computational type multiple choice questions
Computational problems are again very similar to their
essay counterpart. The main difference is that the
correct response is listed amongst four responses. The
following example is based upon the capacity
calculation of a steam driven reciprocating pump, and
is specifically selected for the additional knowledge
required to perform the computation successfully.
Example - Computational problem
The data plate is fixed to a duplex, double acting,
steam driven, reciprocating pump which is operating
at a rate of 40 double strokes per minute showing the
numbers 8 x 12 x 10. What is the hourly rate of
discharge, in gallons, if pump efficiency is 88%?
A. 1651.8 gal/hr.
B. 3303.6 gal/hr.
C. 19,848 gal/hr.
D. 39,698 gal/hr.
The correct answer is D and was calculated by
properly selecting and applying the numbers into the
formula:-
where: GPM = gallons per minute
L= The length of stroke.
A= Cylinder area ([D] [D] [0.7854]).
N= Number of working strokes.
E= Efficiency.
The stroke length is obtained by the knowledge
that this is represented by the second number on the
data plate as 12 inches. A cylinder diameter of 10
inches is also obtained from the data plate as the third
number. Although not required for this calculation, it
should be known that the first number represents the
steam cylinder diameter. The number of working
strokes is provided by the string of information in the
stem as "a duplex, double acting, ... operating at a
rate of 40 double strokes per minute." From the term
duplex, it is known that there are two discharging
liquid cylinders, doubling the capacity. The term
double acting indicates that each cylinder produces
effective work with each stroke. The term double
stroke simply refers to the fact that the piston moves
twice through the cylinder (top to bottom, then bottom
to top). Therefore, in this example, N equals 160
strokes (two cylinders, where each double stroke
produces two discharges - [40] [2] [2] = 160) and the
efficiency is given as 88%. Once the multiplication is
completed, the sum is divided by 231 and the math is
completed by multiplying by 60 minutes.
While the calculation is fairly basic, several factors
must be remembered and considered as part of the
process. With this in mind, incorrect calculations for
the remaining three responses are made, for example,
by using the incorrect number of working strokes. The
responses for A and B were calculated by using the
steam cylinder diameter figure of 8 inches applied to
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 211
the formula as the stroke length. Further, the data plate
figure for the stroke length was incorrectly used as
the liquid cylinder diameter. Other variations can be
obtained by the inappropriate use of the information
provided but, more importantly, the incorrect
responses were generated by employing mistakes
typically made by examinees in solving these problems
or were made simply because the examinee did not
know how to perform the calculation properly.
Developing multiple choice questions
As demonstrated, comparisons can be made between
the similar types of essay and multiple choice
questions. Regardless, it is essential that the principal
goal of an examination be achieved - does the
examinee know the subject material. Therefore, the
development of an effective multiple choice
examination is a summary of the effort placed into
the development of the individual questions, based
upon the training material presented.
Three essential aspects need to be maintained in
developing specific multiple choice questions:-
1. Determine the level of the examinee and the
learning objectives the examination is to cover.
2. Select the appropriate question subject and topic.
3. Write the question and its responses in a clear, yet
challenging presentation, to avoid revealing the
correct response. At the same time, prevent the
examinee from being able to select a response
without having to use acquired knowledge.
Determining the level of the examinee and the
learning objectives the examination is to cover is
typically a function of the training course, coupled with
the knowledge and experience of the instructor. Where
this information has already been provided by IMO
model courses, a significant amount of developmental
work has ready been provided to the course instructor.
However, where a training facility will not be using
specific model courses, it will be necessary for the
instructor to develop the learning objectives. As
instructors will be expected to be experienced subject
matter experts, these individuals should be
comfortable in developing learning objectives, even
where formal job task analysis has not previously been
developed. Also, the newly developed questions are
to be more specific and detailed for the learning
objectives of specific training courses than those
questions developed for a national admi~istration.
Selection of the question subject and topics is to
be a function of the material covered throughout the
course. Consistently presenting the material from one
training group to another not only promotes stability
within the industry, but will also allow the instructor
to develop a bank of questions from which to develop
212 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
fresh examinations. An expanding question bank
requires students to study the material, rather than
memorising frequently administered and well known
examinations.
For example, questions regarding the use of radar
need to be developed in the most general sense when
examining on a national scale. With the variety and
physical configurations of radar unit controls produced
by different manufacturers, shipboard operating
experience alone on one radar installation would not
be sufficient correctly to answer questions used on a
national examination if developed to cover specific
installations. In a training course, however, where a
specific model or simulator is to be used, then general
as well as specific questions for radar operation will
be acceptable.
Where the decision has been made to use the
multiple choice format for examinations, the following
guidelines will be useful in the writing and
development of this type of question. The guidelines
have been separated into the following categories for
ease of reference: question stem, responses, use of
numbers, style and punctuation, grammar and word
use.
The question stem
ComPleteness
Sufficient information is to be included in the stem to
lead to a single correct answer listed in the responses.
Example
Poor: When launching a lifeboat, what must be done?
Better: When launching a lifeboat, you should first
Although the phrasing of the poor example may
commonly be used in informal conversation, it is too
open ended. The examinee usually begins to think of
all tasks required to launch a lifeboat before reading
through the listed responses. Frequently, an examinee
has commented, following the examination, "I didn't
see any of the things I would have done while
launching a lifeboat". The better question statement
forces the examinee to focus on the specific act.
Extraneous information
Leave out all unnecessary information.
Example
Poor: Regulations require that each crew member is
to be assigned a duty station for fire emergencies.
The duty station for a fire emergency is assigned
by the _
Better: Who assigns the duty stations for fire
emergencies?
Interrogative format C. specify their duties.
Ask only one question and begin the main clause of D. clarify a requirement.
the question with an interrogative word (e.g., who,
which, what, where, when, why, and how). While the typical mariner may not be an expert in
his language, they do expect to be able to read a
Example question without having to reread it several times to
Poor: What is the primary colour and rated capacity interpret the question.
of a C02 cylinder?
Example (form - length and degree of precision)
Better: What is the primary colour of a C02 cylinder? Poor: A. In the chest.
B. In the kidney.
Again, the object of the examination is to determine C. In the sella turcia of the sphenoid bone.
the extent of knowledge retained by the examinee. If D. Under the arm.
two or more bits of information can be squeezed into
one question, the clarity and efficiency of the question Better: A. In the chest.
can be improved by two separate questions. B. In the kidney.
C. Near the brain.
Responses D. Under the arm.

Plausibility The poor example demonstrates two basic

All distracters (responses) must be plausible (logical). concepts. First, the use of the terms in Care
unnecessary and may be confusing if these terms were
Example not used during classroom instruction. Secondly, there
Poor: A. Red. is a tendency to select the longest answer as being
B. Green. correct without reading the other responses. As a
C. White. consequence, this may be viewed as a giveaway
D. Port. question and provides little with regards to verification
of knowledge.
Better: A. Red.
B. Green. Example (intent - primary point of knowledge)
C. White. Poor: The steering gear for an ocean going vessel is
D. Red over red. required _

If the developer uses an unrelated term in the A. to have two completely independent power units,
response, the examinee will reject the unrelated term. but each may be driven by the same electric motor.
The question developer has essentially provided only B. to be tested within 12 hours prior to a voyage of 48
three responses from which to choose. If this is done hours or greater in duration.
once, it will probably be done several times and the C. to be supplied by one source of power if installed
student will gradually determine that the examination aboard a tank vessel.
questions are not meaningful. D. to move the rudder from 15° on one side to 10° on
the other within 15 seconds at maximum service
Parallelism speed.
All responses must be parallel in grammar, form and
intent. Better: The steering gear for an ocean going vessel is
required to be tested within 12hours of sailing when
Example (grammar) the voyage duration is to be at least _
Poor: The main purpose in providing crew members
with a station card is _ A. 6 hours.
B. 12 hours.
A. to improve morale. C. 24 hours.
B. improve individual expertise. D. 48 hours.
C. to specify their duties.
D. clarify a requirement. The intent of the question in the poor example is
to determine whether or not the examinee knows the
Better: The MAIN purpose in providing crew members regulatory requirement of when the steering gear is to
with a station card is to _ be tested prior to sailing. The primary problem with
the listed responses is the stamina required by the
A. improve morale. examinee to read through and finally select the most
B. improve individual expertise. appropriate response.

214 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

Extraneous information C. "old man".
Leave out unnecessary information. Eliminate D. senior officer.
complex lists and sequences of steps.
Better: Responsibility for a ship rests with the
Example
Poor: The refrigerant absorbs heat in the A. master.
B. executive officer.
A. evaporator in an R-12 system. C. chief officer.
B. condenser section of the receiver. D. chief engineer.
C. compressor of an R-12 system.
D. compressor of the turbine. The above example could be considered to have
four correct answers, even though one would have
Better: In a refrigeration system, the refrigerant absorbs been specifically presented during the lecture.
heat in the Regardless, the examinee should not be subjected to
a war of wits.
A. expansion valve.
B. evaporator. Example (overlaPPing)
C. compressor. Poor: By regulation, the minimum number of crew
D. condenser. members permitted to operate a vessel of 3000 gt
safely is
The mixing of components from one system to
another reduces the selection of responses. Again, A. 12 to 16.
there is an element of reading required of the examinee B. 14 to 20.
that is unnecessary, which can change the focus from C. 16 to 18.
knowledge to that of a reading examination. D. 19 to 22.

Distinct choices Better: By regulation, the minimum number of crew

Provide clear and distinct choices. members permitted to operate a vessel of 3000 gt
safely is
Example
Poor: The forward end of the ship is known as the A. 12 to 15.
B. 16 to 19.
C. 20 to 24.
A. bow. D. 25 to 29.
B. bough.
C. brough. By using overlapping ranges, the examinee is
D. brow. presented with the need to guess which of the ranges
contains the correct figure. In the revised responses,
Better: The forward end of the ship is known as the the examinee is presented with specific ranges from
which they can select the correct answer.

A. bow. Order of responses

B. stern. Arrange presentation of responses in a logical,
C. port. consecutive order.
D. starboard.
1. Group common elements together.
The responses in the poor example examine the 2. Match answers A, B, C, and D to sequential
candidate on word association and not discernible responses.
knowledge. 3. Arrange responses in ascending or descending
order.
Inclusive responses 4. When using a negative response such as never, the
Leave out inclusive responses which occur through corresponding answer should be D.
redundant phrasing or overlapping ranges. 5. When the responses are numeric values or single
lettered values, the phrase "none of the above" or
Example (redundant phrasing) "all of the above" are not to be used.
Poor: Responsibility for a ship rests with the
Example
A. CO. Poor: The dedicated frequency for inter-vessel radio
B. commanding officer. communication is

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 215

A. 157.05 MHz. questions need to be challenging and avoid
B. 2181 kHz. inadvertently revealing the correct response to the
C. 157.01MHz. examinee and thereby eliminate the need for them to
D. 2670 kHz. apply the use of their acquired knowledge. This task
can become one of the most difficult in the writing
Better: The dedicated frequency for inter-vessel radio and development of questions.
communication is
In conjunction with the difficulty of developing
A. 157.01MHz. satisfactory questions to test the knowledge of the
B. 157.05 MHz. examinees, the technical aspect of language skills is
C. 2181 kHz. significantly important. Keeping in mind the diversity
D. 2670 kHz. of education of all mariners, the general rule of
question writing should be to develop the question
For those familiar with the frequencies provided stem and responses in a plain and straight forward
in the responses, interpretation of the correct answer manner.
would not be difficult. However, the uninformed
would become easily misled by the use of MHz and This is also true when considering the style and
kHz and possibly miss the difference between the punctuation of the questions. However, a lengthy
frequency bands. By appropriately arranging in either discussion of this subject would require numerous
ascending or descending order, the examinee is additional pages. Fortunately, there are many
allowed to select a readable answer, rather than handbooks available on this subject and only selected
attempting to interpret. examples will be cited for emphasis.

Double lists If the following recommendations are considered,

The use of double lists should be avoided. the readability of the question by the mariner will be
achieved. It is essential to keep in mind that the
Example mariner will be more concerned with understanding
Poor: The steel plates that make up the skin of a ship what is being asked by the question than by the details
are which of the following? of whether or not a comma or semicolon should have
been used. Even if the developer of the question is
l. Garboard strake. unable to maintain the use of correct punctuation, it
2. Tank top plating. is better to err on the side of punctuation being
3. Sheer strake. consistently missing than to be correct inconsistently
4. Sole plate. and cause confusion.
5. Bilge strake.
Style and punctuation
A. 2 and 4.
B. 4 and 5. Final punctuation
C. 1, 3 and 5.
D. 1, 2 and 3. Periods should not be used at the end of a response
unless the response is in the form of a complete
Better: Which of the steel plate terms listed below is sentence. In the following example, the responses are
not used in the construction of the "skin" of a ship? to be short imperative sentences and are ordinarily to
be ended with a period. The departure from standard
A. Garboard strake. punctuation should not stop the development process
B. Sole plate. abruptly, as long as all remaining questions within the
C. Sheer strake. examination are similarly treated.
D. Bilge strake.
Example
Due to the fact that the examinee would be A. Seal the compartment.
required continually to review the list with the set of B. Secure the pump.
responses, more effort would be devoted to C. Add an eductor.
interpretation of the responses to the list than the D. Start another pump.
thought processes needed to provide a knowledgeable
response. Abbreviations

As related by the above examples, the writing of Abbreviations should be avoided due to the lack of
the question and its responses must be done in a clear standard recognition, or the possibility of more than
and readable manner. However, at the same time, the one accepted use. For example, both point and pint
can be represented by "pt".

216 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

Capitalisation Exception
To raise the indicated load, using the illustrated
Each response for an interrogative question should hydraulic system, the pump discharge pressure will
be capitalised, even if the response is not a complete need to be
sentence. Where the question stem ends as a blank,
the responses should not be capitalised. A. 500 psi.
B. 600 psi.
Example (Interrogative question) C. 700 psi.
Which steel plate term is never used in describing the D. 800 psi.
skin of a ship?
Units of measure
A. Garboard strake.
B. Sole plate. All responses should be converted to the same unit of
C. Sheer strake. measure, unless the conversion results in an abnormal
D. Bilge strake. use of the unit.

Example (End of stem is a blank) Example

In a refrigeration system, the refrigerant absorbs heat Poor: Better:
in the A. 1 day A. 1 day
B. 15 days B. 15 days
A. expansion valve. C. 1 month C. 30 days
B. evaporator. D. 3 months D. 90 days
C. compressor.
D. condenser. Exceptions
a. b.
Repetitive phrasing A. 1 year A. 1/4 mile
B. 2 years B. 1/2 mile
If the same word or phrase is used in all four responses, C. 1 month C. 1 mile
it should be moved to the stem and not follow the D. 3 months D. 2 miles
blank. The exception to this is not to separate numeric
responses from symbols or abbreviations. It has been already been considered that the
education and reading level of the mariner may be
Example less than that of a tenth year level of schooling. In
Poor: When making an ordinary eye splice in fibre contrast, the education level of the subject matter
line, you should take a minimum of experts developing the questions will generally be
higher. As a result, it is often difficult for the language
A. two rounds of tucks. and grammar to be kept relatively simple.
B. three rounds of tucks.
A. four rounds of tucks. Active voice
A. five rounds of tucks.
The active voice should be used whenever the source
Poor: When making an ordinary eye splice in fibre of action can be identified.
line, you should take a minimum of rounds
of tucks. Example
Poor: When a transmission is ending and no answer is
A. Two. expected, what proword should be said?
B. Three.
A. Four. Better: Whenever you are ending a radio transmission
A. Five. and expect no reply, what proword should you say?

Better: The minimum rounds of tucks to take when Passive voice

making an ordinary eye splice in fibre line should
be Use the passive voice whenever the source of action
cannot be identified, or the receiver of the action is
A. two. more important than the source of the action.
B. three.
A. four. Example
A. five. Poor: Aboard ship, everyone calls paint stowage spaces
the

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 217

Better: Aboard ship, paint stowage spaces are called inappropriate or inconsistent in spelling, even though
the spelling is acceptable.

Dangling modifiers Example

Poor: A vessel is considered to be in a homeostatic
The object of the stated question should always be condition in the confines of the harbour when the
clear and dangling modifiers (leaving out clarifying
terms) avoided.
A. propeller is not turning.
Example B. propeller is slowly rotating.
Poor: Needing to be synchronised, the watchstander C. bubble in the stabilogauge is centred.
should notify the D. tidal gage in the harbour has not changed in an
hour.
Better: When the ship's clocks need to be synchronised,
the watch stander should notify the Better: A vessel is considered to be stable, prior to
leaving the harbour when the __ .
Agreement
A. propeller is not turning.
Each response should be grammatically consistent B. propeller is slowly rotating
with the stem. C. bubble in the stabilogauge is centred.
D. tidal gauge in the harbour has not changed in an
Example hour.
Poor: The quartermaster aboard a merchant vessel
must have a rating as a Use of should/must/would

A. ordinary seaman. The word should is used to express a preferred action.

B. bosun. Must is used to express a required action, and the use
C. able seaman. of the word would is to be avoided.
D. helmsman.
Example
Better: The quartermaster aboard a merchant vessel Poor: Where do you record the date and time of the
must have a rating as a/an fire and boat drill?

A. ordinary seaman. Better: Where must the date and time of the fire and
B. bosun. boat drill be recorded?
C. able seaman.
D. helmsman. Poor: Which substance would you use to fight a class
A fire?
The selection of words used in the questions should
be simple, short, concise and consistently spelled Better: Which substance should you use to fight a class
whenever possible. A fire?

Slang expressions In each of the poor examples, the stem initiates an

unfocused thought process for the examinee. During
The use of proper terminology is preferred over the the review of the examination, the examinee states
use of slang expressions, particularly where the slang "but the question only asked what I would? I didn't
may represent two different meanings. know you had to do that!"

Example Avoiding tricks and traps

Poor: In a reefer system, what admits the refrigerant
to the evap? One criticism associated with the use of the multiple
choice type format is the use of trick questions, or traps
Better: In a refrigeration system, what device is used that cause the mariner incorrectly to select a response.
to admit the refrigerant to the evaporator? Several references have been made to low education
levels of the mariner and the effects resulting in the
Consistency and polysyllable words comprehension of examination questions.

In an effort to provide more difficult questions, The examples used in the discussion of multiple
question originators may use words that are choice question development should eliminate most

218 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

so called tricks. However, from the point of view of
the examinee, there are hints the examinee is provided
in an effort to make the examination process easier.
To assist in this discussion, a previous example will be
used to establish several points.
Example
What function(s) is/are provided by the scrubber used
in an inert gas system?
A. Cool the gas.
B. Remove solid particles from the gas.
C. Reduce corrosiveness of the gas.
D. All of the above.
It should be fairly obvious with this example that
the selection of the correct response is relatively
simple, that is if the examinee has acquired the basic
knowledge. The relative ease in answering this
question is underscored by the use of answer D - All
of the above.
The hint in assisting the answering of this question
is if the first two responses can be determined as
correct, an educated guess is for the answer to be all
of the above. However, if either of the first two
responses are false, then the number of potential
correct responses rapidly drops to two.
In this example, the originator of the question may
genuinely have attempted to determine if the
examinee knew the functions of an inert gas system
scrubber. However, there is also the possibility that
the question originator was short on ideas in
developing new questions and simply resorted to the
earlier example.
Regardless of the situation, the originator, by using
the response all of the above, has realistically provided
three active responses, i.e. either all three active
responses are correct or only one of the three is correct.
With this type of question, the examinee will
instinctively read the first response and, if correct, as
it is here, will read the second response to determine
if it is also correct. Once he has determined B as being
correct or incorrect, he automatically determines the
validity of D. Hence this type of question does not
always determine the subject knowledge of the
examinee.
With a bit more thought, however, the originator
would have been able to develop three additional
questions, which requires additional thinking, rather
than that of the one question discussed.
The following questions are intended as examples
used to eliminate the use of the response all of the
above. Further, this method can be used
simultaneously to increase the pool of questions for
future use. However, some caution should be used in
following through with this type of exercise. Some
would argue that a small percentage of examinees
could provide an incorrect response to the new
questions if there is a lapse in familiarity with the terms
used in the incorrect responses. That particular line
of thinking implies that the question was specifically
designed to trick the examinee, whose reading
comprehension is considered as low and, therefore,
does not truly test the knowledge of the individual.
Example
What function is provided by the inert gas system
scrubber?
A. Cool the gas.
B. Remove solid particles from the liquid passing
through the scrubber.
C. Eliminate all corrosion throughout the system.
D. Distribute the gas throughout the system.
Example
What function is provided by the inert gas system
scrubber?
A. Act as a point of gas distribution throughout the
system.
B. Remove solid particles from the liquid passing
through the scrubber.
C. Reduce the corrosiveness of the gas.
D. Cool down the cargo tanks.
Example
What function is provided by the inert gas system
scrubber?
A. Act as a point of gas distribution throughout the
system.
B. Remove solid particles from the gas.
C. Completely eliminate all corrosion throughout the
system.
D. Cool down the cargo tanks.
Another hint that is passed onto the examinee has
been to look for the longest answer (word count).
Although this has been true in the past, many questions
are now developed with the longest answer purposely
developed as being incorrect.
To this hint, examinees have often been informed
that C should be selected if they cannot rely on their
knowledge to select the correct response. Unless the
developer of the question makes a conscious effort
randomly to locate the correct response, they
inadvertently place the correct response at C. If a
databank of questions is not used randomly to select
questions for the examination, then an original
examination should use a spread of questions where
the correct responses are evenly distributed.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 219
The I - II format style question
Earlier, reference was made to developing challenging
questions to determine the knowledge of the examinee.
Another reference was made as to the inability of a
written examination to provide situational
demonstration of knowledge. With regards to the
latter, it is widely considered that practical or simulator
demonstration is more effective in determining
competency in this area. However, there is one form
of the multiple choice question, referred to as the "I-
II format", that can effectively be used in this area. As
it will be shown, this format increases the requirement
of the examinee to think and not merely guess at the
correct response.
Throughout the use of multiple choice questions,
the correct response was always provided as one of
four choices. Also, the opinion was provided that using
all of the above or never as a response for D, could
eliminate the examinee's need to read all of the
responses, or require them to provide extensive
thought.
Through the use of the I-II format question these
conditions are changed. In these questions, the stem
is presented in the same form as already discussed. In
addition, two independent statements (labelled as I
and II) are also provided. The responses are to be
consistently presented in the form:-
A. I only.
B. II only.
e. Both I and II.
D. Neither I nor II.
Upon reading the question and the statements, the
examinee is to determine if either one of the statements
or both are correct. The correctness of each statement
is strictly dependent on the information presented by
the stem of the question. For example, the rules of the
road question used in example 1, has been rewritten
in the I-II format.
Example
Two vessels under sail are approaching head to head.
The wind is directly out of the north, requiring
vessel "P(' to beat to windward on a course of 045°
and
I. Vessel "P(' must fall off and change to a course of
060°.
II. Vessel "B" is the burdened vessel and is required to
change to a more westerly course.
A. I only.
B. II only.
C. Both I and II.
D. Neither I nor II.
220 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Only statement II is true, as the vessel sailing closest
to the wind has the right-of-way and is to be selected
as the response to the information provided by the
stem. In order for the examinee to obtain credit, he
must select B to be given credit when scored.
In the following example, the same question stem
is used, but statement II is rewritten to be incorrect.
This requires the correct response to be D in order to
receive credit when the examination is scored.
Example
Two vessels under sail are approaching head to head.
The wind is directly out of the north, requiring
vessel "P(' to beat to windward on a course of 045°
and
I. vessel "P(' must fall off, and change to a course of
060°.
II. vessel "P(' is to head up to a new course of 030° to
avoid a collision.
A. I only.
B. II only.
C. Both I and II.
D. Neither I nor II.
Since I is still a false statement, consideration must
be given to the validity of II. As it is normally not
practical to a sail a vessel at less than 45° to the wind
and also consider the right-of-way, then II is also false.
Then D is to be selected as being correct, i.e. neither
I nor II.
Regardless of the guidance and advice that can be
provided, question developers making their first
attempt at developing questions will make mistakes.
In order to help themselves and the examinee, it is
important to compare the examination results of each
examinee. Through this comparison some basic
conditions will be revealed, such as the same selected
response being chosen, but not that of the designated
correct response. This means that the frequently
chosen incorrect response was worded in a way that it
seemed to be correct. Or, the incorrect response was
keyed as the accepted response.
Using illustrations
Lastly, illustrations can be used to add another
dimension to the development of either the question
or the responses. The greatest advantage in using an
illustration is the elimination of attempts to write
lengthy descriptions that may be difficult to interpret
or poorly punctuated so that a second or third reading
may be required.
Another advantage in using an illustration is being
able to develop a series of questions on a complex
item or machine. When using an illustration for this
function, its clarity should not leave any doubt as to
what the illustration is to represent. Also, a specific
area or item for which a question will be developed
should be identified by a letter or number (but not
simultaneously) and an adjoining arrow.
Assembling questions as an
examination
There are two basic methods used in assembling
questions into multiple choice examinations. The first
method is to develop entirely new questions for a
subject as the course is being conducted. If a course is
being conducted for the first time, this method must
be employed. However, this particular method may
also be used effectively to incorporate specific
difficulties of the student to grasp certain concepts or
where specific emphasis has been placed on a subject.
It must be stressed that when developing specific
questions for use in an examination, the questions
should be developed as soon as practical following
the lesson. To delay will often lessen the importance
of the subject and/or the question that was developed.
The second method is to develop a bank of questions
over a period of time by varying the type of question
used on each examination.
Through the use of a personal computer and
suitable software, the laborious task of assembling an
examination can be reduced. Regardless of which
method is employed, the nature of the examination
will determine the number of subject areas upon which
to examine and the total number of questions to be
used on one exam.
The instructor should establish an integrated plan
of weekly quizzes, comprising 5 to 15 questions each,
balanced against a final examination of 50 to 100
questions. The final examination should cover those
areas not covered since the last quiz, in addition to
revisiting those areas where the students were
determined as being weak through the quizzes. For
example, if every student correctly answers the quiz
question recognising red lights as being placed on the
the port side of a vessel, to ask the same question on
the final exam will be a waste of effort. However, if a
majority of the class chooses to respond that "their
vessel is approaching head-on to the vessel ahead",
when the question stem has established that "a white
light can be seen between a red and green light", then
a similarly related question needs to be placed in the
final exam. Finally, the number of questions used in
the final examination should be sufficient to determine
comprehension of the specific subject areas covered
throughout the period of the course and should range
between 50 to 100 questions.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 221
 Chapter THIRTY ONE

LEARNING FROM STUDENTS - FEEDBACK AND EVALUATION

by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc FNI

World Maritime University

Professor Peter Muirhead has a wide and varied experience in the maritime industry, having spent some seventeen years at sea trading
world-wide, and overfive years as Senior Marine Surveyor and Examiner of Masters and Mates in Sydney, Australia. In 7979 he
became involved in the foundation and establishment of the new Australian Maritime College, developing both traditional training
programmes for officers and ratings as well as new approaches with integrated ratings training and at-sea task and guided study
programmes (TAGS) for deck watchkeeper trainees and post-graduate maritime awards using distance learning methods and satellite
technology.In addition, he has had over 20 years experience in the development and use of marine simulators.

Injanuary 7993 ProfessorMuirhead took up his present position as Inmarsat Professor of Maritime Education and Training at the
World Maritime University (WMU) in Malmo, Sweden. Through the MSc programme in Maritime Education and Training (MET)
he is responsiblefor providing the develoPing countries with maritime education administrators, lecturers and instructors. Through the
concept of training the trainers, the aim of the WMU programme is to provide MET graduates with knowledge and understanding of
basic pedagogical practices and practical instructional skills.

The use of assessment results

It is useful to recall what we understand about
assessment and Rowntree (1985) has defined it in the
following manner:-
"Assessment is an attempt to get to know about
the student and find out the nature and quality of his
learning - his strengths and weaknesses, or his interests
and aversions, or his style oflearning".
From this one can conclude that the result of
assessment is knowledge, knowledge about the
student. How can that knowledge be interpreted and
used?
We saw earlier in this book that one of the main
purposes for assessment was providing feedback to
students and teachers. This aspect is often given the
least priority and attention, particularly by teachers.
Yet it is most closely linked with the actual teaching
process, for feedback from assessment allows us to get
to know about the student and the quality of his/her
learning. We often evaluate many things in life using
as a basis our subjective or intuitive attitudes, despite
good data often being available upon which reliable
judgments can be made.
Product evaluation is concerned with student
performance in a specific learning context and there
are three main types of evaluation which can be used
to assist the feedback process:-
Formative evaluation - during the instruction.
Summative evaluation - after the instruction.
Diagnostic evaluation.
Formative evaluation
This is directed towards determining the degree of
mastery during a learning task and to pinpoint that
part of the task which is not mastered. In particular,
the purpose is to evaluate how well the student is
progressing during the learning experience. This may
be on a continuous assessment basis.
Summative evaluation
This is directed towards a general assessment of how
outcomes have been attained, i.e. evaluation employed
at the end of a learning experience (written
examination, practicals, orals etc.).
Diagnostic evaluation
This is directed either to placing students properly at
the outset of instruction, or to discover the underlying
causes of deficiencies in students as learning unfolds.
It is most useful in identifying learning problems at
an early stage and developing remedial actions to
overcome weaknesses or deficiencies.
In the summative stage we can consider whether
the achievements (outcomes) were satisfactory. We
may need to establish if the test item is doing what it
was intended to do? If not can it be improved upon?
Did the item or question contribute to faulty responses
by the students? Was the teaching at fault? Item
analysis techniques can help to provide some of the
answers.

222 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 The P and D values are useful in assisting in the
construction of reliable and valid tests. However it
should be noted that the level of difficulty in multi-
choice type tests is mainly affected by the credibility
of the distracters. Poor distracters receiving little use
even from low achievers should be discarded.
Evaluation of outcomes for such objective tests are
less likely to be clouded over as a result of guessing.
Efficiency of distracters in multi-choice tests
Improvements to many multi-choice items can be
made by an analysis of the efficiency of the distracters.
Distracters selected by few or no candidates are not
fulfilling their purpose. A good distracter should appeal
more to the lower group than to the upper group and
should be chosen by a reasonable proportion of the
students. In the previous multi-choice example
students responded as follows:-
Choice A B C D
Upper group 14 0 0 4 of a topic is concerned it surely must be greater than
Lower group 6 8 1 3
As a distracter (B) functioned well, (C) is not
attractive enough and (D) does not discriminate well
enough between upper and lower groups.
The criterion for satisfactory performance in the
test might be 70% or more. Anderson seems to be
doing very well and Flavell seems to be in some
difficulty. Navigation was either taught very well or
the test was very easy. However, if the objectives were
clear and the test valid, both teacher and students did
well.
Physics, however, looks as if it should be taught
again as the prima facie evidence indicates that
something has gone wrong with the teaching. Extra
help for the other students may be in order. Flavell
presents a different picture and his situation needs
closer investigation.
Arriving at a criterion of performance requires
either research or professional judgment. A criterion
score tells whether the students have mastered the
topic and is usually established by the professional
(albeit subjective) judgment of teachers. Most criterion
scores seem to be in the range 70-80%. Where mastery
50%, probably in the range of 60-90%. The
professional judgmental skills of the teacher must take
into account the processes described previously, the
level of feedback, and his or her experiences in
evaluation of the course and topic.

The degree of reliability increases as the group size Correlation

increases (30+). An examination of the difficulty, the
discrimination and the efficiency of distracters should This is best defined as a measure of the strength and
allow the teacher to identify weaknesses and correct direction of the association between two sets of marks.
or discard the item. The correlation coefficient (R) can range between -1
to + 1. A graph or scatter plot of the pairs of marks for
Item analysis, although time consuming, allows the two variables can be plotted. In the example shown
teacher to:- the marks (out of 10) for a group of students for their
· Produce banks of items worthy of future use. navigation and stability examinations are shown in
· Improve skills in the construction of tests. figure 31.2 overleaf.
· Evaluate the efficiency of the teacher's testing
methods. Students with low marks (Law) tend to have low
· Diagnose the students' learning strengths and
weaknesses.
marks (Navigation).
Students with high marks (Law) tend to have high
marks (Navigation).
Consider another aspect. The results of five tests Direct relationship (high variable) has a positive
taken by six named students produced the outcome direction.
shown in figure 31.1 below. Inverse relationship (low variable) has a negative
direction.
Student Navigation Stability The problem of subjectivity (or lack of objectivity)
standard score standard score will never completely be removed, but it can be kept
Anderson 50 47 within acceptable bounds by setting clear marking
Brown 44 71 criteria for the set questions. It is very easy to create
Clark 56 36 essay type questions. It is much more difficult to
Dean 63 69 Mean = 50 provide model answers showing the main points, ideas
Emmanuel 67 31 s.d. = 15 and comments that the lecturer expects to see in the
Flavell 22 46 response. However it is important for balance and
Mean 50 50 consistency to clearly identify the expected responses
to the learning objectives and to weight them
The scores are now directly comparable. Thus according to value for uniformity in marking. Further
Flavell's original mark of 42 in navigation is much comments on this aspect will be found in section 6 of
worse than Emmanuel's 30 in stability. Note that the chapter 28.
rank order in each examination remains unaltered.
Direct observation
Try adding the two sets of marks together, firstly
with the raw marks and then for the standardised This method is regularly utilised to monitor and
marks to see what effect it has on the overall ranking. evaluate the performance of students and trainees in
It win be found that the wide spread of marks in the maritime academies and in the shipboard
stability examination has more effect on the rank order environment. It usually covers the development and
than does the relatively lower spread in the navigation application of skills to carry out practical tasks and
examination. functions in the workplace.

Consider the fictitious example shown below of The student should be well briefed as to the
what happens when marks are standardised. It objective of such observation and the manner in which
illustrates the problem of giving all subjects equal he/she is going to be assessed. In the case of workshops
esteem or weight. The weight of an examination and laboratories, clear written instructions on the use
depends on its standard deviation. The table below of equipment should be provided. If scoring methods
illustrates an extreme example in which the Law marks are to be used, then specific objective criteria should
have zero standard deviation. Rank is entirely be established and validated beforehand. Subjective
determined by the Physics marks. evaluation should be kept to the minimum. The
method is applied commonly to simulator training
_La_w Physics Law+Physics such as radar and ARPA training, ship manoeuvring,
50 70 120 machinery space and GMDSS. The method centres
50 60 110 around the concept of mastery, demonstrating an
50 50 100 ability to perform set tasks and functions safely and
50 40 90 effectively. Entries by officers in trainees' onboard
50 30 80 record training books attest to the fact that the trainee
50 20 70 is considered to have mastered the particular task. The
problem for the observer is in having clear and concise
In summary, comparing performance in different criterion of performance against which judgments can
subjects is highly complex and standardised scores can be made. Of course some element of subjectivity will
convey to the student a totally different perception of always remain.
how well he has achieved. One could say that perhaps
the teacher would be better off to give the students
Feedback from questionnaires
high marks in examinations in order to encourage
them to follow his/her optional subject.
Survey research seeks attitudinal and behavioural data
via questionnaires and as such the latter have wide
Evaluating written essays or applicability. They may also be used in a limited way
assignments to gauge student performance or collecting data in
product evaluation.
Some of the problems facing an assessor in making a
judgment about open-ended essay type questions are Effective evaluation questionnaires are very hard
the absence of clear marking criteria, a lack of to design, requiring careful construction, a suitable
objectivity in placing a value on the work, being target sample, reliable implementation and elaborate
swayed or biased by the neatness or otherwise of analysis of the outcomes.
presentations, and inconsistencies between markers
of papers. Rowntree (1985) has suggested that two
conclusions are appropriate:-

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 227

 • Short and simple questionnaires should be used.
• Questionnaires should be used only occasionally.
The main features of effective questionnaires are:-
1. Only ask essential questions.
2. Ensure questions can be easily understood.
3. Emphasise closed questions, forcing a choice
amongst alternative responses.
4. Avoid biased questions.
5. Keep questions brief and succinct.
6. Ensure responses remain anonymous.
7. Ensure the purpose of the questionnaire is made
clear.
The test of a good questionnaire is whether it will
produce true and useful information. Many are poorly
structured or full of errors so that their results cannot
be treated seriously. The following guidelines will
assist:-
• Avoid asking questions that students are not usually
in a position to answer.
• State why the information is being collected.
• Be circumspect about numerical results.
• Remove irrelevant questions.
• Avoid vague general questions.
• Avoid double questions.
• Avoid overstated questions.
• Avoid ambiguous questions.
• Keep the questionnaire short.
• Give adequate time to answer the questionnaire.
• Be wary of using results based on rating scales from
samples of less than 20 students.
Summary
It is probably true to say that the art of evaluating the
effectiveness of the learning process has often been
viewed in terms of the marks and grades achieved by
students. This does not always convey a true picture
of the situation. A student may demonstrate knowledge
but not necessarily understanding and/or application.
228 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Feedback enables the teacher to obtain a broader
picture of a student's performance and problems and
to put in place remedial actions to overcome any
identified deficiencies. It can also assist the grading
process. A fundamental rule for the teacher is " know
your students well and teach them accordingly".
Without adequate feedback processes, the teacher will
find it difficult to establish levels of learning and
achievement. With feedback, education and training
processes can be more easily evaluated, refined and
focused for optimal performance.
References and suggested further
reading
Bloom, S., Handbook on formative and summative
evaluation of student learning, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1971
Dunn, S.S., Measurement and evaluation in the secondary
scho04 ACER, Melbourne, 1967.
Gibbs, G., Habeshaw, S., Habeshaw, T.,
53 Interesting ways to assess your students, Technical
and Educational Services, Bristol, 1988.
Gronlund, N.E., Measurement and Evaluation in
Teaching, McGraw-Hill, London, 1985.
International Maritime Organization, Model Course
6.09 - Training Course For Instructors, Vol. 7
Compendium,pp 63-74, IMO, London, 1991.
International Maritime Organization, Model Course
3.72 - Examination and Certification of Seafarers, Vol.
7, Compendium, pp 79-703, IMO, London, 1992.
International Maritime Organization, Model Course
3. 72 - Examination and Certification of Seafarers, Vol.
2, Compendium, pp 939-7072, 1M 0, London, 1992.
Macintosh, H.G., & Morrison, R.B., Objective testing,
University of London Press, London, 1969.
Newble, D. & Cannon, R., A handbookfor teachers in
Universities and Colleges,Kogan Page, London, 1989.
Rowntree, D., Developing coursesfor students, Harper
& Row, London, 1985.
Wiersma, W. &Jurs, S.G., Educational Measurement
and Testing, 2nd Ed, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, 1990.
 Chapter THIRTY TWO

MANAGEMENT TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

IN THE SHIPPING INDUSTRY
by Mr. Peter Springett MBA DMS (Shipping)

Odyssey Training Ltd.

Peter Springett's career in the shipping industry began in 7972 as deck cadet with P&O Bulk Shipping. He also served with Sanko Line
Tankers and with Dart Container Line, on the North Atlantic, as second officer and relief chief officer.

In 7984, after gaining his Class 7 master's certificate, Peter transferred to the offshore oil and gas industry where he served as
control room and barge operator on semi-submersible and jack-up exploration units around the UK and in the South China Sea.

In 7986/7 Peter studied at Plymouth for a post-graduate Diploma in Management Studies (Shipping), which he gained with
distinction, and continued his career ashore as a freelance consultant until 7989. During this period he worked with Hamburg Port
Consulting GmbH on a major ship investment and containerisation project, researchedand co-authored (with Prof. David Moreby FNI
of Plymouth University) the 'UK Shipping Industry Critical Levels Report' and worked with UNCTAD on their MULTISHIP
software development program.

After taking up a teaching post with Fleetwood Nautical Campus at the end of 7989, Peter published an 'Introduction to Offshore
Safety and Survival' and went on to achieve his Master of Business Administration (MBA) in 7994. He then becameprinciPal lecturer
and section leader of the management group at Warsash Maritime Centre, develoPing and delivering management training programmes
for the shipping and port industries. He is now Managing Director of Odyssey Training Ltd ..

Introduction

The purpose of the chapter is to consider the role of In general, the maritime infrastructure needs
management training and development in the shipping managers with and without seafaring experience. This
industry, both afloat and ashore, and in so doing it means that there are probably three main pathways
aims to:- for management development; that of the seafarer who
rises to an appropriate rank onboard and remains
• Define the management development pathways there; that of the seafarer who reaches senior rank and
which exist in the industry. moves ashore to a management position within the
• Outline traditional and existing management framework of ship operations or to one in the wider
training provision. maritime infrastructure where seafaring knowledge is
• Profile the managerial skills needed at various levels required; that of the individual who enters the shipping
within shipping organisations. industry ashore and develops a career within it,
• Propose appropriate structures and content for progressing in areas where actual sea service is not a
development programmes. prerequisite.
• Suggest the most appropriate training
methodologies for facilitators. These career routes indicate that the development
• Examine possibilities for management skills of seafaring managers and shore based managers will
assessment. be quite different at the start of their careers, when
• Offer a framework for evaluation of management training is focused on the acquisition of technical skills,
development programmes. but should eventually merge at an appropriate level
when there is a shift in emphasis towards the
Management development pathways in development of higher level managerial skills and
shipping understanding.

