Clase 04

CURSO : ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS 2018_03
UDB FACULTAD AERONAUTICA
ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS ESA 171
UNIDAD III:
Materialparapropósitosdeinstrucción solamente
ANALISIS DE ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS
SEMANA _04
martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 1

Los elementos estructurales individuales de los perfiles

laminados en frío son generalmente de pared delgada y
con una relación ancho espesor grande. Estos elementos
pueden pandearse localmente a un nivel de esfuerzos me
nor al esfuerzo de fluencia del acero cuando son someti
dos a esfuerzos de compresión debidos a flexión, cortan
te, aplastamiento o compresión axial.
Por consiguiente, el pandeo local de elementos individua
les es uno de los modos de falla principales que deben
considerarse para establecer la resistencia nominal de los
perfiles laminados en frío. La Fig. 4.1 ilustra patrones de
pandeo local de algunas vigas y columnas.
Fig. 4.1 Pandeo local de elementos a

compresión(1). (a) Vigas; (b) Columnas
Se ha demostrado plenamente que las placas bidimensio

nales sujetas a compresión y bajo diferentes condiciones
de apoyo no fallan como los elementos unidimensionales
(columnas) cuando alcanzan el esfuerzo crítico de pandeo.
La placa continua resistiendo carga adicional mediante la
redistribución interna de esfuerzos después de ocurrir el
pandeo local. Esta resistencia, conocida como resistencia
de postpandeo de placas, puede ser significativamente
mayor que la resistencia determinada con respecto a la
carga crítica de pandeo local. Por consiguiente, dicha resis
tencia también deberá ser tomada en cuenta al establecer
la resistencia nominal del perfil.
Es conveniente establecer la terminología usada general

mente en el diseño de los perfiles en estudio. A continua ción
se presentan las definiciones de los términos más comunes.
1. Elementos a Compresión No Atiesados.

Un elemento a compresión no atiesado es un elemento
plano con una sola orilla atiesada paralela a la dirección
del esfuerzo. Fig. 4.2, el elemento vertical de un perfil an
gular y el patín de compresión de un perfil C y de un perfil
sombrero invertido son elementos a compresión no atiesa
dos. Además, la porción de la cubreplaca del perfil arma
do mostrado en la Fig. 4.2 que se proyecta más allá de la
línea de conectores es considerada un elemento a compre
sión no atiesado, si la separación entre conectores es lo
suficientemente pequeña.
Fig. 4.2 Perfiles con elementos a compresión no atiesados

2. Elementos a Compresión Atiesados.

Un elemento a compresión atiesado o parcialmente atiesa
do es un elemento plano donde ambas orillas paralelas a
la dirección del esfuerzo están atiesadas por un alma, por
patín, labio atiesador, atiesador intermedio o algún otro
medio equivalente (ver la Fig. 4.3). Para el perfil armado
ilustrado en la Fig. 4.3, la porción del patín de compresión
entre las dos líneas de sujetadores puede ser considerada
un elemento a compresión atiesado si la separación entre
sujetadores es lo suficientemente pequeña.
Fig. 4.3 Perfiles con elementos a compresión atiesados

o parcialmente atiesados
3. Elementos con Múltiples Atiesadores.

Un elemento con múltiples atiesadores es un elemento con
atiesadores paralelos a la dirección del esfuerzo colocados
entre almas, o entre un alma y una orilla atiesada (ver Fig.
4.4). La porción del elemento entre atiesadores adyacentes
o entre el alma y una orilla atiesada se le llama
«subelemento».
Fig. 4.4 Perfiles con elementos a compresión

con atiesadores múltiples
UDB DEPARTAMENTO AERONAUTICA
Material para propósitos de instrucción solamente CURSO : ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS 2018_03

UDB DEPARTAMENTO AERONAUTICA CURSO : ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS 2018_03
General stress, strain and displacement

relationships for open and single cell closed
section thin-walled beams
We shall establish in this section the equations of equilibrium and
expressions for strain which are necessary for the analysis of open
Material para propósitos de instrucción solamente
section beams supporting shear loads and closed section beams

carrying shear and torsional loads. The analysis of open section
beams subjected to torsion requires a different approach and is
discussed separately in Chapter 18. The relationships are establi-
shed from first principles for the particular case of thin-walled sec
tions in preference to the adaption of Eqs (1.6), (1.27) and (1.28)
which refer to different coordinate axes; the form, however, will
be seen to be the same. (503)


The corresponding state of strain, in which it is assumed that

particles of the body suffer displacements in one plane only, is
known as plane strain. We shall suppose that this plane is, as
for plane stress, the xy plane. Then εz, γxz and γyz become
zero and Eqs (1.18) and (1.20) reduce to :

The parameter s in the analysis is distance measured around the

cross-section from some convenient origin. An element δs×δz×t
of the beam wall is maintained in equilibrium by a system of di-
rect and shear stresses as shown in Fig. 17.1(a). The direct stress
σz is produced by bending moments or by the bending action of
shear loads while the shear stresses are due to shear and/or tor
sion of a closed section beam or shear of an open section beam..