Over the past decade there have been a number of
important studies and reports into the decline of the
UK registered merchant fleet, and one benefit we have
gained from these is that we are now able to better
appreciate the size and complexity of the shipping
industry and its diverse infrastructure. The implication
of this to management development issues on a global
basis is considerable.
However, until this point is reached it is important
that, although following different career pathways, all
individuals are provided with the essential foundation
stones of operational management.
It is even more important, in this capital intensive,
cost sensitive and highly competitive industry, that
trainers rationalise their approach and provide focused

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 229

and cost effective programmes, based on generic
management theory or practice and tailored to the
appropriate operational environment of the
organisations and individuals concerned.
Training needs analysis
Shipping organisations will only achieve real benefit
from their management training programmes when
they are based on the results of a formal training needs
analysis (TNA) which will match individual
development needs to those of the organisation.
The TNA is best carried out in four stages.
Stage 1 consists of consultation between training
provider and shipping organisation and identifies:-
• The rationale for the analysis.
• The scope and depth of analysis.
• The methodology to be used.
• The deliverables and contractual details.
Stage 2 should be a review of relevant
documentation which might include:-
• Corporate policy / strategy documentation and
organisational goals.
• Organisation structures, roles and responsibilities.
• Job descriptions, appraisals and training records.
Stage 3 will be an analysis, in the case of
management development, of the managerial skill
needs based on stages 1 and 2 and may use:-
• Staff questionnaires.
• Interviews with key individuals and / or groups.
Stage 4 will then determine the structure and
content of management development programmes:-
• In the short term.
• In the longer term.
• And plan appropriate implementation.
Traditional management development
provision in shipping
The TNA can be used to identify technical skill gaps
and gaps in commercial knowledge as well as any
managerial skills gap.
The national and international control of shipping
has traditionally concentrated on the technical and
commercial aspects of the industry. This has been
paralleled by training provision and has resulted in a
lack of attention being given to training in general
management related skills.
230 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that
the focus is shifting to require demonstration of
competence in management and this is reflected in
recent developments in international convention
(IMO's ISM Code and STCW), national regulation
(health and safety management) and education
standards (vocational qualifications).
For those progressing through the seafaring career
pathway in particular, shipping industry organisations
have moved away from long term employment
commitment and have satisfied themselves with basic
certification requirements as part of a cost control
exercise.
The result is that, in more recent times, little
consideration has been given to the individual's ability
to administer complex management systems, deal with
time, personnel and other resource related pressures.
Few have been formally trained with respect to the
building and maintaining of effective working
relationships and organisational interfaces in what is
a multi-disciplined and multi-cultural, stress-filled
environment.
To compound the problem, little thought has been
given to the benefits of a formal foundation in business
management for those entering the industry ashore
or moving ashore as part of their ongoing career
development.
In short, the managerial skills gap and the human
resource shortages the industry will experience as it
enters the next century are representative of generally
poor manpower and succession planning and it is
becoming obvious that having the knowledge and
technical skills which provide the individual with a
certificate does not necessarily mean that the
individual can effectively apply them. The
introduction of programmes which provide for the
development of generic management skills for
shipping personnel must, therefore, be a priority.
Vocational qualifications offer some hope for the
future, as does the inclusion of a number of
management related competencies in the STCW
convention and the trend towards more traditional
employment practices by some forward thinking
shipping companies.
The future
Taking the UK as a model offers an insight into how
the managerial skills needed in shipping may be
developed in the future.
The Scottish/National Vocational Qualification (S/
NVQ) system allows for individuals in seafaring
careers to gain the appropriate skills as a foundation
to further development through the inclusion of In order to provide this the trainer must first
management units in the qualification. understand the generic managerial skills profile at
identifiable levels of management and structure
Shipboard personnel working towards the training programmes to suit.
Merchant Vessel Operations NVQaward will, for the
first time, be required to complete management units Knowledge and managerial skills
related to quality standards and effective working profile
relationships (at level 3) and will progress (at level 4)
to units based on the Management Charter Initiative
If we accept that there are three levels of management
(MCI) standards for the management of services,
within any organisation, operational, tactical and
resources, teams and information.
strategic, then it should be possible to match to each
level an appropriate set of essential managerial skills.
The qualification will broaden the scope of
managerial skills (at level 5) to those of resource
In general terms, the operational level represents
allocation, performance and project evaluation and a
the fundamentals of supervisory management and
higher level monitoring function (Master/Chief
relates to basic administrative procedures, self and time
Engineer level).
management, basic communications in the workplace,
the building of effective inter-personal relationships
For those entering the industry ashore there are
and team work.
opportunities to gain a similar foundation in
managerial skills through further or higher education
Aspects of cost control would be an important
with many colleges offering advanced business studies
element at this level, and training programmes should
general NVQ and business studies at certificate,
deliver underpinning knowledge related to all of these
diploma and degree level.
issues, allowing for practical application through
exercises designed to explore responsibility and
In each case the opportunity exists to give
accountability, basic leadership and motivation,
individuals the underpinning knowledge, skills and
standard and target setting, self management, time
abilities to be effective at whatever level of junior or
management and the supervision of others.
middle management they achieve in shipping and
when this point in their career development is reached
Individuals should be given the opportunity to
there will be a need for more focused, specialist
develop interpersonal, negotiation and influencing
training (personnel, accounting, finance, operations,
skills and apply problem solving and decision making
procurement etc.) supported by common generic
tools in a team setting.
managerial skills training.
The tactical level is more about the management
Modem methods of education and training provide
of organisational interfaces with a project orientation,
for any combination of full-time, part-time or distance
the co-ordination and control of departmental or
learning (paper or computer driven) study modes and
functional activity, the allocation of resources and team
a wide range of specialist or general management
building.
related courses exist today. Degrees in ship operations,
post graduate diplomas in management studies
The underpinning knowledge requirement at this
(shipping) and ship operations, masters degrees in ship
level should be related to the historical development
finance, and a number of other masters level
of management from the classical period, and the birth
programmes with a shipping or transport focus are
of administrative management, through humanist and
examples of those on offer.
neo-humanist periods and the recognition of
organisations as socio-technical entities. It should
In a perfect world the shipping industry will make
provide an understanding of the more analytical
full use of these to develop their managers for the
systems and the contingency approach of recent years
future business challenges faced by their companies.
and include an overview of the external environmental
forces which fuel the need for organisational change.
In the real world, the pressures of work and the
hectic lifestyle and stress involved with being a Management accounting and budgetary issues
shipping industry manager often precludes the should also be included and practical work should
individual from seeking the training s/he needs, and explore the hierarchy of organisational goals and
when it is not possible to take advantage of the existing address issues related to objective setting and the
educational courses listed above it may be that the development of organisational structures and cultures.
best solution for medium term success is a convenient, Programmes should consider the use of management
cost effective, highly focused, short, sharp injection of systems for the control and monitoring of product/
managerial skills and tools. service in terms of quality and quantity, time, cost,
and people.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 231

 Exercises in problem solving and decision making
should increase in complexity to reflect the broader
scope of interest for this level of management and will,
ideally, focus on inter-departmental or inter-functional
co-operation for the achievement of organisational
goals.
The strategic level is related to external
relationships, market competition and internal
environmental analysis, the formulation of long term
aims, corporate planning and aspects of leadership
related to vision, commitment and the support of
tactical managers in their co-ordination role.
Underpinning knowledge should include
recognised and tested frameworks for corporate
decision making related to product portfolio, external
market environment and organisational analysis.
An element of strategic finance should exist at this
level with practical exercises constructed around the
use of these frameworks for the processing of complex
business information and the application of models
for strategic choice and strategy formulation and
should include opportunities to explore issues related
to strategy implementation and change management.
A systematic approach to management
development
Accepting that at least the new UK S/NVQ
qualifications provide for the formal management
development of any officer cadets following that route,
it is clear that it will be many years before these
individuals are ready to move into shipping company
management; and in any case these are 'national'
qualifications which mayor may not influence the
evolution of qualifications around the world.
If it is also true that the majority of shipping
industry managers are too busy to study for a formal
management qualification then a managerial skills gap
must exist and will continue to have an adverse effect
on the way shipping is run and continue to increase
the burden of legislation.
It is therefore essential to fill this gap with a system
of short, highly focused training courses which are time
and cost effective and allow existing and new shipping
industry managers, whether afloat or ashore, to acquire
and practice the managerial skills which will give their
organisations that critical competitive advantage.
Most importantly each course should be attended
before managers move upwards in the organisation,
so that they are fully prepared for their new or
expanded role.
Ideally, a young, newly appointed person ashore
and all junior and middle officers afloat should attend
232 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
a management development course before promotion
so that they have the necessary managerial skills to
carry out a more senior operational role.
Likewise, before the next stage of promotion to
the level of middle (tactical) manager they should
attend a 2nd stage of continuing management
development and in advance of taking a strategic
management role they should attend a 3rd stage.
The likely content of each of these three stages of
development has been illustrated earlier and would,
in an ideal situation, be approved by an awarding body
(BTEC, Institute of Management, University) as
accreditation towards an existing formal qualification
in management. This systematic approach to
management development through three stages, which
relate to the levels within an organisation, has parallels
in some modern approaches to vocational and
academic development.
Recent projects related to credit awards (South East
England Consortium & Wales Access Unit) identified
three generic levels of descriptors related to learning.
The context at level 1 is given as 'defined and demands
the use of a specified range of standard techniques', the
context at level 2 is given as 'simple but unpredictable,
or complex but predictable, demanding the application of a
wide range of techniqueS and the context at level 3 is
given as 'complex and unpredictable, demanding selection
and application from a wide range of innovative or standard
techniques using familiar or unfamiliar datd.
In a similar way the NVQ framework identifies
competence at levels 1 through 3 to include the
application of knowledge' across a range of routine and
predictable contexts' in self management through to
'complex and routine context' with responsibility
increasing to 'considerable with autonomy, and control and
guidance of others'.
NVQ level 4 introduces 'complex technical and
professional activity, responsibility fOr the work of others and
the allocation of resources'.
NVQlevel5 applies to a 'significant range ofprinciples
acrossa wide and unpredictable variety of contexts' and talks
of 'substantial personal autonomy and significant
responsibility fOr the work of others and the allocation of
substantial resourceswith personal accountabilityfOr analysis,
diagnosis, design, planning, execution and evaluation'.
Course content for any of the three stages of
management development outlined above should
have these definitions of context in mind if
accreditation of the course is sought as a training
outcome, and training providers need to work in close
partnership with accreditation bodies and shipping
industry organisations to ensure that programmes are
appropriate.
 The preferred methodologies for the delivery of
any management development material should be
based on a participative approach. Short and concise
presentations covering the theories, frameworks and
managerial tools which underpin the topic areas
should be followed by group activities such as role
play, simulations and case studies which vary in
complexity and explore the linkages between, as well
as issues specific to, each topic area.
An essential element in the learning experience is
the discussion and debate which follows these
activities, and ideally exercises should be shipping
related. If they are not, then the de-briefing process
should focus them clearly on applications to the
shipping industry and facilitate the drawing of parallels
with the participants' own organisations.
Assessment of managerial skill
The assessment of managerial skills is the most difficult
of tasks.
There is, after all, no right or wrong answer. There
is only a 'best fit' solution to any business problem
based on an analysis of the situation as it exists at a
moment in time. Innovative business solutions come
from the creative use of market intelligence and
management information and the ability to appreciate
the wider picture. This becomes more apparent at the
higher levels of strategic management but is true even
at the operational level.
What can be formally assessed, however, is the
individual's appreciation of the underlying theories
which can be drawn on during the process of problem
solving and the individual's understanding of the
multitude of frameworks available for the business
decision making process.
If formal assessment is appropriate, to allow
accreditation against a formal qualification for
instance, then examination may be necessary and
questions which require written answers can be
constructed in separate, yet complementary, parts.
The first part might ask the candidate to 'reproduce'
an accepted theory or framework and the second to
'discuss' or 'explore' or 'debate' its application to a
given situation.
The first part of the question can be marked
objectively against known criteria and the second part
subjectively against a model which appraises the
quality of analysis, hypothesis and argument.
This type of examination can be supplemented by
more modern methods for vocational assessment
which require candidates to build a portfolio showing
that they have successfully participated in the
managerial process appropriate to their present or
future role; in other words they have demonstrated,
and can present evidence of, their management
competence. This combination can then be assessed
by a qualified assessor.
In the end the actual level of an individual's
achievement should be related to the achievement of
organisational and individual development goals
measured against the training objectives formulated
as part of the formal needs analysis and identified in
the personal appraisal process.
Cost versus benefit
Selling management training to the shipping industry
has never been easy. The survival strategies of the past
twenty years or so have meant that the industry has
lost sight of the longer term advantages it offers. The
short term costs are more easily quantified than those
long term benefits but the following framework does
offer forward examples of the criteria against which
an effective management development programme
can be measured.
The cost of management development will fall into
the following categories:
• Direct cost of development.
• The actual cost of the training programmes.
• Indirect cost.
• Travel, accommodation and subsistence.
• Administration, TNA and appraisal.
• Training benefit evaluation.
• Cost of workplace replacement.
• Salary and on costs.
• Learning curve and close supervision
requirement for replacement.
• Cost of inefficiency of replacement.
• Opportunity cost of total cost of management
development.
• Lost earning capacity of management
development budget.
• Discounting cost of management development.
• Delay in achieving benefit from training costs.
The benefits will normally be categorised under
headings such as:-
• Voyages per year.
• Average load factors.
• Daily ship operating costs.
• Total fixed and variable costs.
• Net profit or return on capital employed.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 233
In more detail, they can be given as:-
o Avoidance of costs due to accidents caused by
human error.
o Uninsured loss & 3rd party liability.
o Loss of productivity.
o Loss mitigation through action.
o Crisis or emergency management.
o Public relations and media management.
o Maintenance and repair efficiencies.
o Reduced stock inventory.
o Reduced contractor usage.
o Benefits to corporate morale.
o Decrease employee turnover and recruitment
costs.
o Decrease in absenteeism through illness.
o Less resistance to change.
o Improved safety record.
o Benefits from reduction in disputes.
o Fewer customer complaints.
o Fewer cargo damage actions.
o Reduced consumables costs.
o Fuel and lubricating oils.
o Victuals and potable water.
o Fuel quality matters and waste management.
o Improved vessel utilisation.
o Load factors and broken stowage.
o Optimising voyage draught, trim and stability
condition.
o Voyage and charter management.
o Navigation management, schedules and charter
compliance.
o Reduced port and down time.
o Increased operating efficiencies.
o Higher individual/team output and better
working relationships.
o Decreased overtime and fuel consumption.
o Decreased insurance premiums.
o Hull and machinery.
o P & I and extra-ordinary or catastrophe calls.
o Improved customer relations.
o Higher perceived quality of service.
o Better value chain management and customer
loyalty.
o More effective barriers to entry.
o Improved administration costs.
o Transfer of administration down the line.
o Improved management of information.
234 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Improved finances.
Effective ship investment appraisal.
Reduction in cost of capital and leverage control.
Improved dividends, share value and cash flow.
Better position with respect to contract
negotiation.
Improved return on capital employed.
Better business growth potential.
Summary & conclusions
Three management career pathways exist in shipping,
the seafarer in a management position afloat, the ex-
seafarer in a management position ashore, the non-
seafarer in a management position ashore.
In each case it is essential for the individual to have
a foundation of general management skills and
knowledge which can be developed, before
advancement, in order to ensure that they have the
appropriate management competencies relating to
their new operational, tactical or strategic role.
Cost effective management development
programmes can be developed with the aid of training
needs analyses and identified managerial skills profiles
which match the needs of the organisation and the
individual. Training providers should work in
partnership with industry organisations, companies
and awarding bodies in order to match course content
to existing qualifications and allow future accreditation
and transfer of skills.
Training methodologies should be based on the
application of recognised theories to practical
situations in order to simulate the management
decision making process and individuals or teams
should be assessed on their ability to offer well argued,
rational solutions to business problems of appropriate
complexity.
The short, medium and long term benefits of
management development programmes should be
measured against the business goals of the organisation
and personal aspirations of the individual as
determined by, and defined during, the training needs
analysis and appraisal consultations.
Management development, both ashore and afloat,
can give the shipping organisation a real competitive
advantage only when there is an atmosphere of shared
values between all interested parties and due
consideration is given to succession planning within
the industry.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

- SECTION V -

Towards specialisation

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 235

 Chapter THIRTY THREE

THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATIONAL CONSULTANT

by Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI

Len Holder has been an independent maritime education and training consultant since 1989. Before that he was at Liverpool Polytechnic
for 24 years as lecturer, Head of Department andfinally as Director of the School of Engineering and TechnologyManagement. He was
President of The Nautical Institute from 1993 to 1996 and is currently Chairman of Videotel Marine International.

He was with Alfred Holt and Company from 1953 to 1965, gaining his Master's Certificate in 1962. He served in both the Blue
Funnel cadet shiPs M. V. "Calchas" and M. V. "Diomed", and as Tutor/Warden of ':4ulis", their shore-based training establishment.

Whilst at Liverpool Polytechnic he obtained an Extra Master's Certificate and a MPhil degree and continued carrying out research
and consultancy, as well as teaching on professional and academic programmes.

As an education and training consultant he has worked with shipping companies, government departments, the European Commission
and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) on projects related to the standards, quality and efficiency of maritime education
and training.

Introduction
Very few, if any, people set out on a seagoing career
with the aim of becoming educational consultants. The
normal path into this work is through seafaring into
teaching, examining, college management and/or
shore-based management of company training.
Through such a pathway, knowledge and skills are
acquired which would probably include most of the
following:-
• Basic seafaring, various ships and trades and the
marine environment.
• Professional competence(s).
• Sea training (methods and effectiveness).
• Teaching and training ashore.
• Examination and assessment.
• Development, organisation and management of
course programmes.
• Monitoring of the quality, content and effectiveness
of programmes.
• Organisation and management of education and
training centres.
• Company personnel management with emphasis
on recruitment, selection, training, staff
development, appraisal and counselling.
Most senior college staff and company training
managers have a mix of the above skills, but not all
become educational consultants. There are a number
of other factors which can make a difference.
Groundwork: professional and/or
academic qualifications
Seafarers wishing to follow a path into teaching and
training must decide to which level, and in which
order, to acquire professional and academic
qualifications.
In professional terms, unless you are seeking to
gain high academic qualifications in a specialist subject,
such as the law, it is better to gain at least a master's or
chief engineer's Certificate of Competency as the
minimum professional level which is credible in
consultancy or expert witness roles.
Academically, the minimum qualification is a first
degree in a relevant subject, and for advisory work at
university / higher education level, a higher degree is
almost essential.
There are really no short-cuts in achieving these
dual qualifications, but there are some ways in which
life can be made slightly easier, through Credit
Accumulation and Transfer Schemes (C.A.T.S.) and
Accreditation of Prior Learning (A.P.L.), which may
allow some carry-over between the two pathways. It
is not only the paperwork (certification) which counts,
it is also the subjects which you learn and the skills
you acquire on the way. The most useful skills learned
in the academic pathways are probably the acquisition
of information, analysis and synthesis, presentation
and communication. The need for skilled use of
information technology and a high level of computer
literacy go without saying in the modern world.
Further qualifications and experience
of teaching and examining
There are a number of alternative ways of building
upon the basic qualifications. Those whose main aim
is a career in teaching are advised to gain a certificate
or diploma in teaching, to understand the theory and

236 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

practice of a career which is very different from
seafaring, even though the subject matter being taught
may be related to the sea. Whilst studying for a
teaching qualification, there are usually opportunities
to carry out project work which relates to your
maritime teaching interests.
Another way to acquire unique and marketable
skills is to spend a period of time carrying out research
for a higher degree (Ph.D., M.Phil., M.A., M.Sc.). The
range of topics researched by maritime consultants
varies across a wide spectrum:-
• Technical subjects (computer-based radars, ship
stress and stability, high speed diesel engine
performance, moorings etc.).
• Commercial subjects (specialist trades such as
Liquefied Natural Gases, chemicals, ro-ro, etc.).
• Business topics (such as maritime finance and
insurance).
• Legal subjects (charter parties, liability, salvage etc.).
• Management (planning, finance, personnel and
human factors, etc.).
In each case, you learn how to carry out research
and present your findings, but also gain unique
expertise in a useful subject.
Another essential part of your career path towards
becoming a consultant is to broaden your knowledge
of teaching and training and gain further practical
experience by working in colleges, training ships,
companies or other training or examination centres.
You will need to gain practical knowledge of the day-
to-day problems of staff and students / trainees and
the best ways of resolving them. Probably the most
important factor at this time is the attitude of your
employer and your colleagues in the teaching team.
It is important to seek experience with a company or
in a training centre which is widely recognised as a
centre of excellence. Most people are very helpful and
offer advice and encouragement, but a few can be quite
negative and unhelpful. Above all your success will
depend on giving your employers and your customers
(trainees and candidates) good value for their money
and giving them the sort of service and encouragement
you would appreciate yourself.
Moving into management
Being a good teacher is a rewarding job. There is a
great deal of satisfaction in watching the careers of
those you have taught take off as they become senior
officers at sea, company managers or harbourmasters.
Many teachers are content to teach, but someone has
to manage, and all teachers need management skills
to some degree. Courses need to be designed,
timetables worked out, teaching teams organised and
encouraged, examination questions set, quality systems
thought through and implemented etc. It is another
challenge and one for which certain people have a
particular gift. There are three ways of learning to
become a better manager: by learning the theory of
management, by being coached by experienced
colleagues, and by making a lot of mistakes and having
to put them right later. Most managers probably learn
by all three methods, but the best way is to learn the
theory and have a good mentor to help you put it into
practice without too many embarrassing mistakes.
At this stage in the career path towards consultancy,
it pays to be outward looking, beyond the confines of
your own company or institution. There is good, bad
and mediocre in every organisation, but if you are
able to see how other centres work, compare notes
with colleagues from elsewhere, visit other companies
and see how they work, it will help you to be aware of
best practices from a wider field. A good way of
meeting other people and comparing notes is through
professional bodies and learned societies. Maritime
organisations, such as The Nautical Institute, the
Institute of Marine Engineers, the International
Maritime Lecturers' Association and the International
Association of Maritime Institutions are important, but
it is also useful to join other organisations to learn about
teaching and training in other industries and in other
countries. If you cannot attend conferences and meet
people at least you can read the journals.
External examining, moderation and
validation
You will normally first become a junior member on a
team setting and marking examinations, etc. and later
sit on examination and academic boards with wider
powers, and be asked to vet the quality of courses in
your own institution.
At a certain stage in your career development, you
will have gained enough experience to be able to judge
the standards being set by people outside your own
organisation. This is the coming of age in consultancy
terms, because you are now regarded as an expert in
your field, capable of independent and fair judgment.
The training for this role is less clearly defined.
Much of the knowledge and skill you require will have
been gained as you progressed though your career.
One of the best ways of drawing upon the experience
of others in this field is to work with the standard setting
bodies (in the UK this would include the Edexcel
Foundation, formerly the Business and Technology
Education Council, the Scottish Vocational Education
Council, the Higher Education Funding Council for
England, City and Guilds, etc.). These bodies have
years of experience in setting and monitoring
standards. They produce excellent publications and
run training courses for their full-time and part-time
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 237
staff. Most larger universities and colleges and some
commercial establishments have induction
programmes or short courses for those who aspire to
senior management and quality assurance roles and
these will help in broadening your knowledge and
improving your judgment.
One thing is certain, you will need to keep learning
throughout your career. Much of this will be
experiential learning through meeting people and
working with them in different situations, but reading
books and journals and attending short courses and
conferences form an important part of the process.
Thus, most senior staff in teaching and training
centres, and most examiners in Government or college
service are, in effect, part-time educational consultants.
The point may come when you decide to become a
full-time educational consultant.
Employment as an educational
consultant
There are several ways of becoming a full-time
educational consultant. Which particular way is best
for each person will depend upon personal preferences
and family circumstances.
Employment by government departments or
agencies
International bodies such as the International
Maritime Organisation and national governments
need to establish, monitor and review their educational
establishments and processes, examination and
certification systems and vocational training. There
may be opportunities for direct employment in
government service as an advisor, or in posts with
national or internal standard setting bodies, in which
your experience and judgment related to maritime
education and training are needed.
Despite the ways in which some governments have
been restructuring their civil services and associated
agencies, this type of employment will probably still
have the greatest security, and good pension rights,
health and social security benefits. The disadvantages
are those associated with working in any large
bureaucracy, where there always seems to be a mass
of paper work and there may be a hierarchy which
stifles creativity and does not welcome individual
initiatives. However, for someone who enjoys working
in a structured management environment, who needs
a regular income to meet financial commitments, this
may be the best option. There is certainly much that
needs to be done in this field and it can be interesting
and fulfilling work.
238 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
The work may consist of any or all of the following:-
Researching, or supervising research into and
reporting upon, particular problems related to
education and training .
• Joining planning teams to consider new schools,
colleges, courses or training schemes.
Participating in staff appraisal schemes for teachers
and examiners and devising staff development
programmes.
Inspecting and validating education and training
establishments and programmes and advising
management and staff.
Monitoring and reporting upon the effectiveness
of assessment and examination schemes and quality
systems.
The job offers training, team working
opportunities, and reasonable rewards. It brings you
into contact with a wide range of teachers and students,
offers a variety of challenges, keeps you up to date
with current thinking, and develops your skills in
personnel management and communication.
Employment within an organisation or
company
There are a small number of organisations providing
educational services and materials who require
educational consultants as part of the service they offer
to industry, governments or the public at large. Very
few have sufficient work for a full-time consultant as a
staff member, but those who do can offer opportunities
and security which are probably similar to those in
modern government departments. Again, they offer
variety, management teamwork, a chance to keep up-
to-date with developments and the reward of seeing
the service or products your organisation offers making
a contribution to the industry and the general public.
Such services might include:-
Devising and managing company training and staff
development programmes and liaising with
education centres and trainees.
Devising and operating staff appraisal schemes.
Producing and updating publications required for
maritime education and training (with governments,
companies and industrial organisations).
Supplying and managing libraries, film, video and
other information services.
Supplying and offering staff training for computers,
simulators and other educational and operational
hardware and software.
Providing technical or recreational services via
satellite or other media.
Providing short courses, distance learning and/or
conference programmes.
Providing assessment services and materials.
Managing travelling trainers and advisors (including
those seconded to client organisations).
 The interest, challenge and variety of work in these
posts cannot be denied, but at a time when we are just
emerging from a recession in the shipping industry,
those doing these jobs would probably admit that,
when the going gets tough for companies, the
educational consultant is likely to be one of the first to
go. Having said that, we are entering into a period in
the early 2000s when there will be a worldwide
demand for well-trained qualified sea staff, and there
will be a need to train people quickly and efficiently
to meet that need. Someone will be needed to carry
those developments through. The secret in this, as in
any other enterprise, is to have the supply prepared
when the demand becomes urgent. Timing is
important, so it might be advisable to start thinking
through the problems and solutions now, and how
you can contribute to solving them.
Employment within a consultancy group or as
an independent consultant
As indicated in the previous section, few organisations
can afford to have their own tame educational
consultant. Most rely on buying in the services of
outside consultants, particularly at times of
restructuring or change. These people bring with them
experience of solving similar problems for other
organisations, they provide extra manpower to carry
the changes through, and they can be dispensed with
once the changes are implemented. It is also true that
they are usually not around when their new structures
hit problems in day-today use. The way to prevent
this happening is to fully involve company staff at all
levels, alongside the consultants, whilst research is
being carried out and changes devised.
Educational consultants may be asked to tackle any
relevant problem anywhere in the world:-
Evaluating the effectiveness of current education,
training and examination systems and/or
developing new ones.
Developing a new college, training ship or training
scheme for a government or other organisation.
Investigating the part which human factors
(particularly manning and training) may have
played in casualties or accidents.
Devising manning regimes and training for a newly
designed ship or off- shore structure.
Co-operating with manufacturers in designing user-
friendly equipment and writing operating manuals.
Working with national or international legislators
in setting education, training, assessment and
certification standards for maritime personnel.
Devising the operational routines, manning and
training for new ports, vessel traffic services or
pilotage.
Etc., etc.
These are just a few examples which directly
involve educational expertise, there are many more.
Much of the work is international and worldwide, so
there is plenty of variety and travel. There is also
variety in the methods used in the work, from
reference work in libraries, to on-site inspections,
interviewing, commissioning and carrying out surveys,
simulation and other studies, statistical analysis, report
writing, etc.
One advantage of working in a consultancy group
is that you can work alongside other disciplines,
engineers, economists, scientists, sociologists etc.
whose work complements your own. A group is able
to seek and contract for much larger projects than an
individual and has a management structure and
services which support you in your work. As part of a
large group, with the work being shared, there tends
to be less of the peaks and troughs than you would
experience as an individual consultant working on
your own. There is more security. As in everything,
there is a down-side to working in a group. If you
start as an employee or junior partner, you may be
given the jobs the seniors do not want. If you are
independent, you can still work with groups but you
make your mind up after you know what the work
will involve.
Bids, fees, expenses and accounting
The question I am most often asked by people starting
work as a consultant is "How much shall I charge?".
The bottom limit to your scale of charges is the income
you need to survive - no-one can afford to work at a
loss for very long, as the ship-owning fraternity
constantly tells us. The top limit is determined by just
how much the client is willing to pay for your expertise
and/or how much a competing consultant would
charge.
Many contracts require or allow fees and expenses
to be charged separately. The main factors which need
to be taken into account in determining your minimum
possible rate of return (price) are as follows:-
Personal/family income. Remember that work will
be intermittent and you have to live between
assignments and some clients are very slow to pay.
Large organisations are usually the slowest.
Tax on profits, personal taxation and national
insurance.
Support staff costs.
Cost of premises, rent, heat, light, cleaning etc.
Capital cost of vehicle(s).
Cost of travel (air, rail, car, ferries etc.).
Cost of equipment and materials for use in the office
or for working with clients.
Cost of office services (typing, printing, copying,
phone, fax, e-mail, post, courier, etc.).
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 239
 Many services, such as copying and typing, can be
obtained at no capital cost and modest charges by
using business service bureaux, etc.
As an example, in the early 1990s the lowest fee I
was offered (by a well respected government agency),
was £40 a day. It is hard for anyone to manage on
that sort of fee.
Maximum fees are probably more difficult to
calculate, because they depend more on the client than
on you! A few thoughts to weigh up are:-
If there are 25 people bidding for a single contract,
only one can win. There are no prizes for coming
second.
If the client stands to gain a considerable sum, or
minimise his losses, from your expertise (for
example winning a court case because of evidence
on radar training requirements), then a large fee to
you will be good value for him.
If the job involves boring or unpleasant work in an
unfriendly environment, make it worth your while
if you win the contract.
Equally, if you would really enjoy the work and
enhance your experience by doing it, try to make
sure your bid is not overpriced.
I believe that some consultants (usually legal and
technical rather than educational) with excellent
experience and/or technical support, are able to
command fees in the £600+ a day bracket (though
much of that goes towards organisational overheads
and not to the individual). No-one pays that sort of
money for supporting good teaching - you have to
be dedicated and get satisfaction in other ways!
A few other comments about management and
general philosophy I might add are as follows:-
Make sure you have a base through which you can
be contacted. Otherwise, people will get fed up
trying to call, particularly if you are abroad for long
periods.
240 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Beware of very large, time-consuming projects
which would take you out of the marketplace for a
long time. When you want another job, people may
have forgotten you!
If you are offered a job which you cannot accept
because you are too busy, try to help the client to
find the best alternative person or group.
Make sure that rates, terms, conditions and penalties
are clearly laid out in your contract, and get it signed
by both parties at an early stage.
Make sure you are properly insured and if your
work involves commercial or personal risk for
which you may be liable, consider taking out
professional indemnity insurance. This may be
costly for individuals. Rates for group policies are
normally lower.
At the start of each project, plan carefully right to
the end, with time for unexpected problems along
the way - a bit like voyage planning really.
Be factual, analytical and reasonable. Your personal
opinions may be right, but need to be supported
by rational argument.
Tell the truth, even if it is not what the client wants
to hear. Better to lose a client, than lose your
integrity.
Good reports can be spoiled by poor presentation.
Keep good records and accounts.
Submit invoices on time with sufficient detail and
supporting evidence (receipts, etc.).
Consider employing an accountant rather than
struggling with your own tax returns.
If you work within an established group, many of
the management decisions will be dealt with by
seniors, and much of the detail by office managers. In
that case, you still have to pay attention to detail, in
order to help them to do their job!
Advice on consultancy careers
One of the advantages of organisations like The
Nautical Institute and Institute of Marine Engineers,
is that you can talk things through with colleagues who
have already trodden the career path you are thinking
of entering. Most will give you a clear picture and
sound advice to allow you to make a rational choice.
 Chapter THIRTY FOUR

MARINE PILOT TRAINING

by the late Captain James Drahos BS FNI

former Marine Pilot, South Central Alaska

Captainjames F. Drahos (b. 7942), BS FNI, graduated from the Califtrnia Maritime Academy in 7965 and obtained his Us. C. G.
UnlimitedMaster licensein 7975. During that interval he sailed asjunior officeraboard reeferships, special-purpose vessels(oceanographic
research,seismic survey) and in the offshore industry (drillshiPs, including dynamic-positioned).jim also served ashore in personnel and
training while awaiting assignment as Second Officer of the HUGHES GLOMAR EXPLORER.

Since 7975, Captain Drahos sailed aboard Dutch, Liberian and us. flag vessels in the offshore industry, as well as in American
ocean-going tugs. He was in command jOr 75 years, serving as master of the GLOMAR EXPLORER (deep-ocean mining), the
OCEAN ENERGY CONVERTER (electricityfrom the temperature differencesin the sea), anchor-handling/tug/supply vessels(Argentina,
Borneo, Gulf of Mexico and Alaska) and a self-sustaining container shiP with ro-ro capability (US. East Coast to South America). He
also held endorsements as Offshore Installation Manager - Unrestricted and Federal pilotage, Any Gross Tons, in Alaska, Hawaii and
Califtrnia. He served as an expert witness and marine consultant, most notably in supervising the deep-water mooring of an experimental
kelp farm.

In 7988, Captain Drahos receivedhis initial license as an Alaska State pilot. During the next few years, his time offfrom sea-going
employment was spent in Alaska, working as contract pilot and obtaining additional endorsements on his State license. In 7997 he was
invited tojoin the Southwest Alaska Pilots Association (SWAPA). He completed his training in 7995, receiving an unlimited tonnage
Marine Pilot License with VLCC endorsement, and was voted a ftll member of SWAPA. Subsequently, he was elected a member of the
SWAPA Board of Directors and as Secretary/Treasurer for 7996.

Captain Drahos was a member of the American Pilots Association, a regular member of the Council of American Master Mariners
(CAMM), an individual member of the International Federation of Shipmasters' Associations (IFSMA) and a life member of the us.
Naval Institute. He wrote an irregular column jOr Seaways ('Us. News and views') and was selected as a speaker at several command
seminars. He served as Chairman of the IFSMA Committee jOr CAMM and wrote the quarterly reportjOr their journal, Sidelights.

Introduction master to reserve comment on the pilot's competency.

"Pilot on board"! This phrase is uttered on bridges
and entered in deck log books on thousands of ships,
every day, in every port around the world. The pilot
will come onto the bridge and introduce himself to
the master. A master/pilot conference will follow, of
varying complexity, with the master assuring the pilot
that all ship equipment is operating properly and the
pilot detailing the transit and/or berthing or
unberthing manoeuvre to the master. The ship will
then commence the final part of her voyage or get
underway and begin her voyage.
Having just reviewed the crew's competency
assessment training results, the master may wonder
what competency assessment applies to the pilot.
These are all valid questions. This paper describes
some aspects of pilot training in general terms, without
reference to any specific jurisdiction. The author has
drawn upon his experience with pilots throughout the
world, as well as his own experience and recent
training as a pilot in Alaska.
What is a pilot?

Sometime during the foregoing events, the master
may ponder the question of the pilot's abilities. First
impressions are important. The master, if making an
initial acquaintance with the pilot, will wonder what
experience the pilot brings aboard and what training
the pilot has had. If the ship is a modem one, the
master may be concerned that the pilot is capable of
utilising the high technology equipment installed on
board. Subtle judgments will be made. Perhaps a
hesitation by the pilot in responding to a situation or
in answering a question from the mate will cause the
The relationship between the master and the pilot is a
special one, most likely even more sacred than that
between spouses. The trust is implicit and immediate.
Without ever having met the master before, the pilot
will depend upon the master to be honest in describing
the condition of the ship and any problems there might
be. The master will depend upon the pilot to describe
the transit honestly, any problems to be expected en
route, the situation with the tugs, line handlers and
shore facilities and to be knowledgeable of the local
regulations. At least, between a husband and wife,

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 241

there is a courtship with a reasonable chance to get to
know each other!
The pilot should give the master confidence in his
or her ability to do the job, all the while ensuring that
the master knows the pilot is there to serve the ship.
A pilotage voyage plan, relevant port information,
conferences with the deck officers - all these things
will assure the master that the pilot is, indeed,
competent and capable of being entrusted with the
handling of the ship.
The pilot should seek the master's advice on any
special concern with manoeuvres. Often, a master will
prefer one manoeuvre over another, with justification.
The pilot should make every attempt to satisfy the
master's valid preferences and modify the pilotage
voyage plan accordingly. If the pilot cannot, for various
reasons, accommodate the master's request, the pilot
should explain the reasons why. The master must have
confidence in the pilot, even when the pilot might have
to reject the master's suggestion, but always explaining
why, time permitting!
Qualifications
Pilots have, for many years, debated what the ideal
attributes are to qualify as a pilot. Some say tug boat
sailors make the best pilots. Others note that deep sea
mariners have unique characteristics. Pilots come from
backgrounds that include deep sea masters, tug
skippers and ferry captains, as well as a variety of other
specialised maritime trades. In many areas, pilots will
qualify based on family ties. Some pilots may hold a
master's certificate, but have never had the opportunity
to sail in command.
What qualifications should pilots have? There is
an argument that they should have sailed as a deep
sea master, to have an awareness of the master's
situation. Experience as master is certainly valuable.
Some masters claim they can tell which pilots have
deep sea master's experience by their care in handling
the ship. Unfortunately, this is not universally true.
Shiphandling ability may be perfected either as a deep
sea master or tug skipper but, like other skills, some
have an eye for the work and others will never learn.
Ideally, the prospective pilot should have the ability
to get along with others, including those of different
cultures and nationalities, adapt to unusual situations
and show a willingness to learn and successfully perfect
the requisite techniques necessary to pilot in the
particular waters.
An argument is made, in some pilot jurisdictions,
that a prospective pilot should not be above a certain
age. An extensive pilotage area may mean a much
longer time spent in qualifying. In such cases, the
pilotage authority may desire entrants young enough
to ensure that they will be able to work a specified
242 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
number of years after qualifying, to justify the training
investment. Younger applicants may, therefore, be
allowed to have less experience before beginning
training. Jurisdictions having entry requirements for
more experience may be less concerned with the
applicant's age, having a justifiable expectation that
the specified experience will substitute for part of the
pilot's training.
Trainee selection
There may be many qualified applicants. How should
prospective trainees be selected? Once again, there
are as many methods as there are jurisdictions. At one
time this decision was left to the pilot association or
governing authority. Within the past few years, more
likely in some parts of the world than in others, the
concept of equal opportunity has entered into the
equation. In some jurisdictions, this is handled fairly,
being used to ensure that all applicants have an equal
opportunity. In other cases, trainees are selected to
meet political goals of equity in race, gender, ethnicity,
and so on.
In the USA, individual states license pilots for
vessels in foreign trade and a federal (USCG) license
is required for coastwise trade. Some states require
the federal license as a prerequisite, which serves as
part of the selection process. In other states the federal
license is obtained after qualifying for the state license.
Furthermore, many states conduct qualifying
examinations to rank the applicants in order of
selection for existing or future openings in pilot
training programs.
Many jurisdictions require a master's license and
command time to be considered for selection. One of
the most strict requirements specifies actual time
underway as master. However, there are places where
pilots are selected on the basis of competitive
examination or other means and are not required to
have had any sea time. In some maritime countries,
where the effects of flagging out are being felt through
a diminished pool of qualified senior mariners, pilot
selection is affected and applicants may be selected
on the basis of a combination of training and
experience.
Not all pilot jurisdictions will consider deep sea
time as valuable as the local knowledge gained from
employment as a tug master, dredger captain or other
afloat employment in the port or pilotage jurisdiction.
There is much to be gained in such applicants, where
local knowledge is already in place and, perhaps,
familiarisation with the handling of large ships and
the work of merchant vessels can be the training goal.
Trainee selection should include interviews with
the applicant's shipmates and professional associates
(agents, other pilots, charterers) whenever possible.
They will have insights, directly applicable to the
selection process, about the applicant's abilities and
temperament which would not otherwise be revealed
during the selection process.
In the worst cases, applicants are selected on the
basis of family ties, political connections or other
considerations which are not open to public scrutiny
or which may, equally, restrict qualified applicants.
While these cases have the random opportunity to
select and train competent pilots, the opposite is
equally true. Where public oversight can be applied,
especially in jurisdictions with considerable traffic in
hazardous products, a change in the selection process
may be seen, which is likely to exert beneficial effects
in the selection of pilot applicants.
Pre-training
Unfortunately, few pilot jurisdictions consider the
experience of the applicant once selected to become
a trainee. One concept requires that the pilot
jurisdiction specify what abilities a deputy pilot and
full pilot should possess upon completion of their
respective training cycles. These attributes, compared
with the abilities of the individual trainees, will result
in pilot training programs tailored to that specific
trainee's abilities, to produce the competent deputy
pilot or full pilot who meets or possesses the required
and specified capabilities This will likely result in
training programs of varying lengths and degrees of
depth depending upon the individual trainee.
Such training programs have several natural
advantages. By not requiring trainees to complete
training cycles which duplicate abilities they already
possess, training programs may be shortened. Areas
where a trainee might need additional work can be
highlighted and training in that area intensified. By
not applying a same size fits all to every trainee, deputy
pilots and full pilots will likely all possess equal skills
upon completion of their respective training programs.
Some might consider it a disadvantage that such
pre-training programs require the pilot jurisdiction to
invest time and effort, not only in assessing the abilities
of their selected trainees, but in modifying their
training programs. Progressive pilot jurisdictions,
however, will see the value in such work, which can
only be to their benefit. In addition, by continually
assessing the skills required, pilot training programs
will be kept in step with industry and port
requirements.
Establishing a pre-training program means that
training benchmarks must be established and the
trainee's progress must be continually assessed. More
importantly, if progress is not adequate, remedial
measures can be instituted immediately.
Unfortunately, it will also be necessary to establish
the guidelines under which a trainee, who becomes
obviously unsuited in temperament or ability to
become a pilot, will be disqualified and dropped from
the training program.
Pilot training
This phase of pilot training is generally aimed at
achieving the ability competently to handle ships up
to a specified limit of length, draft, tonnage or any
combination thereof. In past years, a deputy pilot
might have been licensed solely on the basis of
experience and assumed to have the ability to do the
job as a result. This would be the very epitome of on-
the-job training. Very likely, many masters might have
strong opinions about such programs, depending upon
the skills of that deputy pilot and the success of that
first docking!
In most cases these days, deputy pilots will have
performed a specified number of successful supervised
manoeuvres - berthing/un berthing, mooring at
buoys/anchoring and getting underway from both,
channel passages and any manoeuvres specific to that
jurisdiction - before being allowed to work alone. This
process can be fairly exciting to the supervising pilot,
especially on the trainee's first few manoeuvres. Many
trainees may believe they have the ability to do the
work after merely observing the job, but may find it is
quite a different situation when the supervising pilot
is in the background. This process will be familiar to
masters and is akin to their training a chief mate, for
example, where the trainer must let the trainee get far
enough into a bad situation so as to recognise the
problem and achieve the learning process, but not so
far that the trainer cannot salvage and successfully
complete the endeavour, if necessary.
This hands-on application, i.e., supervised
manoeuvres by the trainee, has the advantage of the
training being exactly like the work. Simulators do
not have this advantage, but there is increasing
pressure, especially from the academic establishment
and simulator providers (who both stand to benefit
from any requirement to increase simulator training)
being applied to the political and pilot jurisdictions to
utilise simulation. It should be an easily recognised
fact that the more the training is like the work, the
more prepared and competent the trainee will be when
the training is completed. Where simulation can
exactly duplicate real-world conditions, it can usefully
be employed. Simulation can also be valuable where
exact duplication is not important, i.e., bridge team
training, although careful attention must be given to
role specifics.
The specified training, as noted, should mirror the
work the trainee is expected to perform as deputy pilot.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 243
This means two things. Firstly, the training program
for a smaller jurisdiction will most likely be of shorter
duration than that of a larger jurisdiction, with
additional consideration of any special requirements,
i.e., regularly calling ships having unusual handling/
berth characteristics, etc. Secondly, the trainee should
see every manoeuvre and berth where he or she will
be expected to work on their own. This does not
always happen and, while the master of that deputy
pilot's first ship to a previously unseen port may not
be aware of it, the deputy pilot most certainly will be!
This is especially important in jurisdictions where there
are many remote ports and where the consequences
of an inadequately prepared/trained deputy pilot can
be serious, if not merely embarrassing. In an extreme
case, as has happened, a deputy pilot might have to
be relieved, at considerable expense and delay to the
ship. Should this occur, it most certainly points out a
defect in the training program.
Pilot bridge resource management
It should not be assumed that anyone accepted into a
pilot training program has been through a Bridge
Resource Management (BRM) course. There are a
couple of points that need to be made on this subject.
It is important to keep in mind that the pilot will be
entering into a whole new profession and, while it
might be argued that past experience is valuable, in
fact, even necessary, the new pilot will be viewing the
bridge from a new perspective.
Of course, every pilot and, especially any trainee/
deputy pilot, should have BRM training which
emphasises the pilot's role. Experience and BRM
training as mate or master is useful, but now the pilot
is in an entirely new role. Newer pilots will recognise
the significant differences in roles while the duties of
their former positions are still fresh in their memories.
Long time pilots or older deck officers entering
pilot training programs may not appreciate the
valuable role BRM can play. This is also a function of
their experience and, perhaps, lack of previous or
relevant BRM training. Some of these individuals will
accept what BRM can offer, others will not. It may be
more a function of time than anything else before all
pilots have BRM training and are aware of and accept
the value of it.
Manned model and simulator training
As competency assessment becomes increasingly
relevant, i.e., mandatory, the issues of manned model
and simulator training will become more contentious
items. The arguments will revolve around which
provide the more useful training for pilots. Much of
the stimulus for simulator training comes from non-
mariners who view aviation simulation as the model,
244 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
neglecting the very real differences between the two
training modes.
What are the differences and relative merits
between these two types of training? Many pilots
favour manned model training, pointing out that, with
respect to simulators, the aircraft pilot does not go out
on to the bridge wing to land the aircraft. While this
may be an over simplification, it is certainly a valid
argument and highlights the fact that simulation has
not yet reached the point where a cost effective
simulation can provide a realistic bridge wing
environment and berthing evolution. This is a very
real consideration since, arguably, at least half of the
pilot's work is on the bridge wing and to neglect this
area calls into question the need for a training method
which neglects half the work which is to be trained
for.
Manned model training offers more real world
conditions. Opponents, however, cite these real world
conditions as disadvantages, noting that lake models
do not lend themselves to evaluating the pilot's skills.
As evidenced by the number of manned model
facilities which can produce a printed track of the
model's training evolution, this argument is obviously
inaccurate. Moreover, even if it is accepted, it calls
into question the validity of supervised manoeuvres
which are currently used to qualify trainees and deputy
pilots. There is no doubt that this training does not
produce the favoured printout of the evolution for
evaluation, yet no one advocates qualifying a deputy
pilot solely on the basis of satisfactory simulator
training printouts either.
Perhaps, as is often the case, the best solution is a
mix of the two modes. There is no argument that
simulation has some value, especially for situational
awareness, BRM, channel work, emergency
ship handling and the like. These benefits can easily
be realised when combined with a manned model
course that provides a real world setting, allowing the
pilot to manoeuvre a ship without being constrained
by what simulated views are available and, for
example, able to make an approach to a pier that is
not available through simulation. It should be obvious
that anything in a simulator can only be the result of
or limited by the programmer's experience or
imagination. In manned model work, as in the real
world, unrealistic situations will not be portrayed and
the unexpected, as in life, may be just around the bend.
Upgrading
It is only reasonable that a deputy pilot, limited by
draft, length or tonnage, should, with suitable
experience, eventually be upgraded and licensed to
handle larger or specialised ships, depending upon
the pilotage area. In many jurisdictions, this upgrade,
which presumes increased skills are acquired through
handling smaller ships, is simply a function of time in
grade equating with experience. A deputy pilot might,
for example, initially be licensed to handle ships up
to 25,000 gross tons. One years' experience at that
level might be considered adequate to increase the
deputy pilot's tonnage level to 40,000 gross tons.
Experience can be combined with additional
training further to increase the deputy pilot's skill level.
Such additional training might be in the form of
manned model, simulation or additional supervised
manoeuvres at a higher tonnage To advance beyond
the aforementioned 40,000 gross tons, for example, a
deputy pilot might be required satisfactorily to
complete a certain number of supervised manoeuvres
aboard ships over 35,000 gross tons, as well as a certain
number of manoeuvres during adverse conditions -
ice, night, high winds, etc., before being upgraded to
60,000 tons. It is important to note that some pilotage
jurisdictions may only set the minimum qualification
levels, leaving the pilot association to require
additional in-house qualifications before the deputy
pilot is allowed to be dispatched to work at those levels.
Frequently, the pilot's compensation is a function of
the level of qualification, which is one incentive to
achieve the highest level, pilot of unlimited tonnage.
In many cases, there is a higher, more specialised
level of qualification. This may be for a class of ships,
e.g. VLCC, as a function of licensing and dispatch or
it may be a requirement of the shipping company who
prefer a pilot having recurrent knowledge of their
specialised ships, LNG being one example. Once
again, this may be a combination of supervised
manoeuvres, as well as other training (manned model
or simulator), to ensure the pilot's abilities to handle
these ships of special characteristics.
Continuing education / STCW / re-
certification
The profession of maritime pilot, like all others, is
subject to change. The current decade, perhaps more
than others, has seen an explosion of technology
applied to the maritime industry with specific
applications toward piloting. As shipping adopts this
technology, pilots will be required to become familiar
with its operation. This, in turn, will necessitate training
of pilots, in varying degrees, for this purpose. More
sophisticated ARPA, ECDIS, intelligent auto-pilots,
integrated manoeuvring controls - these are just a few
of the new tools with which pilots will have to become
familiar.
Increasingly, shipping companies will request that
pilots enter into joint training with their marine staff.
Certainly BRM, with the bridge team with whom a
pilot will be working, will provide more valuable
training than that with pilots or other deck officers in
their places. This concept is already being employed
by some companies with ships on regular trades.
While STCW has not addressed the training of
pilots at the time of writing, there is provision to do
so, and many pilot jurisdictions are beginning to
consider the need to institute re-certification
requirements. To date, in almost all jurisdictions, once
a pilot has been licensed that license remains in effect
until there is cause to revoke it. In line with the
competency assessment provisions of the STCW for
mariners, there are arguments that a pilot should,
equally, demonstrate continued competency to retain
his or her license. The Panama Canal now utilises a
simulator to hone some pilot skills and, in the USA.,
at least one pilot jurisdiction has are-certification
program entering the request for proposal (RFP) stage.
Whether competency assessment (STCW / re-
certification), continuing education (manned model!
simulator/BRM, ARPA, etc.) or contractual
requirement Uoint bridge team training), it should be
recognised that none of the foregoing will be valid
unless reality is achieved. An ancient Chinese general
noted that "you fight in war as you train in peace"
and it is the same with maritime training. All programs
must be vetted by a serving pilot and staffed by at
least one certificated mariner with recent sea time.
Academic qualifications for staff are admirable, but
their perception of seafaring is usually far from the
mark.
Professionalism
In addition to acquiring skills at ship handling and
knowledge of local conditions, it is important that
trainees and deputy pilots realise the necessity for
harmonious interaction on the bridge. One of the
failings of pilots, as a group, is the perception of their
attitude. Simply stated, some pilots have a reputation
for big egos! This attitude, alone, can often result in a
pilot being perceived as unprofessional, regardless of
the pilot's skill level.
Trainees should be encouraged to see the world as
it actually is. The pilot provides a service to and is a
servant of the ship. His supervisor could be considered
to be the master. No job should be considered
satisfactorily completed unless, in addition to an
uneventful, damage-free transit and berthing/
unberthing manoeuvre, the master is happy with the
job. Accepting the fact that there will always be
personality conflicts and some masters (perhaps with
egos as large as the pilot's) whom no one would be
able to get along with, there is no excuse for the
arrogant individual whose attitude will actually make
the job, whatever it is, more difficult, if not impossible
to complete successfully.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 245
VTS / remote pilotage
In many areas of the maritime world, pilots sit in Vessel
Traffic System (VTS) control centres or conduct
remote pilotage, providing real time navigation and
traffic advice to a ship entering a remote section of a
pilotage area via VHF radio, from the shore pilot
station. There are probably many pilots who object
to the necessity of the former. However it must be
recognised, especially in the USA and other places
where the VTS personnel probably have little or no
seagoing experience (and what little they have had is
unlikely to have been aboard merchant ships!), that
any pilot input into VTS advice can only be positive.
In today's world, where media sound bites have more
effect on public opinion than facts, a pilot in the VTS
or only even having trained in the facility, will be pro-
active and yield benefits far beyond the effort
expended.
Training programs should, at the very least, include
familiarisation sessions for all trainees and deputy
marine pilots in the relevant VTS or remote pilotage
centre. These sessions should be scheduled for full
pilots, too, so that all personnel in the port or pilotage
jurisdiction who are involved in directing the safe
navigation of shipping have at least one common,
informal and professional forum for discussing safety
problems at the personal level, free of bureaucratic
impediments.
Cyber pilotage
No discussion of pilot training would be complete
without including the rapidly expanding role of the
Global Positioning System (GPS) capable laptop
computer designed to be carried aboard ship by the
pilot. While there are still a lot of operational
difficulties to be overcome, several pilotage
jurisdictions are already utili sing these very high tech.
navigational aids. In the USA, the maritime
administration and the American Pilot Association are
jointly funding a demonstration project involving pilot
laptops in different parts of the country.
Training programs should be formalised to
incorporate such technology. This is likely to be less
necessary for younger pilots, but it should be
considered for the benefit of older pilots, who may
not be as computer literate as their younger brethren.
Such training should also focus on the shortfalls of
this technology. GPS failures, although infrequent, or
irregularities in specific areas, can be expected. The
pilot laptop will allow much more information to board
with the pilot, but adequate training may be required
to use it to its fullest advantage and the ordinary
practice of good seamanship should instill a prudence
and a healthy respect for the limitations of this
navigation aid.
246 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Finished with engines / pilot away
Piloting, like most of the rest of the maritime industry,
is changing. It is likely that pilots will always be a
necessity, but just as ship owners equip their new ships
with more capable technology and provide additional
training for their crews properly to operate these ships,
pilots must ensure that their training and capabilities
keep pace.
Individuals should be selected for pilot training
programs who not only possess the required
experience, but who will be temperamentally suited
to their new calling. Ideally, each trainee will proceed
through a program adapted to their experience and
ability, ultimately meeting specified skill levels. For
the foreseeable future, pilots will be trained by other
pilots in hands-on, supervised manoeuvres. Manned
model courses and simulator training will be useful
under certain conditions. Continuing education "ill
become more important, as will the need for pilot
associations to communicate to the public, the media
and the legislators/regulators that their skills constitute
the first line of defence against pollution.
The course is set. All pilots must accept and utilise
new technology while still retaining the basic skills
from times past, local knowledge from the present and
the prudent judgement that will withstand scrutiny in
the future. Adequate and proper training programs
will playa major part in assuring success in all three
areas.
Master's orders, pilot's advice - setting
a course for safe navigation
Increasing attention is being given toward the passage
of ships in pilotage waters. The master and pilot are
the focal points for this specialised part of any passage
plan, which should integrate the expertise of both
mariners. Problems can arise when language
difficulties, lack of familiarity with both port and vessel,
long-standing operational procedures or other
presumed obstacles to co-operation are imagined or
encountered.
How can passage planning in pilotage waters be
improved? Can INTERTANKO's specific
recommendations on pilotage in United States waters
be implemented? This concept involves requesting
information from the pilots and the harbour authority
by fax or telex so as to enable the ship master to carry
out better pre-planning. What assistance can owners
provide their ships, officers and pilots to gain
improvements in pilotage?
Certainly, there may be room for improvement in
some areas, if only because these problems have
simply not been so addressed before. The value of a
detailed passage plan is a function of the specific
transit. Clearly, a short pilotage transit may not allow
as much time for discussion of planning as a longer
one and it may not always be possible to move the
pilot boarding point further to sea to allow for a longer
briefing time. A standard (fill-in-the-blanks) pilotage
passage plan can be a useful tool, when appropriate
to the circumstances. While arrangements might be
made to provide any pilotage passage plan in advance
of the ship's arrival at the pilot station, owners should,
equally, be prepared to provide vessel and crew
information in advance to the pilots. Local regulations,
human factors consideration and pilot rotations could
affect such advance preparations.
Improvements to pilotage services in particular
areas should be based on good seamanship and should
not be implemented without the advice of
experienced, local mariners. Changes made on any
other basis may be ineffective or may actually result
in reducing safety margins and both can do further
damage through the inevitable results of creating a
false sense of security.
Specific examples of pilotage passage planning,
both existing and those which could be implemented,
are cited for South central Alaska. Some personal
observations on how to improve pilotage services are
linked with questions about INTERTANKO's recent
discussion paper.
Training in action
An example of training, applied to a particular
situation, might be useful in demonstrating how
shiphandling skills are transferred to the trainee. It is
assumed that the trainee has met all the preliminary
selection requirements and now has the basic
knowledge necessary to begin actual training. A
specified number of dockings (and undockings) have
been observed The evolution is performed at an open
roadstead with tidal current, up to 6-8 kts, and no tugs
available (Nikiski, Alaska). The goal is to safely lay
the ship alongside and make fast to a small sea island
platform with fendered mooring dolphins. Effective
use of the current as a force vector for lateral
movement toward the berth and to offset the effect of
the wind is a key skill factor.
What skills are being learned or assessed? The
trainee must, first and foremost, ensure that the master
and deck officers are fully aware of how the evolution
is to proceed. With a roaring current and up to 45 kts
of wind, on or off the berth, there is scant time to
explain what needs to be done as the berth is
approached. With mainly foreign crews,
communication is paramount. Fortunately, in the
situation above, there is an 8 hour transit during which
the briefing process can be completed. Diagrams,
training aids (the pigtails on the mooring line eyes have
to be just so and a model out of small stuff is useful)
and the ability to gain feedback from the mates will
demonstrate the trainee's ability to execute a good
and successful briefing. The trainee must also
demonstrate the ability to calm the master's concerns
about the manoeuvre, the likes of which he may never
have seen before!
Once off the berth, the trainee will be confronted
with environmental conditions which are ever
changing. Arrival time determines the state of the
current and the trainee must take that into account in
making the turn off the dock. In this case, berthings
are predominantly port side-to, stemming the flood.
The trainee must demonstrate the ability to turn the
ship, in varying current speeds, and continuously to
judge the rate of swing during the turn. Clearly, at the
end of the turn, the ship must be close enough to the
berth to begin the final approach and be under control
at all times.
While the trainee will already know the differences
in manoeuvring between a steamship (or controllable
pitch) and a motor ship, this knowledge must be used
and demonstrated during the final approach. With the
former, there is infinite control of engine revolutions
and the ship's speed can nearly be matched to that of
the opposing current, resulting in a minimal speed over
the bottom. With a motor ship, it will be vital to dredge
an anchor or two to control the speed. Naval architects
and owners take note - a dead slow of 9 knots does
not help! The skill the trainee must demonstrate is to
assess and control the speed of the ship toward the
berth, both forward and athwartships.
This perceiving of motion is difficult. There are
few aids to gauge the sideways motion of the ship. At
night, forward motion is difficult to ascertain until in
close proximity to the berth. Speed sensors, in both
planes, are useful during the turn, but the trainee must
be prepared for their failure and there are few
complete read-outs on bridge wings. This work is much
like handling a small boat on a sea painter from a ship
underway. Too much angle across the current and the
ship will set rapidly toward the berth; too close to the
berth, with too much athwartships speed, and there
will be no room for the stern to swing in, if it becomes
necessary to come off the berth. During the whole of
this time, the speed of the current will either be
increasing or decreasing and the trainee must keep
this in mind and adjust the ship's power accordingly.
Additional skills must be assessed once the first
line has been passed. In the situation described, the
trainee must demonstrate the ability to have the
forward spring lines passed and held, once gaining
position for cargo operations (hoses, chicksans or bulk
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 247
loading spout), all while stemming the current and
holding the ship on the fendered dolphin with the
current slightly on the offshore bow. The trainee must
be able to pay close attention to the condition of the
ship alongside to ensure she does not come off the
berth or put a dangerous strain on the lines. This will
all be done while standing on the bridge wing, often
in subfreezing temperature (and that can be well before
winter ice conditions begin!) for up to 4 or 5 hours.
The crew may be inadequately clothed and
consequently less concerned with details, and the
trainee must ensure that the lines, forward, are run
properly and expeditiously. The time of arriving
alongside determines how long the ship may have
before the ebb begins and, if the stern is not fast by
that time, the trainee may be confronted with the need
to depart the berth. With the current from astern, there
may not be enough rudder power to hold the stern
alongside and the current will no longer carry the lines
in the water away from the propeller. Finally, with
the springs secured forward and the head lines and
breasts tended, the trainee will demonstrate the ability
to lay the ship alongside, slacking the tended forward
breasts and head lines enough so they do not part, yet
not so much slack that the current gets inside the bow
and begins to take the ship off the berth.
Care must be taken to reduce engine power, now
that there is less friction and angle holding the ship in
place. Finally, the trainee must be able to lay the ship
alongside so that the after lines can be run, but under
control and having due regard to the landing. Once
the ship is secured, the trainee must advise the master
on precautions necessary at the berth - shifting, ice,
and so on.
In the foregoing example of pilot training, the
transfer of knowledge and assessment of competency
has all been by supervised hands on experience of
the trainee. Is there a possibility that alternative
training can be applied? Perhaps, but for the moment,
no simulator or other training method exists, to my
knowledge, which can fully duplicate the functions,
in the dual environments of the wheelhouse and bridge
wing, that will result in a demonstration of the skills
necessary to assess the specified competency. The
transit to the berth, as well as the interaction between
the trainee and the master, the deck officer briefing
and the assurance that the briefing is well understood
could certainly all be done in a simulator.
This is basic stuff and BRM. Distances off, closing
rates and approach angle to the berth can all be
ascertained by radar and could probably be duplicated
in a simulator. However, the use of distant natural
ranges or back ranges to determine closing rate, for
example, in a simulator, would depend on the
capability of the installation (computer capacity and
248 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
3600 view). No simulation exists which will allow the
trainee to gain experience in estimating the current
velocity from the wake around the dolphin pilings,
the effect of the dredging anchor(s) as felt in the
changed motion of the ship, the close approach and
landing of the bow on the dolphin fenders, etc.
Opinion
There are continuing questions about pilot training.
This is a good thing because it helps to fend off
complacency (which we know as a bad thing!). Almost
all pilot training begins with the trainee conducting
supervised movements. There are good and bad
aspects to this. Nervous masters and concerned
shipowners will note the increased potential for
damage from novice trainees, yet these same groups
demand competent pilots without considering how
they will be trained. Cost is a factor but, if competent
supervising pilots are aboard a ship (which would have
to have a pilot, anyway), this may be much less
expensive and more realistic than a dedicated
simulator program. Although aircraft simulators are
much more realistic than maritime simulators, this is
not duplicated for marine simulation, so, for the time
being, I believe we will continue to produce competent
pilots the old fashioned way.
One of the advantages to this form of pilot training
is that the trainee will, in a well-designed training
program, be exposed to each of the unlimited pilots.
While a manoeuvre at any given port will produce
the same results, there may be many ways to
accomplish it. Thus, the trainee will see how each of
the unlimited pilots performs that manoeuvre and can
select the method that suits his or her own style best.
In a simulator, the trainee may well be limited by the
program, the instructor's experience or the skill/
methods of the single attending pilot. It is also a benefit
of supervised dockings that the trainee can proceed at
an individual pace. We all learn at different rates and
some trainees will take longer, and require more
supervised manoeuvres, than others. Even after
completion of training most pilots, if they are honest,
will admit that there was a period of time until they
became comfortable with working on their own.
A training program may be quite lengthy. Is there
any way to speed up the process? Perhaps the more
proper question might be, is there any benefit to a
shorter training program? One immediate concern is
the effect of a casualty. If the pilot involved had
completed training within the past couple of years, it
will be difficult to justify any previous shortening of
the training process. While it would definitely be of
considerable benefit to the trainee and, perhaps, the
pilot association, to be finished with the training
program, which may be measured in years, in a shorter
period of time, the ultimate test is whether adequate
knowledge has been transferred to result in a
competent pilot. There is, presently, great doubt by
pilots that this can be assessed any other way than by
actually berthing a ship. Public concern is greater and
the effects of a casualty are much more considerable
these days, so no attempt to streamline a training
program should be made until it is certain that equal
or better skills and knowledge in the trainee will result.
The maritime industry continues to be very
conservative and nowhere is this more focused than
in pilot training. Training is generally controlled by
the association where the pilot will work, with input
by regulatory agencies and public comment, in some
places. Usually a training committee oversees the
process, but all pilots judge the progress of the trainees.
While this process may not always be as objective as
it should be, the consensus usually provides the
average assessment of the trainee's competence. In
pilot training, as in good seamanship, it is prudent to
err on the side of safety.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 249
 Chapter THIRTY FIVE

TRAINING FOR COMMAND

by Captain Peter Roberts BSc FNI

Captain Roberts served his apprenticeship with Elder Dempster Lines, remaining at sea with the Ocean Group for the next twenty-jive
years until they withdrew from shiP owning. He commanded Panamax Bulk Carriers with the International United Shipping Agency
of Hong Kong, and is currently Marine Superintendent of Cathcart Shipping Ltd. in London.

He is the author of The Nautical Institute publication "WatchkeePing Safety and Cargo Management in Port'~ is afounder Member
and Fellow of The Nautical Institute, and presently serves on its Council, Education and Training Committee, and the Bulk Carrier
Working Group.

All views expressed in this paper are entirely personal, and do not reflect those of his present or previous employers.

Introduction
Does a Master Mariner's Certificate of Competency
qualify its holder to command a ship? To the
examining authority, the answer appears to be yes.
To most informed observers in the marine industry,
the answer must be no, or at best partially.
The statutory certificate, or licence,
demonstrates that the holder has a proven level of
knowledge of the theory of the operation of a ship,
mainly from a safety and legal point of view. Important
though these aspects may be, in order to effectively
and efficiently command a ship a lot more skills are
required.
Background
The industry has endured an extended period of low
returns on capital employed. When economies were
sought in order to improve profitability, one of the
first casualties was the training budget. This has
resulted in a manpower shortage both in terms of
quantity and quality. Although there is still a reluctance
on the part of many ship operators to invest in training,
there are signs that resources are once again being
made available. Without investment in all stages of
training, covering initial (pre-sea), intermediate (pre-
certification) and ongoing (updating), there will
continue to be insufficient properly qualified personnel
available to efficiently operate the world fleet.

Prominent amongst the skills which are usually
omitted from most courses for statutory certificates
are:-
Commercial awareness.
General management abilities.
Personnel management and inter-personal
Practical ship handling.
So just how does the aspiring master acquire the
training necessary for successful command? Some of
the required knowledge can be obtained by reading
and studying the published works of experienced
practitioners. Other skills can best be acquired by
attending training courses, particularly those involving
simulators. However, there will always remain those
most desirable attributes which can only be assimilated
by that great teaching method known as experience.
I believe this covers both job experience and
experience of life. Command is still one of the few
remaining true crafts, in the traditional sense. No
amount of formal qualifications can replace the
breadth of knowledge that comes from doing the job
for an extended period, preferably under the guidance
of a variety of different experienced and professional
teachers - the true original craft master and his
apprentice.
In the past, those aspiring to command acquired
the necessary skills from the traditional training
schemes of established ship owners. Whilst the fine
details of such systems changed over the years, the
end product was of a uniformly accepted standard.
As one rose through the ranks, often slowly, there was
skills. time for everyone to be exposed to a wide variety of
events, and undertake a vast range of activities, which
provided the experience necessary to make reasoned,
informed decisions. Many of the newly emerging
nations followed a system adopted by one of the
traditional maritime powers.
Today there is a whole range of different training
schemes in place, with widely varying standards. With
increased mobility oflabour, and the internationalising
of shipboard staff, it is difficult to know what skills are
possessed by today's seafarers. Despite the recent
changes to the STCW convention, it will be a long
time before the candidate for command can rely on
an industry system to provide him with the education
and training necessary for him to acquire all of the
requisite skills.
So, except for the few lucky seafarers employed
by first class operators, most have to rely on their own

250 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

resources for their maritime training and education.
In many ways command is an occupation which relies
on personal initiative, the captain is frequently on his
own in a hostile environment - be that physical or
commercial. Hence perhaps it is a fitting introduction
to this career that he has to organise his own training.
One must not think that the master's job is so
different than many other occupations in other
industries. Essentially, the master is the general
manager of that small commercial unit of operation
known as a ship. His only difference from others
holding that title is that he is often acting completely
alone, as he is usually physically separated from all
other management assistance and back-up.
The formal training for command as provided by
the STCW certificate structure is well documented
elsewhere, and the reader aspiring to command can
readily obtain this information from statutory
regulations and a whole range of other commercial
publications. I limit the scope of this short chapter to
those aspects of command for which I believe no
formal training exists, and whilst I do not have the
answer as to how the aspiring commander can acquire
these skills, I hope I can provide some pointers, and a
few points on which to ponder.
Shiphandling
There are a few books describing the principles of
ship handling, and providing hints from experienced
practitioners. The candidate for command should
study these carefully, but there can be no substitute
for learning by doing it yourself. One should not lose
any opportunity to watch masters and pilots in action,
try to relate their actions to principles discussed in the
textbooks. It is especially useful to anticipate their
actions, try to imagine what you would do in the
circumstances, before action is taken.
As you gain more experience on the bridge, you
should actively enquire from masters and pilots the
reasons for their actions. Many of these professionals
will be only too willing to teach a junior officer who
shows an active interest, though usually few will offer
advice if this is not requested.
Experience can best be gained by practice in non-
critical situations. After demonstrating his interest, the
officer should request that the master allow him to
undertake some of the normal manoeuvres which are
required during his watch. As he builds up confidence
and experience, more complicated situations can be
tackled, always under the supervision and guidance
of the master.
A suggested work experience list (in progressive
order):-
1. Manoeuvres in open waters: simple alter courses.
2. Anti-collision manoeuvres deep sea.
3. Recovery of a dummy man overboard.
4. Obtain original data for turning circles (and crash
stops).
5. Manoeuvres in sheltered waters: maintaining the
desired track after an alter course, taking into
account wind, tide, etc.
6. Anti-collision manoeuvres in areas of busy traffic.
7. Knowledge of variations in pivot points when
moving ahead or astern, and the effects of draft and
trim.
8. Anchor in an open roadstead.
9. Anchor in a specific location in a confined
anchorage.
10.Manoeuvres in confined waters, sea lanes, narrow
channels, etc.
11.The use of engines, thrusters, and tugs.
12.Manoeuvre to pick up a pilot in open waters.
13.Manoeuvre to pick up a pilot in confined waters,
channels, rivers, etc.
14 Unberthing and proceeding to sea; plan passage
with a pilot.
15.Plan the approach to a berth.
16. Manoeuvring in heavy weather. Heaving to.
17. Manoeuvring alongside another vessel.
Sometimes it is useful for the officer to present the
master with a formal plan designed to assist with his
ongoing training. The Command Diploma Scheme
run by The Nautical Institute is very useful in this
respect. It includes a log book, with a section on ship-
handling. The presentation of such a log book may
encourage an otherwise reluctant master to permit his
junior the opportunities to practice and acquire
shiphandling skills.
One often hears the term ship handling being
referred to as seamanship. But I prefer a much wider
definition of that term. Seamanship is the application
of common sense and experience to the marine
environment.
Personnel management
I have always believed that a major part of the master's
job is personnel management. For this he receives no
formal training. Indeed, a lot of personnel skills are a
reflection on his character. That is not to say that these
skills cannot be improved by training and, of course,
they certainly change with experience.
Many books are written on personnel
management, although very few apply directly to the
marine industry. Those aspiring to command would
do well to study a selection of textbooks dealing with
the various aspects of personnel management. Some
training courses are also available, and the lessons
learned from role-playing are especially useful. It is
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 251
possible to organise role-playing situations onboard
ship, so that the junior officers may learn valuable
lessons on how to deal with others.
A good master is one who can inspire others, a
leader who can bring out the best in his subordinates
by encouraging their strengths and retraining their
weaknesses.
A well run ship is achieved by the master taking a
personal interest in his crew. It is by encouraging others
to give of their best that the ship's crew perform in the
best possible manner. Taking the time to talk to all the
crew can pay huge dividends. Take an interest in their
day-to-day jobs, encourage good performance and do
not limit contact to reprimands. Present a human face,
encourage frequent dialogue with all onboard, hold
regular informal meetings, preferably in their own
environment. The use of the crew bar with a can of
beer can break the ice and much more will be revealed.
Listen to their problems, both job related and personal.
Ensure mail is regular and take an interest in their
welfare and their families.
. With multi-national crews, there is sometimes a
tendency for some people to misunderstand other
cultures. This can lead to problems with work, and
even to a breakdown of relationships, which ultimately
results in a very inefficient and unproductive crew.
One important part of experience is the ability to deal
with the various nationalities found onboard most
ships. As we have to deal with an increasingly wide
and varied spectrum of cultural backgrounds onboard,
so we must all learn to cope with their individual
idiosyncrasies. There are vast differences in the best
ways of dealing with various ethnic groups. If some
people onboard have no experience of dealing,
working, and living with some of the other ethnic
groups onboard, then the master must be prepared to
give them guidance with their approach.
One must be careful not to tar all members of one
nationality or ethnic group with the same brush and
to avoid the thoughts that "all act like that'.
That is not to say that one should not be alive to
national or ethnic characteristics.
The potential master must never allow himself to
acquire prejudices, be these colour, race, religion,
regional, educational, political, and so on. He must
strongly discourage such prejudices in others onboard.
Too often one sees an unproductive crew, whose poor
work is really a result of the uncompromising attitudes
of their senior officers.
A problem with some groups is the attitude to those
more junior. Many nations have a strict social structure
in which the elite members have a rather low regard
for the lower classes. This can become an extremely
252 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
thorny point when transcribed into onboard
relationships in a multi-cultural crew. Clicking of the
fingers to summon assistance may seem disgusting
behaviour to the westerner in these days of equality.
Indeed it is often viewed as such by some of the
recipients. But the perpetrators of such actions may
have been brought up in an environment where such
behaviour is perfectly acceptable, and they need
careful nurturing out of what others see as denigrating
habits.
Similarly there is a problem of seemingly natural
antagonism. Certain people just don't seem to be able
to get along with certain others, and there are often
problems when they sail together. This may sound
like a sweeping generalisation, especially when applied
to nationalities, but I found it to be true. It can manifest
itself simply as a lack of co-operation, but in extreme
cases can result in open hostility. There can be similar
problems even between personnel from one country,
where regional, tribal, political or religious differences
can be a source of controversy.
There can be an unwillingness to become involved
in the whole ship concept. We have all come across
the 'not my job' syndrome. Some people are much
more flexible than others, but it is the master's role to
knit these various personalities into one viable
shipboard working team. Another personnel problem
is the inability to give or take orders.
Another trait to overcome is the preconception that
certain tasks are beneath one's dignity. We have all
come across the officer in a pristine sparkling white
boiler suit and gloves who regards himself as a
supervisor and that only the ratings actually do manual
work. It is sometimes difficult to persuade such juniors
that they are part of a working team.
I am not really too sure how any education or
training can assist with problems of personalities, other
than the overall education of character development
that comes with exposure to having to deal with such
problems. Perhaps recognising that they exist .is the
first lesson. In general, the master's ability to deal with
these problems will depend upon his own strength of
character, and personal characteristics. I believe that
life is a great teacher in this respect, and that the
experience that the passing years brings is invaluable
in personnel work. Hence my strong belief that there
is a definite minimum age before which no candidate
should be considered for promotion to master.
Some people onboard may be unable to
comprehend onboard training and guidance due to
language difficulties, or due to a lack of basic
education. There is only the reward of personal
satisfaction for the master who is both willing and able
to teach basic educational and personal skills to the
under-privileged shipmate. Time should be taken to
teach people about unfamiliar tasks and it is
advantageous to have a briefing session before
undertaking any non-routine job. The right person in
the right place at the right time makes operations go
much smoother.
Another aspect of the master's personnel work is
assessment. The master must keep himself well
informed on the abilities, attitudes, and character of
everyone onboard. These must be monitored regularly
to spot early signs of problems before they get out of
hand. He should be able to present unbiased reports
on each member of the crew to the owner at regular
intervals, so that suitable candidates can be offered
re-employment or promotion. Further, the master
must be able to detect those who may have false
qualifications.
The ship has a social infrastructure, and the master
must be able to spot social problems before they affect
the ship's operation. This includes alcohol or other
drug problems, sexual problems, excessive gambling,
and character defects which result in bullying,
violence, thieving, bribery and extortion, etc. Although
everyone onboard has their own characteristics,
strongly anti-social behaviour of any form must be
strongly discouraged. The saying that a happy crew is
an efficient crew is still valid.
Above all, the master must exercise effective
leadership. The master who fails to maintain standards,
both professional and personal, cannot expect others
to maintain them.
It has been suggested that all masters should
undertake a course in psychology and psychiatry to
enable them to deal with the numerous personnel
problems which arise sometime on most voyages.
Unfortunately, that is not a practical possibility for
most, so that all the master has to draw upon is his
own strength of character, his experience of life, and
good old fashioned common sense.
Perhaps this is a good point at which to consider
what characteristics make a good shipmaster.
There will always be as many styles of command
as there are styles of character. Some personal
characteristics are genetic or acquired during early life.
Those desirable in a master include loyalty, honesty,
integrity, humaneness, a sense of fair play and the
ability to command respect.
Other characteristics can be altered by education,
and experience. In this group I would include
leadership, perception, judgment, flexibility,
communication, interpersonal skills, commercial
awareness and the ability to assume responsibility.
The master needs to be a forward thinker and
someone who can plan ahead and anticipate problems.
An intelligent assessment of what might happen has
avoided many a potential tragedy. He should be
authoritative (not authoritarian), enthusiastic, positive
in his approach to the inevitable problems which occur
almost daily and not to be depressed by setbacks. He
must be able to cope with stress, and have the physical
and mental stamina necessary to withstand the
pressures of a concentrated and/or extended
workload.
General management skills
As the general manager of the ship, the master will
have to compile the vessel's accounts. The degree of
his involvement will vary with the practice of the
owner, but increasingly, more financial accountability
is being place upon the ship, and hence the master.
Apart from improving his numeracy skills, the aspiring
master is well advised to undertake some self education
in general accountancy. This can be achieved by
studying elementary textbooks, but it is preferable if
he enrolled on a basic introductory distance learning
course, to provide an understanding of the principles
involved. The extra effort will be more than rewarded
in the future when he becomes responsible for the
vessel's accounts.
Today's master must also be computer literate. This
does not mean he needs to be an expert programmer
but he should have a working knowledge of the
operation of a personal computer (PC), and be able
to use a basic word processor and spreadsheet.
The master needs to be a good organiser, and there
are various standard management tools which can
assist him with such tasks. Apart from reading through
standard textbooks on management skills, a good
appreciation of the systems involved can be obtained
by enrolling on The Nautical Institute's management
self-development programme. This covers setting
objectives and planning, control, solving problems and
making decisions, leadership and motivation,
delegation, time management, running meetings, and
training.
A knowledge oflogistics and stock control will assist
the master to control the stores in an economical
manner and maintain a realistic level of stocks. This
means there will be sufficient spares available for use
on the current voyage, without too many items being
held in the stores, which means tying up capital - an
unnecessary financial burden on the ship owner.
Commercial awareness
Commercial awareness really means being alive to
the financial consequences of one's actions and
decisions.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 253
 Whilst the legislative and contractual obligations
associated with the carriage of goods by sea is well
covered by the syllabus for the master's certificate or
license, such teaching concentrates on knowledge of
facts. Little is done to train the master for the
commercial decisions he will have to make in running
the ship, especially judgment skills.
The general lack of commercial awareness amongst
mariners has been addressed recently by the P&I
Clubs, who ultimately pick up the bill for the mariner's
errors. They all issue newsletters, and have various
other programmes available to try to improve the
mariners' knowledge of the commercial implications
of their actions, judgments and decisions.
The UK Club went further than most in sponsoring
The Nautical Institute in the publication of two
practical guides aimed at raising the level of
commercial expertise amongst junior officers and
shipmasters. These textbooks can be wholeheartedly
recommended to all seafarers, particularly those
aspiring to command.
The subjects covered by the above publications
enable the mariner to make decisions and take actions
onboard ship which will have a beneficial effect on
the profitability of the voyage, and thus of the company
employing him. Space does not permit here to go into
much detail, but they give the reader a good
background to the law and practice of contracts used
in the maritime industry.
The master needs a good working knowledge of
the documents used for the carriage of goods by sea.
He will need to study the clauses of standard voyage
and time charter parties, and bills of lading, and be
aware of the responsibilities implied in each clause.
He must know the exact division of responsibility
between the ship owner and charterer, and fully
understand such standard clauses as the Interclub
agreement. He must appreciate what is involved in
establishing cargo quantity and condition, and the use
of a notice of readiness, statement of facts, letter of
protest and letter of indemnity. He should understand
delivery, lay time and weather working days. He must
have a full working knowledge of the various surveys
which are regularly undertaken onboard his ship -
hold condition, on/off-hire, draft, cargo condition, flag
and port state control, P&I condition, class and
statutory surveys.
The master must ensure that full records are
maintained onboard, and he should be aware of the
documents required both for routine operations and
following an incident. The Nautical Institute
publication' The Mariner's role in Collecting Evidence' is
highly recommended.
254 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Also under this heading, the master must make
himself aware of all local regulations whenever he
enters a new port. Apart from not wanting to break
local statutes, he must be alive to the implication of
local labour rules, so that he does not inadvertently
land the owner with a huge bill for infringing union
agreements.
How does the potential master acquire commercial
awareness? Partly by continually observing all that is
happening around the ship and its operations, and
thinking about the costs involved in each activity. No-
one must forget that we are engaged in a competitive
business, and for a commercial enterprise to succeed
income must exceed expenditure to realise a profit.
Despite all the efforts that can be put into running a
good ship, these will be fruitless if the ship does not
earn a profit for the owners, as ultimately it will be
sold, and all the efforts will have been in vain.
Guidance is given in two Nautical Institute
publications. These are' Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo
Management in Porf, and 'Commercial Management for
Shipmasteri.
Self study courses are also available, including a
range from The Nautical Institute. Of particular
interest in the present context is the Command
Diploma Scheme. This consists of a practical textbook,
with each chapter written by a specialist, many of
whom have served as shipmasters. It is supplemented
by a command logbook, in which the aspiring master
can record tasks and experiences as he understudies a
serving master. The logbook mainly covers practical
items which are not fully covered in statutory licences/
certificates. I would recommend that all chief officers
undertake this diploma scheme. It is an excellent
method to ensure they have the maximum possible
experience before actually taking command. It is
absolutely jammed full of practical advice.
The Marine Society's Education Officer can assist
in identifying other courses which, although primarily
designed for other industries, may be suitable for the
mariner. This organisation also provides the
encouragement which many mariners need to
complete these schemes. The education provided by
the Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers as part of their
membership entrance examination system is highly
recommended to potential masters.
The shipowner's view
What does the ship owner require from his master?
1. First and foremost, someone who will look after
the owner's interests above all else. A person who
is dedicated to the success of the business.
2. A person who is commercially aware:
Someone who has a full working knowledge of
contracts of carriage, and their numerous
implications.
Serve the charterer according to the contract and
co-operate with their operations, but always
remembering who pays his salary.
- Minimise expenditure, control budgets, reduce
delays.
- Maximise income.
Keep tight control on information regarding the
operation of the vessel. Do not reveal facts to
others which may embarrass the owners
financially, legally or morally.
3. A skilled negotiator. Someone who can deal with
surveyors, inspectors, officials, and the crew, and
the problems these create. The ability to deal with
corruption in a sensible manner.
4. A decision maker. Someone who can weigh up the
pros and cons of a situation, make a reasoned
decision, and act upon it.
5. A good personnel manager. Maintain a happy,
healthy, disciplined and efficient crew, who give a
fair day's work to the best of their ability. Deal with
all shipboard problems without involving the office.
6. A good communicator. Know just how much to
say, to whom, and when. Know what not to say
and when! Understand all the implications of that
famous expression "economical with the truth".
7. A good accountant. Maintain the vessel's accounts
for wages, victualling, bond, cash, stores and general
expenditures. Stock control. Do not order large
quantities of items which will remain unused for
some time, so that large quantities of capital are
tied up in idle resources.
8. A good operations manager. Someone who can
exercise the correct balance between what should
be done, what could be done, and what needs to
be done.
9. A professional master mariner. A qualified and
experienced seafarer who will conduct the voyage
with due regard to the safety of the ship, her cargo
and her crew and all relevant international
regulations.
Conclusions
How does one train for command?
1. Undertake the N.!. command diploma course.
2. Expand your knowledge by studying practical
books written by other professionals who have
different experience from you. The Nautical
Institute has a range of valuable guides which are
all up to date and highly relevant.
3. Watch the methods of all masters under whom you
serve. Try to emulate those characteristics which
you consider to be their strengths, and learn from
their weaknesses. Would you act in the same way,
or make the same decisions? What would be the
implications?
4. Read, read, read: 'M' notices, IMO publications
(new international regulations), Lloyds List, Seaways,
any other nautical magazines which come to hand
and as many commercial and management
textbooks as possible. Keep up to date.
5. Continually watch what is happening both onboard
your own ship, onboard others you come across,
and around all the ports you visit. Be aware of
developments by personal observation.
6. Enrol on self-tuition courses. Interactive schemes
using onboard PCs are especially useful.
7. Discuss experiences with contemporaries. Everyone
has something to learn from other people's
experiences and it is always best if someone else
makes the error. Nautical Institute events are useful
meeting points.
8. Read the instruction manuals of all new equipment
fitted to your ship and ask the manufacturer for
background literature (in English and other
languages used onboard).
9. Attend as many updating courses as possible.
10. Attend all seminars and industrial exhibitions you
are able.
11. Try to gain as much practical experience as possible.
Never miss an opportunity to participate in an
unfamiliar activity.
12. Personnel skills are learned from your very first
voyage. Getting on well with people means that
you will be able to get the best out of people, which
also helps you to do well. Treat others just as you
would like to be treated yourself.
13. Try to appreciate the benefits of tact and diplomacy.
Learn to engage brain before engaging mouth.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 255
 Chapter THIRTY SIX

THE NEED FOR COMMERCIAL MANAGEMENT

by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI

Northstar Consultants

Robert Tallack is a Master Mariner who followed service on a variety of general cargo, passenger and refrigerated vessels with wide
experience of commercial and technical management within the shipping industry. He graduated in maritime studies following a course
in commercial shipping at Cardiff University after which hejoined Lambert Brothers as a Sale and Purchase broker.