The hoop stress σs is usually zero but may be caused, in closed sec
tion beams, by internal pressure. Although we have specified that t
may vary with s, this variation is small for most thin-walled structu
res so that we may reasonably make the approximation that t is
constant over the length δs. Also, from Eq. (1.4), we deduce that :
τzs =τsz =τ say.
However, we shall find it convenient to work in terms of shear flow

q, i.e. shear force per unit length rather than in terms of shear
stress. Hence, in Fig. 17.1(b)
and is regarded as being positive in the

direction of increasing s.

The direct stresses σz and σs produce direct strains εz and εs, whi
le the shear stress τ induces a shear strain γ(=γzs =γsz). We shall
now proceed to express these strains in terms of the three compo
nents of the displacement of a point in the section wall (see Fig.
17.2). Of these components vt is a tangential displacement in the
xy plane and is taken to be positive in the direction of increasing
s; vn is a normal displacement in the xy plane and is positive out-
wards; and w is an axial displacement which has been defined pre

viously in Section 16.2.1.
Immediately, from the third of Eqs (1.18), we have :

It is possible to derive a simple expression for the direct strain εs

in terms of vt, vn, s and the curvature 1/r in the xy plane of the
beam wall. However, as we do not require εs in the subsequent
analysis we shall, for brevity, merely quote the expression :
The shear strain γ is found in terms of the displacements w and

vt by considering the shear distortion of an element δs×δz of the
beam wall. From Fig. 17.3 we see that the shear strain is given by
or, in the limit as both δs

and δz tend to zero

In addition to the assumptions specified in the earlier part of this

section, we further assume that during any displacement the sha
pe of the beam cross-section is maintained by a system of closely
spaced diaphragms which are rigid in their own plane but are per
fectly flexible normal to their own plane (CSRD assumption).
There is, therefore, no resistance to axial displacement w and the
cross-section moves as a rigid body in its own plane, the displace
ment of any point being completely specified by translations u

and v and a rotation θ (see Fig. 17.4).




The open section beam of arbitrary section shown in Fig. 17.5 su-
pports shear loads Sx and Sy such that there is no twisting of the
beam cross-section. For this condition to be valid the shear loads
must both pass through a particular point in the cross-section
known as the shear centre.
Since there are no hoop stresses in the beam the shear flows and
direct stresses acting on an element of the beam wall are related

by Eq. (17.2), i.e.
We assume that the direct stresses are obtained with sufficient

accuracy from basic bending theory so that from Eq. (16.18)
Using the relationships of Eqs (16.23) and (16.24), i.e.

∂My/∂z=Sx, etc., this expression becomes

Substituting for ∂σz/∂z in Eq. (17.2) gives :
Integrating Eq. (17.12) with respect to s from some origin for s to

any point around the cross-section, we obtain :

If the origin for s is taken at the open edge of the cross-section,

then q=0 when s=0 and Eq. (17.13) becomes :
For a section having either Cx or Cy as an axis of symmetry Ixy =0

and Eq. (17.14) reduces to :

Determine the shear flow

distribution in the thin-walled Z-
section shown in Fig. 17.6 due to
a shear load Sy applied through
the shear centre of the section.

The origin for our system of reference axes coincides with the
centroid of the section at the mid-point of the web. From anti
symmetry we also deduce by inspection that the shear centre
occupies the same position. Since Sy is applied through the shear
centre then no torsion exists and the shear flow distribution is
given by Eq. (17.14) in which Sx =0, i.e.
The second moments of area of the section have previously been

determined in Example 16.14 and are :
Substituting these values in Eq. (i) we obtain

On the bottom flange 12, y=−h/2 and x=−h/2+s1,

where 0≤s1 ≤h/2. Therefore

Hence at 1 (s1 =0), q1 =0 and at 2 (s1 =h/2), q2 =0.42Sy/h. Further

examination of Eq. (iii) shows that the shear flow distribution on
the bottom flange is parabolic with a change of sign (i.e. direction )
at s1 =0.336h. For values of s1 <0.336h, q12 is negative and there

fore in the opposite direction to s1. In the web 23, y=−h/2+s2,
where 0≤s2 ≤h and x =0. Then :

We note in Eq. (iv) that the shear flow is not zero when s2 = 0 but
equal to the value obtained by inserting s1 = h/2 in Eq. (iii), i.e. q2
= 0.42Sy/h. Integration of Eq. (iv) yields

This distribution is symmetrical about Cx with a maximum value

at s2 =h/2(y=0) and the shear flow is positive at all points in the
web.
The shear flow distribution in the upper flange may be deduced

from antisymmetry so that the complete distribution is of the
form shown in Fig. 17.7.