He was then appointed a general manager for the Maersk Company and subsequently as managing director of a short-sea ferry
operation. Two years establishing ajoint venture in Romania and subsequently acting as advisor to the Minister of Shipping brought an
understanding of both the problems and the potential of working within centralised economies.

Robert Tallack now runs Northstar Maritime and Environmental Consultancy. He is both a vocational assessor and an ISM/ISO
auditor.

Introduction
There is a commercial dimension to virtually every
action taken by a seafarer and especially so at the
command level. This chapter considers four key
areas:-
The customer, using an understanding of
international maritime trade, of which the vessel is
but one part, albeit an essential one, to focus on
the needs and expectations of the customer.
The owner's role, drawing some correlations
between commercial management and the
application and implications of the International
Safety Management (ISM) Code.
Risk - how it arises and how it and safety can be
managed.
Management - the professionally competent officer
needs to be able to manage in a way which allows
him to meet both his commercial and his technical
responsibilities.
International trade and the customer
It is difficult to find a better illustration of the essence
of trade and the requirements of the customer than
the following scene which must have happened
countless times around the world and continues to
happen, in one form or another, despite the rapid
technological changes over the last three decades.
Every two months or so, an hour before dawn, the
headman of a village some twenty miles inland from
the port loaded the village's output of several bales of
skins on to his ox cart and set off for the port. When
he arrived, he reported to the agent and then moved
his oxen into the shade of a godown and waited
patiently. Eventually he was called forward and the
village's bales of skins were swung into the appropriate
'tween deck under the watchful eye of the deck officer
on cargo watch. The stow was noted on the tally sheet
and a mate's receipt prepared.
Since the headman was well known in the port
and a regular customer, the chief officer would give
him his mate's receipt after agreeing to the condition
and quantity of the skins. Accompanied by the agent,
the headman would climb the three decks from the
cargo office to the master's cabin. The master would
carefully make out, stamp, date and sign three original
bills of lading which he exchanged for the mate's
receipt. After a few minutes' polite conversation, the
headman would set off for the Post Office. There he
would post two of the bills of lading, each in a separate
envelope, to his buyer in Leicester, England, a centre
of the leather and shoe trade, knowing that the village's
produce was in safe hands and would, against the
appropriate freight, be delivered by the master at the
agreed destination (Hull) to the consignee on
presentation of one of the original bills of lading.

During the early part of the sixties, a large and
well established liner company made a (fairly) regular
call to a small port not far from Co chin on the south
western coast of India. The sailing date and itinerary
were well published by the local agent and his cargo
canvassers. Freight rates were available on demand.
The company was acting as a common carrier.
The headman could then start the slow journey
home, content that the village's livelihood was safely
entrusted to the care of the master.
The point of this story is to emphasise one crucial
point in a world of increasing regulation, which focuses
seafarers inwards on to the operation of the vessel.

256 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

That is that our very existence as the providers of
Group B: Departure
maritime transport is totally dependent upon the
EXW Ex works (named place)
activities of others, the international traders, and it is
they who are our customers.
Group F: Main carriage unpaid: F signifies that
the seller must hand over the goods to be
But this illustration is only part of the activity which
nominated carrier free of risk and expense to the
constitutes an international trade transaction. The
buyer.
initial negotiation between prospective buyer and
FAC Free Carrier (named place)
prospective seller will normally lead to a sale contract.
FAS Free Alongside Ship (named port of
As well as price, this contract will establish the quality
shipment)
and quantity of the goods, from where they are to be
FOB Free On Board (named port of
shipped and by when, this latter point being important
shipment)
as it may well be the date against which the purchase
price of certain commodities are set by comparison
Group C: Main carriage paid: C signifies that
with an international trade index. Equally, the place
the seller must bear certain costs even after the
and time of delivery will be established and a change
critical point for the division of risk for loss or
to this, although common practice, goes to the root of
damage has been reached.
the contract of carriage and must be carefully handled
CFR Cost and Freight (named port of
by the master.
(C&F) destination)
CIF Cost, Insurance and (named port of
The person negotiating the sale contract, especially
Freight destination)
if an international trader, may well be negotiating
CPT Carriage Paid to (named port of
linked contracts with either one or more suppliers at
destination)
the purchase end of the chain and one or more buyers
CIP Carriage and (named port of
at the delivery end. It will be important for him to
Insurance Paid to destination)
match the terms of these contracts as closely as
possible. It is these negotiations which will determine
Group D: Arrival: D signifies that it is the seller's
where and when title in the goods will pass as well as
responsibility that the goods arrive at the stated
risk and the need to have insurance in place. The wide
destination.
range of options, generally known as the terms of trade,
DAF Delivery at Frontier (named place)
have been encapsulated into the four main groups,
DES Delivery ex Ship (named port of
representing thirteen options, by the International
destination)
Chamber of Commerce and these are illustrated in
DEQ Delivery ex Quay (named port of
figure 36.1.
(Duty Paid) destination)
DDU Delivery Duty (named port of
Already, many of the factors which will concern a
Unpaid destination)
master as he prepares to sign a bill of lading will have
DDP Delivery Duty (named port of
been put in place by the sale contract. These include
Paid destination)
quantity and quality of the goods (to be supplemented
by an additional requirement, 'condition' on the bill
Figure 36.1 Four main groups of Incoterms
of lading), date of loading - the bill of lading date -
and the consignee, who mayor may not be the trader
and who may well change once or many times during and more could be devoted to this subject alone. It is
the voyage and the port or ports of delivery. sufficient to say here that, in order to achieve this in
an effective and consistent way, the master must rely
There is one more critical factor which the buyer on three essential tools of good management:
and the seller must consider. How is the transaction teamwork, planning and communication. The
to be financed? Frequently, this will be by some form teamwork should, but frequently does not, start on a
of loan and this in turn will impose conditions on the ship/shore basis as the vessel is fixed. What, for
terms of carriage, not least that a clean bill of lading is example, are the vessel's ongoing operational and
required. This is especially so when the form of maintenance priorities? And how are these best co-
financing, commonly referred to as documentary ordinated with the commercial department's trading
credits, illustrated in figures 36.2, is used. objectives with regard to, for example, changing
trading areas or hold or tank cleaning? The master
The ability of the master to be able to provide the needs to brief his team onboard - which he can only
trader, his customer, with the correct documentation do when he has received adequate information about
which will enable him to carry out his trading his next cargo and the contract details under which
commitments, while at the same time ensuring that he is to deliver it to the right consignee in the right
he protects his owner's interests, is at the economic condition and at the right quantity.
core' of the whole shipping operation. A full chapter

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 257

 As already mentioned, a further complication is
that the goods may be sold to a third, fourth or even
fifth party during the course of the voyage, largely
depending upon the documentary evidence of the bill
of lading and the signature of the master. Thus the
master will frequently find himself balancing the
interests of several different parties as illustrated in
figure 36.3. Central to all this activity is the master's
responsibility, in the words of one P&I Club, 'to
carefully load, stow, carry and deliver the cargo' on
behalf of his customer, the international trader. This
is equally true whether the trader is the village
headman or a multi-national conglomerate.
Where, one might ask, does the owner feature in
all this activity? Right behind the master one would
like to be able to say, but as companies lost their
vertical integration over recent decades in the search
for lower operating costs, this became less universally
true. Indeed, the master's dilemma, as illustrated in
figure 36.4, has become all too common.
?!,;A THF NAI JTIr.AI IN~TITI ITF
This state of affairs, coupled with the falling
standards of maritime transportation in a world which
is admittedly becoming increasingly complex
technologically, was countered by an increasing
imposition of rules and regulations. Operating
procedures have been written at great length and
quality standards imposed upon vessels, often with
little understanding or real objectivity beyond being
a reaction to market demand.
Finally it was realised that the shore based and the
ship based activities are all part of one operation which
must be managed as a whole. The International Safety
Management Code is the embodiment of this concept
at an international level. Although much might be
said about the benefits of the code, especially if it is
honestly and conscientiously enforced by all flag
states, it is not the intention to pursue this here but
rather to concentrate on that aspect which is crucial
to success - good management.
 Figure 36.3 Maritime transport
The owner and the ISM code
Where, then, does the owner fit into all this activity?
In some companies, the owner's influence, corporate
or personal, is very clearly felt throughout the
organisation. Priorities and the operating ethos are
both known, even though technical and/or
commercial managers undertake some of the functions
which are run by internal departments in those
companies which retain a strong vertical integration.
However, a number of factors have combined over
the past three decades which have radically altered
the structure and operation of many shipping
companies. All too frequently, seafarers find
themselves employed by crew managers and
subcontracted to technical managers, sailing on a
vessel with other officers and ratings of various
nationalities with levels of competence and experience
which may be very varied.
For the master - and to an extent the chief engineer
- this poses particular problems, for the master is, or
should be, responsible for the safe, economical and
effective performance of the vessel as a whole. To
whom does he look for guidance? The technical
managers who, having received the contract through
competitive tender, are concerned, hopefully, about
safety but certainly about performing within a
predetermined budget.
A major factor within that budget will have been
presenting economical crew costs often, but by no
means always, at the expense of quality. It should be
no surprise if crew loyalties tend towards the crew
supplier who will provide the next employment rather
than the vessel and its anonymous owner. At the other
end of the spectrum, the commercial operator, often
in the guise of a chartering department, will be exerting
its pressure on the master for the timely (as opposed
to economical - or let us be honest, cheap)
performance of the current charter party or other
contract of affreightment.
And finally, there are the shipper and the consignee
who are involved in a different transaction established
by the sale contract between them and for whom the
sea transport leg is but one, albeit the most important,
link in a chain. They too have their agenda and impose
their demands upon the master in the form of
responsibilities which find their focus in that
mysterious document, the bill oflading.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 259
 Figure 36.4 The master's dilemma
How, then, are these various pressures prioritised
and managed? Sadly, all too often experience has
shown that the master's dilemma, as illustrated in
figure 36.4, is that no-one conducts the orchestra -
with an absentee landlord, he must respond to
whoever shouts the loudest or is able to exert the most
pressure. Since this is frequently the technical
superintendent, in pursuit of his budget, where crew
costs, training and maintenance are always vulnerable,
it is not surprising that commercial awareness, the
provision of a service to our customers, the very reason
that the vessel exists, has fallen in the order of
priorities.
The result, in an industry which is becoming
technically more complex, both in the vessels which
it needs to operate and the cargoes which it carries,
has been a steady and inexorable rise in the quantity
of national and international rules and regulations.
This, in turn, has produced an equally inexorable rise
in the quantity, if not necessarily the quality, of
operational policies and procedures produced by
worthy (and sometimes bought off the shelf by
unworthy) ship managers - in effect replacing effective
management and training.
The experiment of managing a vessel from ashore,
relying on devolved responsibility but curtailed
authority combined with the wonders of modern
communications technology has been tried and, in the
260 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
main, found wanting. The international shipping
industry is now at a watershed, and three initiatives,
all emanating from the International Maritime
Organization, illustrate the way ahead.
Developing in the background is a concept called
Formal Safety Assessment (FSA). Its aim is to develop
a proactive or forward looking method of framing
international safety regulations which is based on risk
assessment followed by risk management. All too
often, international, and national, legislation has been
framed as the result of a major disaster. The Exxon
Valdezwhich led to double-hull tankers, and the ferry
Estonia are two prime tragic examples of marine
accidents giving rise to reactive legislation. The Exxon
Valdez is a good example of this reactive, one might
almost say knee-jerk, approach which can result in a
less than optimum solution. It is an interesting
speculation to consider which might be the safer vessel,
a 20 year old single hulled VLCC under its third
ownership or a 20 year old double hulled tanker under
its third ownership. Time will doubtless tell us.
Formal Safety Assessment is a method of managing
risk, and risk at sea is largely the result of commercially
generated activity. The second strand of development
is contained within the 1995 Amendments to the 1978
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping (STCW). At their core, is an
endeavour to ensure that a competent officer is
competent because he has been properly trained. Not
only must the ship's officer have the underpinning
knowledge which he requires in order to understand
his professional duties, but he has also to demonstrate
that he can apply that knowledge in his workplace, be
this on the bridge, in the engine room or in the general
management of the vessel.
The third, and perhaps the most important strand,
is the International Safety Management (ISM) Code.
Properly applied, this is not yet another safety template
to be imposed upon the long suffering ship's officer, it
is a method through which responsibility linked to the
necessary level of authority can be properly and
effectively allocated. At its heart are three fundamental
concepts. The first is the need for properly trained
and competent seafarers which is embodied within
the STCW Convention amendments.
The second concept is that there must be one
identifiable person in overall command, the ship
owner or '... any other organisation or person such as the
manager, or the bare boat charterer, who has assumed the
responsibility for operation of the ship or who, on assuming
such responsibility has agreed to take on all the duties and
responsibilities imposed by the Code'(ISM Code 1.1.2).In
other words, the master's dilemma is removed and
there should no longer be a question mark in the centre
of figure 36.4.
Thirdly, the ISM Code talks about management
and planning (particularly contingency planning - risk
management again) but its essential dimension is that
it views, and requires the ship owner to view, the
relationship between the ashore and the onboard
operation as both part of one single whole with a
defined aim. The aim is the safe and efficient operation
of the vessel and the tool to be used in order to achieve
this is management. The person who is to deliver this,
supported by the shore organisation, is the shipmaster,
••.
Risk and the commercIal operation
Risk has been mentioned a number of times and linked
to the commercial operation of a vessel. Time is the
element which links these two aspects, and it is in the
management of time induced risk that the master
needs commercial awareness.
A vessel may be purchased, stored and manned -
fully o~erational and ,ready to sail. It lies in harbour
pres,entmg no great nsk to anyone except, perhaps,
the mvestors who backed her purchase. As soon as
that vessel has a commercial task to fulfil, sh<:must
start to move to meet a schedule, to catch a tlde, to
" personne 1 managers nee d t 0 prOVId e th e necessary
make a cancellmg date. TIme is exerting a pressure
' ' . ' · ' '
an d th e 1eve 10f ns k ISmcrease. d W Ith m th IStIme sca 1e,
' '
anum b er 0f t ask s mus t b e carned ou t w h ICh pace 1
d eman d s upon th e crew an d upon th e mas t'er s
managemen t sk'1ll s,
Bunkers may have to be stemmed, cargo loaded
(and bills oflading signed), decisions have to be made
- to sail with one tug or two, what speed to proceed
in reduced visibility as the cancelling date comes closer
or a weekend of overtime working becomes
increasingly inevitable.
This relatioI).ship between time and money
incorporating risk and safety and satisfactory service
to the customer with the resultant effect on
employment, both for the vessel and for the seafarer,
is illustrated in figure 36.7, the commercial equation
and it is at the heart of good management.
It is in this area that the real challenge to the
shipmaster lies and it is in the effective management
of this equation that his professional skills will be
tested. For a long time now, the master's eyes have
been focused on the technical management of a vessel
in accordance with an ever increasing regime of safety
regulations. As has already been postulated, the work
currently being undertaken on Formal Safety
Assessment heralds a sea change in the way in which
future regulations will be framed and will operate.
Running parallel and ahead of this change is the
opportunity, indeed the imperative, offered by the
ISM Code to put the ship/shore relationship on a
better and more balanced footing. The shipmaster
needs to receive the proper level of authority to go
with his exceedingly wide range of responsibilities and,
at the same time, he needs to receive structured, clear
and authoritative support from ashore. He also needs
the appropriate management training and it can be
convincingly argued that this is not fully covered
within current statutory requirements.
Management - the commercial
dimension
Throughout the world, social attitudes to work and to
authority have changed; even military organisations
have recognised this in their command structures. At
sea, other changes have taken place; crews, one of the
most valuable of resources, have got smaller, they have
become multi"national, bringing a whole host of
cultural differences, - and cultural misunderstandings
- while at the same time ships and their cargoes have
become more complex.
In the face of these changes - and the need to
manage continuing change - it is hard to argue that
the traditional, hierarchical merchant navy
management style is the most appropriate. New and
more appropriate management skills are needed and
'
." . , ' .
trammg m order that shIps officers gam h t ese ski lIs m
, "
preparatlon for command, A good startmg pomt ISan
understanding of the cost of Operating the vessel for
on this knowledge and the confidence which should
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 261
accompany knowledge, can be built an increased
degree of responsibility for the economical operation.
This knowledge is also necessary if the master is to
manage his time and money equation more effectively.
Figure 36.5 shows a sample vessel budget format.
These overall costs can be divided into three major
cost centres of which the first is financial, representing
the annual capital cost of ownership i.e. loan interest
and depreciation - or loan repayments in cash flow
terms, The second major cost centre covers the
operating or running costs. These cover such items as
crew wages insurance maintenance stores and spares
and an allo~ation of tl~e owner's est~blishment costs _
' ,
or th e sh Ip manager s managemen t f ee.
, level of operational risk and the management of this
At thIS stage, one has a vessel fully manned and
registered and ready to trade - but generating no
income. The vessel can only lie alongside in port and
in this condition a very low level of risk attaches. It is
when the third stage comes into play, representing
the trading or commercial role of the vessel, that as
described, two critical and interrelated factors are
introduced: time and risk.
262 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
As soon as the vessel is fixed (or enters a scheduled
service) time becomes important for time represents
money or more critically, profit.
A vessel's operating costs (the cost centres included
earlier) apply to every day of the year and to every
minute of the day. Thus, if the total running costs are,
say US$2,920,000 for a full year, every day represents
the expenditure of $8,000 whether the vessel is earning
income or not. Although a very straightforward and
apparently obvious deduction, not one which is
universally understood nor its implication fully
appreciated.
Assume an imaginary vessel off Japan fixed for a
cargo of 250,000 tonnes of crude oil from Ras Tanura
at WS 47.5. As can be seen in figure 36.6, this
represents an income of US $1,276,563.
The voyage, including the ballast voyage out to
the load port, is planned to be accomplished in just
under 43 days. If the trading costs - commission,
bunkers and port expenses are deducted, the vessel
has earned a net trading income of US$808,910 over
the 43 days (equal to $18,909 per day, amounting to
US$342,294, leaving a contribution of US$466,661
(or nearly $11,000 for every day of the round voyage)
towards the financial cost of ownership and towards
the company's profits.
Should the vessel break down, deviate, fail to
tender notice of readiness correctly, or fail to have
her tanks ready for cargo, and increase the round
voyage time by, say, three days, the resultant
contribution to financing costs and profit is reduced
by five per cent and the time charter equivalent drops
to $17,669 per day. Should she mysteriously lose a
week, not unknown under certain circumstances,
running costs for the voyage increase by $56,000 (plus
additional bunkers) whilst the Net Trading Income
remains at the same level - the contribution to finance
and profit is reduced by 12 per cent or in other words,
a potential profit is lost.
The actual figures are, to a great extent, irrelevant.
You have all seen examples where through bad
maintenance or poor operating practices, time losses
have been much greater. The key point is that in
shipping, time represents money and therefore time
exerts a pressure on the operation of the vessel and
particularly upon the master, As already stated, it is
' . ' ·, '
th IS time pressure wh ICh resu Its In an Increase In h t e
commercially generated risk is a key aspect of the
master's role.
Many of those serving as masters and chief
engineers today, or as superintendents or personnel
and training managers, probably learnt their trade in
a self-contained, vertically integrated shipping
company. Everybody understood how the company
 Figure 36.6 Simpk voyage calculation - the time and money relationship

worked and what was expected of them and help a manager improve his own effectiveness
everybody came from a similar cultural background. although there is not time to discuss them in detail
In many ways, a strong hierarchical management here. As well as the appraisal of his team, he needs to
structure worked well. develop skills in motivation and negotiation, in
delegating and decision making and, indeed, in the
Today, this situation has changed radically in many delegation of decision making. If the master is not used
companies. Not only do masters work with people to this approach to management and leadership, or if
from different cultural backgrounds, in companies he is newly promoted, it may well feel very strange
which mayor may not have a strong internal structure and difficult. This is because it represents a change:
(see figure 36.4, the master's dilemma), but people's
social outlook and expectations and the way in which FROM TO
they react to authority has also changed. Doing the job An uncertain supervisory
role, relying on the skill of
Under these conditions it can be argued that a others
different kind of management is essential. Changing
from a hierarchical approach to a team management Using. well ~nderstood L~arning new managerial
approach can be one of the most difficult challenges techmcal skills skIlls
which a master faces, especially if there is little or n~ Doing it yourself Delegating tasks to others
support from shore management. To many masters It receiving delegated tasks
can feel like an abdication of authority for it means
giving information (and as we all know, information Following routine Planning and initiating
is Power) and listening to - and even accepting - ' ·· '
C on tro 11mg th e resu It BemgJu d ge d on th e qu alIt y
advice from one's subordinates. It means learning to
an d ou tpu t 0 f your t eam
assess the on board management team in a new way
- judging their real strengths and their real weaknesses Having knowledge Managing others, who may
rather than their paper qualifications. It means using have more specialist
and developing these strengths - which may be knowledge
unexpected when we really look - and it means
working with individuals to help them to overcome From this it becomes apparent that the master must
their weaknesses and exploit their dormant potential. make time for proper management by stepping back
from many aspects of the technical day to day
These analyses must also be applied, honestly and management of his vessel. In addition, team
critically, not only to the crew but also to the person management demands open planning and effective
the master will sail with on every single ship and who communication. Planning can be summarised by the
will form part of every team he is in. It is, as the ancient five 'Ps':
Greeks carved above their temple doors, essential to
'Know Thyself'. There are many techniques which can Proper Planning Prevents Poor Performance

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 263

 Too many people feel that as they become more
experienced, it is not necessary to plan 'routine' tasks
but in fact it is absolutely essential, for circumstances
- or the resources and manpower at the master's
disposal - are rarely exactly the same. Every passage,
every port entry, every bunkering operation, every
voyage contract, every cargo represents a project
which must be analysed and its successful execution
planned - and risk analysis and risk management are
powerful tools which can aid the master in this.
The ability to set realistic and achievable aims is
the starting point for effective planning. Time
management is another important attribute and this
includes the ability to understand the time pressures
on one's subordinates as well as managing one's own
time. Changes in routine or operating practices must
be properly planned and sufficient time allowed for
the changes to work through. To many, change poses
a threat which brings denial and resistance. Properly
and sympathetically managed, this can change to the
exploration of new concepts and finally to enthusiastic
commitment.
Risk assessment is another tool that is too little used
in the planning process and which can improve the
quality of the decisions made by the master and his
team. This is the area where commercial pressures
can be correlated with safety requirements. All of us
apply a degree of risk assessment every time we take
a decision, or at least a decision which we have
carefully thought through. We will have identified
potential hazards and assessed the likely risk associated
with those hazards under certain circumstances in
terms of likelihood and severity We then move on to
the process of developing alternative ways of
managing the risk, which may range from additional
insurance through changed operating procedures to a
decision not to carry a particular cargo or trade in
particular areas of the world.
In order to plan and manage, facts must be
gathered, decisions taken and tasks delegated - and
this can only be achieved by good communication.
Words spring immediately to mind when
communication is mentioned but it is more than just
words; tone, inflection and body language all send
important messages to the people with whom we are
communicating. Although it has been claimed that 'a
committee is a cuI de sac down which ideas are lured
and then quietly strangled', meetings are an important
method of communicating and managing them is
another skill which must be practised and developed.
There are two aspects of good communication
which are fundamental. The first is that if you want
someone to do something for you, to be a willing and
effective part of your team, you need to explain the
task in a way which he or she understands, not just in
the way which you think they should understand. In
our profession this is particularly important as we work
with people of many different nationalities and the
effective master must learn to communicate clearly
across cultural as well as the language barriers.
The second important aspect of communication is
effectively illustrated by the fact that we are all given
two ears but only one mouth as a reminder that we
should be listening more than we are talking. Sir
Winston Churchill, an English prime minister, put it
another way when he wrote 'I am sorry that I have
presented such a long paper, I did not have time to
write a'short one.'
This seems like a very good time at which to
conclude. In shipping, time represents money and it
is the time pressure which increases the level of risk
which it is the master's duty to manage. He must do
this, using to best effect the resources available to him,
human and otherwise, whilst balancing the sometimes
conflicting demands of shippers, charterers and cargo
owners - for these are the people who are our
customers and our only source of income.
 Chapter THIRTY SEVEN

TRAINING FOR NEW HIGH SPEED CRAFT SERVICES

by Captain Trevor Bailey MNI

Training Master, HSS Stena Explorer

Captain Bailey started his career at sea with BP Tanker Co. Ltd. in September 7977 and stayed with them until gaining his mate's
certificate. During this time, he served on all classes of vessels within the BP fleet, ranging from clean oil tankers of 76,000 dwt to
VLCCs of275,000 dwt.

In the heady days of the late '70s, when jobs were easier tofind, hejoined Sea Containers on their fleet of innovative self-sustaining
ro-ro/container shiPs. This represented a very significant changefrom oil tankers. With all ships chartered to a variety of operators,,he
fOund it most interesting to work in a very different commercial environment. He studied fOr his Master's Certificate at Plymouth in
7982 and gained his first command in 7983.

After a period with the National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia as chief officer on their ro-ro/container vessels and a period
ashore as a marine and cargo surveyor covering South Walesports, hejoined Sealink British Ferries in 7988.

Since then he has worked at every Stena Line UK port - probably the only person in their currentfleet to have done so. In 7990,
the company introduced their own guidelines on working hours and fatigue and, as one of the first mate/masters appointed in the
company, he took command of the ship while the day master took his eight hour break. Captain Bailey was promoted tofull master in
7992.

He gained fast craft experience with Hoverspeed on the introduction of the Hoverspeed Great Britain at Portsmouth in 7990 and
with Stena Line when the Stena Sea Lynx was introduced to Holyhead in the summer of 7993. Before transftrring to the HSS, he was
senior master on the Stena Cambria - one of the multi-purpose ftrries operatingfrom Holyhead to Dun Laoghaire.

Introduction working practices were introduced and the

To reflect the introduction of new technology, the
development and training for the crews to operate
HSS Stena Explorer - the world's most powerful
merchant ship and the world's largest fast ferry -
needed to be planned to recognise the technical and
professional requirements of the staff. Those appointed
to operate the craft needed to be of the highest calibre
with the skills and the knowledge to match. To achieve
this, a comprehensive selection and training
programme was introduced. The training programmes
encompassed full safety and technical training for all
departments, as well as vocational and theoretical
training.
Historically, maritime training has tended to
concentrate on more traditional skills and values but
the arrival of the HSS accelerated training to match
the pace of change. The craft was built to the
requirements of the IMO High Speed Craft (HSC)
Code which, amongst other things, lays down specific,
detailed requirements for the training and
qualifications of the operating staff and this code
formed the basis for much of the training.
In many cases, the training programmes
encouraged an alternative approach to the more
traditional us and them philosophies of seafaring. New
encouragement and reinforcement of teamwork
became an essential element throughout.
To reflect the technical innovations, an innovative
approach to training was adopted. With staff numbers
in the region of 300, it was decided to bring the trainers
to the delegates. To achieve this, a local hotel was time
chartered to the company as a training centre and the
majority of non-local staff were accommodated at the
hotel. Not only did this provide an excellent training
centre, it also gave the staff the opportunity to meet
socially and to forge essential links that make team
working so much easier.
Stena Line have standard training requirements for
all ranks on all vessels within the fleet. These
requirements were adapted for the HSS, taking
account of the differing nature of the craft itself and of
the composition of the crews - traditional seafarers
account for only approximately 15% of the total
operating crew.
Much of the training was carried out by Stena Line
staff. While the on-board safety related training was
carried out by the masters, navigators and deck
supervisors who operate the craft, the company's team
of trainer mentors were fully involved in operational
standards and vocational training.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 265

 Where in-house expertise or experience did not
match the training requirements, outside trainers were
contracted-in to complement the programme. In the
majority of cases, this training was also carried out at
the training centre but with some practical skills
training being carried out in the port or on board other
ships in the port.
Figure 37.1 provides an analysis of the scope of
safety training carried out during this programme.
Training was not limited to the seafaring staff. A
comprehensive training programme was also devised
for shore staff, focusing principally on customer service
issues.
1)rpe rating training
The HSC Code specifies a form of Type Rating
Training - something new to the maritime world and
similar in many respects to that adopted in aviation
circles. The requirement for type rating certificates has
been adopted by the MSA and, before the issue of the
High Speed Craft Safety Certificate and the Permit to
Operate, the MSA had to be satisfied that all crew
members had achieved the specified levels of training
with respect to type rating training. The MSA also
needed to be satisfied that the delivery, monitoring
and verification of type rating training was in
accordance with their recommendations.
Before a type rating certificate can be issued, a crew
member must have undertaken suitable training
commensurate with their duties on board the craft.
The company verify and monitor that training and
has in place a trainee / trainer / assessor hierarchy as
recommended by the MSA.
Figure 37.2 identifies the scope of the training
required for type rating training - the column headed
Type Rating Training represents the time required on
board the craft for familiarisation with the equipment,
systems and so on.
Type rating training was carried out on board the
craft immediately after its arrival in Holyhead. All crew
members were given an introductory tour of the
respective parts of the craft and they were required to
complete and return a checklist of all relevant items
before being considered to be type rated. It was not,
however, just a simple matter of ticking off the boxes
on the checklist. Extensive questions were asked by
the on board trainers and, if there was any element of
doubt, candidates were not type rated. As in oral
examinations, candidates can be referred or failed and
this has proved to be a valuable incentive to all crew
members to complete their type rating training
conscientiously.
Section 18.3.3 of the HSC Code details the
requirements for training and qualifications of all
266 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
operating staff. Generally, these requirements relate
to the safety of the craft and to the safety of the people
on board. In particular, all crew members are required
to have an extensive and practical knowledge of the
craft's lifesaving and fire fighting equipment, escape
routes and damage control appliances and all other
relevant equipment on board. They are also required
to have a working knowledge on the control and
evacuation of passengers and how to communicate
with passengers in an emergency.
Emergency control of passengers was covered by
a separate course and is being developed further to
encompass the requirements for emergency and crisis
management training laid down in the revised STCW.
Stena Line aim to be the first company to establish an
approved course in this subject.
Commercial innovation has also been reflected in
the operation of the craft. MacDonalds have a
franchise fast food outlet within the passenger area
and the staff are direct employees of MacDonalds.
They, too, must undergo type rating and they have
also been trained to Basic Sea Survival Course (BSSe)
standards.
Ship handling simulator
The HSS is powered by four gas turbines which are
coupled through gearboxes to two KaMe Wa water-
jets in each hull. These are the largest steerable water-
jets ever built and, when operating at full power, over
20 tonnes of water pass through the jets each second!
The control systems were designed and built by
KaMe Wa and these link to the integrated navigational
systems provided by Kvaerner.
Control of water-jet propelled craft is rather
different from that of conventional vessels and it was
considered desirable to purchase a ship handling
simulator to train the masters and first officers in the
handling characteristics of the craft. Most of the
masters and first officers had had experience of ship
handling the smaller Lynx type craft but the control,
power and manoeuvrability of the HSS are
significantly different to the Lynx. Additionally, the
HSS is fitted with a bow thruster in each hull which
greatly assist the manoeuvrability of the craft.
An introductory course to the simulator was run
by SSPA, a Swedish maritime consultancy who had
worked closely in the development and design of the
HSS. Using the data gained from tank testing of the
hull models and of the propulsion systems, SSP A
designed a PC-based program that is operated by a
mock-up control station similar to that installed on
the bridge. The VDU display of the simulator shows
an overview of the HSS on an electronic chart with
predictions of the ship's position at selected intervals
according to the current ship's speed, water-jet
configuration, tidal and weather conditions. There is
also a display of the ship's propulsion control systems.
It is a requirement of the type rating training that
all operators have an understanding of how the
propulsion systems work. It is not sufficient to be able
to drive the ship, they have to understand what
happens when they turn that knob or pull that lever!
To this end, a course was also run on the ship simulator
by KaMe Wa.
This latter course also broke new ground in the
approach to training. It is very difficult for the MSA
to undertake a regulatory role if they do not themselves
know how the craft should operate. Two of their
surveyors attended the KaMe Wa course by way of
introduction to the operation of the craft.
The simulator has been installed in the office in
Holyhead and it is not unusual to find one of the
officers in deep concentration at the controls at all
sorts of unusual hours of the day or night.
Manoeuvring of the craft requires intense
concentration and it is easier to practise outside office
hours, away from the distractions of the phone and
other people! The simulator is used to provide on-
going training for masters and navigators. Not only
will this allow them to keep their hand in but it will
also allow them, perhaps, to prepare for weather
conditions not yet experienced or just to gain increased
confidence in the handling of the craft.
Originally limited to Holyhead and Dun Laoghaire
charts, the simulator has been updated to incorporate
charts for Belfast and Stranraer. The simulator was
also used to supplement the training of masters and
first officers for the second craft, now in service at
Stranraer. These officers had an advantage over those
who were appointed to the Stena Explorer. Initial
ship handling training for the first craft was all simulator
based and highly theoretical. Officers for later craft
will have had the opportunity to observe the physical
handling characteristics of the craft and to apply these
observations to their own simulator training. When
the simulator programme does not produce the
expected results, they can consult the officers from
the Stena Explorer for their opinions and experiences.
The masters and first officers for the HSS hold
pilotage exemption certificates for the ports to which
the craft will run. Reflecting the innovative nature of
the craft, the pilotage and port authorities had a need
to be satisfied that the craft can be safely navigated
and operated within their areas of jurisdiction. As the
layout of the craft is not conducive to taking a pilot on
board or for a pilot to be in a position to give
navigational advice, the simulator was used to
demonstrate to the pilotage and port authorities for
Belfast, Dun Laoghaire, Dublin and Holyhead the ship
handling characteristics of the craft - another training
innovation. This simulator training was later
complemented by observation of the craft in service.
Crew resource management
Continuing the theme of innovation and the similarity
in bridge layout to that of an aircraft cockpit, a Crew
Resource Management (CRM) course was held with
a view to introducing the whole of the bridge team
(masters, first officers, chief and second engineers) to
new concepts of behaviour and discipline. The course
was run by Braathens SAFE, a Norwegian airline, who
had developed the course from their own cockpit
resource management course for airline pilots. The
CRM course is approved by the Norwegian Maritime
Directorate and was held in Holyhead with instruction
from an airline pilot - himself an experienced operator
of High Speed Craft - and an industrial psychologist.
The aim of the course was to increase our
individual understanding of how we all co·ordinate
the varying factors which influence us in the execution
of our respective roles with a view to promoting safe
and efficient team operation. In particular, the course
looked at situational awareness, the co-ordination of
individual skill s and system knowledge,
communications skills and how they all work together
to produce or reduce operational effectiveness. The
course also considered the influences of our maritime
culture - "Why do we do it this way? ... because
Nelson did it this way!" - , social atmosphere on
board, stress factors and the effects of sleep and fatigue.
The course was not entirely based on theory. A
number of group exercises were carried out where
delegates were required to analyse a number of
maritime accidents and incidents and to comment on
how they could have been more effectively handled.
In common with the aim of the course, the groups
were made up of both deck and engineering officers
such that each could comment on all aspects of the
incident. Although in some of the incidents reviewed,
individuals involved in the incident showed total
situational awareness for their own area of
responsibility, the combined situational awareness of
the operational team as a whole was considerably less
than total, which contributed significantly to the
development of the incident.
The course also introduced a further new concept
in the way we approach the safe and efficient
navigation and operation of the craft. Aircraft adopt
the idea of red, yellow and green zones for differing
areas of their flight path with differing levels of
responsibility for each area. Red is the area of highest
potential hazard and, in these areas, both the pilot
and co-pilot must be ready to take hands on control
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 269
at any time. Yellow and green areas have lesser
potential hazards and the responsibilities are scaled
down accordingly.
Day-to-day operation of the HSS has adopted these
philosophies such that port entry and departure are
considered to be red waters. The master and the first
officer must be in their seats in full control, the chief
engineer must be at his control station and
conversation should be limited to strictly relevant,
professional and operational requirements.
With the introduction of fast craft throughout the
company's fleet, further CRM courses have been held
and these have now been attended by all fast craft
officers. Later courses were run by the Danish
Maritime Institute, but the content of the courses has
been much the same as the original course.
Engineering training
During the building process, all chief engineers and
most of the second engineers had spent time away
from the shipyard on courses related to the engineering
outfit of the craft. In particular, they attended training
courses with KvaerneriGeneral Electric for the gas
turbines, with KaMeWa for the water jets, with
Cummins Diesels for the generators and with Lyngso
Valmet relating to the complex Integrated Automation
System (IAS).
This latter system allows the chief engineer to be
on watch in the engine control room which is nowhere
near the engine room. It is situated at the after end of
the wheelhouse so that the chief engineer has
continuous contact with the master and the first officer.
It is also possible for the IAS to be displayed on the
bridge conning display. Perhaps this is a further
example of the changing attitudes to traditional roles
brought about by the introduction of the HSS.
In addition to the specific training courses run by
the equipment manufacturers, the engineering staff
achieved their own hands-on training through
commissioning trials while the ship was in the yard,
along with developing close working relationships with
the various service engineers that have attended the
craft since its introduction to service.
Integrated bridge systems
For many years, technical journals have had nice
glossy photos of equipment manufacturers' ideas of
how an integrated bridge system should look. Now
we have the opportunity to use one for real! The
technical details of the system itself are worthy of an
article in their own right and are omitted here for
simplicity.
270 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Some of the equipment is familiar to the operators,
some of it is brand new but all of it is state of the art.
To comply with the type rating requirements, all
masters and first officers spent two days on board the
craft prior to delivery with Kvaerner for hands on
training with this equipment.
The integration of all navigational and technical
data onto video display is a significant achievement.
What is even more of an achievement is the adaptation
of the bridge team's approach to the job in accepting
the way in which the information is presented and the
acceptance of its reliability and accuracy. Screens are
interchangeable from Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS) to Navigational
Information System (NIS) (and to IAS as already
mentioned) and all are controlled by a roller ball and
three buttons on the arm rest of the operator's chair.
Marine Evacuation Systems (MES)
The lifesaving appliances for the craft are solely based
on four MES systems, incorporating a degree of
redundancy such that, if one system fails to operate,
the full complement of passengers can still be
evacuated safely by use of the other three systems.
Unlike MES systems fitted to conventional ferries, the
liferafts form an integral part of the package, in that
the boarding platform and two 135-man rafts are
packed together with the slide. Additional rafts are
stowed adjacent to the MES units on board and are
released into the water, as required, by the crew
member at the top of the slide.
Training in the use of these systems is
complementary to type rating training. It is a
requirement that any crew member serving on board
a vessel fitted with MES has received appropriate
training, including participation in a wet deployment
where possible. All crew members received instruction
in the construction and operation of the MES systems
before the craft arrived, with theoretical instruction
supported through use of a large scale model provided
by the manufacturers. Video footage of the
deployments of the system carried out in the shipyard
was also used in the pre-delivery training programme.
During the period between the arrival of the craft
into Holyhead and entry into service, a number of
MES deployments were carried out by the
manufacturers. Where possible, the duty crew for the
day carried out these deployments under instruction
and supervision from the manufacturers and the MSA.
This gave opportunities to appreciate the complexity
of the systems, the potential problems and the degree
of physical effort required to retrieve a liferaft. To
ensure that these trials were realistic, the duty crews
nominated MES station teams who, once the craft
went into service, would be designated these particular
tasks. It was not a case of identifying the largest and
strongest members of the team but actually using the
boys and girls who would have to do the job for real.
This was a particularly beneficial aspect of the training
and was carried out with enthusiasm by all concerned.
MES training was completed when evacuation
trials were carried out prior to entering service. All
crew members had the opportunity to go down the
slide and into the rafts. This was a most valuable
training exercise as MES training must be restricted
to theoretical training for the most part: unlike lifeboats
and liferafts which can be swung out at drills. It is not
possible or practical to deploy an MES system just
for training.
The use of video footage of the various
deployments has been supplemented by detailed
filming of operational procedures with the result that
a formal training video is now available which covers
all aspects of the MES.
Fast rescue boat course
When the rafts are deployed, they are shepherded by
the craft's rescue boats. These are small rigid power
boats and formal training in the handling of these boats
was given by approved instructors in Holyhead. A
wide cross section of the ship's company were involved
with these courses, reflecting the total involvement of
all crews in all duties.
Safety representatives course
Another training innovation. This is a course devised
to give those crew members who represent their
colleagues on the safety committee an insight into the
legal obligations and requirements of safety
representatives.
The course was run by the National Sea Training
College but, again, was actually held in Holyhead. This
course has also led to Institution of Occupational
Safety and Health (IOSH) accreditation for the
delegates - something new to marine training and
extending the recognition of shore based bodies to
our own particular world.
Additional safety training
Although the HSS represents the latest development
in maritime technology, there is still the need to ensure
that operational staff are trained in traditional skills.
Staff were sent on Certificate of Proficiency in Survival
Craft (CPSe), Efficient Deck Hand (EDH), First Aid
and Ship Captain's Medical Certificate courses, as
appropriate, along with some staff attending the
relatively new EDH(fc) course, a qualification based
on the traditional requirements for the issue of an EDH
certificate but with a modified input to reflect the more
specific and relevant requirements of fast craft. Some
of the Lynx staff - both male and female - had already
pioneered this certificate in the last couple of years
but additional numbers of certificates were required
for the HSS.
Car deck management
The car decks of the HSS are significantly different
from those of the Lynx or from conventional craft and
a half-day familiarisation course was designed to give
those crew members whose duties take them on to
the car decks - many of whom are not traditional
seafarers but cabin staff - an appreciation of the
potential pitfalls as well as the advantages of the car
deck layouts. With scheduled turnaround times of 30
minutes, it was absolutely essential that car deck
operations proceed smoothly and that the staff
directing the traffic and the passengers have a
fundamental understanding of the operation and a trust
in each other to achieve this successfully.
High performance management
Most of the training was based around the operation
of the craft itself in a safe, efficient and technically
competent manner. However, to allow senior staff to
realise their full potential, whether from ship
management or from on board services, a High
Performance Management Course was developed.
This course was run for Stena Line by outside
consultants away from the port of Holyhead in a closed
environment. Management teams of masters, chief
engineers, on board services managers and shore
managers were brought together, developing their
management skills as well as developing the team
approach. Although the course principally extolled
the tenets of management skills taught on other
management courses, the tutor's particular style
encouraged delegates to develop those skills in a
manner such that, whatever aspect of management
they were required to perform, they would do so
better, faster and more effectively and more efficiently
than previously.
The course was run in two parts. The first was a
five-day intensive programme followed up
approximately six weeks later by a review weekend
when delegates had to stand up and be counted - how
had their styles changed/improved in the intervening
period and could this change be maintained?
Vocational training
Trainer mentors are senior members of staff with
specialist skills in customer service who will remain
in contact with the operating staff to ensure that the
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 271
theories espoused at the training stage are put into
practice when the craft is operational. Mentoring is
not a new concept - it is already used to good effect
by British Airways and by Whitbreads - and the
concept was introduced to Stena Line to coincide with
the training programme for the HSS. It is hoped to
develop this concept further with respect to type rating
training, so that trainees are looked after by their peers.
Operational standards training was introduced to
give a consistency of approach to all members of the
craft's on board services crews. The training was in
two parts - a two-day introduction to basic principles
followed by a further two days covering the differing
requirements of the retail and the food and beverage
aspects of the business.
It is generally accepted that the presentation and
appearance of airline staff is of the highest standard
and, to promote recognition of high quality standards
of service, this is to be emulated by non-airline
companies. For several years Stena Line have
endeavoured to raise the profile and the standards of
272 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
the staff and their general appearance. To reinforce
this concept, separate courses in grooming were held
for both male and female staff - which included
practical work where appropriate.
Conclusion
As the world's leading ferry company, Stena Line
demonstrated its commitment to the introduction and
successful operation of the HSS by the time and
resources committed to the overall training
programme. Technical innovation was complemented
by innovative approaches to training.
The individual commitment of staff members to
the project and to the levels of training provided has
enabled them to respond to the high speed concept of
the craft with confidence and with competence. The
emphasis throughout the training programme for
changing attitudes and the development of improved
teamwork has been evidenced by the very successful
first full summer of commercial operation of the craft.
 Chapter THIRTY EIGHT

LANGUAGE TRAINING FOR

NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKING MARINERS
by Professor Captain F. Weeks ExC MA PhD FNI

Fred fVeeksjoined the then British Tanker Company in 1948, serving with them until 1960, when he left to commence his career in
nautical teaching. He has made frequent voyages during vacations on a variety of shiPs.

Fred first became involved with the teaching of Nautical English in 1973 when he tutored a two week course in Helsinki for the
Finnish Government. Subsequently he was awarded a Winston Churchill Fellowship to research the subject and ran a series of post
graduate courses in Nautical English in the now Plymouth University. He founded the International Maritime Lecturers Association,
now a Consultative Organisation at IMO, and wrote the book 'Wavelength' to illustrate the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary
in 1981.

He led the team which produced "Seaspeak" in 1984, and continued teaching special courses in Nautical English in many countries
throughout the world. Currently he acts as consultant to several international organisations and has led several communications
researchteamsfor the European Community, The International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (/ALA) and commercial companies.

Captain fVeeks has an Extra Master's Certificate, and Masters and Doctor of Philosophy Degrees in Applied Linguistics from
Exeter University.

The problem
The task is massive, but must be tackled if young
Although the number of native English speaking
mariners are to obtain work with owners who demand
mariners is relatively small compared to the world total
a good standard of English on their ships. Authorities
of mariners, there is no doubt whatever that English
such as the United States Coast Guard (USCG) will
is the language of the sea. Without it, it is impossible
refuse to allow a passenger ship to sail unless the crew
to pursue a seafaring career.
have such a standard. Good planning, good facilities
and excellent teaching are required to solve the
There are many reasons for this simple truth, some
problem, and to produce seafarers of the right calibre.
of which are quoted below:-

English is the accepted language of international .Some basic principles

trade.
English is the first choice second language in most
non-native English speaking countries.
More people learn to speak English than any other
foreign language.
Mariners join their ships by air, and English is the
language of that transport system.
English is the language of the sea and has been for
a very long time.
English has been adopted by the IMO, officially,
as the language of the sea. STCW 1995(1) requires
that every mariner must have an adequate
knowledge of it.
English is the language most used in VHF, ship to
ship, ship to shore, shore to ship (VTS and Pilots),
and SAR.
English is required as a condition of employment
on many internationally manned ships.
Maritime students everywhere want to learn
English, because they know that it is the key to the
best jobs, in their own countries or overseas.
In some nations, lack of any long term commitment
to language education has meant that trainers in
maritime English have been required to produce a
succession of quick fix solutions to a problem that is
essentially long term in character. No one involved in
general education would, for example, expect a
student to learn and apply the theory and practice of
bridge building in a few weeks of study, yet that is
what is asked of some maritime trainers when
attempting to teach maritime English. Just as many
lives are at risk when, for example, a ferry sinks, as
when a bridge collapses, but the civil engineer
concerned will have spent years learning his profession
whereas the mariner might have just a few weeks
learning how to communicate a distress message in
English.
In the same way, many maritime administrations
place a very low value indeed on the precise standards
of maritime English necessary successfully to carry

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 273

out any particular maritime task. Evidence of this is
contained in STCW 1995 (IMO)(1) when the phrase
'sufficient English' is used in connection with a number
of functions requiring a knowledge of the language.
Thus the maritime English lecturer is left with a
peculiar feeling of isolation and responsibility. Isolation
because he has little precise international guidance
on the standards his students should achieve, in
contrast to his navigating and engineering colleagues,
who do have such guidance. Responsibility because
he knows that, in situations of life and death, it will be
the language skills that he has taught that will succeed
or not. This is true for external communications (vide
Estonia) and for internal communications as well (vide
Scandinavian Star). Good communications equipment
is nice to have, but the ability to use it in crisis situations
determines whether the mariner and his passengers
survive or not.
This chapter is written with the aim of helping the
unfortunate lecturer in maritime English, who has the
difficult task of ensuring that his students can deal with
the complex situations which are part of everyday life
at sea.
General education in English language
There is no doubt that the competence of mariners in
maritime English is, to some degree, decided by the
standards attained in the general education system in
the country concerned. No matter what happens, and
no matter what level of employment the student may
eventually attain, his English language achievement
will depend on a knowledge of the basic structure of
the English language itself.
Shipping companies and national administrations
are often more eager to test first entrants on their
abilities in the sciences than in English, even though
their eventual success will depend on understanding
complex manuals and documents written in English.
Language lecturers may wish to devise their own tests
for measuring the difficulty of the task ahead, and may
even wish to recommend the rejection of a candidate
if his language attainment is so weak that he cannot
hope to achieve a satisfactory level before he leaves
the maritime college.
Such tests should be based on an accepted
international standard such as that proposed in 'The
Threshold Level for Modern Language Learning in
Schools'(2). A far better method, for both student and
lecturer, is to submit the student to one of the accepted
international language tests.For British English, the
best tests are those administered by the British
Council(3) (ask the British Embassy in your country
for the nearest location), and, for American English,
the TOEFL tests(4).Both these tests give a recognised
274 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
score which can be taken as an accurate measure of
the students true ability in general English, and will
actually allow him to convince a British or American
university that he has an acceptable level of English,
should he ever wish to study in such a place.
Facets of maritime English
Maritime English can be divided into two main
sections in accordance with the disciplines that it
serves:-
1. The English used by the those concerned with the
navigation, cargo handling, communications and
commercial business of the ship - what used to be
called the deck department.
2. The English used by those concerned with the main
and auxiliary engines, the electrics, electronics, and
their operation and maintenance - what used to
be called the engineering department.
The English used by the two disciplines is very
different, placing different demands on both lecturers
and students. Even more complications can arise when
students are destined to be multi-purpose officers, who
will have to perform mental gymnastics when moving
from one type of English to the other.
The deck department
The skills in English that are required by a deck officer
fall under the normal three headings of spoken
English, reading and comprehension, and writing. It
is the subject material, the professional register, that
differs so much from everyday English, with a
vocabulary that enables one mariner to identify
another within a few minutes of starting a conversation.
Spoken English
This can again be broken down into two main sections,
safety English and the rest, with the rest comprising
all of the spoken English that is necessary to conduct
the business of the ship, including on board
communication and non-safety conversations with
shore personnel, including that necessary for handling
cargo, dealing with mooring gangs and discussing the
relative duties of owners' agents and charterers' agents.
Safety English
If the method of communication involves a voice
transmission, this may be defined as any utterance or
group of utterances necessary to ensure the continued
well being of persons on one's own ship or another
ship, by internal or external communications.
Of course, a safety message may not involve the
spoken word at all, and in that case, skill in the
composition of a written message will be essential.
 If the message is to be spoken, over any
communication system whatsoever, there are two basic
choices in formatting the utterances to be given. These
are:-
Generative safety English.
Safety phrases.
Generative safety English
This is simply general spoken English applied to a
safety situation, with the addition of certain linguistic
devices to make the meaning of the message crystal
clear, and with the addition of all of the procedures
and protocols demanded by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU).
This approach allows the person in difficulties a
certain degree of freedom in the vocabulary that he
uses, but insists on the deletion of complicated verb
forms and sentence structures. It is best epitomised
by the system described in the Seaspeak Training
ManuaF5), which takes into account all of the ITU
Rules(6), and employs a series of linguistic devices to
make the mariner's task more simple and
straightforward. Tests carried out in Canada have
shown that Seaspeak is especially effective when used
by middle achievers in safety communications. It is
fully approved by 1M 0 as a training tool.
The use of generative safety English produces a
good reaction amongst students, because they feel that
they are using the English language in the way that
they have been taught, that is to carry out successful
and extremely important communications.
Safety phrases
A safety phrase may be defined as "a group of words,
which must be exactly geared to the incident
concerned, and which must be uttered without
variation by everyone of any nationality when finding
themselves involved in the incident concerned".
Safety phrases were first introduced by the 1M 0
in 1977 and consisted of a very few basic phrases which
were designed to be used 'in extremis' when things
were going very badly for a ship and she needed help
urgently. Most of the messages contained within the
phrases could be prefixed by the 'Mayday' alert. It
was soon found that there were many circumstances
where no phrase would fit the incident concerned, and
the breadth of the content was expanded to form the
Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary (SMNV),
1985 edition!?). This vocabulary included some of the
linguistic devices borrowed from Seaspeak.
The SMNV is described in teaching terms in
Wavelength(8). Using the SMNV as laid down requires
an excellent memory, since not only must the prompt
phrase be memorised, but the reply also. Thus the
whole publication should be memorised if the student
is to be judged competent and this is extremely difficult
to achieve. It is also unpopular with students,
particularly high achievers, because they find that it
demeans their accomplishments in general English.
Some of the phrases are basic to a distress situation,
however, and are the best way to raise the alert.
By 1993 the SMNV (1985) was again found not to
contain a phrase for all seasons, and IMO decided
that a complete revision was necessary. This time the
net was thrown much wider, with many more specialist
sections included, not necessarily dealing with safety.
The resulting new IMO Standard Marine
Communication Phrases (SMCP)(9)will be in final draft
in Summer 1997, when two years of trials will
commence. During this time, IMO is open to
suggestions concerning the phrases.
Professor Doctor Peter Trenkner, of Germany, has
completed the almost impossible task of bringing
together a comprehensive set of phrases which cover
almost every aspect of maritime activity in the greatest
detail. The resulting volume is many times larger than
the SMNV(1985), and may present many difficulties
by being so comprehensive in its cover. Certainly, it
is so voluminous that there can be no hope oflearning
the phrases by heart, and some sort of reference
technique will have to be employed if they are to be
used for voice communication (see the appropriate
section for teaching hints). Perhaps a generative
approach, with the appropriate vocabulary, would
have been a better solution to the problem, but IMO
has decreed otherwise.
However, one section of the SMCP is in circulation,
and should be in use by every maritime English
lecturer. After the fire on board the Scandinavian Star,
in which nearly 200 persons died, it was determined
that poor communication between the crew and the
passengers was a major contributory factor. Therefore
IMO have issued MSC/Circular 673 'On Board
Communications for Passenger Care'(IO).This details
the precise communications that should exist on every
ship carrying passengers, particularly ferries.
Lecturers would be well advised to request their
national delegation to IMO to provide them with the
latest version of the SMCP, and lecturers should also
take part in trials of the materials therein, expressing
their opinion if they feel so inclined.
Teaching safety English
The saving of life at sea is not only a tradition, it is a
duty placed upon every seafarer by the Safety of Life
at Sea Convention (SOLAS). Saving of life, particularly
from another ship, almost never takes place without
some sort of voice communication between the rescuer
and the rescued. Voice communication is a subject as
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 275
important as any other on the syllabus of the deck
officer and it should, therefore, be given the same status
as a subject. This means that as much care should be
given to developing teaching methods for the subject
as, for example, navigation. Some hints are listed
below:-
1. Lecturers should bear in mind that this is English
for Special Purposes (ESP) to the ultimate degree.
It is well known that ESP learners are extremely
intolerant of anyone that they regard as an amateur
and lecturers must make absolutely sure, therefore,
that their material is completely technically correct.
Before any of the techniques suggested below are
applied, it is suggested that the lecturer concerned
should verify the material with a specialist colleague.
In some colleges tradition dictates that English
lecturers are regarded as assistants rather than full
members of staff, and if this applies in a particular
case it must be overcome. Co-operation can then
begin.
2. First, choose your theatre of operations; that is the
particular facet of safety English that you wish to
deal with. Man overboard, for example or, as the
SMCP calls it, person overboard. Then develop a
scenario which takes your group through all of the
utterances which are likely to take place from the
moment that the alarm is raised. This will involve
a good proportion of internal communications
amongst the crew, and also the external
communications between own ship and other ships
in the vicinity. You will have to choose whether
you invoke generative English, or whether you use
the SMCP. Remember, if you wish to satisfy IMO
and the requirements of the STCW Convention,
you will have to teach and examine to the
requirements ofthe STCW To be sure that you have
things correct, make sure that you have your
scenario and dialogue checked by the relevant
subject specialist.
3. Set up a communications voyage using a series of
scenarios from departing one port to 5 arriving at
another. Again, there will be both internal and
external communications, but this time the bulk of
the exchanges wilLbe external, from shore to ship
and from ship to shore. To get an idea, use the book
Wavelength, mentioned above. You can choose
from a wide variety of events, but just be sure that
they are all genuine, and will stand up to scrutiny
from your students and specialist colleagues. You
can use IMO information paper Nav. 36 Inf. 8
which contains a good cross section of ship-shore,
shore-ship exchanges.
For realism, you will have to set up a role-
playing routine with your students, but this can never
achieve the results that can be achieved by the
technique which follows.
276 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
4. Simulators were originally conceived as training
devices for radar navigation, but in 1975Weeks put
forward the idea (to the English Speaking Union)
that simulators could be used as devices to produce
realism in marine communicationslll), as well as
realism in the navigational task. Most simulators,
whether simple radar simulators or full mission
bridge simulators, now have a communications
facility, with active VHF sets, linked into system.
These systems allow communication ship to ship
and ship to shore, the shore being the instructor.
So far as communications are concerned, the
English lecturer is by far the best person to carry
out all exchanges, and the best person to arrange
the communications scenarios, whilst the radar
instructor arranges the navigational and anti-
collision scenario. The English lecturer will have
by far the best grasp of English in most colleges
and by far the best grasp of the SMCP. However,
he/she may have a difficult time in convincing the
radar instructor that he/she has an important role
to play because of inbuilt resistance to change. IMO
Nav 36 Inf 8(12) will prove a useful source of
messages, at least in the early stages of such a
project.
The rest
Every deck officer will have to be capable, if not fluent,
in the language that is necessary to conduct the
business of the ship. For the junior officer this will
almost certainly mean dealing with questions
concerning cargo, posed by the shore, either in a face
to face situation or by VHF. In the latter situation the
ship will be judged by the competence of the officer
who first answers the VHF call, perhaps from the
parent oil company, asking a technical question about
the cargo whilst the ship lies off her berth. The officer's
continued employment and promotion prospects
would be enhanced if he could answer the question
intelligently. He will also have to cope with the
language problems produced by an international crew,
which will demand a different set of skills. Such
problems are well illustrated in 'Understanding
English on board Ship'll:J).
The problem for the maritime English lecturer is
to know what to teach. STCW does not answer this
question, using words like sufficient and adequate but
failing to define what is meant by them. The IMO
has, however, produced a detailed teaching syllabus
and this is included in the annex to this chapter. An
intimate knowledge of work at sea is a great advantage
in constructing a syllabus from the beginning, but such
a knowledge is usually the prerogative of specialist
navigation lecturers and they may be too busy to help.
Further, the maritime English lecturer cannot be sure
if he/she is teaching to an international standard or to
the whim of a colleague.
 There are two sources of detailed syllabi:-
• Model course in maritime English, IMO (written
in Norway).
• Detailed teaching syllabuses, frameworks of model
courses and specimen examination papers, STCW
1978 IMO, Section 5, Nautical Englishl141•
The maritime English lecturer will find this latter
IMO publication most useful, since it is based on Van
Ek's work referred to above. It is function based and
describes most of the tasks to be found around the
ship which a junior officer may be called upon to do,
and also the more esoteric demands placed upon the
chief officer and the master in dealing with agents,
customs and immigration.
As mentioned before, realism is essential and
lecturers are advised to test all scenarios, word games
and other techniques before use. If specialist colleagues
will not co-operate in this project, senior students on
refresher courses or even old students on leave can
be relied upon to help. Similarly, these latter ancient
mariners can be recruited to act in role play in the
one-to-one situation of master and agent or master and
immigration officer. The lecturer sets the scene,
produces the scenario, and then observes and corrects
as the dialogue develops.
Written English
It is essential that a deck officer should have a good
command of written English. He should be able to
read and comprehend all of the books and documents
associated with his profession, and he should be able
to write to a standard acceptable to his employers,
charterers and maritime authorities.
Almost the same statement could be made about
any profession, but the task of the deck officer is made
more than usually complicated by the diversity of types
of English that he will have to read and comprehend.
Some of these are:-
• Modern business English from his shipping
company or charterer.
• Legal English from his charter party, his insurance
company and perhaps his bills of lading.
• Engineering English from his instruction manuals,
both engineering and electronic.
• Modern English from agencies and from the
plethora of forms which he will have to fill in.
So far as writing English is concerned, the deck
officer's task is no less difficult, and only slightly less
complicated. His work will fall under two main subject
headings. These are:-
• Report writing .
• Business letters to his shipping company and to
charterers. Such letters may often take the same
format as a report.
'leaching written maritime English
This is where the student's achievements in education
in general English show up with sudden clarity. All of
the grammatical and semantic errors that, in spoken
English, appear charming or quaint, suddenly show
up as real mistakes.
As readers, we expect to see English that is standard
English and have little tolerance with departures from
the norm. Mistakes that would readily be tolerated in
speech are not forgiven when they appear in writing,
and neither is the use of idiom, slang, and peculiar
sentence structures. Thus the first task is to convince
the maritime student that he will have to adopt an
altogether more formal approach to his writing than
he does to his speech and that, furthermore, there may
be very heavy legal implications in the use of careless
phrases when writing about an accident or cargo
shortage.
Mat to teach?
Every maritime English lecturer has this question
uppermost in their mind. For the deck officer, writing
letters and reports concerning every aspect of the ship's
operation is extremely important and must be taught
in a realistic way, using genuine materials. The scope
of the subject matter which has to be covered is
contained in detailed teaching syllabuses(14), but it is
the way that the subject matter is taught and the
emphasis that is applied to the importance of the
subject that must concern the lecturer.
The management methods employed by owners
vary enormously. Some use modern communications
to rob the master of all but the most trivial decisions,
whilst others use exactly the opposite technique and
place many of the functions traditionally carried out
in the owner's office on board the ship. The lecturer
can only assume that the latter case applies and be as
thorough as he can in the time available.
How to teach it?
Report writing will always be of the utmost importance
and the student should be given plenty of practice in
developing his skills in this respect. The lecturer should
use scenarios which can be gleaned from the accident
reports published by the Marine Accident
Investigation Board (Britain), or the United States
Coast Guard, and require the student to write a report
based on that scenario. A direct comparison can then
be made between the student's report and the official
report and suggestions for improvements made.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 277
 The lecturer should point out the style of both the
British and the American accident reports and the
impartial attitude that is adopted throughout. The
lecturer should also explain that a master may have a
great influence on the outcome of a costly cargo claim
if he is not very careful in the way in which he writes
his report and that such a report should be sent to the
owner's lawyers, not the owner.
Reading and comprehension are best improved by
practice, using fully authentic materials. These can
sometimes be obtained direct from ships or from
shipping companies, but various collections have been
made, including Nautical Texts!l5)and Seafaring Life
Reader(16).For beginners, however, the best publication
probably remains English For Maritime Studies!l7).The
reduction in the numbers of officers under training in
most western countries has meant that there are few
new specialist books published on this subject. The
lecturer, however, may wish to use the textbooks which
specialise in the subject material concerned, such as
marine law, although these seldom carry examples of
correspondence.
Young students will almost certainly be difficult to
motivate in report writing, because the reality of
maritime incidents has not yet been within their
experience. Middle rank and senior officers, however,
have experienced the demands made by owners,
charterers, shippers and almost everyone else who
have business with the ship. All want good, clear
reports which give a lucid explanation of a particular
incident. These same officers should be asked to
provide materials for the lecturer to use, if their owners
will permit them to do so.
The engineering department
Enormous change has taken place in the equipment
used in the engineering department on board ship and
this has been matched by changes that have taken
place in the organisation of working practices for the
men who keep the machinery running. The use of
multi-purpose officers and crew is just as common in
the engineering department as in the deck department.
One thing has not changed, however, and that is
the type of English that is typically needed by an officer
engaged in engineering tasks. According to Strevens(18)
"engineering English is identified from its frequent use
of outstandingly long noun groups (e.g. 'right upper
inlet valve spring compression lever'), passive verbs
('steam is raised ...' not 'we raise steam'), abbreviated
relatives ('electronics capable of self repair ...', rather
than 'electronics which are capable of self repair'), and
considerable use of expressions of quantity ...".
The above definition indicates a language need
which is utterly different from that of a deck officer
278 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
and an enormous potential for confusion arises when
an individual officer has to switch from writing or
speaking in engineering style to the same task in deck
style.
The outstandingly long noun groups mentioned
by Strevens can give rise to severe confusion for
students, because English always places the most
important noun at the end of the series, whereas some
other languages place the most important noun at the
beginning of the series. Thus in Streven's example,
lever is what we are looking for. All the other words
merely define which one.
There are very few specialist books written with
the purpose of teaching maritime engineering English
through the use of the English language. English for
Maritime Studies(17)is probably the best available for
lower and intermediate levels but, at the highest level,
there appear to be no publications designed to teach
the language. As an alternative, a good specialist book
on marine engineering should be used. There are a
number of books published which are designed to
teach English for marine engineers through another
language, and such a publication may well exist in
your country.
If video is used as a teaching aid, then
Understanding English on Board Ship!l3)is by far the
best, and also addresses the problems encountered
when serving with multi-lingual crews. The video
emphasises the differences between the verbal English
used by marine engineers and those in the deck
department and does so using typical situations on
board ship, with the actual ship personnel as actors.
There are also a number of computer based
programs, usually kept in-house by the particular
shipping company paying for the production of the
unit. These programs depend on the availability of
suitable computer equipment which must, of course,
be accessible to both lecturer and student to be useful
as a shore teaching tool. Most are designed for ship
board use in a self study mode and their programs are
almost all geared towards a technical subject or
particular operation.
Conclusion
Lecturers in maritime English have a very difficult task
indeed to fulfil. This task is made more difficult by
the following facts:-
1. They are usually specialists in English and usually
start their teaching careers with no knowledge at
all of maritime technology, operations, safety, or
business. They are therefore frequently regarded
as outsiders by their colleagues who teach specialist
subjects and who usually have a maritime
background.
2. National administrations and many maritime 6. Manual for use by the Maritime Mobile and Maritime
colleges regard them as ancillary staff, whereas in Mobile Satellite Services, International
reality they hold the key to the success of their Telecommunications Union, Geneva.
students in the international maritime community.
7. Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary (7985
3. They are often not given full access to simulators Edition), IMO, London.
or specialised communication equipment, whereas
their linguistic skills are essential if these items are 8. Weeks, F.F., Wavelength, BBC English, London,
to be utilised to the full. ISBN 84-205-0767-9.

4. They are often not given the same opportunity to
gain higher qualifications as their specialist
colleagues.
5. They often come at the end of the queue for new
equipment when funds are scarce.
So what can be done? National administrations and
their maritime colleges should realise that the success
of their seafarers in the international market place very
largely depends upon their ability in the English
language. Administrations and colleges should make
every effort to encourage maritime English lecturers
in the difficult task that they have.
Ultimately, however, success depends on the
expertise and enthusiasm of the lecturers themselves.
Without it, nothing will happen.
References
1. Standards of Training, Certification and WatchkeePing
Convention (1995), IMO, London.
2. Van Ek,J.A., The Threshold Levelfor Modern Language
Learning in Schools, Longman.
3. English Language Testing Service (ELTS),
University of Cambridge Local Examinations
Syndicate, Cambridge, England.
4. TOEFL (Teaching of English as a Foreign
Language) administered by Educational Testing
Service (ETS), Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
5. Weeks, F.F. et aI, The Seaspeak Training Manua~
Weeks, Plymouth, England, ISBN 0 08 031555 O.
9. Standard Marine Communication Phrases,
(forthcoming), IMO, London.
10. On Board Communications for Passenger Care, MSC/
Circ 673. IMO, London.
11. Weeks, F.F., The Use of Marine Simulators in English
Language Training, Duke of Edinburgh's Prize Essay,
ESU, 1975.
12.VTS Functions - sub division for communication
purposes, Nav 36/ INF. 8 IMO, London.
13. Understanding English on board ship (Video and Study
Notes), Videotel Marine International, London.
14. Detailed Teaching Syllabuses, Frameworks of Model
Courses and Specimen Examination Papers, based on
the 1978 STCW Convention and Associated
Conference Resolutions, IMO, London.
15. Niinisalo, L., Nautical Texts, Ammattik-
asvatushhallitus Valtion Painatukeskus, ISBN 951
859 468 6.
16. Leinslie, J., Seafaring Life Reader, Aschehoug,
Norway, ISBN 82 03 122248.
17. Blakey T.N., English for Maritime Studies, second
edition, Prentice Hall International, Britain, ISBN
0 13281 3793.
18. Strevens, P., New orientations in the TeachingofEnglish,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0 19 437076 3.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 279

Annex to chapter 38 2. it would give meaningful direction to foreign
language teaching and contribute to increased
efficiency and motivating power;
INTER-GOVERNMENTAL MARITIME
3. it would be a basis for the harmonization of
CONSULTATIVE ORGANIZATION
foreign language teaching in the member states
of The Council for Europe;
Detailed Teaching Syllabuses, Frameworks of Model
4. it would form a foundation for international
Courses and Specimen Examination Papers based
cooperation in educational innovation, the
on the 1978 STCW Convention and associated 1978
production of learning-materials, tests, the
STCW Conference Resolutions
exchange of experiences, the conduct of
experimentation etc. etc., on a hitherto
5 SECTION
unprecedented scale;
5. it would fall within the same system as that
5-5 NAUTICAL ENGLISH
developed for adult education and thus fulfil any
essential condition for the implementation of
5-5-1 INTRODUCTION
any scheme of permanent education or
recurrent education;
1.1 The content of this Syllabus is based on:
6. as a low-level objective in its own right it would
"The Threshold level for Modern Language
provide a useful learning-aim for pupils unable
learning in Schools" by J.A. VAN EK, for The
to receive more than a minimum - say three
Council of Europe. (ISBN 0 582 55700 3)
years - of instruction in a foreign language;
7. it would enable curriculum-planning,
1.2 The work referred to above was produced as a result
particularly the definition of successive terminal
of decisions made by the European Ministries of
objectives, to start at the logical end, i.e. at the
Education. It was produced with great care and
lowest objective, rather than starting at the
expertise and represents the most widely accepted
highest-academic-objective and derive lower
group of defined language goals which are in
objectives by means of a process of elimination.
current existence, and use. Reference to this work
therefore guarantees a fully acceptable academic
1.5 Since its production, "Threshold Level" has been
standard which will serve all normal language
widely acceptable.
requirements.
2. There is no evidence to suggest that the language
1.3 The objective of the "Threshold Level" is defined
education of Watchkeepers, worldwide, is any less
as follows. It would
good than other students of similar age. Therefore
there is good reason to suppose that "Threshold Level"
1. be such as to enable the great majority of pupils
should also be acceptable.
to reach it;
2. correspond to a minimum level of proficiency;
2.1 The Watchkeepers requirements are _ex_tr_a to the
3. make possible communication, especially oral
language required by ordinary students. But to
communication, with children or adults in the
preserve the direct comparison with "Threshold
language studied;
Level" the same paragraph headings are used as
4. be based on the exploitation of everyday real-
on pages 59-83 in that publication. These Specific
life situations;
Notions for the Marine Environment should be
5. include a methodological initiation which
taken as fulfilling the basic requirements only of
would, on the one hand, facilitate continued
Table A-ll11 Page 7 of the "International
study of the language and, on the other hand,
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
make it possible to acquire a sufficient
and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1995". National
understanding of the learning-process used, so
Governments may require a higher stan?ard.
that these may be profitably applied to the'study
of other languages.
3. Safety

1.4 This objective would form a basic objective

Standards of English for Safety purposes must be of
acceptable to the various member states of The
paramount importance in any syllabus. Therefore with
Council of Europe. This would serve a variety of
reference to Table A-ll11 Page 7 of the "International
purposes.
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1995" the sentence
1. it would provide the great majority of pupils in
"Ability to understand and use the IMO standard
a very large part of Europe with an objective in
Marine Communication Phrases" should be
terms of practical communicative ability;
constructed as follows:-