Columns

The first significant contribution to the theory of the buckling of

columns was made as early as 1744 by Euler. His classical approach
is still valid, and likely to remain so, for slender columns possessing
a variety of end restraints. Our initial discussion is therefore a pre-
sentation of the Euler theory for the small elastic deflection of per
fect columns.
However, we investigate first the nature of buckling and the diffe

rence between theory and practice.
It is common experience that if an increasing axial compressive load

is applied to a slender column there is a value of the load at which
the column will suddenly bow or buckle in some unpredetermined
direction.

This load is patently the buckling load of the column or something

very close to the buckling load. Clearly this displacement implies
a degree of asymmetry in the plane of the buckle caused by geome
trical and/or material imperfections of the column and its load.
However, in our theoretical stipulation of a perfect column where
the load is applied precisely along the perfectly straight centroidal
axis, there is perfect symmetry so that, theoretically, there can be
no sudden bowing or buckling. We therefore require a precise defi

nition of buckling load which may be used in our analysis of the
perfect column.
If the perfect column of Fig. 8.1 is subjected to a compressive load

P, only shortening of the column occurs no matter what the value
of P. However, if the column is displaced a small amount by a
lateral load F then, at values of P below the critical or buckling
load, PCR, removal of F results in a return of the column to its

undisturbed position, indicating a state of stable equilibrium.
At the critical load the displacement does not disappear and, in
fact, the column will remain in any displaced position as long as
the displacement is small. Thus, the buckling load PCR is
associated with a state of neutral equilibrium. For P>PCR
enforced lateral displacements increase and the column is unsta
ble.

Consider the pin-ended column AB of Fig. 8.2.We assume that it is

in the displaced state of neutral equilibrium associated with buck
ling so that the compressive load P has attained the critical value
PCR. Simple bending theory (see Chapter 16) gives
so that the differential equation of bending of the column is :

The well-known solution of Eq. (8.2) is :
where μ2 =PCR/EI and A and B are unknown constants. The

boundary conditions for this particular case are v=0 at z=0 and l.
Thus A=0 and
For a non-trivial solution (i.e. v =0) then

giving or
Note that Eq. (8.3) cannot be solved for v no matter howmany of

the available boundary conditions are inserted. This is to be expec
ted since the neutral state of equilibrium means that v is indeter
minate.
The smallest value of buckling load, in other words the smallest
value of P which can maintain the column in a neutral equilibrium
state, is obtained by substituting n=1 in Eq. (8.4). Hence

Other values of PCR corresponding to n=2, 3, . . . , are
These higher values of buckling load cause more complex modes

of buckling such as those shown in Fig. 8.3. The different shapes
may be produced by applying external restraints to a very slender
column at the points of contraflexure to prevent lateral move-
ment. If no restraints are provided then these forms of buckling
are unstable and have little practical meaning.
The critical stress, σCR, corresponding to PCR, is, from Eq. (8.5)


where r is the radius of gyration of the cross-sectional area of

the column. The term l/r is known as the slenderness ratio of the
column. For a column that is not doubly symmetrical, r is the
least radius of gyration of the cross-section since the column will
bend about an axis about which the flexural rigidity EI is least.
Alternatively, if buckling is prevented in all but one plane then EI
is the flexural rigidity in that plane.
Equations (8.5) and (8.6) may be written in the form :
where le is the effective length of the column.

This is the length of a pin-ended column that would have the same
critical load as that of a column of length l, but with different end
conditions. The determination of critical load and stress is carried
out in an identical manner to that for the pin-ended column except
that the boundary conditions are different in each case. Table 8.1
gives the solution in terms of effective length for columns having a
variety of end conditions. In addition, the boundary conditions refe
rred to the coordinate axes of Fig. 8.2 are quoted. The last case in
Table 8.1 involves the solution of a transcendental equation; this is
most readily accomplished by a graphical method.
Let us now examine the buckling of the perfect pin-ended column

of Fig. 8.2 in greater detail. We have shown, in Eq. (8.4), that the co
lumn will buckle at discrete values of axial load and that associated
with each value of buckling load there is a particular buckling
mode mode (Fig. 8.3).
These discrete values of buckling load are called eigenvalues,