280 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE


3.1 Ability to receive messages constructed from
phrases in the Standard Marine Communication
Phrases, and instantly translate into the equivalent
message as stated in the approved relevant National
translation of that document. Reference should not
be made to this translation or to any other
publication during this process.
3.2 Ability to construct messages consisting of phrases
taken from the Standard Marine Communication
Phrases, using the approved relevant National
translation of that document. Reference should not
be made to this translation or to any other
publication during this process.
3.3 The requirements of 3.1 and 3.2 should be observed
by all nations, both non-native English speaking,
and native English speaking.
3.4 Ability to receive and transmit generative language
using ITU Regulations and the principles of
SEASPEAK.
5-5-2 SPECIFIC NOTIONS FOR THE MARINE
ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Personal Identification (Ship Identification)
Learners should be able to give information about
their own ship, and if applicable, about other ships,
and to seek such information from others with
regard to:-
2.1.1 Ship's name: Spelling out if required in phonetic
alphabet.
2.1.2 Port of Registry: Spelling out if required in
phonetic alphabet.
2.1.3 Call-sign: Internationally allocated ship's call
sign, including Inmarsat or Intelsat call number
if allocated, spelling out if required in phonetic
alphabet.
2.1.4 Date and place of build: Spelling out in phonetic
alphabet if required.
2.1.5 Age
2.1.6 Type: general definition of ship type i.e. general
cargo, tanker, barge carrier, container, Ro-Ro,
passenger etc. (See 2.2.1).
2.1.7 Speed: maximum speed of which ship is capable
in good conditions. Appreciation of speed in
prevalent weather conditions.
2.1.8 Nationality: Flag nationality of country in which
ship is registered.
2.1.9 Origin: Effective control nationality of owners,
i.e. Liberian registry, British management, U.S.
ownership.
2.1.10 Owners: Name of owning shipping company.
2.1.11 _Sl_'z_e:
Length, beam, draught and height.
(draught: learners should be able to quote
maximum draught, and present draught in both
salt and fresh water) (See 2.6.9).
2.1.12 Capacity: Registered tonnage, gross tonnage,
deadweight tonnage. Displacement tonnage.
Quote which system (i.e. British) used.
2.1.13 _C_r_ew_:
number of crew (and passengers if
applicable). Nationality and religion of crew.
Composition of crew (i.e. 36 men, 4 women).
2.1.14 Special characteristics of immediate importance
to outside world i.e. chemical tanker, nuclear
propulsion, carrying explosives in bulk.
2.2 Ship's structure
2.2.1 Ship type: Precise description of ship type i.e.
Tanker or v.L.C.C. (Very Large Crude Carrier)
type with double bottoms throughout
strengthened for navigation in ice. Seek similar
information from others.
2.2.2 Main components of ship structure: describe
main components of own ship structure. That
is, whether ship has forecastle, amidships or aft
accommodation, bulbous bow, any cargo
handling equipment. Seek similar information
from others.
2.2.3 Items of ship's structure: Describe any item of
ship structure which affects normal operation
of ship, or which has possibility of damage
during accident. Seek similar information from
others.
2.2.4 Location of items of ship's structure. Describe
exact location in ship of any item of ship's
structure. Shell expansion. Seek similar
information from others.
2.2.5 Propulsion: Describe main and auxiliary
propulsion machinery, steering gear, generators
and all machinery concerned with propulsion
of the ship and essential main services, i.e.
electrical supplies. Seek similar information
from others.
2.2.6 Machinery concerned with berthing the ship.
Winches, capstans, windlasses and where they
are located. Seek similar information from
others.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 281
2.2.7 Cargo machinery: Describe cargo machinery as
part of ship's structure. Number, position and
capacity of derricks. Number, size and position
of pipelines in a tanker. Seek similar information
from others.
2.2.8 Main structure and safety: Describe character
and location of items of main structure which
affect safety such as cofferdams, division
bulkheads, permanent ballast tanks and sludge
tanks (in tankers) and collision bulkhead, (all
ships). Seek similar information from others.
2.2.9 _C_o_lo_u_r:
Colour of hull superstructure and funnel
to assist identification.
2.3 Safety equipment
Learners should be able to exchange detailed
information on safety equipment carried by their own
ship and that carried on other ships and shore
installations, for the mutual safety of all, in every
circumstance.
2.3.1 Ship's lifeboats: Number, capacity (number of
persons each boat is capable of carrying),
Propulsion. Special features.
2.3.2 Inflatable liferafts: Number, capacity of each raft.
Whether davit lowered or not.
2 3.3 Other flotation apparatus: Buoyant equipment,
Igloo etc.
2.3.4 Pyrotechnic equipment: Safety (distress) rockets,
line throwing rockets.
2.3.5 Radio equipment: Radio telegraphy, radio
telephony, V.H.F. equipment, with available
frequencies. Radio direction finding equipment.
Telex and Sat. Com.
2.3.6 Fire fighting equipment: Details of all equipment
carried on board including portable and fixed
installations, of all kinds. Availability of this
equipment to assist other ships. Connections
available for attachment of shore hoses.
2.3.7 Other safety equipment: Such as compressed
air, breathing apparatus, special clothing etc.
2.4 Navigational Equipment
Learners should be able to exchange information on
the navigational equipment carried on their own ship
and other ships.
2.4.1 _C_h_a_rt_s.
Details of charts carried and charts
required for a specific area.
282 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
2.4 2 Navigational Publications. Details of
publications carried or required for navigating
in a specific area, or the safe execution of a
specific task.
2.4.3 Steering gear. Description of gear and possible
faults (See item 2.2.5).
2.4.4 Electronic Navigation aids. Knowledge and gol
no go description of all major electronic aids.
Radar, Loran, G.P.S., Omega, Decca and echo
sounder. Compasses and Gyro compasses,
errors and failures.
24.5 Special equipment. On-board computer, bow-
thruster etc. Names and golno go condition.
2.5 Safety Operations
Learners must be able to exchange information on
any matter concerning the safety of their ship or any
other ship and to receive and act upon such
information received from outside sources.
2.5.1 Warnings. Information given or received which
is likely to affect the immediate safety of own
ship or any other ship for any cause whatsoever.
Navigational hazards, warlike activities, collision
hazards etc.
2.5.2 Assistance. Detailed knowledge of all
operational phrases used or likely to be used in
requesting or rendering assistance of any kind
from or to another vessel. Language procedure
for cases of foundering, collision, fire, man
overboard and dangerous cargo hazard.
Language procedure for use in conjunction with
ships, lifeboats (ship and shore based), liferafts
(own or other ship), helicopters, aircraft and
shore based line throwing rocket teams.
2.5.3 Radio Procedure. A full knowledge of ship radio
procedure.
2.6 Navigational Operations
Learners should be able to exchange information with
other ships or shore stations on the following topics.
2.6.1 Anchoring equipment. Weight of anchors.
Length of cable available. Number of anchors.
2.6.2 Anchor operations. Terms used in anchoring.
Dropping and heaving up. Dragging anchor.
Buoying anchor. Mooring. Length of cable to
use. Anchor position. Slipping cable. Dredging
anchor. Foul anchor etc.
2.6.3 Arrival equipment. Ropes and wires, their size,
 position and function. Fenders. Auxiliary lines
(heaving lines, messengers etc.).
2.6.4 Arrival operations. Last port of call. Estimated
time of arrival (E.T.A.). Destination, berth, dock
or jetty. Time of berthing. Sending lines ashore.
Making fast.
2.6.5 Departure operations. Destination. Estimated
time of departure (E.T.D.) Time of departure.
Singling up. Letting go.
2.6.6 Engine Orders. Understand and be able to
repeat all engine orders.
2.6.7 Tugs. Orders and expressions used in
manoeuvring the ship with tugs. Number of tugs
required. Size of tugs required. Tugs lines and
how made fast on board.
2.6.8 Courses. Give and receive orders on courses to
be steered.
2.6.9 Draught. (See 2.1.11) Draught at current
moment, in salt and fresh water, forward, aft,
and amidships. Critical draught for entering
harbour.
2.6.10 Height. Height from water level to highest point,
at present moment (See 2.1.11).
2.6.11 Lists. Trim and loll. Give and receive particulars.
2.6.12 Freeboard
2.6.13 Navigation in fairways and in canals and locks.
Give and receive particulars as contained in the
Standard Marine Communication Phrases.
2.6.14 Manoeuvring. Exchange information on all
possible ship manoeuvres as defined in the
International Rules for the Prevention of
Collisions at Sea, and as outlined in the Standard
Marine Communication Phrases.
2.6.15 Pilotage. To be capable of providing all
information required by Pilots, and to
understand all information and orders given by
Pilots. Pilot ladders and gangways. Pilot hoists.
Pilot boats.
2.6.16 Position. Give and receive position in terms of
latitude and longitude or bearing and distance
from known point. State how position found.
2.6.17 _R_a_d_a_r.
Give and receive radar information
according to current practice and as outlined in
Standard Marine Communication Phrases.
2.6.18 Navigational Warnings. Give and receive
navigational warnings of all kinds, as in common
practice and as outlined in Standard Marine
Communication Phrases.
2.6.19 Speed. Speed at present time. Manoeuvring
speed. Reduced speed. Increase and decrease
of speed.
2.6.20 Tide and Depth. Tidal information. Normal and
abnormal tides. Tidal streams and currents.
Depth affected by fresh water flow. Depth
affected by weather. Safe depth of water for ship.
2.6.21 Density. Density of harbour water. Effect on
ship's draught. Fresh water allowance.
2.6.22 Destination and 'Origin. Give and receive
information during voyage.
2.7 Weather
Learners should be able to give and to understand
weather details.
2.7.1 Present Weather. Wind direction and force
(knots and Beaufort Notation). Whether wind
increasing or decreasing, veering or backing. Sea
state and swell state. Direction of sea and swell.
Visibility. Factors affecting visibility, fog, dust
etc. Trend of visibility, increasing or decreasing.
Precipitation; rain, snow etc. Barometric
pressure and trend in barometric pressure. Icing
on vessel. Degree of icing being experienced or
predicted.
2.7.2 Predicted Weather. Weather forecasts giving any
of the above information, and in addition,
warnings of gales, storms or other potentially
dangerous weather. Frontal systems and
associated weather.
2.7.3 _Ic_e.Warnings of icebergs or surface ice
broadcast by or to relevant Authority.
2.7.4 Tropical storms. All terminology associated with
such storms. Position, direction and speed of
centre. Path and track. Hurricane warnings.
2.7.5 Ice breakers. All language needed when
communicating with an ice-breaker, as detailed
in Standard Marine Communication Phrases.
2.8 Helicopters
Learners should be able to communicate with
helicopters under normal and emergency
circumstances.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 283
2.8.1 Identify ship to helicopter. Tell helicopter type
of ship, colour etc. (see 2.2.9). Tell helicopter
special signals used by you for identification
(lights, flags etc.).
2.8.2 Landing. To give and receive landing and
hovering details to and from helicopter.
2.8.3 Wind and weather. Give and receive weather
details from helicopter. Surface wind and
visibility. Relative wind. Relative wind speed.
2.8.4 _H_o_is_t.
Give and receive details of hoist
operation, including medical details.
2.9 Fishing
Learners should be able to communicate with fishing
vessels and exchange information.
2.9.1 Questions. Regarding position, length and
direction of nets, position of fishing boat
concentrations, special fishing operations.
2.9.2 Warnings. By fishing boats to ships on position,
length and direction of fishing gear. Ships
approaching too close. By ships that fishing boats
or fishing gear is obstructing a channel or
fairway.
2.10 Medical and welfare
. of port regulations, prohibited anchorages,
Learners should be able to deal with various aspects
of medicine and welfare. To exchange information
with trained medical staff ashore or on other ships.
2.10.1 Parts of the body. Refer to parts of body after
consulting medical literature carried on board.
2.10.2 Ailments. accidents. Report illness, injury,
accident. Say whether patient has been ill before
and whether he has been operated upon. Say
whether patient has had to take medicine
regularly, if so, what medicine.
2.10.3 Personal comfort. Say whether patient
comfortable or the reverse, whether hungry or
reverse, tired or reverse.
2.10.4 Medical services. Inquire about medical services
available from shore or from other ship, either
by radio (advice) or helicopter, lifeboat, or other
means.
2.10.5 Medical advice. Using medical literature carried
on board, carry out directions of doctor, for
treatment of patient. (Directions received by
direct contact or by radio).
284 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
2.10.6 Emergency Services. Ask for emergency
services for injured or sick seamen. Request from
other ships or from the shore. Ask for police to
meet vessel.
2.11 Salvage and Towage
Learners should be able to deal with the more simple
aspects of salvage and towage.
2.11.1 Salvage agreement. Give and seek information
on whether salvors are prepared to agree to
Lloyds Salvage Agreement.
2.11.2 Salvage and towage operations. Give and
receive details of equipment to be used to
expedite operation. Number and position of
tugs, position of wires etc.
2.12 Port Entry
Learners should be able to deal with Port Entry
requirements.
2.12.1 _H_e_al_t_h.
To say whether their vessel is healthy
or has an infectious disease on board. To say
whether their vessel has visited any country
where there is infectious disease. To seek similar
information from others.
2.12.2 Port Regulations. To seek and understand details
prohibited times of entry, blockades etc.
2.12.3 Customs. To seek and understand customs
directions and requirements. Special restrictions
and regulations.
2.12.4 Immigration. To seek and understand
immigration restrictions and requirements. To
seek and understand landing restrictions, special
passes etc.
2.13 Cargo operations
Learners should be able to deal with cargo operations,
particularly those aspects which are most likely to be
discussed over the radio.
2.13.1 Cargo equipment (dry cargoL Describe exact
location of all derricks to be used, and make of
rig employed. Weight capacity of each derrick.
Ability of ship to use all derricks or not.
Maximum single lift possible. (See 2.2.7).
2.13.2 Cargo equipment (Bulk cargo). Position, type
and capacity of gear. Items capable of being
handled. Special shore facilities required.
2.13.4 Cargo equipment (Tankers). Number and
capacity of pumps. Size of ship's pipelines.
Pipeline derricks available. Which side, and
capacity of each. Whether ship fitted with Inert
Gas system. Whether ship carries anti-pollution
boom.
2.13.5 Cargo (dry cargo). Describe exact nature, size,
weight and number of packages or containers
to be discharged at present port. Receive similar
information, with destination, for cargo to be
loaded.
2.13.6 Cargo (bulk). Nature, weight and disposition of
cargo. Whether grabs may be used. Receive
similar information, with destination, for cargo
to be loaded.
2.13.7 Cargo (Tankers). Nature (type of oil or chemical),
place of origin, weight, volume, specific gravity
and temperature. Receive similar information,
with destination, for cargo to be loaded.
2.13.8 Cargo (special shiptypes). Describe exact nature,
size, weight and number of items to be
discharged, and method to be used.
2.13.9 Ship condition. Any list, loll or trim that may
affect the ship's ability to discharge or load her
cargo, or give rise to problems during entry to
berth, or at the berth.
2.13.10Arrival time. Arrival time at anchorage or berth,
to count as presentation of Notice of Readiness
to discharge or load cargo.
2.13.11 Delay time. Delay, after arrival and before
commencing cargo due to ship's fault. Explain
reasons such as engine repairs, faults in cargo
gear, lack of fuel etc.
2.13.12 Readiness for Cargo. Reasons why the vessel
cannot first present Notice of Readiness such as
tanks not clean, ballast not discharged (tankers)
holds not swept clean, grain shifting boards not
rigged (cargo ships).
2.13.13Bunkers. Discuss bunker requirements, amount,
grade, time required and how to be brought to
ship. Hose connections, speed of delivery.
2.13.14 Fresh water and stores. Discuss amount offresh
water required. Discuss amount and type of
stores required.
2.13.15Lightening operations (tankers). Discuss size and
type of ship or barge to be used in lightening
operation. Time of arrival and departure. Special
equipment such as Yokohama fenders, special
pipelines etc.
2.13.16 Special cargo operations. The cargo operations
associated with special ship types (see 2.1.6).
2.13.17 Ship's Agency. The communications normally
given to and received from the ship's agent.
2.14 Public Safety
Learners should be able to deal with matters involving
public safety, and react to instructions from Authorities
aimed at minimising danger.
2.14.1 Oil Pollution. To give precise information on
time, position, amount and nature of an oil
spillage into the sea, and the probable direction
of movement of slick. Give information on
probable continuance/non-continuance of leak
giving rise to spillage.
2.14.2 Gas Pollution. To give precise information on
time, position, amount, nature and toxicity of
gas leak. Whether flammable or not. Whether
evacuation of downwind locations necessary.
Give information on probable continuance/non-
continuance ofleak giving rise to gas pollution.
2.14.3 Dangerous Chemicals, Explosives. To give
warning of leakage or unstable condition of
dangerous chemicals or explosives. Warning of
possible effects on human, animal or marine life.
Advisability of evacuation of locality.
SUGGESTED METHOD OF INSTRUCTION
Of the time allocated to this subject, three quarters
should be spent in class work and one quarter should
be consolidation in a language laboratory. The staff!
student ratio will depend on the teaching methods
employed. Ideally this should be limited to a ratio of
1:15, but this would be determined by the size and
nature of the language laboratory used.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 285
 Chapter THIRTY NINE

TRAINING SEA AND SHORE STAFF

TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE ISM CODE
by Captain GrahamJ. Botterill FICS MIQA FNI

Ferriby Marine, England

Captain Graham Botterill has over 40 years continuous experience in the shipping industry. He spent 33 years at sea with Port Line
(Cunard), serving in all ranks through to and including command, sailing on reeftr shiPs, bulkers, tankers, ro-TOand container shiPs.
He then came ashore tojoin the management of Cunard, responsible over a period of 70years for marine superintendency, saftty, fleet
personnel, industrial relations, chartering and operations. This culminated in his becoming Operations Director.

Captain Botterill has had many years experience in develoPing quality/saftty management systems and develoPing them. Following
his 34 years with Cunard, and together with a long term colleague and partner, Graham set up Ferriby Marine offering a full range of
marine consultancy services, and is himself a registered IRCA Lead Auditor for both quality assurance and ISM Code - Maritime. He
was appointed Specialist Advisor on Ship Saftty and Technology to the House of Lords in 7997. This committee was instrumental in
recommending the ISM Code to the IMO.

Ferriby Marine, having assisted over 700 shipping related companies in achieving quality (ISO 9000) and ISM Code certification,
was selected by the International Shipping Federation to assist with the writing of the guidelines for the universal application of the
ISM Codefor shiPowners and managers. The company provides IRCA Lead Auditor training courses worldwide, and has recently been
appointed as a Recognised Organisation for the verification audits of ISM Certification on behalf offlag administrations.

Background

The operation of merchant shipping is specialised and
complex being governed by comprehensive rules and
conventions developed by national and international
authorities.
With the passage of time, vessels have increased
in number, become larger, faster, sophisticated and
expensive. They tend to be operated by smaller
numbers of crew and their effect upon the
environment has become progressively greater.
The result has been more accidents and combined
with greater media coverage - a significantly greater
public interest. There is a growing pressure for change
- the public are more aware of and concerned with
environmental matters and are demanding
improvement, protection and in the event of an
accident - recompense.
In the final analysis, whilst the master is clearly
responsible for the safety of the vessel, cargo and crew,
the overall responsibility for the administration and
safe operation of each ship rests with the owner,
manager or bareboat charterer, who assumes the
responsibility from the owner, for the operation of the
vessel, whoever that may be.
The development by IMO of the International
Safety Management (ISM) Code is an indication by
governments that decisions taken ashore in ensuring
the safe operation of vessels are just as important as
those taken onboard.
While statistical analysis suggests that around 80%
of all shipping accidents are caused by human error,
the underlying truth is that the act or omission of a
human being plays some part in virtually every
accident, including those where structural or
equipment failure may appear to be the initial cause.
However human error is a management failure.
Therefore, the task facing all shipping companies
is to minimise the scope for poor human decisions or
performance, which contribute to a casualty or
pollution incident.
After many years, during which administrations
have concentrated on ships and their equipment, the
focus of international discussion has now moved
distinctly towards the management of ships and the
human issues which therefore includes the training of
seafarers and the exercise of responsibility by the
company operating the vessels.
The achievement of efficiency in any organisation has
a beneficial effect on the company's financial
performance, however the effect of safety on profits is
still, to a great extent, ignored.
However if you think that adopting quality or safety
management systems are expensive and time
consuming - try accidents!
The ISM Code, along with the existing conventions
represents an adequate set of requirements to

286 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

guarantee a good safety level but the problem is that
regulations on their own are oflittle value unless they
are effectively implemented. The problem is not the
lack of standards or regulations, (the author believes
we have too many rules and regulations), but that the
problem centres around their inadequate
implementation and enforcement. In the past some
flag states and classification societies have been
extremely economical in their support of the existing
conventions and codes and have played an inadequate
role in ensuring that vessels registered under their flag
or classification abide by the current statutory rules
and regulations.
Provided the auditing against the ISM Code is
carried out professionally and independently - the
code should put right this deficiency.
IMO has vested the responsibility for
administration of the ISM Code to the flag states. If it
is not administered properly by the flag states, then it
will befall port state control to identify the sub-standard
vessels and the associated management according to
new procedures set out in IMO Resolution A742(18).
The challenge now is for nations to accept a more
pro-active role in port state control rather than carrying
out a cursory inspection of a ship's structure,
equipment or its certificates. Emphasis is now placed
on management systems onboard and ashore.
With the increase in countries participating in port
state control and IMO's responsibility with the latest
revision of STCW, the trading areas remaining
available to the sub-standard owner are reducing fast.
The owner will now have to improve his standards or
get out of shipping altogether.
Following a series of well publicised marine
disasters, there has been a greater focus on the
responsibility of management and making certain that
masters are given adequate instruction, guidance and
support by senior management ashore. They must
ensure that the seafarers are sufficiently trained and
experienced in the tasks which they are required to
perform and that adequate drills and exercises both
onboard and ashore are practised to ensure effective
responses and awareness in times of emergency. In
addition, effective communication through a common
language is crucial in times of emergency and must
now be addressed by all owners/managers of ships.
Before moving onto the training of sea and shore
staff to meet the requirements of the ISM Code we
must spend a little time on the revision of the
International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW).
This is one of the most significant pieces of legislation
underway at IMO and will be crucial to the success of
the ISM Code.
The shipowner's mind is being forced to focus on
the subject of training for seafarers and so are flag states
and their associated training and certification systems
which are to be subject to quality standards and subject
to independent evaluation. Port state control powers
of inspection are also being extended significantly to
police the owners/managers in their responsibilities.
The objective of the review is to ensure that
international minimum standards of professional
competence, commensurate with the need to ensure
safe and efficient operational practices are attained.
No longer will it be possible for an owner or ship
manager to carry out just the minimum necessary to
keep a ship running or to get it through a survey.
Companies will be required to show objective
evidence, rather than lip service, that a complete safety
system is being operated throughout its organisation
both ashore and at sea.
No longer can the managers just consider their own
interest, the stake holders - owner/shareholders,
passengers, crew, insurers, flag state, coastal state -
and the public at large are all requiring that ships are
operated within stricter limits of safety and actions
which are industry best practice must be followed just
as if they were law.
Those who are sub-contracted to perform functions
for the manager such as manning agents must be made
aware of the company's policies and the safety
management system and must adhere to documented
and auditable procedures and instructions.
So the ISM Code is to become a licence to operate
ships and requires the owner/manager to develop and
implement a safety management system (SMS). The
ISM Code is based upon the international quality
management standard of ISO 9002 and in fact safety
management is 85% of a quality management system.
Many companies are seeing the advantages of
incorporating the ISM Code within their quality
management system.
What is the ISM Code (SOLAS 1974
Chapter IX) ?
This code, for the safe operation of ships and for
pollution prevention, is based upon the international
quality management standard ISO 9002 and provides
those responsible for the operation of ships with an
international framework for the implementation and
assessment of an effective safety management system.
The code does not spell out chapter and verse what
you are expected to do, but sets down certain
requirements and guidelines.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 287
 How you achieve compliance with these
requirements is your company's responsibility, so you
do not have to replace your existing systems and
procedures. You may, however, have to reorganise
your documentation and fine tune it to ensure that
you fully meet all the requirements of the code.
Remember these words - "make the system
work for you, not you for the system".
Just as in quality management systems it is
necessary to document your policies, procedures and
operating instructions to ensure that every person in
the company, both ashore and at sea, understands the
company's wishes to operate and meet statutory
requirements. Once procedures are in place it is easy
to show objective evidence to a third party
independent body that you conduct your affairs in a
planned, controlled and effective manner.
Most well run companies meet ISO 9002 and ISM
Code standards. The only thing they need to do is to
document the system.
Essential advice
There appears to be plenty of advice available now
on why a company must plan and implement a safety
management system, but there appears to be little
advice available regarding the difficulties in setting
up and maintaining an effective SMS and how to avoid
the pitfalls that will inevitably arise.
Just as a prudent navigator plots his course before
commencing a voyage, so successful implementation
of a Safety Management System (SMS) will be best
achieved by careful planning. The navigator will,
throughout the voyage, check his position and make
corrections to the course where necessary, in order to
avoid danger and arrive safely at the chosen
destination.
Maintaining an SMS is no different - the voyage
of safety is not without its perils and in this context it
is worthwhile to remember the old saying - Nobody
plans to fail, but many fail to plan.
Gaining certification for the ISM Code does not
mean that a company's systems are perfect, far from
it. The ISM Code has been developed to establish a
minimum standard for the safe operation of ships by
imposing a requirement on all companies operating
ships over 500 gross tons to implement an acceptable
safety management system for the company and its
ships.
It is just the first step up the ladder in the long and
never ending road to excellence. There are no short
cuts on this voyage, but sensible planning will certainly
288 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
make the route easier and as each set of aims are
achieved, new targets will need to be set, thus ensuring
the continuous improvement of the system.
How the system is prepared, is left to the company,
but the code details key issues that must be addressed
and a basis on how it should be done. Essentially, each
company must establish a safety and environmental
policy to which all shore and sea personnel will adhere.
The safety management system is the process by
which the company will achieve the aims of the policy.
A well run company will have nothing to fear from
the ISM Code, since it will be already operating a
safety management system both ashore and at sea.
Setting out the required documentation,
conducting internal safety audits to verify their
procedures are being followed and ensuring the
necessary records of objective evidence are maintained
will not be demanding for such companies.
Those that are not so well organised will find the
task more difficult and will require to devote much
time and effort into developing the required
documentation, training and the safety ethos within
the organisation especially with regard to ships' crews.
The five basic rules to ensure successful
implementation of the SMS are:-
1. Say what you do.
2. Do what you say.
3. Record what you do.
4. Check on the results.
5. Take action on the difference.
The secret to improvement is through well planned
internal audits. The major problems the author has
encountered before audits are:-
(a) Lack of involvement of management.
(b) Manuals distributed, but no staff training on the
implementation of procedures.
The critical steps towards ISM Code success are:-
1. Management commitment.
2. Motivation of the shipboard team.
3. Project co-ordinator (designated person).
4. Detailed action plan.
5. Action plan ownership and regular review.
6. Effective communications - company-wide.
7. Awareness of the ISM Code with both shore and
sea staff involvement.
8. Guidance and training on:
Objectives and policies.
Procedures and systems.
Instructions and auditing.
 Motivation skills.
Appraisal skills.
Problem solving.
9. An effective internal audit system.
10. Continuous review and improvement.
Sea and shore staff training
When top management are committed and the safety
& environment policy has been established
designated person(s) must be appointed by senior
management. The selection ofthe designated person(s)
ashore is crucial to the success or failure of the project
and he or she must be given full top management
support in order to carry out the functions laid down
in the code.
The person(s) selected should have had experience
in command or have been chief engineer of a vessel
in order to gain the respect of the sea personnel. In
addition, the person(s) should have a good working
knowledge of how the company works and should
possess a strong personality.
The designated person(s) is responsible for the
implementation and maintenance of the SMS
providing the essential link between the sea staff and
top management staff ashore.
Many readers will be' pleased to hear that this
requirement of the code demands companies
discontinue the trend to phase out or diminish the role
of the marine superintendent. That position could most
likely perform the task of designated person(s) since
the traditional role of a marine superintendent and
that of the designated person have much in common.
Quality and safety management standards
introduce new concepts into how an organisation is
run and it is these concepts that the superintendent
will have to absorb. As a senior line manager co-
ordinating ship-shore operations, it is inevitable that
this person is going to become heavily involved in
setting up, implementing and running the SMS.
Thought must be given in the early stages of training
to selecting a deputy.
The designated person(s) must maintain an overall
view of the operations to ensure that the SMS is
adequate and appropriate while monitoring each
vessel's operations within the system and most
importantly checking that shore management staff
continuously support it. This person is the direct
contact for the master and must be given the authority
and resources to act on deficiencies identified in the
fleet.
If the SMS is going to operate as a management
process involving the activities of many shore and sea
staff performing many functions, this person is the eyes
and ears of the system. The effectiveness of this person
relies on having the authority to act on deficiencies in
the plan or operation and having adequate resources
to support the SMS and the ships' roles within the
SMS.
Having selected the designated person(s) the
company should then select a steering committee of
a shore staff, say one person from each department, to
assist the designated person in documenting the SMS
to meet the requirements of the code.
Turning to the sea staff, it is vital that sea staff are
invited to join the steering committee and become
involved in documenting shipboard plans/procedures
and to ensure that shore procedures are compatible
with the shipboard procedures and vice versa.
Remember, you will never get twelve masters and
twelve chief engineers to agree on what the system
should be. So there are two options available:-
1. Select a team of say three masters and three chief
engineers to join the steering committee to spend
some time ashore working with the designated
person and the shore staff members of the
committee to decide what should be included in
the SMS and assisting the designated person to
document the system.
2. Select say two or three project vessels within the
fleet to document shipboard plans/procedures, with
the designated person(s) then spending time with
each of the project vessels to ensure shore and
shipboard procedures are compatible.
If option 2 is preferred, care must be taken to avoid
duplication of effort and the author advises that one
ship should be selected first to document the shipboard
SMS as they see it, in draft form, then in turn pass this
initial draft system to the other two selected project
vessels to review, comment and amend as they feel
necessary. Remember, no SMS will be perfect so the
first objective is to document what the steering
committee think the system should be.
Quality (ISO 9002) and the ISM Code provide
the first step up the ladder towards perfection. The
whole system then continually improves through well
planned independent internal audits of all departments
ashore and every vessel in the fleet. Everyone in the
company soon becomes involved with the system and
each person has the opportunity of offering ideas of
effective corrective action to the numerous non-
conformities that will be identified through the regular
internal audits.
The author, having assisted many companies
around the world to set up their quality and/or safety
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 289
management systems and gain certification suggests
that once the company has:-
a) Established and implemented the appropriate
quality and/or safety and environmental policy.
b) Selected the designated person(s).
c) Selected the shore staff project team.
d) Selected the sea staff project team.
Then, the next step is for the company to arrange
for the designated person(s) and the steering
committee to undertake training on the requirements
of:-
1. ISO Quality Standards (ISO 9000 series).
2. The ISM Code requirements.
3. Objectives and policies.
4. Procedures and systems.
5. Instructions and auditing techniques.
6. Motivation skills.
7. Appraisal skills.
8. Problem solving.
There are a number of good training courses on
ISO and the ISM Code around the world, but the
company should make sure that the training courses
chosen are internationally approved and recognised.
The five day Lead Auditor combined ISO 9000 and
ISM Code International Register of Certificated
Auditors (IRCA) registered course has become a
popular and most beneficial training course for
companies to use.
The benefits of attending such a course at the
commencement of the project, enables the selected
team to:-
a) Be able to plan a simple practical quality/safety
management system.
b) Understand the history, requirements and
implications of the ISM Code.
c) Interpret and understand the ISM Code and the
inter-relationship with ISO 9002.
d) Be able to write and develop procedures/plans.
e) Plan, perform and report on audits relating to both
ISO and the ISM Code standards.
f) Conduct in-house training courses for shore and
sea staff to ensure everyone is aware of the IS1'1
Code and the company's own SMS.
g) Organise in-house briefings which will then lead to
the involvement of all shore and sea staff
understanding and working with the company's
SMS.
h) Enable shore and sea staff to have the confidence
to query the findings of third party auditors who
raise non-conformances when they audit the office
and the vessels for the Document of Compliance
(DOC) and Safety Management Certificate (SMC)
respectively.
290 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
i) Conduct in house internal audit training for both
shore and sea staff.
The company, by ensuring the selected shore and
sea staff project team attend such recognised training
courses, will save much time and cost in documenting
their own system.
Many people, quite correctly, say keep the system
simple. Unfortunately most people do not know how
to keep it simple. Remember the words at the start of
this chapter "make the system work for you, not you
for the system".
The project team shore and sea staff, by developing
their own company's system, will then ensure that they
do what they say and will be able to prove they have
done it.
Many companies fall into the trap of management
producing manual after manual or even buying some
other company's system and thinking this will do the
trick. All this does is provoke resentment and rejection
by both sea and shore staff. The system will not work,
the company will fail its third party audit, and it will
become a complete waste of time and cost for the
company.
There must be ownership of the system by both
shore and sea staff. In other words, they must be
involved during the development of the system. The
involvement of a good outside consultant working with
the project team may help to keep the system simple
and speed up the implementation. This will save the
company a lot of money. However, it must be
remembered the steering committee must be involved.
If the documented system is kept to a minimum at
the start, internal audits will then indicate whether it
should be increased or decreased as non-conformances
are identified or reports, accidents, hazardous
occurrences or customer complaints indicate
weaknesses in the system.
Remember that the more you write, the less chance
there is of anyone ever reading it and, of course, there
will be more to prove with objective evidence that
your company actually does all these things.
The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and
the International Shipping Federation (ISF) have
published a book called "Guidelines on the
Application of the ISM Code". This book is a must
for all companies to use to assist in developing their
own SMS.
There are some other excellent technical references
available throughout the industry that describe how
shore and sea staff should do things. If there is a good
book then take everyone to the book and bring the
book into your company's system in the form of
technical libraries ashore and onboard each ship.
Obviously, you will have to make sure staff can be
audited to what the book says and that you are working
with the latest book!
The functional language of the code encourages
companies to abandon traditional prescriptive
management styles and adopt a holistic systems
approach.
Ongoing training
With the arrival of the ISM Code and the revision
and adoption of the 1978 STCW (Standards of
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Convention)
companies are being forced into looking more closely
at their resources and personnel. For example, the ISM
Code ensures the master now has the tools to do his
job properly, has the support of the management
ashore and the authority to act in his best judgment
for the safety of the ship and protection of the
environment.
This requires the company to ensure that he has
the physical, financial and personnel resources
available in sufficient quality, quantity and
competence.
The master must be fully conversant with the
company's SMS and, more importantly, the company
must establish in the SMS that the master has the
overriding authority and responsibility to make
decisions with respect to safety and pollution
prevention. The ISM Code, further strengthened by
the revision to STCW, places additional
responsibilities on the company. For example:-
a) The company is to be held responsible for assigning
properly qualified, experienced and medically fit
seafarers to their ships .•
b) Documentation and records relevant to all their
seafarers must be readily accessible .•
c) Seafarers assigned to vessels must be familiarised
with their specific duties and with the vessel's
arrangements, installations, equipment, procedures
and vessel characteristics relevant to their routine
or emergency duties.
d) The company should ensure that all personnel
involved in the SMS have an adequate
understanding of relevant rules, regulations, codes
and guidelines.
e) The company should provide training for all
personnel.
f) The company should ensure that personnel receive
the relevant information on the SMS in a language
understood by them.
g) The company should ensure that sea staff are able
to communicate effectively in the execution oftheir
duties in order to demonstrate they can effectively
co-ordinate their activities in an emergency situation
and in performing other functions vital to safety
and the prevention of pollution.
h) All persons assigned duty as an officer in charge of
a watch shall be provided with a minimum of 10
hours rest in any 24 hour period.
i) The use of radar and ARPA simulators in training
will be a mandatory requirement for watchkeepers
in the deck department.
The requirements to make sea and shore staff aware
of a company's SMS and the ISM Code means
training has to be established. The only practical and
cost effective way forward is for companies to return
to policies which were generally common practice,
such as continuity of employment, and cadet ships
which in turn promote loyalty, safe working practises
and safe well run ships.
Training of sea and shore staff to meet the
requirements of the ISM Code should then start with
the designated person and the selected project team
who in turn having been trained themselves and
involved in developing and implementing the SMS,
can then ensure that all remaining shore and sea staff
are trained in house.
The documented system must be:-
a) Kept simple and to a minimum.
b) Accurately describing how activities are carried out.
c) Cover the requirements of the ISM Code.
d) Practical and easy to understand.
If a company keeps producing manual after manual
of procedures, then careful thought should be applied
to the legal requirements such as:-
• Due diligence.
Seaworthiness.
• Disclosure of documents.
Privity and liability.
Whilst training and implementing a safety
management system incurs additional costs for the ship
owner, once the system is in place and working
effectively, accidents will decrease, efficiency increases
and the Accountants will begin to realise that quality
and safety can be managed!
In the past, economic and commercial pressures
have caused many companies to slash their crew and
maintenance budgets, which has resulted in some sub-
standard ships and management, which has brought
about the enforcement of the ISM Code world-wide.
Perhaps the ISM Code should have been called
the "International Save Money Code"!
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 291
1. Introduction
1.1 The success of any enterprise depends heavily on
sound and effective preparations.
1.2 Although the IMO model course "package" has
been made as comprehensive as possible, it is
nonetheless vital that sufficient time and resources
are devoted to preparation. Preparation not only
involves matters concerning administration or
organization, but also includes the preparation of
any course notes, drawings, sketches, overhead
transparencies, etc., which may be necessary.
2. General Considerations
2.1 The course "package" should be studied carefully;
in particular, the course syllabus and associated
material must be attentively and thoroughly studied.
This is vital if a clear understanding is to be obtained
of what is required, in terms of the resources
necessary to successfully implement the course.
2.2A "check-list", such as that set out in Annex 1,
should be used throughout all stages of preparation
to ensure that all necessary actions and activities
are being carried out in good time and in an
effective manner. The check-list allows the status
of the preparation procedures to be monitored, and
helps in identifying the remedial actions necessary
to meet deadlines. It will be necessary to hold
meetings of all those concerned in presenting the
course from time to time in order to assess the status
of the preparation and "trouble-shoot" any
difficulties.
292 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
2.3 The course syllabus should be discussed with the
teaching staff who are to present the course, and
their views received on the particular parts they
are to present. A study of the syllabus will determine
whether the incoming trainees need preparatory
work to meet the entry standard. The detailed
teaching syllabus is constructed in "learning
objective" format. Each specific objective states
precisely what the trainee must do to show that the
objective has been achieved. An example of a
model course syllabus is given in Annex 2. Part 3
deals with curriculum development and explains
how a syllabus is constructed and used.
2.4 The teaching staff who are to present the course
should construct notes or lesson plans to achieve
these objectives. A sample lesson plan for one of
the areas of the sample syllabus is provided in
Annex 3.
2.5 It is important that the staff who present the course
convey, to the person in charge of the course, their
assessment of the course as it progresses.
3. Specific Considerations
3.1 Scope of course
In reviewing the scope of the course, the instructor
should determine whether it needs any adjustment in
order to meet additional local or national requirements
(see Part 3).
3.2 Course objective
3.2.7 The course objective, as stated in the course
material, should be very carefully considered so that
its meaning is fully understood. Does the course
objective require expansion to encompass any
additional task that national or local requirements
will impose upon those who successfully complete
the course? Conversely, are there elements included
which are not validated by national industry
requirements?
3.2.2 It is important that any subsequent assessment
made of the course should include a review of the
course objectives.
3.3 Entry standards
3.3.7 If the entry standard will not be met by your
intended trainee intake, those entering the course
should first be required to complete an upgrading
course to raise them to the stated entry level.
Alternatively, those parts of the course affected
could be augmented by inserting course material
which will cover the knowledge required.
3.3.2 If the entry standard will be exceeded by your
planned trainee intake, you may wish to abridge
or omit those parts of the course the teaching of
which would be unnecessary, or which could be
dealt with as revision.
3.3.3 Study the course material with the above
questions in mind and with a view to assessing
whether or not it will be necessary for the trainees
to carry out preparatory work prior to joining the
course. Preparatory material for the trainees can
range from refresher notes, selected topics from
textbooks and reading of selected technical papers,
through to formal courses of instruction. It may be
necessary to use a combination of preparatory work,
and the model course material in modified form. It
must be emphasized that where the model course
material involves an international requirement, such
as a regulation of the International Convention on
Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping (STCW), the standard must not be
relaxed; in many instances, the intention of the
Convention is to require review, revision or
increased depth of knowledge by candidates
undergoing training for higher certificates.
3.4 Course certificate, diploma or document
Where a certificate, diploma or document is to be
issued to trainees who successfully complete the
course, ensure that this is available and properly
worded and that the industry and all authorities
concerned are fully aware of its purpose and intent.
3.5 Course intake limitations
3.5.7 The course designers have recommended
limitations regarding the numbers of trainees who
may participate in the course. As far as possible,
these limitations should not be exceeded; otherwise,
the quality of the course will be diluted.
3.5.2 It may be necessary to make arrangements for
accommodating the trainees and providing facilities
for food and transportation. These aspects must be
considered at an early stage of the preparations.
3.6 Staff requirements
3.6.7 It is important that an experienced person,
preferably someone with experience in course and
curriculum development, is given the responsibility
of implementing the course.
3.6.2 Such a person is often termed a "course co-
ordinator" or "course director". Other staff, such
as lecturers, instructors, laboratory technicians,
workshop instructors, etc., will be needed to
implement the course effectively. Staff involved in
presenting the course will need to be properly
briefed about the course work they will be dealing
with, and a system must be set up for checking the
material they may be required to prepare. To do
this, it will be essential to make a thorough study of
the syllabus and apportion the parts of the course
work according to the abilities of the staff called
upon to present the work.
3.6.3 The person responsible for implementing the
course should consider monitoring the quality of
teaching in such areas as variety and form of
approach, relationship with trainees, and
communicative and interactive skills; where
necessary, this person should also provide
appropriate counselling and support.
3.7 Teaching facilities and equipment
Rooms and other spaces
3.7.7 It is important to make reservations as soon
as is practicable for the use of lecture rooms,
laboratories, workshops and other spaces.
EquiPment
3.7.2 Arrangements must be made at an early stage
for the use of equipment needed in the spaces
mentioned in 3.7.1 to support and carry through
the work of the course. For example:
.1 blackboards and writing materials
.2 apparatus in laboratories for any associated
demonstrations and experiments
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 293
 ·3 machinery and related equipment in workshops
.4 equipment and materials in other spaces (e.g.
for demonstrating fire fighting, personal survival,
etc.).
3.8 Teaching aids
Any training aids specified as being essential to the
course should be constructed, or checked for
availability and working order.
3.9 Audiovisual aids
Audiovisual aids (AVA) may be recommended in
order to reinforce the learning process in some parts
of the course. Such recommendations will be identified
in Part A of the model course. The following points
should be borne in mind:
. 1 Overhead projedors
Check through any illustrations provided in the
course for producing overhead projector (OHP)
transparencies, and arrange them in order of
presentation. To produce transparencies, a supply
of transparency sheets is required; the illustrations
can be transferred to these via photocopying.
Alternatively, transparencies can be produced by
writing or drawing on the sheet. Coloured pens are
useful for emphasizing salient points. Ensure that
spare projector lamps (bulbs) are available.
.2 Slide projedors
If you order slides indicated in the course
framework, check through them and arrange them
in order of presentation. Slides are usually produced
from photographic negatives. If further slides are
considered necessary and cannot be produced
locally, OHP transparencies should be resorted to.
.3 Cine projedor
If films are to be used, check their compatibility
with the projector (i.e. 16mm, 35mm, sound, etc.).
The films must be test-run to ensure there are no
breakages.
.4 Video equiPment
It is essential to check the type of video tape to be
used. The two types commonly used are VHS and
Betamax. Although special machines exist which
can play either format, the majority of machines
play only one or the other type. Note that VHS
and Betamax are not compatible; the correct
machine type is required to match the tape. Check
also that the TV raster format used in the tapes (i.e.
number of lines, frames/second, scanning order,
etc.) is appropriate to the TV equipment available.
(Specialist advice may have to be sought on this
aspect.) All video tapes should be test-run prior to
their use on the course.
294 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
.5 General note
The electricity supply must be checked for voltage
and whether it is AC or DC, and every precaution
must be taken to ensure that the equipment operates
properly and safely. It is important to use a proper
screen which is correctly positioned; it may be
necessary to exclude daylight in some cases. A
check must be made to ensure that appropriate
screens or blinds are available. All material to be
presented should be test-run to eliminate any
possible troubles, arranged in the correct sequence
in which it is to be shown, and properly identified
and cross-referenced in the course timetable and
lesson plans.
3.10 IMO references
The content of the course, and therefore its standard,
reflect the requirements of all the relevant IMO
international conventions and the provisions of other
instruments as indicated in the model course. The
relevant publications can be obtained from the
Publications Section ofIMO, and should be available,
at least to those involved in presenting the course, if
the indicated extracts are not included in a
compendium supplied with the course.
3.11 Textbooks
The detailed syllabus may refer to a particular
textbook or textbooks. It is essential that these books
are available to each student taking the course. If
supplies of textbooks are limited, a copy should be
loaned to each student, who will return it at the end of
the course. Again, some courses are provided with a
compendium which includes all or part of the training
material required to support the course.
3.12 Bibliography
Any useful supplementary source material is identified
by the course designers and listed in the model course.
This list should be supplied to the participants so that
they are aware where additional information can be
obtained, and at least two copies of each book or
publication should be available for reference in the
training institute library.
3.13 Timetable
If a timetable is provided in a model course, it is for
guidance only. It may take one or two presentations
of the course to achieve an optimal timetable.
However, even then it must be borne in mind that
any timetable is subject to variation, depending on
the general needs of the trainees in anyone class and
the availability of instructors and equipment.
 Chapter FORTY ONE

THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN DEVELOPING

INTELLECTUAL SKILLS AND THEIR APPLICATION
by Mr.John S. Habberley BSc MPhil FNI

Warsash Maritime Centre

John Habberley has served in cargo vessels, tankers, passenger shiPs and cross channel ferries culminating in command. He has worked
ashore on simulation projects with Marconi Space and Defence Systems, with navigation systems manufactured by Nor-Control A/S
and since 7987 has been on the lecturing staffofthe nautical collegein Warsash, Southampton. He has taught mariners on the manned
model courses and ship simulators and for four years was the College's Research Leader. He is now in charge of Warsash Maritime
Centre's Simulation Section. His first degree was awarded by the University of Wales, and his Master of Philosophy from the University
of Southampton. His research interests are collision avoidance and simulation.

The author would like to thank Dr Don Taylorfor his considerable assistance with the completion of this chapter.

Introduction finding and in this particular case is to do with either

Research is often considered a dry subject by mariners
and normally outside the interest range of a
professional seafarer, who is more at home with
operational matters which require a practical approach
and provide immediate answers. Research, however,
can be both practical and stimulating. To carry out a
research project that expands the fount of knowledge
on a certain subject, to find an artfully unique solution
to a problem, to encapsulate an answer into a
mathematical formula - all provide considerable
stimulation to the researcher and cross the frontier
from what is known and practised into an area where
there are no known answers and, at best, only
guesswork. To assist in changing the guesswork to fact
can be both intellectually stimulating and practical.
In order to find out more of the role of the
researcher we need to consider answers to a number
of questions:-
What is research?
What research methods are used?
Who does research?
Who are the consumers?
What skills do researchers need?
What sort of careers are available in research?
What training is available for researchers?
What is research?
Most of us, in our lifetime, will have been stopped in
the street by persons 'just carrying out some research',
and who will want to know our opinion on a range of
set questions. This type of research can be called fact-
gathering market or product information or seeking
our views and opinions, for instance, the name of the
political party which would gain our vote in a
forthcoming election. Fact-finding also includes
providing or using tables and statistics of any sort,
whether trade, economic or environmental. As an
example, Lloyds Register and a number of P&I Clubs
frequently provide statistical information in table form.
The research normally carried out by trained
researchers is of a scientific nature and this type of
research can be sub-divided into pure research and
applied research.
Pure research, sometimes called blue sky research,
develops and tests scientific theories which apply
generally and universally, without necessary reference
to any practical application. Studies of ocean currents,
marine biology, genetics, and human behaviour are
all examples of this type of research which is normally
published in scientific journals.
Applied research also has a scientific structure but
is targeted on specific real-world problems. It may test
and verify theories and seek explanations (see annex),
and also may include development of new processes
and products. Examples are improvements in
engineering design, safety at sea, human performance
in adverse conditions and all types of technology.
What research methods are used?
There are two main research methods used to obtain
data which provide the necessary information which
the researcher can process.

302 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Experimental methods are normally carried out
in a controlled environment. Structures, situations or
procedures are specially designed and set up so that
they can be studied. This type of method may be
innovative (never tried before) e.g. biological control
of environment using genetically modified organisms,
or simulated, e.g. collision avoidance studies in a ship
simulator, vessel evacuation procedures, or trials of
new products and systems.
Observational methods include surveys, on-the-job
measurements of all kinds, questionnaires, interviews,
process monitoring, and fly-on-the-wall observations.
It supposedly does not interfere with what is being
observed, but can do unless carefully controlled.
Examples include traffic surveillance, population
studies, geological exploration, pollution
measurements, observation of children in hospital
behind one-way glass, and studies into watchkeeping
procedures on-board ship.
Who does research?
Research is carried out and/or funded by three main
centres: academic institutions including nautical
colleges, research institutes and private organisations.
Traditionally academic institutions, especially the
universities, expected their teaching staff to carry out
research as part of their terms of employment. This
activity was supported by general funds administered
by the institutions and their departments. Research in
this category was mainly pure (blue-sky) rather than
applied, and nowadays is often carried out by
postgraduate degree students and post-doctoral
fellows, either as part of their training or as a
prerequisite to obtaining full-time teaching posts in
higher education. More recently, academic institutions
are expected to obtain outside contracts for research
as part of their overall income, and nowadays an
academic institution will carry out much more applied
or fact-finding research rather than pure research.
Nautical colleges throughout the world, have two main
reasons for carrying out research: research underpins
their teaching programme providing up-to-date
information to staff and students alike, and can provide
extra income from applied research projects carried
out using their specific facilities and professional
maritime staff.
In the United Kingdom, many research institutes
were set up by central government (e.g. Transport and
Road Research Laboratory), and some are military
establishments, but most have now been converted to
agencies (e.g. the Defence Research Agency). Other
institutes arose as offshoots of university departments,
or were set up by industrial consortia such as the
Wolfson unit attached to Southampton University.
Generally they employ specialist research staff, either
on a full-time or contract basis. The UK's Marine
Safety Agency, based in Southampton, also funds
research, publishes research reports and information
detailing research projects which they wish to
commission. The research establishments can then
apply to carry out the project, but the choice will be
made through competitive tender. The Maritime
Technology Directorate, based in London, also funds
research activities on behalf of the Science and
Engineering Research Council. The majority of their
research activities are offshore based.
Private organisations which include research
bureaux mostly specialise in fact-finding research of
particular kinds, e.g. consumer research, market
surveys and readership surveys. Almost all large
manufacturing concerns have research divisions
studying ways of improving their product or noting
changing trends in customer perception. Large
accountancy and management consultancy
organisations and specialist consultancy firms ranging
all the way down to one-man businesses also undertake
various research activities.
Who are the consumers?
The academic world
Most pure (and some applied) research has no tangible
market at all. It is published in scientific journals, the
better examples of which are professionally refereed
to ensure a high standard of quality. Because such
publications are tradable as currency in the academic
job market, and most university teachers depend for
their continued employment and promotion on a
regular production of papers, the scientific journals
have themselves become a support industry to the
academic institutions, without any need for a further
market for their contents. The Journal of Navigation,
published through the Royal Institute of Navigation
and, to some extent, The Nautical Institute's Seaways,
often publish the results of maritime pure and applied
research.
Governments
A great deal of applied research has traditionally been
supported by government funding, either through the
Research Councils, their own laboratories and
institutes, or by tenderable contracts. In recent years,
the European Union, which has a very large system
of research structures to dispense funds, publishes
details of forthcoming research projects of all the kinds
mentioned above. Many maritime consortia are
undertaking research programmes under the auspices
of the 4th Framework. Applying for and obtaining
funds from this source is extremely complicated, and
the know how required is almost a profession in itself.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 303
Industry
There is an ongoing need for applied and fact-finding
research in all kinds of industry, some of which is paid
for through trade associations and consortia, and some
is directly commissioned. The results of this research
mayor may not be in the public domain; some is
obviously of specific commercial value and remains
confidential or even secret. Occasionally a large
industry will sponsor blue-sky research, usually
through some sort of fellowship or trust fund, partly
as a corporate-image component.
What skills do researchers need?
Although this section considers the skills necessary to
undertake research, it is a considerable asset to be
naturally inquisitive and methodical. Skills can mostly
be learnt and the main skills are detailed below.
Data collection
The prime requirement at any level is an ability to
collect and record observations in an accurate and
organised way. The amount of skill that this requires
may vary from task to task: reading a thermometer
does not need much application, whereas interviewing
a disaster survivor requires a great deal of skill. These
skills are generally learned as part of an academic
training, or on specific training courses (e.g. for market
research or telephone surveying), or in a first job as a
technician or laboratory assistant.
Information retrieval
Almost all research adds to or updates an existing body
of knowledge, and it is essential for researchers to know
whether or where they can get access to previously-
collected information and data. The skills needed
include use of technical libraries, special collections
of reports, searching and commissioning of searches,
and in recent times obtaining of online information
from databases and from the Internet.
Statistical analysis
The basis for this is now part of the GCSE Maths
syllabuses, and extends all the way up to specialist
postgraduate degrees in statistics. Much useful work
in statistical analysis can be done by staff who do not
need to understand the mathematical processes
involved, provided that they are well supervised. For
some years now, the traditional tools of punched-card
machines and desk calculators have been replaced by
computers, and the main skills now required are in
using the various statistical packages available for both
small and large computers. One of the greatest dangers
in statistical analysis nowadays is that very powerful
and complicated analytical techniques are quickly
304 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
performed at the touch of a button, and researchers
can very easily go beyond their own level of
understanding in using them.
Presentation
No research is ever worth doing unless it can be
presented meaningfully to its audience, and skills in
written, oral, and visual presentation are extremely
valuable. Once a field of enquiry becomes familiar,
the long words and acronyms which belong to that
field become easy to remember and use; the difficult
skills are those of communicating the gist of the
research to an audience which is less familiar with the
technicalities. Research is very much about trees, but
presentation is definitely about the wood. Highly
experienced and gifted researchers are often the last
to grasp this simple point.
Design
Research design is the highest of the research arts, and
involves usually a great deal of experience with the
various methods and techniques which are needed.
Above all, it is important at the beginning of a research
project to be able mentally to leap to the end, and to
look backwards and see what use or meaning the
results could have. All too often, a poorly-designed
piece of research yields nothing which in hindsight is
of much value (or even any value at all). This applies
all the way from small-scale sample-survey
questionnaires to costly industrial experiments
involving multi-factor analysis-of-variance models. A
postgraduate degree, preferably with specific training
in research methods, is a necessary (but not sufficient)
qualification for a good research designer.
What sorts of careers are available in
research?
Initially we need to consider the usual career path for
a person wishing to undertake generic research and
will then describe some of the avenues open for
maritime research activities.
Research technician
This usually means a technical post in a team which is
engaged in research of some kind. The skills needed
vary depending on the research field, and will include
familiarity with the objects, people or systems being
investigated. For example, a medical research
technician might need to know how to prepare
microscope slides, do blood counts, or process x-ray
films; a market researcher will have developed skills
at interviewing people. These jobs may be on a
permanent or a contract basis.
Research assistant
Research assistant posts are usually offered to early-
career graduates or postgraduates in the specialist
research field, usually on a short-term contract basis.
Skills in data collection and information retrieval are
essential, some statistical ability is usually desirable,
as is a basic understanding of research design
principles. The job is sometimes combined with study
for a higher degree; however, this can lead to role
conflict if employed research assistants need to work
independently as researchers to fulfil their degree
requirements.
Researcher (full time)
Full-time professional researchers, in permanent
employment, are relatively rare. Some academics who
are able to bring in sufficient funds find that they can
be seconded full-time to their projects, and there are
still permanent civil service posts for Scientific Officer
and other career streams. However, it remains true
that many full-time senior research workers are on a
contract or consultancy basis, and as such are
effectively self-employed.
Specific maritime research
Maritime research is no different from any other
transport related research but it is a pity that mariners
often consider that they do not have the ability
necessary to undertake research as they have not been
trained in the activities detailed above. Only a very
few mariners, now ashore and undertaking maritime
research, went through the procedures set out above.
Mostly, they joined an existing research team, learned
from other persons within the team and possibly took
a research degree in order to obtain the necessary
skills. However, the more experienced and
professional mariners, whether as engineers, mates,
masters or pilots can provide extremely useful inputs
to research activities.
Their knowledge, which although taken for granted
by themselves, often provides a very valuable input
to a research team. There are a number of outlets
ashore for budding researchers, mostly in the nautical
colleges and maritime consultancy firms. Ongoing
maritime research covers a wide spectrum of interests
including human factor studies in areas such as
collision avoidance, transfer of training to sea,
assessment of competence; engineering studies such
as traffic densities and UMS studies. Research projects
make full use of high value resources, especially ship
and engine-room simulators.
What training is available for research?
Non-graduate level
Entry into any profession is nowadays difficult without
a first degree, and research is no exception. Some
advertised non-graduate research posts are little more
than cold-calling sales jobs, and need to be carefully
thought about. It may be feasible to find a technical
post which gives opportunity for part time study for a
relevant degree, which would probably be necessary
to progress to a research assistant level.
First degrees
Traditionally, these are awarded by universities after
a period of full-time study: usually three years.
However, other routes are becoming available: part-
time, distance-learning or modular courses are
increasing in popularity year by year.
Postgraduate degrees
These are of two typical levels: a master's degree,
usually one year full time or two years part time, and
a doctoral degree, usually three/five years. Master's
degrees are either based on taught courses (usually
MSc or MA) or on research alone (MPhil). The PhD
(in the UK) is almost always a research-based degree.
Once a first degree has been obtained (and
exceptionally without one) it is relatively easy to find
a postgraduate course which will lead more specifically
into a research post. Indeed in some ways it is almost
too easy; universities are very keen to attract graduate
students, both because of the research they do while
on their courses, and because of the money they bring
in, and sometimes are not too concerned that the future
careers of their graduates have been enhanced by the
experience.
Before embarking on a degree course of any kind,
that issue needs to be carefully examined.
Summary
A career in maritime research when combined with
underpinning and professional experience gained
from a period of time at sea can provide a stimulating
vocation for a seafarer wishing to probe the boundaries
of maritime knowledge. This chapter attempts to
explain what is involved in carrying out research and
the opportunities provided in a maritime research
career.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 305
 Annex to chapter 41
Research design example to verify the theory: Do
watchkeepers have their own styles of collision
avoidance?
To take this intriguing idea beyond mere
speculation and into the realm of science, an
experiment can be undertaken using a ship's bridge
simulator. A number of mariners are asked to perform
several open water collision-avoidance exercises
during a visit to a ship simulator, as part of an ongoing
series of trials. Some months later, the same mariners
are asked to volunteer for another series, and pay
another visit to the simulator. Unknown to them, some
of the exercises they perform on the second visit are
identical to those they were given on their first visit.
We record data including the track charts from each
set of exercises.
Although we are interested in any possible
similarities between the first and second repeats of the
same exercise, the scientific method starts with the
opposite assumption: that there are no similarities at
all. If this was the case, looking at the whole set of
track charts from the first repeat, anonymously, would
not help us in any way to guess which track belonged
to which mariner in the second set of results. The
question we need to ask is: would our guesses represent
anything other than pure chance, or would we really
306 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
be able to predict what people will do a second time
from what they did before? As a second stage in the
experiment, we can ask a separate panel of judges to
make the guesses for us. Using a mathematical model,
we can say precisely how likely it is that we would
have obtained the set of guesses that we did get if there
were no similarities at all. Perhaps the pattern of
guesses does seem to be able to identify individual
watchkeepers, in which case our mathematical model
tells us the chance we take of being wrong if we say
that there are indeed individual styles in collision
avoidance. This probability needs to be very low if
we are to be convincing in our argument.
The idea is an important one for several reasons.
One method of validating collision avoidance results
using a ship simulator to represent what the seafarer
would do at sea is to consider the repeatability of
individual's results. Another reason is to consider
styles; if watchkeepers have their own styles of collision
avoidance, and tend to stick to them, some may be
safer than others. Those that are habitually unsafe may
be accident repeaters, and efforts made to identify
them and rectify their performance will payoff well
in terms of overall safety. There are also implications
for training: questions of how watchkeepers acquire
their styles, and how it is possible to foster the
development of safe styles, pose interesting questions
for further research.
 Chapter FORTY TWO

SELF-DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES FOR SEAFARERS

by Mr. Brian Thomas BA(Hons) PGCE

The Marine Society, London

Brian Thomas was born in the Welsh steel producing town of Port Talbot where he attended the local comprehensive school. He studied
History at the University of Reading, after which he trained as a teacher at Swansea, University of Wales.

In 7979 he entered Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, as a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy s Instructor branch. After his
training he taught at the new entry establishment of HMS Raleigh in Cornwall before moving to the Artificer Apprentices Training
College, HMS Caledonia in Rosyth.

His service was punctuated by spells at sea in HM frigates Leander and Minerva and an appointment as Education Officer in the
aircraft carrier HMS Hermes where he gained his bridge watch-keeping certificate. From 7982-84 Brian was the Base Education
Officer at HMS Vernon in Portsmouth. He completed his naval commission as Director of Studies at the Royal Navy s Engineering
College of HMS Sultan at Gosport.

During 7986 he became a Lecturer in the Education Department at Swansea Institute of Higher Education. Since 7987 Brian has
held the post of Head of Education at The Marine Society in London.

Introduction

Self-development is taken as meaning a wish to
develop one's ability to learn, to change and to thereby
realise one's potential. Self-development is therefore
essential adequately to address the challenges of the
future.
Self-development is not a one-off process. It's not
something one does once and then settles back secure
in the knowledge that it doesn't have to be done again.
Self-development is a recurring process during which
we learn from our experience and build upon this for
future development.
Underpinning the premise that our ability to reflect
critically on ourselves, to learn from experience and
to build that learning into future actions, is the notion
that people play an active role in shaping their own
futures. As the social paternalism of former generations
recedes, there is a genuine global trend for the
individual to accept responsibility for his own learning.
It seems that everything one reads these days
discusses the fact that there is no longer a guaranteed
job for life in any profession, and that people need to
be adaptable, flexible and able to respond rapidly to
change. Literacy and numeracy, interpersonal skills,
the will and ability to assimilate advances in
information and communication technology, are
illustrations of what are often described as transferable
core skills. An ability to demonstrate to an increasingly
high order such transferable core skills has become
as desirable as evidence of academic distinction.
For many groups in society, however, choice and
opportunities for self-development are constrained by
circumstances. The lifestyle and working conditions
of seafarers are not conducive to the realisation of
potential in terms of self-development and, to be
successful, the seafarer has to surmount many obstacles
not experienced by his shoreside counterparts.
Such barriers to development can be described as
structural in that they are inherent in the occupation
of seafaring. Among the most obvious are unremitting
noise and perpetual motion; intense and often unsocial
work schedules; limited privacy; restricted access to
learning materials; and lack of motivation
compounded by feelings of isolation.
There is little a seafarer can do about such barriers.
The best that can be hoped for is, perhaps with outside
help, to ameliorate their most damaging effects. It is
therefore so easy for seafarers to choose from a range
of ready-made excuses for their inertia when it comes
to self-development.
But there are also barriers to growth and
development which are personal. They are to do with
the beliefs about ourselves which we carry around with
us.
Some beliefs are positive, such as "I can do
anything if I really set my mind to it". Others are
negative, such as "I'll never get through this course, I
never seem to finish anything I start". Negative or self-

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 307

defeating beliefs can have a devastating effect on self-
confidence, and form a significant barrier to personal
development. If a seafarer is to be successful he must
acquire the skills to overcome these personal barriers
to self-development.
Planning a schedule is essential. The seafarer must,
at the outset, assess his own strengths, weaknesses,
skills and abilities and examine his own attitudes
towards future change. A set of clearly defined goals
for future development must be identified and these
must then be linked with a timetable and strategic plan
for how they are to be achieved .•
It is a good idea for this plan to be committed to
paper, thus giving it more definition and
purposefulness.
Implement
• Getting on with learning and the self-development
process.
Review
• Stand back from time to time to evaluate how a
particular project fits into the personal strategic plan
for self-development.
• Record the skills and abilities which have been used
in achieving a particular project.
In the light of the most recent learning project assess
whether any adjustment in the strategic plan is
necessary.
Overcoming structural barriers

The key components in a seafarers' self- Once the personal barriers to self-development have
development plan ought to be: been tackled the seafarer can turn his attention to what
I have referred to as the structural barriers: those which
exist as a direct consequence of earning one's living
from the sea. And here a quite different set of tools
and skills are brought to bear.

The first thing to do is to identify sources of help

in overcoming, or at least alleviating, those problems
caused and compounded by isolation at sea.
Depending on the goal you are seeking to achieve,
there may be an agency geared to provision in just
your field.

For example, within the United Kingdom there are

A . a number of providers of academic, vocational, and
ppralse leisure-orientated programmes suitable for study at sea
by seafarers of all nationalities.
• Self-assessment of personal strengths and
we~esses The Marine Society publishes a useful (and free)
• IdentIfy personal skIlls, abIlItIes and mterests. ' " . 'J " ",.r; ·
b 00 kl et en ti tled Gont mumg E aUcat lOnfior ~eaJarersw h ICh
..
• Analyse aspIratIOns and goals for the future: . · . .
r' pro fil
I es th e mam provl d ers. Th e M anne SoClety a1so
persona 1 an d prolesslOna 1...
... offers a free gUIdance servIce to seafarers of a 11
• IdentIfy those factors lIkely to help or hmder the · '' · ·
.. na tlOnallIes
t on any e d uca tlOna1 ma tt er. C on t ac tmg
learmng and self-development plan. personal and ' ' ·· "
... th e wor Id s 0 Id es t pu bl IC man tIme ch an ty as a fiIrSt
domestIc commItments; work schedules; finanCIal .
. . move th ere fore a dd s up t 0 th e exercIse 0 f soun d
consl d eratIons ..
JU d gmen.t

Plan The Open University (OU) welcomes applications

from all parts of the European Union and from other
• Draw up a ~ersonal ~trategic plan for self- countries with which it has made arrangements.
de~e~o.pment mcorporatmg personal goals. Established in 1969, the OU is the largest and most
• PnontIse those personal goals. innovative university in the UK with a global
• Assess how personal and contextual factors may reputation for the quality of its programmes and the
help or hinder in achieving these goals. effectiveness of its methods. It offers multimedia
• Develop a realistic time scale for the achievement distance learning with no barriers to admission: no
of goals. interviews and no entry qualifications are necessary,
and credit may be allowed for existing qualifications
Explore such as DTp Certificates of Competency.

• Look at alternative strategies for achieving goals. The Open University isn't only about
• Identify all possible sources of help. undergraduate study: diplomas, personal and

308 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

professional development courses and self-contained
study packs are available at various levels on all sorts
of topics. Most are suitable for study at sea. There are,
for example, management training and computer
updating courses; free-standing short courses in
literature, introducing music, psychology, and modem
languages; an extensive range of multimedia resource
packs for independent leisure study covering areas like
planning for retirement and stress management; an
MBA programme; a range of higher degrees, both
taught and by research; there's even a Postgraduate
Certificate in Education qualification to bestow
qualified teacher status.
The Marine Society publishes a free booklet
outlining au provision for seafarers and offers
practical assistance with au study, such as arranging
for examinations to be taken at sea if this becomes
necessary.
There are many other sources of help for seafarers
wishing to continue their general education; it is
inappropriate in this context to attempt a Open learning
comprehensive review as to do so would be to replicate
what The Marine Society has succinctly provided in
separate and up to date booklet form. But perhaps it
is worth mentioning three other providers which, in
addition to The Open University, have proved popular
sources of help for seafarers.
Sources of help for seafarers
· The Marine Society
202 Lambeth Road, London SE1 7JW
tel 0171 261 9535 fax 0171 401 2537
email: info@marine-society.org.ukseafarers.Itis
Web site: www.marine_society.org.ukworkissetwiththeindividualstudent.scircumstances
· The Open University
Central Enquiry Service, PO Box 200, The Open
University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6YZ
tel 01908 653231 fax 01908 653744
email: general-enquiries@open.ac.uk
Web site: www.admin.open.ac.uk
· The Open College
St Paul's, 781 Wilmslow Road, Didsbury,
Manchester M20 2RW tel 0161434 0007 fax 0161
434 1061
email: custservice @ opencollege.co.uk
Web site: www.opencollege.co.uk
The Open College provides high quality flexible
training and development programmes.
· The Open College of the Arts
Houndhill, Worbrough, Barnsley, South Yorkshire
S70 6TU tel 01226 730495 fax 01226 730838
email: open.arts@ukonline.co.uk
Web site: http://web.ukonline.co.uk/open.arts/
index.htm
The Open College of the Arts is a charitable trust
offering distance taught programmes in the arts, many
of which have university accreditation.
• The National Extension College
18 Brooklands Avenue, Cambridge CB2 2HN tel
01223 316644 fax 01223 313586
e-mail: nec@dial.pipex.com
Web site: www.nec.ac.uk
The National Extension College is an educational
trust offering a range of courses from GCSE/ A Level
through Open University preparatory courses to
distance taught degrees. It is one of the largest
providers of distance learning programmes and
materials in the UK.
New technology and work patterns have created
fresh opportunities for both the acquisition and the
assessment of knowledge. It is worth reviewing some
of the developments. Firstly, how can seafarers acquire
knowledge and skills?
Open learning is an umbrella term for any scheme of
education or training which seeks systematically to
remove barriers to learning, whether they be related
to time, place, or pace.
Distance learning
Distance learning may be regarded as part of open
learning. It is learning carried out at a place removed
from the source ofthe tuition. This can be at home or
at sea, and for obvious reasons is much favoured by
leamer-centred or student-centred; i.e.
and abilities in mind. Distance learning therefore
addresses the issues of time, place and pace - all of
which are especially relevant for the seafarer student.
Computer-based learning
Here the conduit for the learning process is the
microchip with lessons supplied in the form of compact
or floppy discs. The learning is interactive: it
encourages the student to become involved, to make
and indicate choices and to formulate answers. In so
becoming involved the student invokes the wisdom
of the Chinese proverb: "I hear and I forget; I see and
I remember; I do and I understand".
Learning can either take place at a fully equipped
learning resource centre or it can be undertaken by
an individual at sea in his cabin with his lap-top
computer and CD-ROM.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 309
The distance learning explosion
Distance learning used to be a last resort for those
denied access to college or university. Now the trend
is for students to opt for this method as their first choice
because it offers flexibility and a guarantee of quality.
Colleges and universities themselves are becoming
more resource-centred and less teacher intensive to
meet the burgeoning demand. For them the trend
towards proliferation of distance learning is motivated
by the ability to deliver more for less: how to save
money, but still deliver high quality learning.
Distance learning and technology
Developments which have led to cheap and rapid
communications mean that the preferred dialogue
between tutor and taught is increasingly electronic.
It's a trend that is likely to continue. The electronic
downloading of texts in place of acquiring books is
already commonplace, particularly on technology-
related and business study programmes. Video-
conferencing is an increasingly used option, as is the
electronic transmission of assignments and the use of
e-mail and faxes for routine correspondence.
The Open University, for example, is investing
£610 million over five years developing new
approaches to teaching and learning through its new
Knowledge Media Institute, set up in 1995. New
materials are being created to replace paper and talk.
There is even an Open University virtual summer
school which electronically links a group of students
from different countries.
For the seafarer such advances in technology can
present special difficulties to be overcome. But the
resourceful seafarer who embraces the electronic
revolution can reap rich rewards from its effects. For
example, if he has the facility to download texts
electronically, his problem of isolation and lack of
access to learning resources is alleviated. Access to
the Internet and the World Wide Web provides
potential access to the world's accumulated store of
wisdom. Ifhe can send his assignments electronically,
he is no longer dependent upon the vagaries of mail
drops and snail-mail for contact with the outside world.
For the first time in history there is the potential for
the problem of isolation at sea to be relieved.
Seafarers are potentially well placed to benefit from
the technology revolution given that all deep-sea
vessels carry the necessary hardware and, usually,
human expertise. It is also the case that either as a
result of direct training or as a consequence of
professional exposure to it, seafarers tend to be better
informed about developments in information
technology than their shoreside counterparts.
310 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Assessment
How can a seafarers' knowledge and skills be assessed
and recognised?
Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) - what is
it?
The answer to the question "how do I gain this
qualification?" used to be, "you take the course and
sit the exam". Learning outcomes are changes brought
about by education, training or experience. The
explicit statement of learning outcomes as a
description of what is required in order to achieve a
particular qualification opens up the way for people
to gain credit for their prior learning. If someone can
demonstrate that they are up to the standard described
in the learning outcomes, they are entitled to the credit
- i.e. the qualification. It doesn't matter whether they
acquired their learning from experience at work, or
from training courses or from self-study, as long as
the outcome can be shown to be of the appropriate
standard. It is the learning which is being credited,
not the experience. This is not a soft option giving
credit for life events. The evidence proving prior
learning is often collected into a portfolio which is
submitted for accreditation.
Credit Accumulation and Transfer Schemes
(CATS)
Related to APL, CATS is an alternative way of
achieving academic awards. Instead of studying on a
designated course at a single institution students are
able to negotiate their own programme from a range
of courses on offer and at a pace which suits them. A
learning contract is often worked out between the
student and the institution concerned. Students are
able to carry their credit to other institutions as they
build towards a final qualification.
It should be noted that both APL and CATS are
appropriate for developing a seafarer's academic and
general education, rather than his professional
development.
The Marine Society is currently working towards
the successful implementation of both APL and CATS
for seafarers on a routine basis. At present seafarers
have to convince those who hold access to educational
programmes and qualifications of their merit on an
individual basis. In future it is envisaged there will be
a clearly defined procedure and universally
acknowledged criteria to evaluate and award credits
for seafarers' experience and qualifications.
 Chapter FORTY THREE

ASPECfS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION ON BOARD

by Mr. Pooran P. Chugani CEng FIMarE MIE DMS DPHE

Proprietor of Marine Personnel Development Services, India

The Author
An ex-cadet (7963-7967 batch) of the Marine Engineering College, Calcutta, Mr. Chugani worked fOr Scindia Steam Navigation
Company until 7977 moving up to the rank of 3rd Engineer, and later served with Indo China Steam Navigation until 7974 as Chief
Engineer. He attended a full time course at Plymouth Polytechnic towards a Diploma in Management Studies (Shipping) and worked
as Superintendent fOr a brief period befOrejoining Singapore Polytechnic in 7975. He continued with Singapore Polytechnic until early
7978 with a break of one year's sea service with Arya National Shipping Lines.

On returning to India, Mr. Chugani worked as a lecturer at Vivekanand Education Society Engineering and Polytechnic. There
fOllowed a brief sabbatical sailing experience with Tolani Shipping befOreswitching to Essar Shipping as a Deputy General Manager,
Q,AQ,Cwith involvement in INS A's training committee work and visiting faculty at LBS college.

A call from the International Labour Organisation provided invaluable experience of participation in and management of an
institutional development project at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania fOr the development of Bandari College.After nearly fOur year with ILO,
Mr. Chugani had a short assignment as a consultant with TRANSNET of South Africa befOrereturning to India in 7995. He joined
Training Ship RahaTT/llnat Bombay as Chief Engineer and re-established the Advanced Fire Fighting Course and the Fire Fighting
Complex. He continues to serve the cause of training of seafarers through his own establishment "Marine Personnel Development
Services", which was initiated inJune 7996 at Mumbai.

Introduction
Distance education is an evolved form of
correspondence education but with a wide application
of the concept. Though not so popular in India as yet,
the concept of distance education is widely used in
developed countries to the extent of degree
programmes. Correspondence courses on board have
been a part of the training for deck and engineer cadets
in Singapore, the United Kingdom and perhaps in
other countries. It is only recently, owing to very short
pre-sea training or direct entry of deck cadets, that
some employers in India have started giving notes,
books and assignments in addition to a record book.
However, there is very little, if any, help given to new
engineers on board. Structured training on board for
radio officers, catering officers and ratings is virtually
nonexistent.
The advantages and importance of well trained
officers and crew is a fact that needs no elaboration.
Whatever the reasons, it is encouraging to see greater
participation by employers in the process of training.
With the advent of Standards of Training Certification
and Watchkeeping (STCW), the International Safety
Management Code (ISM), and the quality assurance
standards of ISO, employers and the regulatory
authorities have a greater onus to ensure quality of
manpower, whether on board or ashore.
This chapter attempts to highlight various aspects
of 'teaching', 'learning' and of 'distance education'.
The design, development, implementation and
evaluation of distance education for training on board
is discussed at length. Adoption of distance education
schemes as a part of the training of seafarers is
recommended with due justification and possible
options.
To segregate somewhat theoretical concepts from
practical aspects of the theme, this chapter is divided
into two parts as follows:- Part 1: Teaching, learning
and distance education. Part 2: Distance education and
its application on board.
Part 1. Teaching, Learning, and
Distance Education
Acknowledgement: This part of the chapter draws
heavily upon the works of Phil Race from his book
"The Open Learning HandbooR', Kogan Page, London,
1994 and of D.R. Garrison from" Understanding
Distance Education - A Framework for the Future",
Routledge, 1989. The definition of some of the relevant
terms is included in the Annex to this chapter.
Traditional vs non-traditional processes of
education
In any process of teaching, it is learning we wish to
achieve. The process of instruction is a means whereas
acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes are the desired
end. An inherent aim is to make the process oflearning

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 311

most effective by choosing any, or a combination of,
possible methods of instruction. Thus it is the extent
of the quality of learning and not the process of
teaching that is important.
In a traditional process of education, teacher and
students are under the same roof at the same time.
However, if there is no learning we can deduce that
no teaching is taking place irrespective of any approach
to education. Just because a teacher feels that at the
end of the lesson he has worked hard, it doesn't mean
that the students have learned well.
Race (1994) attempts to draw our attention to a
very common situation in a thought provoking
manner; 'if we are honest about it, most of the learning
people do is by what we nowadays call open learning
processes; in other words, at their own pace, in their own
way, and at times and places of their own choice.Designing
open learning material is simply a matter of designing
materials from which people can learn in their own natural
ways:
In an attempt to search for more effective teaching
methods, the importance of a student centred
approach to teaching and learning has emerged as a
forerunner to the traditional teacher centred education.
The total emphasis has changed from teaching to
learning. The science and technology of education is
changing the entire approach to teaching at all levels
and distance education is becoming a traditional
process to achieve the desired outcome .
Just as anything else, for survival, an educational
programme has to be dynamic and evolutionary. In a
vast ocean of unknown, an individual needs guidance,
but with liberty to roam, explore and to challenge the
most established theories, concepts, and practices to
ensure one's place in an unending race for excellence.
The Process of Learning
Drawing once again from Race, 'to learn is to be human.
Wanting, doing, feedback and digesting are so close to the
essenceof beinghuman that it ispossible to keep theseprocesses
firmly in mind when designing educational courses,training
programmes and learning resources - and open learning
materials: Figure 43.1, though modified, represents the
concept.
Open learning, distance learning, and flexible
learning are interrelated and overlapping concepts of
learning processes that are user friendly with respect
to age, sex, time span, options, location, learning style,
etc. Holmberg (1977) defined distance education as
'the various forms of study at all levels which are not under
the contiguous, immediate supervision of tutors present with
their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises, but
which, nevertheless, benefits from planning, guidance, and
tuition of a tutorial organisation:
Race points out that 'the ways in which people learn
in schools, collegesand training centres are very similar to
the ways they learn outside them " (except for a formal
structure); and he goes on to elaborate that 'peopledon't
learn much by sitting at thefeet of a teacher or byjust reading
fine words of experts;people learn by doing, by getting things
right, by getting things wrong, and by getting some kind of
feedback, internal or external. It is particularly helpful to
learn by getting things wrong in the comfort ofprivacy - one
of the most powerful strengths of open learning'.
• It is important to keep on wanting while doing.
• It is useful to be seeking feedback while doing as
well as after doing.
• It is useful to be continuing to seek feedback while
digesting.
• It is useful to be continuing the doing while
receiving feedback and while digesting .
• It is important to digest both the experience of doing
and the feedback that is received.
 If we accept that to learn is to be human then greater diversity of choice than that in traditional
learning becomes a lifelong process. You would agree educational systems. Self-directed learning is thus an
that the success of an individual depends upon one's ultimate aim of adult education.
capacity to learn in any situation, formal or informal.
Just as teaching can be taught, so can learning be. But Teaching Methods
how many individuals can say that they were taught
how to learn or how to study? Perhaps institutions of Each of the teaching methods listed in figure 43.2 has
higher learning presume that students who qualify for its own characteristics and none, on its own, can
entry possess the required skills to learn at this higher provide a complete solution. Thus, for a desirable
level. However, one needs different sets of learning outcome, a combination of teaching methods needs
skills for different categories of knowledge, skills and to be selected.
experience and the same has to evolve further as one
moves to a higher level. The choice of teaching method or a combination
depends upon various factors as shown in figure 43.3.
Development of study skills is already a part of
the curriculum in institutions which accept its Part 2. Distance education and its
importance. Orientation programmes, counselling ·
..
serVIces and tutonal programmes are some of the
app 1lea ti on on board
forms of helping a student to adapt to a new situation, k d
just as a well chalked out orientation programme for Bac groun
'th ' . Seafarers will readily agree that the real training of a
new emp 1oyees IS e norm III progressIve
. ' mariner starts on board, but how many can claim that
orgamsa tIOns,
they went through a well structured programme of
Th'e Impor t ance 0 f m-service
. 't'"
rammg IS re f1ec t e d
familiarisation and development on board? Some
,.f "
, Kn
m 1 (1980) concep t 0 fth e c,zn tegra t'IOn OJ
owes
' l lVzng mariners may not even like to be reminded of their
't ' ,.f ' first few days on board and at sea. Those who survived
an d Iearnzng owar ds th e unz try OJed uca t lOn, wor k an d lift
l e,
' " ,n; t'
lVe w h en l't'lS the initial few days of shock will recall that many of
base d on th e no t IOn tha t Iearnzng lS mos t t.Jjec
reIa t ed t 0 an d' zn t egra t ed Wl·th wor k'zng an d IlVzng.
" , N ew the good scholars found it difficult to adJ'ust to sea life
' ' and left with regrets or continued with frustrations.
e d uca tIOna1 sys t ems may we 11b e crea t e d t 0 provi d e
There is scope for research into maritime education,
training and its social implications. It is hoped that
renaming our training institutions with inclusion of
the word research will eventually lead to some
invaluable findings.
The International Conference for Minimum
Standards for Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1978, made a bold attempt
to bring about regulatory control for what it stands
for. The much desired review of STCW in 1995
attempts to bridge the gap in defining contents,
process, assessment, administrative procedures and
responsibilities. This time, the International Maritime
Organisation has adopted a different approach to
induce member nations to implement the instrument.
The provision of placing properly trained crew, fit and
in appropriate numbers, is not going to be just wishful
thinking of shipowners or flag states.
The familiarisation of every crew member on
board and their involvement in safety aspects is
mentioned very briefly under Section A-l/14 and
elsewhere, but has great implications in achieving the
intent with evidence to prove its adoption. STCW '95,
ISM and ISO are actually setting a new foundation
for the management of ships for the next decade or
two in the 21st century. The new system has a built-in
characteristic of appraisal and review. However, with
technology changing quickly in all directions, we
should be prepared for completely new systems at
short intervals. On the whole, the emphasis of the new
regulations is on clear roles, responsibilities and
accountability of training institutions, regulatory
bodies, employers, and seafarers (the essence of
delegation).
The importance of structured training on board is
implied within the methods to demonstrate
competence for which STCW provides the following
options:-
Examination and assessment of evidence obtained
from one or more of the following:
1. Approved in-service experience.
2. Approved training ship experience.
3. Approved simulator training where appropriate.
4. Laboratory equipment training.
in addition to approved workshop training and
approved practical experience and tests.
Adoption of distance learning on board
The aim of a distance learning programme is to
facilitate and provide systematic training on board
towards appropriate competence for the required
position of an individual at sea. The instructions and
guidance pave the way for the structured development
314 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
of an individual. Such a programme on board assists
newcomers as well as their seniors to carry out desired
activities, and is an added advantage for preparation
towards a Certificate of Competency examination.
Courses need to be designed with several factors
in mind, some of which are listed below:
The trainee possesses a minimum level of expected
knowledge, skills, and exposure but the course has
to be equally stimulating to persons with a higher
level of knowledge and skills.
Varying conditions and rules on board ships, and
company regulations, require the course to be
flexible.
Varying experience and the views of seniors require
the course to allow for individual perceptions and
values.
Safety on all counts is of the foremost concern and
requires the course to provide appropriate
instructions to the trainee.
In reality, the programme should supplement the
existing system and approach to training on board, if
there is one. At the same time, the course should be
in line with guidelines of the STCW for guided and
supervised training on board.
Thus the above mentioned factors need to be
transformed into the learning material as follows:
Instructions to trainees should be simple, clear,
concise and complete.
Notes, exercises and assignments guide and direct
the trainee to learn about his surroundings and the
job in simple steps.
Instructions assist the seniors through requiring a
higher level of interaction with the junior.
The programme enhances learning on board while
inculcating discipline and self-development.
The training material for such a programme needs
to have three distinct elements, at least:
A learning guide (written material backed by
audio visuals).
A record book of work done and assignments
(feedback).
Reference material as necessary.
The learning guide should contain an
introduction to a unit and sub-sections as necessary
and lead the trainee into applying previously acquired
knowledge to real life situations. Audio cassettes, video
films and computer assisted learning can be of great
advantage. Short exercises and assignments at
appropriate junctures make the trainee reflect upon
salient aspects of the learning on board.
 Assignments should suggest a format to assist the Events in implementation of a distance
trainee to look for specific information on board and learning programme on board
to describe it in his own words with the help of (other than design, development, and acceptance)
diagrams where necessary. The trainee will need to
maintain progress close to a suggested schedule with 1. Enrolment.
a certain amount of flexibility due to unavoidable (individually or through the company)
circumstances. Electronic communication links
between the trainee and the training centre can be 2. Trainee receives course material and relevant
very helpful in instant referral. instructions.
(preferably before joining a ship)
The record of work done and assignments can
contain, if necessary, duplicate sets of assignment 3. Master/Chief Engineer receives guidelines
sheets for the trainee to make ~ fair copy .of work for regarding the course.
submission. Trainees send portIOns of assl~ments at (through the company, or an introductory letter
regular intervals to the course coordmator for from the institution)
assessment and remarks. The number of such
feedbacks depends upon the duration of the course 4. Trainee commences his learning and
and the number of assignments. experience on board as guided.