their associated functions (in this case v=B sin nπz/l) are called
eigenfunctions and the problem itself is called an eigenvalue
problem.
Further, suppose that the lateral load F in Fig. 8.1 is removed.
Since the column is perfectly straight, homogeneous and loa
ded exactly along its axis, it will suffer only axial compression as
P is increased. This situation, theoretically, would continue
until yielding of the material of the column occurred. However,
as we have seen, for values of P below PCR the column is in sta
ble equilibrium whereas for P>PCR the column is unstable. A
plot of load against lateral deflection at mid-height would there
fore have the form shown in Fig. 8.4 where, at the point P=PCR,
it is theoretically possible for the column to take one of three
deflection paths.
Thus, if the column remains undisturbed the deflection at mid-

heightwould continue to be zero but unstable (i.e. the trivial
solution of Eq. (8.3), v=0) or, if disturbed, the column would bu-
ckle in either of two lateral directions; the point at which this
possible branching occurs is called a bifurcation point; further
bifurcation points occur at the higher values of PCR(4π2EI/l2,
9π2EI/l2, . . .).

Example 8.1
A uniform column of length L and flexural stiffness EI is simply
supported at its ends and has an additional elastic support at
midspan. This support is such that if a lateral displacement vc
occurs at this point a restoring force kvc is generated at the point.
Derive an equation giving the buckling load of the column. If the
buckling load is 4π2EI/L2 find the value of k. Also if the elastic su
pport is infinitely stiff show that the buckling load is given by the
equation tan λL/2=λL/2 where λ= √ P/EI.
The column is shown in its displaced position in Fig. 8.5.The ben-

ding moment at any section of the column is given by

so that, by comparison with Eq. (8.1)
giving
The solution of Eq. (i) is of standard form and is


The constants A and B are found using the boundary conditions of

the column which are: v=0 when z=0, v=vc, when z=L/2 and
(dv/dz)=0 when z=L/2.
From the first of these, A=0 while from the second
The third boundary condition gives, since vc =0, the required

equation, i.e.

Rearranging
If P (buckling load)=4π2EI/L2 then λL/2=π so that k =4P/L.

Finally, if k→∞
Note that Eq. (ii) is the transcendental equation which would be

derived when determining the buckling load of a column of length
L/2, built in at one end and pinned at the other.

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CURSO : ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS 2018_03

UDB FACULTAD AERONAUTICA

ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS ESA 171

ANALISIS DE ESTRUCTURAS AERONAUTICAS

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 1

Los elementos estructurales individuales de los perfiles

Fig. 4.1 Pandeo local de elementos a

Se ha demostrado plenamente que las placas bidimensio

Es conveniente establecer la terminología usada general

1. Elementos a Compresión No Atiesados.

Fig. 4.2 Perfiles con elementos a compresión no atiesados

2. Elementos a Compresión Atiesados.

Fig. 4.3 Perfiles con elementos a compresión atiesados

3. Elementos con Múltiples Atiesadores.

Fig. 4.4 Perfiles con elementos a compresión

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 11

General stress, strain and displacement

section beams supporting shear loads and closed section beams

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 12

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The corresponding state of strain, in which it is assumed that

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 14

The parameter s in the analysis is distance measured around the

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 15

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However, we shall find it convenient to work in terms of shear flow

and is regarded as being positive in the

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wards; and w is an axial displacement which has been defined pre

Immediately, from the third of Eqs (1.18), we have :

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 18

It is possible to derive a simple expression for the direct strain εs

The shear strain γ is found in terms of the displacements w and

or, in the limit as both δs

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 20

In addition to the assumptions specified in the earlier part of this

ment of any point being completely specified by translations u

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martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 24

direct stresses acting on an element of the beam wall are related

We assume that the direct stresses are obtained with sufficient

Using the relationships of Eqs (16.23) and (16.24), i.e.

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 26

Substituting for ∂σz/∂z in Eq. (17.2) gives :

Integrating Eq. (17.12) with respect to s from some origin for s to

any point around the cross-section, we obtain :

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 27

If the origin for s is taken at the open edge of the cross-section,

For a section having either Cx or Cy as an axis of symmetry Ixy =0

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 28

Determine the shear flow

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 29

The second moments of area of the section have previously been

Substituting these values in Eq. (i) we obtain

On the bottom flange 12, y=−h/2 and x=−h/2+s1,

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 31

Hence at 1 (s1 =0), q1 =0 and at 2 (s1 =h/2), q2 =0.42Sy/h. Further

at s1 =0.336h. For values of s1 <0.336h, q12 is negative and there

martes, 25 de junio de 2019 Código : E S A 171 32

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This distribution is symmetrical about Cx with a maximum value