For specific topics, supplementary notes should be 5. Trainee attempts suggested exercises and
provided and text books be recommended for assignments.
reference where necessary. (cooperation and guidance from seniors desired on
board)
Instructions need to be clear and concise with the
aim of guiding trainees on how to go about learning 6. Trainee sends a first set of completed
and doing. Learning can be induced through probing assignments to the institution.
questions and exercises with the intention to stimulate along with feed back (comments) on the aspects of
inquisitiveness for effective absorption. Trainees the course material and experiences and a review/
should be guided to reflect upon the working comments from the Master/Engineer on the
environment and actual equipment on board. progress made by the trainee.
(in case of delays the institution to send a reminder
Trainees can be expected to devote an average of to the trainee)
about 6-8 hours per week towards this type oflearning
and feedback other than normal duties on board. They 7. Institution to assess the assignment and revert
have to provide evidence of learning on board by to trainee/Master/Company.
completing assignments in the form of a record book (assignments to be retained with the institution)
for the purpose.
8. Trainee continues to learn further and sends
The instruction material must place utmost next batch of assignments.
emphasis on safety and prevention of pollution, and (reminder from the institution if necessary)
provide basic instructions for guidance. To avoid
conflict with standing orders on board, and assuming 9. The process 6-8 repeats as the trainee
that the trainee has previously received instruc~ion on progresses with the course.
such topics, the instructions should lead the tramee to
the application of safe practices. The train~e is 10. On leaving a ship, trainee collects a fmal report
expected to adopt safe working procedures contamed from the Master/Chief Engineer.
in safety manuals, operation manuals, and through
other directives on board. 11.On receiving and assessing final set of
assignments, the institution to compile a final
Implementation report on the progress made by the trainee
and issue an appropriate certificate.
The programme is not likely to achieve its objectives
without the cooperation and support of supervisors 12.Trainee proceeds for other requirements under
on board. Procedures and guidelines must be Certificate of Competency Examination.
developed for the smooth implementation and control
of the entire programme. Coordination between the 13.Trainee appears for CoC Examinations.
trainee, shipboard supervisors, shore based
management and the training institution is vital for 14.The cycle can repeat for the next stage.
the desired outcome. A flow chart of expected events
follows.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 315

 A tentative schedule for expected progress by the
trainee should be agreed and referred to at regular
intervals by all concerned. To a certain extent, the
programme should relieve supervisors from planning
and implementing the training of their subordinates .•
However, trainees will require access to operation
manuals and ship's plans for verifying details. The
course should lead to a dedicated interaction between
officers resulting in better understanding and
relationships.
Through regular bulletins and circulars, close
contact needs to be maintained with the trainee. Where
necessary, reminders or additional instructions must
be sent to the trainee through speedy means of
communication at that juncture.
As far as possible, personal contact between the
trainee and tutor needs to be maintained through any
of the communication links. Communication through
electronic media should assist the quality and speed .•
Evaluation
The entire programme should be evaluated through
formal and informal instruments to assess the
achievement of intended objectives, reflected in the
elements of design, development and implementation,
for example:-
• Achievement of intended aim (learning).
• Validity of contents (relevance),
• Quality of contents (effectiveness).
• Duration of programme (efficiency).
• Assessment scheme and process (evidence).
• Planning and control (management).
Some of the instruments that can be used for
evaluation are:-
• Formal and informal survey with trainees (feedback
from participants) .•
• Informal and formal observations of the participants
competence at entry level.
• Formal and informal surveys with chief engineers
and company superintendents.
• Observations on the quality of assignments from
" •
par tIopan t s..
, ,
• Internal audIt of serVIces and management.
•
' ,
Record of performance of particIpants m CoC
.•
, ,
exammatIOns .•
Epilogue
Some of the inherent features of a distance learning
programme are:-
• Learning is participant centred rather than teacher
centred,
316 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
• It establishes a special relationship between the
trainee, superiors and tutors.
• It encourages trainees to take charge of their
learning.
Trainees can learn at their own pace within a
stipulated time frame.
• It makes trainees apply and practice the knowledge
gained (action centred).
• It makes the learning more realistic and useful, thus
interesting.
• It inculcates a habit of self-development with
benefits beyond the course.
Other than intended improvements in the overall
character and quality of an emerging seafarer, a
distance learning programme has the following
outcomes:-
• It satisfies the requirements of STCW under in-
service training approach.
It leads to the preparation of similar programmes
in other sections of training and development.
. It saves time and expense for attendance at a full
time course ashore,
• It allows the utilisation of saved infrastructure
(resources) for other training programmes which
need to be developed.
There is a Chinese saying which says that if you
give food to a hungry person you have taken care of
his hunger for once, but if you teach him to fish he
will be able to feed himself from then onwards. With
distance learning on board, a mariner can become self-
reliant with life long skills. The only barrier is our
resistance to change.
References and bibliography
• Garrison, D.R., Understanding distance education - A
framework for the future, Routledge, London, 1989,
• Holmberg, B., Distance education: a survey and
bibliography, Kogan Page, London, 1977.
Kember, D., Writing study guides, Technical and
Educational Services Ltd., Avon, UK, 1991.
• Know~es, !'A' S" The growth and dev~lofment of ad~lt
educatzon. m Peters, J.M. (Ed), Buzldmg an effectzve
adult education enterpril"e,jossey-Bass, San Francisco,
98
1 ' O. · '
MC G III , I . an d Beaty, L ., A cttOn I earnzng - a
, , '
practltzoner s gul de, K ogan P age, L on d on, 1992 .
' 7! ' ' ' '
N Il son, C ., 1raznzng
' fi or non- tramers - a d 0-1 t-yourseif
gUIdefior managers, AMACOM , N ew Yior,k 1990 ,
Race, P., 53 Interesting ways to write open learning
materials, Technical and Educational Services,
Bristol, UK, 1992.
• Race, P., The Open Learning Handbook, Kogan Page,
London, 1994.
• Rowntree, D., Preparing material for open, dil"tanceand
flexible learning - an action guide for teachers and
trainers, Kogan Page, London, 1994.
 Annex to Chapter 43
..
Aspects of dIstance education on board
• from Lawton, D. and Gordon, P., The Dictionary of
Education, Hodder & Stoughton, 1993
Distance Learning ..
The most obvious kind of distance learmng IS the
correspondence course, but the term now includes
other media besides the written and printed word such
as TV, video, radio programmes and computers.
Distance learning is based nominally on a pre-
produced course which is self-instructional but where
organised two way communication takes place
between the student and a supporting institution.
Distance learning is now seen as a useful adjunct to
face to face learning. The Open University (in the UK)
is a good example of this form of learning and it has
long been common in Australia.
• from Ellington, H. and Harris, D., The Dictionary of
Instructional Technology, Kogan Page, New York,
1996.
Student Centred approach, learning, teaching
An approach to instruction that concentrates on the
needs of the individual student or in which the teach:r/
instructor and the host institution play supportIve
rather than central roles.
Distance Education, learning, teaching
An instructional system in which the learner is
geographically remote from the body or person
organising the instruction as, for example, in a
correspondence course.
. "
Open Learnmg, flexible Learnmg,
Correspon~ence Course ...
An instructIOnal system whIch removes tradItIonal
barriers to learning such as fi~ed time and. place of
instruction and rigid .entry reqUIrements, placmg many
aspects of the learnmg process u?der the control of
the learner. The latter usually decIdes, .what, how and
when to study under some form of gUIdance.
As shown. in figure 43.4, f~r ~ successful and
sustainable fIre we need contInUIty of the three
essential ~le~ents (f~el, oxygen and a source of
ignition). SImIlarly, umson of the other three elements
(government, unions and industry) is essential for a
successful business .
An ideal premise of Industrial Relations (IR) is that
the government, industry, and the employees are
members of this society with similar interest and stakes
(prosperity, security, progress). However, the success
of such a relationship depends upon ethics and values
adopted by each member for which rationality of
common objectives becomes an inherent requirement.
What benefits one leads to the benefit of the others as
well, and vice-versa, and unless this is appreciated by
the members, the process will tend to drift downwards
until a major upheaval (revolution as against
evolution). Thus, the process of industrial relations
becomes self-defeating if any of the members ignores
the interest and existence of the others.
Openness, fairness, counsel, leads to mutual
cooperation, control and progress; whereas, fear,
mistrust, coercion, deceit and unfair protectionism are
some of the negative elements for loss of direction
and self destruction. So let us all look within and come
together to derive or to revise our system to make it
more productive on the basis of rational objectives.
For our strengths, the world is looking unto us,
whereas, for our weakness we are driving others away.
Sometimes, our strengths too become shackles. The
question is what do we desire?
Selfishness is a virtue of rationality otherwise it is a
curse.
Maritime Training Decisions
Though the approach is academic in nature, an attempt
has been made to write a concise chapter on,the
importance of evaluation and decision making for
matters related to maritime training. Terms of
maintenance management have been used to
emphasise some ofthe ideas. For the sake of simplicity,
word subjects have been used to represent different
sections of people and bodies like industry, training
institutions, society, government, unions, and so on.
Ideally, we need a realistic assessment of the
situation on the basis of an accurate analysis with a
reasonable synthesis to arrive at a pragmatic solution
to the problems facing the maritime fraternity.
Decision making with the techniques of problem
solving should lead us to a lasting solution. Therefore,
it would be prudent to refrain from decisions (action
plan for a change in this case) until we are sure that
we have not made any mistake in identifying the
problem.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 317
 If we look back we will find that the problem that
the shipping industry faces today, with regards to the
supply and demand of appropriate manpower, is no
different than that it faced some thirty years ago. A
close analysis of our actions in the past reveals that
our approach to training is similar to that of break
down maintenance. Thus, we need to state a policy to
guide our decisions e.g. break down maintenance or
condition based maintenance for the training and
retraining of seafarers.
For a decision related to education and training we
need to appreciate the term curriculum which is as
diverse and difficult to define as the term management.
However, there is virtually no difference between the
process of the two, and a basic comparison of elements
is presented in a simplified form in figure 43.5
As can be appreciated, the elements of the process
of curriculum and that of management are extremely
interdependent and cannot be looked at in isolation.
Similarly, the outcome of such a process depends upon
initial parameters (inputs) in terms of need analysis,
clarity of goals, resources, etc. As can be seen, the
process of curriculum and that of management are
dynamic in nature and require constant monitoring
and control. Though all the elements are very
important evaluation is perhaps the most crucial one
of all for curriculum. If we attempt to stretch our
imagination a bit further we can appreciate it more
by comparing the processes of management and
curriculum with that of process control in automation
in which feedback plays a crucial role in the overall
performance.
Systematic evaluation of an education and training
programme is a complex activity (research) and
318 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
demands appropriate skills from the persons who have
the responsibilities for the same. However, there has
to be a starting point, and it is never too late. If there
is a lack of expertise for this in our own fraternity then
we should look for help and guidance from others in
the field of educational research (the University of
Bombay, the Technical Teachers Training College at
Bhopal, other such institutions in India, or institutions
abroad). It can be appreciated that a need for proper
evaluation is even greater when investment is large.
Whether we are in a new situation, or reviewing
an ongoing one, it is essential to have clarity of goals
or needs at the very start. Such goals need to be
absolutely free of ambiguities and ulterior motives.
Indeed, it is easier said than done when it comes to a
complex situation, particularly when there are several
subjects at national and international level. No matter
how hard and time consuming it may be, any decision
which ignores the views and values of any of the
subjects will lead to more problems than it attempts
to solve in the first place. A step towards such a change
requires an in-depth appreciation of all the factors and
people that can influence education and training at
tertiary level and employment of the product. It may
be easy to launch a new training programme, but it is
difficult to withdraw once the resources have been
utilised.
We can all appreciate the importance of right
decisions in anything that we do, so let us hope that
the decision makers will take care of all aspects which
influence the training of seafarers, and thus the
performance of the shipping industry and the nation.
Effective education is not easy to achieve, but it pays
back by having produced a valuable member of
society.
 Chapter FORTY FOUR

CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

FOR MARITIME EDUCATORS
by Mr C. Julian Parker BSc FNI

Secretary, The Nautical Institute

Mr. Cj. Parker obtained his Master's Foreign-Going Certificate in 7967, having served in cargo shiPs and tankers in various ranks. He
then obtained a BSc in nautical science at Liverpool Polytechnic studying naval architecture, marine engineering and control systems.

In 7970 he was appointedAdministrative Staff Officer of the Ocean Group, Britain's second largest shipping company. During this
appointment, Mr. Parker studied to become a qualified industrial training officer at theJohn Dalton College at Manchester Polytechnic.
In 7972 he was appointed the first full time Secretary of the newly constituted Nautical Institute. In 7982 he was elected a Fellow.

Since then the membershiP has expanded from 7,500 to over 7,000 and continues to grow internationally. The Institute's primary
aim is to promote high standards of knowledge, competence and qualification amongst those in control of seagoing craft. The Institute's
journal Seaways is recognised as the authoritative voice of the qualified mariner.

Introduction
If you have reached the last chapter in this book you
have already achieved a measure of continuous
professional development. If I was a lecturer I would
write on your paper "well done". However, I also share
the frustration which many lecturers feel because there
are no opportunities for advancement, either through
lack of funding or through changes in government
policy and therefore you may be worried that this final
contribution may be just academic. Not so. Read on.
This section then, is for those who want to get on,
but who need support and a few useful techniques to
overcome the forces of organisational inertia. But first
let us consider the enemy, or the disturbing influences
in maritime education and training. To do this we need
to start by identifying the key players in any certificate
structure and consider what they (and probably you)
believe makes them successful.
The Key Players
The employers, whether owner, manager or
manning agent, are looking for competence at
minimum cost. Voyage contracts mean that turnover
is not particularly expensive. On the other hand they
prefer trainees and officers who come back and who
have enough self motivation to take their certificates
of competency on their own. Some employers pay
full cost for training, some a contribution and some,
nothing at all.
The seafarers who are increasingly being asked
to pay for their own shore based training want good
efficient tuition directed at passing examinations. This
will enable them to earn higher salaries as qualified
officers. They also want a certificate with an established
reputation as this will enhance career prospects.
The college principal wants to ensure a viable
college and, to do this, he or she will usually have to
optimise the relationship between governmental
education funding policy, the shipowners' pressures
for cost effective training, the seafarers' expectations
and the need to attract good quality teaching staff who
will want to be associated with a successful
establishment.
The examiner, usually from the transport
ministry, sees his task as setting and assessing
examinations in accordance with prescribed guide
lines covering defined functions and competency
standards. Some of the testing may be delegated to
the college staff but the level and quality standard to
be attained is controlled by the chief examiner.
The college lecturer in this environment has
certain aspirations but, to be successful, he or she has
to deliver results. What are these results? Inevitably
they are "consistently good standards of examination
passes" for without this, the whole system fails. The
college does not become attractive, the students choose
another and the pass rate falls so that the owners are
displeased and the examiners have to spend more time
to achieve the same result. It is this overriding pressure
which must be recognised before continuous
professional development starts to have any meaning.
The problem is implicit in the system. It starts with
the IMO which prescribes functions and standards of

320 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

competence which should be attained. Model courses
or, in modern terms, training outcomes provide the
boundaries beyond which, for cost effective officer
training, it is not only unwise to transgress, but in most
cases will be counter productive because of the cost
penalties of extra study time.
The examiners are only authorised to examine
within the boundaries defined by the administration.
Frequently they come into the examination service
and never get back into the industry, so encapsulating
maritime practices within the limits of regulation and
experience.
If you have followed the arguments so far you will
realise there is little merit in being too clever or forward
looking. The maritime infrastructure is rather against
innovation at the teaching level; yet paradoxically the
whole shipping industry is alive with new ideas from
entrepreneurs, designers, equipment makers and
changing trades/markets.
Now you might notice a little technique in this
introductory section. By showing the limited
opportunities for advancement I have depressed your
expectations and I should therefore find it easier.to
build up your confidence by introducing you to the
mysteries of continuous professional development -
CPD.
What is CPD? The definition I like the best comes
from a study conducted by the Department of
Continuing Education at The University of Bristol as
follows:
"Continuous professional development is the
maintenance and enhancement of knowledge,
expertise and competence of professionals
throughout their careers according to a plan
formulated with regard to the needs of the
professional, the employer, the profession and
society" .
It is a clever definition because it deliberately does
not specify whose plan. A college principal may be
unable to offer any support for CPD due to budgetary
constraints but this does not prevent individuals from
having aspirations and taking their own careers
forward elsewhere.
In an industry which confers competencies by
qualification at the age of about 28 for ship masters, it
is surprising that very little provision is made in the
STCW Convention for updating training. Sadly the
prevailing ethos by employers is that unless there is a
mandatory requirement for extra training, then no
extra training will be paid for.
This is not to imply that all employers adopt this
view. Just look at Captain Trevor Bailey's chapter to
find a good exception. Also, by certificating every
officer on board a ship, the shipping industry has one
of the highest proportions of employees qualified when
compared to other services or manufacturing
industries.
The problem remains that the industry is evolving,
with electronic charts, closed cargo systems, minimum
manning, tractor tugs, new coatings and high lift
rudders, whilst the education and training can remain
directed towards passing examinations.
In the field of education and training there are also
many new developments which need to be assimilated,
such as computer based training, videos, interactive
projectors, simulators and information technology.
Some of these improve the efficiency of learning and
some allow the boundaries of the class room to be
breached and the teachers' skills transferred
electronically on board ship.
The relationships are complex and difficult. A
college principal who has successfully fought for his
department and won a consistently high share of public
funding from the education department, needs a new
set of skills if he or she is to exploit the industrial
applications of distance learning.
There are a number of techniques which have been
deployed to guard against the risk of resting on a
reputation. At Cardiff University the senior three
professors took it in turns to be the principal so
enabling each to develop their own research, refresh
the department and prevent the management from
becoming ossified. At the World Maritime University
they practice a different regime whereby the rector is
appointed for a limited period of time. Rectors are
elected for their industrial and management skills and
their persuasive charms seeking funding and
promoting the University internationally. The core
academic staff provide continuity and tutorship but
the University is also dependent on visiting professors
and lecturers who keep the subjects taught in the
modern idiom.
In a technical college links with industry are
essential and it is worth noting how different principals
embrace this practice for possible use later on in your
career.
Without leaving the college campus there are
countless improvements which can be made to
communication, design, teaching techniques, course
structures, the measurement of attainment and the
transfer of skills from ashore to the sea.
Co-operative meetings between owners, examiners
and training staff meet the criteria for CPD and of
course seminars and conferences provide
opportunities for learning about new aspects of the
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 321
industry, whilst going to sea in the summer leave is a
good way to help keep in touch with life at sea.
It is perfectly clear by the nature of the job that
most lecturers practice some CPD throughout their
lives, the question remains should it be formalised,
strengthened and supported?
The role of professional organisations
Because shipping is a transport industry, qualifications
to operate have been prescribed by governments
under Merchant Shipping Acts. In one sense
government departments have discharged
professional role for the seafarer but, as indicated
earlier in this chapter, they can only discharge their
obligations within the scope of legislation.
As such governments seldom become involved in
commercial matters, the calculation of lay time, the
inherent vices in cargoes or the relationship between
ship owner, charterer, insurer, port authority, pilots
and the technology of cargo handling equipment,
management or employment contracts.
Whereas in 1970 traditional maritime
administrations in countries like UK, Germany,
Denmark, Norway andJapan controlled 80% of world
shipping and administered a certificate of competency
scheme with good educational standards, albeit with
the above limitations now, in 1996, 70% of all ships
are registered under flags of convenience whose
administrations have very little direct involvement
with crew competence standards.
Those of us brought up in shipping tend to believe
that we are unique, but this would be a mistake. There
are many other areas of activity from medicine, law
and engineering to biology, computing and
shipbroking whose educational standards are set by
professional associations and, when it comes to
Continuous Professional Development, they are in a
much better position than a government department
to identify changing trends and keep their members
up to date in the whole field of endeavour, rather than
the prescribed limits of certificate examinations.
The principles governing the workings of a
professional organisation are based upon setting
standards and protecting the public interest. We can
define professionals as those:
Who can only carry out their work if they are
educated and trained.
Believe in a code of conduct.
Undertake to keep themselves up to date.
Accept a duty to protect the public and are subject
to disciplinary action for abuse of privilege.
322 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Professional associations have their focus as self-
development and their role in society is becoming
more pronounced as social activity becomes
increasingly dependent on knowledge based
technologies. Professional bodies confer professional
status upon their members and in the fast moving era
of information and data processing it is valuable to be
recognised professionally.
Again turning to the study into professional
associations by Bristol University we can see.
"The professions are entering a period of rapid and
a extensive change which could be both stimulating
and threatening. The six key changes outlined
below will profoundly affect the status, job roles
and employment patterns of most professionals."
The increasing emphasis on accountability
There is a shift from professionals being trusted to
do their work properly because they are professionally
qualified, to a system of accountability with some kind
of monitoring of their effectiveness. True professionals
welcome this change for it provides an opportunity to
establish better quality, more open relationships with
customers and to set up a framework for monitoring
personal development.
The growing numbers and the blurring
distinction between functions
The rapid increase in the number of traditional
professionals (those belonging to professional bodies)
and knowledge workers has reduced the status of
professionals and blurred the distinction between those
two groups. For example, by the end of the decade in
the UK, there will be over 10 million workers who
can be classified as managers, professionals or associate
professionals. Almost all of these will require higher
education, or the equivalent, and will be involved in
information intensive work.
The demand for flexible working
Organisations are changing to encourage flexible
working patterns, and more and more professionals
are expected to work in profit centres, in smaller
business units or on a contract or fee basis. As a result
there is reduced job security for all professionals, and
a professional qualification can no longer be seen as a
guarantee of a job for life. To survive in these new
structures, a professional must have tradable skills
which can be measured, costed and bought and sold
within the organisation. Since communication and
negotiation are key aspects of successful networking,
the possession of social and personal skills is
increasingly important. These new roles also demand
greater business involvement, higher levels of work,
and developed decision making.
The demand for improved quality
In the past, quality was regarded as an integral part
of the professional service. Although professional
bodies attempted to exert some level of control over
the activities of their members, the lack of external
checks, comprehensive standards and tools for
measurement meant that there were wide variations
in the quality of service provided. Forward looking
professionals are taking their first steps towards
rectifying this situation by introducing quality
initiatives such as customer care programmes, ISO
9000 and Total Quality Management (TQM).
The maintenance of competence
As the useful life span of knowledge gained in an
initial degree or professional course declines, the need
for continuing education becomes more urgent.
Education and training must become a continuous
lifelong process to keep abreast of change. In addition
to their vocational skills, professionals need managerial
skills to survive in an increasingly commercial
environment, and cross functional skills to enable them
to negotiate and communicate with other
professionals.
The appliCation of information technology
As organisations move on from automation to
integration and business process redesign, the trend
towards employing more knowledge workers will
increase the need for team working and cross
functional skills. New applications will hasten many
of the changes outlined in the report. For example,
electronic communications technology will enable
companies to out source many professional tasks;
groupware will facilitate team working."
Continuing Professional Development
(CPD)
Th ese genera 10b servations .
can b e ma d e more speClfic.
· *
' ' ·
For examp 1e, Th e I nstItute 0 f M arme E ngIneers, m
l' ·
or d er t 0 b e abl e t 0 conler Ch ar t ere d E ngIneer Sta tus
upon 1·ts mem b ers h as t 0 l'1011ow th e gul·d e 1mes · 0 f th e
' ·
Con t r 011 mg b 0 d y, th e E nglneenng . ·
C ounCl.1 A
'
r e qUlr
. ' l" ' '
e men t t 0 mam t am prolessIOna 1 regIst ra tIOn (as
' '
oppose d t 0 mem b ers h Ip 0 f th e I ns t1t u t e 0 f M anne
. *
Engineers) is that registrants undertake CPD. Here
'
are th e E ngIneenng c
' ' · '
ounCI I G Uld eImes:
Aims of CPD from The Engineering Council
It IS' ' ' ' ,
essen t la 1 th a t engmeers an d t ec h mClans
· l"
con tmue th e prolessIOna 1 d eve 1opmen t process a fter
't t·
R egIs ' achIevements.
ra IOn an d th roug h ou t th elr careers.
CPD can b e d efime d as:-
"Th · ' ' record, relevant means of undertaking CPD in their
e syst ema tlC mamt enance, Improve men t an d
b roa d enmg 0fk now 1ed ge, un d ers t an d·mg an d sk'1ll ,
' area and details of any Specific CPD requirements.
and the development of personal qualities necessary
for the execution of professional and technical
duties throughout the individual's working life".
The central aims of CPD are to contribute to
employment performance and to enhance career
prospects. The benefits to the individual are the ability
to provide a high quality service, to achieve greater
job satisfaction and to improve employability.
It comprises:-
a) Updating the particular area of competence, so that
the engineer or technician's practice is fully in line
with current requirements.
b) Development of personal and management skills.
c) Broadening of experience leading to career
opportunities.
The emphasis is on an individual taking his or her
own responsibility for the most appropriate
development at different stages of a career.
CPD should be guided by a development action
plan and recorded in a professional development
record. There is a requirement placed through the
CPD code on individuals to plan and record their
CPD, to produce evidence of CPD achievement, and
to support the learning of others.
Achievement of CPD
The challenges and opportunities of work
experience provide the central method of continuing
professional development. This can be supported by
structured activities which include:-
* In-house courses.
* External courses.
* Work-based learning, e.g. codes observed, conflicts
resolved.
Distance learning Programmes.
, * Se1f-directed Private stu d Y,
* Preparation
,
and delivery of lectures and
PresentatIOns.
* Preparation of refereed Papers.
* Attendance at lectures, seminars or conferences.
Coaching, tutoring, monitoring, teaching.
* Secondment and special Projects.
* Relevant voluntary wor k.
It may not be possible to specify a fixed amount of
CPD, but relevant benchmarks such as Occupational
Standards can be valuable for defining needs and
,
Enaineering Institutions will advise members on a
O'
recommended style of a professional development
.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 323
Monitoring of CPD
The Code of Conduct for Registrants requires them
to take all reasonable steps to maintain and develop
their professional competence and knowledge. CPD
is, therefore, a key obligation on engineers and
technicians. Evidence of CPD, complying with the
CPD Code, is a requirement for registration.
Nominated Bodies of the Engineering Council are
required to promote and support CPD and, in
particular, to monitor the CPD being carried out by
their members. They may use opportunities of
registration, upgrading (for example) from Member
to Fellow, and other relevant occasions to expect
members to produce evidence of the CPD undertaken.
The Nautical Institute
Continuous professional development is the main
purpose of The Nautical Institute which effectively
takes over from government administrations once
individuals have passed their certificates of
competency.
The four main elements of Nautical Institute policy
can be summarised as follows:-
1. Provide a journal devoted primarily to keeping the
nautical profession up to date.
2. Publish operational guide books to enhance
professional practice with respect to maritime,
technical, commercial and educational activity.
3. Provide distance learning support for those who
want to develop their careers into complementary
nautical disciplines e.g. surveying, pilotage,
command or education.
4. Support forward looking policies and professional
values in industry committees both nationally and
internationally.
The Maritime Lecturer
It is now possible to bring the concepts, practices
and resources to bear on the maritime lecturer. It is
hoped that the college will have its own staff
development policy. An example of a policy statement
might be as follows.
"Every member of staff responsible for student
learning (new), teaching (old) shall undertake
personal development work which shall be verified
and discussed with the head of department during
each annual appraisal.
As a general guideline a member of staff should be
able to allocate 5% of working time to self
improvement which should include elements of the
following:-
324 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
1. Reading professional and industry journals.
2. Attending seminars and conferences.
3. Following external study programmes.
4. Developing curricula.
5. Participating in departmental projects.
6. Preparing articles and features for publication.
7. Participating in industry committees and working
groups.
8. Updating information transfer skills.
9. Refreshing lecturing and learning transfer skills.
10. Serving in or carrying out projects or research with
industry.
The college operates an educational development
programme whereby selected staff in line for
promotion or senior appointments are expected to
attain a higher level of qualification.
The college operates a policy of providing
sabbatical breaks for no more than (x) number of
staff each year (within a five year period) for staff
development and departmental enrichment.
Each department will hold for staff and students as
appropriate a series of not less than three discussion
seminars per annum designed to give lecturers the
experience of discovering new information and
imparting it to colleagues and, where appropriate,
students.
The college positively encourages membership of
professional associations and the attainment of
qualifications as indicators of capability and
suitability for advancement.
These staff development initiatives are not a
substitute for organisational management which will
continue to be the responsibility of the head of
department linked to the strategic objectives of the
College".
This rather specific set of criteria can, on the one
hand, appear costly and a drain on maximum teaching
time. Looked at in terms of the long term such
measures encourage acceptance of change, a modern
and attractive approach for prospective students,
commitment to common aims and enhanced team
work.
Continuous professional development of
lecturers (old) learning facilitators (new)
Whether or not a college provides the framework
as in the case of the above policy statement, all
maritime lecturers need to keep up to date and it is
possible to prepare a personal plan based upon the
above criteria.
In modern learning idiom the question to ask
yourself is "How am I going to plan my time to ensure
that I can assure myself that I am up to date, can use
my teaching time most effectively, and can contribute
to the development of my department whilst also
enhancing my career prospects"?
If I have written this last chapter well you should
be able to produce meaningful objectives, targets and
routines.
At the heart of all professional development is the
need for information. It is the application of your
intellectual faculty to new ideas that creates the
dynamic for progress.
Put another way, there are always competing
influences in any society and if you do not continually
seek to acquire new information and use it to improve
your performance you will get left behind. In the
Appendix One I have included some useful sources
of information for further study.
All these organisations have been chosen for their
international links. However, local, area and national
support groups and associations should not be
overlooked.
The future
There is a growing trend towards vocational
standards prescribed in terms of learning outcomes
or competencies. The aim, instead of testing the
student's ability to answer an exam paper, is to focus
on assessment either continuous or task related as a
better way of deciding if a student is qualified.
Assessment skills are new in this sense and the
chapters by Professor Captain Muirhead (24), Captain
Smith (28) and Mr. Haughton (29) put them into focus.
Educational technology is changing the way
learning takes place and the chapters on simulation
and computer based training demonstrates the power
of these techniques. Once mastered, information
technology can be applied to deliver training outside
the class room and the opportunities for teaching staff
to link in more closely with company training staff is
one of the major advantages of more flexible systems.
Modularisation is an inevitable trend as the
"knowledge explosion" continues to expand into vast
proportions. It shows no sign of slacking. The only
way to control learning and demonstrate progress is
to restructure traditional courses into modular units.
Students now have the opportunity to select their
study courses in a much more flexible way than
previously. Although there is the central STCW
Convention format to be embraced in certificates of
competency, there are many advantages to be
obtained from the more flexible approach which has
been pioneered in other disciplines.
Harmonising certificate schemes in a global
industry presents a new challenge for management
and organisations. The World Maritime University
sees the problem most sharply because of the number
of different nationals who attend courses there. In this
sense CPD should not be confined to educational
techniques alone.
In the UK a major change of emphasis has taken
place in education funding. To introduce a more
vocational/industry led approach the funding
authority has moved from the education department
to the employment department of the Government.
Mr. Matthew, in chapter 27, describes what this means
in terms of shipping qualifications.
This organisational change calls for considerably
more continuous professional development as the
teaching centres assume greater responsibility for
support and assessment.
Conclusion
The impact of information technology in knowledge
based disciplines has far reaching consequences. The
globalisation of shipping means that future training
systems must embrace cultural approaches as the links
between training provider and employer become more
varied and productive.
A lecturer or teacher has to have a wider sense of
awareness and actively participate as a member of the
college team. The student teacher relationship can no
longer be considered enough and a positive response
to development is desirable if the whole college is not
to lose its momentum.
Looking to the future there is so much excitement
and much opportunity for personnel to develop
effective responses to the demands of the industry and
they are most likely to succeed if the individuals
responsible for bringing on the next generation have
themselves the habit of renewal.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 325
 MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

- APPENDICES -
Appendix I Sources of information of particular value to maritime lecturers

Appendix II Some training books available from Kogan Page Ltd.

Appendix III Some training books available from the Institute of Personnel and Development

326 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

 Appendix ONE
Sources of information
of particular value
to maritime lecturers
It will surprise many readers to see just how much
information there is on all aspects of education and
training. I have selected UK based publishers not
because of a parochial outlook, but because they are
in my opinion the best for English speaking people.
1. Kogan Page have a formidable array of
educational books and some of these are listed in
Appendix II.
2. The Institute of Personnel and Development
(35 Camp Road, Wimbledon, London SW19 4UX)
produces an excellent journal called Personnel
Management and has a well edited selection of briefs,
papers and publications which cover the interface
between industry and the education and training
world (see Appendix III).
3. The Warsash Nautical Book Shop (6 Dibles
Road, Warsash, Southampton S03 9HZ) produces
an extraordinarily detailed bibliography of
maritime books which can be of great value to
lecturers.
4. The World Maritime University (Citadellsvagen
29, S.20124 Malmo, Sweden). Inaugurated in 1983
by the IMO, the WMUprovides senior maritime
personnel, particularly from developing countries,
with two year Master of Science Degree Courses
in General Maritime Administration, Maritime
Safety Administration, Maritime Education and
Training and Technical Management of Shipping
Companies.
The WMU plays a leading role in co-ordinating
the other specialist IMO training centres, helping
to develop model courses, undertaking research and
running seminars and short courses on specialised
maritime subjects linked primarily to the work of
the IMO.
5. Witherby Publishers (32-36 Aylesbury Street,
London ECIR OET). Publishes a wide range of
industry guides, including the ICS Bridge Procedure
Guide and the ISGOTT Guide. Of particular interest
is their book entitled Training and Assessment on Board
which is a guide to seafarers and managers on how
to make best use of opportunities for practical
training and assessment of competence on board
ship.
6. Professional Associations produce their own
specialised material and anybody who wants to be
considered a true professional should join and
support their own professional organisation or
learned society.
The main international maritime professional
associations are as follows:
* The Nautical Institute, 202 Lambeth Road,
London SEI 7LQ Publishes Seaways monthly,
membership based upon nautical qualifications,
career development schemes available, runs
seminars and conferences and is a major publisher
of nautical books.
* The Institute of Marine Engineers, 76 Mark
Lane, London EC3R 7JN. Publishes Marine
Engineers Review, has a comprehensive information
service, membership based upon marine and
engineering qualifications, runs conferences,
publishes books on marine engineering and related
subjects.
* The Royal Institution of Naval Architects, 10
Upper Belgrave Street, London SWIX 8BQ.
Publishes The Naval Architect, has a comprehensive
conference programme, encourages excellence in
design and produces many specialist publications.
* The Royal Institute of Navigation, 1 Kensington
Gore, London SW7 2AT is more a learned society
for all those interested in the subject. It publishes
TheJournal of Navigation and an A4 Navigation News.
The coverage of navigation makes this a valuable
source of information for those teaching and
developing new systems.
The International Maritime Lecturers
Association (IMLA), Secretary, c/o World Maritime
University, PO Box 500, Malmo 20124, Sweden, is a
voluntary organisation whose members are maritime
teachers. The organisation provides a forum for the
exchange of views and new techniques and the
international nature of the organisation means that it
can debate the merits of different national training
systems to great advantage. IMLA organises
international conferences.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 327
 Appendix TWO

Training Books available from Kogan Page Ltd

120 Pentonville Road, London N1 9JN, England
telephone: 0171 278 0433 fax: 0171 837 6348

500 Tips for Trainers Evaluation - relating training to business performance

Phil Race and Brenda Smith; 1995; 07494 15916 TerenceJackson; 1989; ISBN 1 85091 753 1

A Evaluation Approaches for Training and Development

Using Activities in Training and Development
Leslie Rae; 1996; 0 7494 18915
Assembling Course Materials - A Trainer's Action
Guide
Carol Nicolay andJudith Barrette; 1992;ISBN 07494
0622 4
C Phil Clements and Tony Spinks; 1995; ISBN 0 7494
Coaching, Mentoring and Assessing
Eric Parsloe; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1670X
Competence Based Assessment Techniques
Shirley Fletcher; 1992; ISBN 0 74940441 8
The Competent Trainer's Toolkit Set (7 books)
David G Reay; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1482 0
A Handbook of Computer Based Training
Christopher Dean and Quentin Whitlock; 1994;ISBN
o 7494 14812
Leslie Rae; February 1997;ISBN 0749420464
Everything YouEver Needed ToKnow About Training
Kaye Thorne and David Mackey; November 1996;
ISBN 0 7494 2084 7
F
Facilitating Learning - a sourcebook of activities
1399 9
The Facilitator's Handbook
John Heron; 1989; ISBN 7494 0970 3
H
How to Design and Deliver Induction Training
Programmes
Michael Meighan; 1995; 0 7494 1667X
How to Design and Deliver Quality Service Training
Tony Newby; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0737 9

Continuing Professional Development How to Design and Introduce an Appraisal Training

Edited by Sandra Clyne; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1253 4
Cost Effective Training - a manager's guide
Tony Newby; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0552 X
Creating High Impact Training - a practical guide to
successful training outcomes
Richard Y Chang; 1995; ISBN 0 74941683 1
System
Carol McCallum; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0836 7
How to Take a Training Audit
Michael Applegarth; 1991;ISBN 0 7494 0429 9
How to Write and Prepare Training Materials
Nancy Stimson; 1991;ISBN 0749404426

D I
Designing and Delivering Training for Groups IdentifyingTargetedTrainingNeeds - a practical guide
David Leigh; October 1996; ISBN 0 7494 2062 6 to beginning an effective training strategy
Sally Sparhawk; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1682 3
Designing Competence Based Training
Shirley Fletcher; 1991;ISBN 0 7494 0430 2 The In-House Trainer as Consultant
Mike Saunders and Keith Holdaway; October 1996;
E ISBN 0 7494 2029 4
The Effective Delivery of Training using NLP (neuro-
linguistic programming) Investing in Training and Development
Ted Garratt; March 1997;ISBN 0 7494 2142 8 Tony Pont; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1524 X

Effective Feedback Skills Investors in People Explained

Tim Russell; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1000 0 Peter Taylor and Bob Thakwray; October 1996;ISBN
o 7494 2083 9
328 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
L •
Learning at Work - Effective Strategies for Making
Learning Happen
Sylvia Downs; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1526 6
M Phil Lowe and Kim Kennedy; 1993; ISBN 0 7494
Make your Training Results last
Gloria E Bader and Audrey E Bloom; 1995; ISBN 0
7494 1684 X
Managing Change through Training and Development
Jim Stewart; 1996; ISBN 0 7494 0248 2
Managing Recruitment, Training and Development
- a sourcebook of activities
Elizabeth Christopher and Larry E Smith; 1995;ISBN
o 7494 14278
Managing Training
Sunny Stout; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0838 3
Mapping a Winning Training Approach
Joe B Wilson; 1995; 0 7494 17129
Measuring the Impact of Training - a practical guide
to calculating measurable results
Pamela A Wade; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1680 7
N Phil Lowe; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 11562
NVQs, Standards and Competence - A Practical
Guide for Employers, Managers and Trainers
Shirley Fletcher; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1327 1
NVQAssessment
Shirley Fletcher;January 1997; ISBN 0749421452
The NVQand GNVQAssessor Handbook
Ros Ollin and Jenny Tucker;January 1997; ISBN 0
749421436
o Q
One-to-One Training and Coaching Skills
Roger Buckley and Jim Caple; October 1996; ISBN
o 7494 2065 0
One Day Workshop Packages (trainer's guide and
participant's guide)
• Coaching and Counselling Skills
Phil Lowe; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1290 9
• Communication Skills
Wendy Carter; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1467 7
• Competitor Analysis
Wendy Carter; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 11716
• Creativity and Problem Solving
Phil Lowe; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 1088 4
• Customer Care
Wendy Carter; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 0926 6
• Delegation Skills
Rob Baston; 1991;ISBN 0749404582
Empowering Individuals
Phil Lowe; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1291 7
• Finance for Non-Financial Managers
Sylvia Handler; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0729 8
• Health and Safety Awareness
0924 X
• How to Motivate People
David Hussey; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0578 3
• Leadership Skills
Phil Lowe; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 11503
• Managing Organisational Change
Wendy Carter; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 10914
• Marketing Basics
David Hussey; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1292 5
• Negotiation Skills
Wendy Carter; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1465 0
• Performance Management
Phil Lowe; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 0929 0
• Preparing a Business Plan
David Hussey; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 1093 0
• Presentation Skills
Phil Lowe: 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0733 6
• Project Management
Michael Davies; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0731 X
• Recruitment and Interviewing Skills
Phil Lowe; 1993; ISBN 0 7494 11570
• Selling Skills
• Team Building Skills
Ralph Lewis; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 1463 2
• Time Management
Ralph Lewis; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0574 0
• Trainer's Companion Volume
David Hussey; 1993; ISBN 07494 10019
P
Preparing Instructional Objectives
Robert Mager; 1991; ISBN 0749405945
Quality Assurance in Training and Education
Richard Freeman; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0868 5
S
Speedtraining - Systemsfor Learning in times of rapid
change
Jim Stewart; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 0887 1
The StaffDevelopment Handbook - An Action Guide
for Managers and Supervisors
Peter Sheal; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0419 1
How to Develop and Present Staff Training Courses
Peter R Sheal; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 1231 3
Strategies for Learning at Work
Julie Cotton andJoe Trotter; March 1997;ISBN 0 7494
21460
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 329
 Applying SuccessfulTraining Techniques
Joe B Wilson; 1995; ISBN 0 7494 16815
T
Teaching and Learning Material on the Internet
Ian Forsyth; October 1996; ISBN 0 7494 2059 6
Technology Based Training
Serge Ravet and Maureen Layte; 1996; ISBN 0 7494
1975X
The Theory and Practice of Training
Roger Buckley and Jim Caple; 1995; ISBN 0 7494
14618
The Trainer Development Programme
Leslie Rae; 1994; ISBN 0 7494 13794
Training and Enterprise Directory - the definitive
guide to the UK training industry
published by Kogan Page in association with the TEC
National Council; yearly; ISBN 0 7494 19148
330 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Training Aids - a complete resource kit for Training
and Development
Leslie Rae; February 1997;ISBN 0 749420456
Training for Change - activities to promote positive
attitudes to change
Sue Bishop and David Taylor; 1996; ISBN 0 7494
2006 5
Handbook of Training Evaluation and Measurement
Methods
Jack Phillips; 1991;ISBN 074940548 1
Training Needs Analysis in the Workplace
Robyn Peterson; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0551 1
Training for Total Quality Management
BillEvans,Peter Reynolds and DavidJeffries; October
1996; ISBN 0 7494 2066 9
V
Validating your Training
Tony Newby; 1992; ISBN 0 7494 0551 1
 Appendix THREE

Training Books available from

the Institute of Personnel and Development
Plymbridge Distributors Ltd., Estover Plymouth PL6 7PZ
telephone: 01752 202301 fax: 01752 202333

c
Continuous Development
edited by Sue Wood; 1988; ISBN 0 85292 405 4

Cultivating Self-Development
David Megginson and Vivien Whitaker; October
1996; ISBN 0 85292 640 5

D
Designing Competence-based Training
Shirley Fletcher; 1991; ISBN 0749404302

Designing Training
Alison Hardingham; 1996; ISBN 0 85292 644 8

E
Effective Change - 20 ways to make it happen
Andrew Leigh; 1988; ISBN 0 85292 412 7

Evaluating Training
Peter Bramley; September 1996; ISBN 0 85292 636 7

I
Identifying Training Needs
Tom Boydell and Malcolm Leary; 1996; ISBN 0
85292 630 8

J
Job Analysis - a manager's guide
M Peam and R Kandola; 1993; ISBN 0 85292 542 5

M
Making Meetings Work
Patrick Forsyth; 1996; ISBN 0 85292 637 5

A Handbook of Management Training

edited byJohn Adair and DavidDespres; 1987; ISBN
o 85171 085 9
T
Training and Development
Incomes Data Service; 1992; ISBN 0 85292 455 0

Training Needs Analysis and Evaluation

Frances and Roland Bee; 1994; ISBN 0 85292 547 6

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING 331