A HISTORY OF GLOBAL POLITICS: CREATING AN
INTERNATIONAL ORDER Christendom or the entire Christian world.
• The world is composed of many countries or states,
all of them having different forms of government.
• Political, military and other diplomatic engagements
between two countries is what we call international
relations.
• This phenomenon of deepening interaction as the
world becomes more and more integrated because of
globalization is what we call internationalization.
• Internationalization does not equal with globalization.
• Globalization encompasses a multitude of
connections and interactions that cannot be reduced
to the ties between governments.
• Although this is contemporary world, or the new and
modern world, we cannot avoid discussing history
because the international relations of today are
defined by events that occurred as far back as 400
years ago.
Although it is still a major part of globalization as we’ve
discussed on the overlapping themes of different
definitions of globalization. Nevertheless, it is still
important to consider international relations as a facet of
globalization because states/governments are key drivers
of global processes. That is why we will need to work
backwards first.
The Attributes of Today’s Global System
World politics today has four key attributes.
• First, there are countries or states that are
independent and govern themselves.
• Second, these countries interact with each other
through diplomacy.
• Third, there are international organizations like the
United Nations (UN) that facilitate these
interactions.
• Fourth, beyond simply facilitating meeting
between states, international organizations also
take lives on their own.
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting
negotiations between representatives of states. It usually
refers to international diplomacy, the conduct of
international relations through the intercession of
professional diplomats with regard to a full range of
topical issues.
The UN for example apart from being a meeting ground
for presidents and other heads of state, also has task-
specific agencies like the WHO and the International
Labor Organization.
• What does country or as some scholars say
nation-state mean?
• The nation-state is a relatively modern
phenomenon in human history and people did not
always organize themselves as countries.
• The nation-state is composed of two non-
interchangeable terms. Not all states are nations
and not all nations are states.
You might ask yourself. What are the origins of the system
that we have today? To answer this question, we need to
first determine…
• At different parts in the history of humanity, people
in various regions of the world identified
themselves as units as small as a village or their
tribes, and at other times they see themselves as
members of larger political categories like
• For example Scotland is a nation because it has
its own flag and national culture but it still belongs
to a state called the United Kingdom.
• Even closer to home, many people believe that
the Bangsamoro is a separate nation existing
within the Philippines but they still recognize the
authority of the Philippine state.
• Meanwhile, if there are states with multiple
nations, there are also single nations with multiple
states. For example, the nation of Korea is divided
into two states. We have the North and South
Korea. We also have the Chinese nation referring
to both the People’s Republic of China and
Taiwan.
• All these examples beg the question what is the
difference between a nation and a state?
• State refers to a country and its government.
• A state has four attributes:
• First, it exercises authority over a specific
population, called its citizens.
• Second, it governs a specific territory.
• Third, a state has a structure of government that
crafts various rules that people/society follow.
• Fourth, and most crucial, the state has
sovereignty over its territory.
Sovereignty here refers to internal and external authority.
Internally, no individuals or groups can operate in a given
national territory by ignoring the state. This means that
groups like churches, civil society organizations,
corporations, and other entities have to follow the laws of
the state where they establishes their parishes, officer, or
headquarters.
Externally, sovereignty means that a state’s policies and
procedures are independent of the interventions of other
states. Russia or china for example cannot pass laws for
the Philippines and vice versa.
• The nation, according to Benedict Anderson, is an
“imagined community”. It is limited because it
does not go beyond a given “official boundary”
and because rights and responsibilities are mainly
the privilege and concern of that nation.
• Moreover, nations often limit themselves to people
who have assimilated a particular culture, speak a
common language in a specific territory.
• Calling it “imagined” does not mean that the
nation as made-up. Rather the nation allows one
to feel a connection with a community of people
even if he/she will never meet all of them in
his/her lifetime.
• Most nations strive to be states. Nation-builders
can only feel a sense of fulfillment when that
national idea assumes an organizational form
whose authority and power are recognized and
accepted by “the people.”
Being limited means that the nation has its boundaries.
This characteristic is different to many religious
communities. For example, anyone can become a
Catholic if one chooses to. In fact, catholics want more
people to join their community and refer to it as a call of
discipleship. However, not everyone can simply become a
Filipino. An American cannot simply go to the Philippine
embassy and ask to be “converted” into a Filipino. A
process is needed for that, to naturalize a foreigner.
 • Calling it “imagined” does not mean that the
nation as made-up. Rather the nation allows one
to feel a connection with a community of people
even if he/she will never meet all of them in
his/her lifetime.
• Most nations strive to be states. Nation-builders
can only feel a sense of fulfillment when that
national idea assumes an organizational form
whose authority and power are recognized and
accepted by “the people.”
For example, when you cheer for Filipinos in international
singing competitions, it is not because you personally
know them. Rather, you imagine a connection since you
are members of the Filipino community.
• If there are communities that are not states, they
often seek some form of autonomy within their
“mother states”.
• Nation and state are closely related because it is
nationalism that facilitates state information.
• Sovereignty is one of the fundamental principles
of modern state politics. To understand this we
need to go back in time, 400 years ago.
This is why for example, in the nation of Quebec, though it
belongs to the state of Canada, it has different laws about
language (French is their first language and they require
French language competencies for their citizens)
For example, in the modern era, it has been the nationalist
movements that have allowed the creation of nation-
states. States have become independent and sovereign
because nationalist sentiment yearns for this
independence.
The Interstate System
• The origins of the present-day concept of sovereignty
can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia,
which was a set of agreements signed in 1648 to end
the Thirty Years’ War between the major continental
powers of Europe.
• After this war, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain,
France, Sweden and the Dutch Republic designed a
system that would prevent wars in the future.
The Thirty Years' War was a war fought primarily in
Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. it started as a
war between the catholic and protestant states that
formed the Holy Roman empire. One of the most
destructive conflicts in human history, it resulted in eight
million fatalities not only from military engagements but
also from violence, famine, and plague.
This treaty recognizes that those who signed will exercise
complete control over their domestic affairs and swear not
to meddle in each other’s affairs.
• The Westphalia provided stability for European
nations until its first major challenge, Napoleon
Bonaparte, who believed in spreading the principles
of the French revolution – liberty, equality, and
fraternity- to the rest of Europe.
• The Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1803-1815 with
Napoleon marching all over Europe. In every country
they conquered, the French implemented the
Napoleonic Code that forbade birth privileges,
encouraged freedom of religion, and promoted
meritocracy in government service.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French statesman and military
leader of Italian descent who rose to prominence and
eventually became the Emperor of France during the
French Revolution and led several successful campaigns
during the French Revolutionary Wars.
In his campaign, he challenged the powers of kings,
nobility and even religion in Europe.
Meritocracy is a government or the holding of power by
people selected on the basis of their ability. You can hold
a government position or you can rule not because you
were born with blue blood but because of your abilities.
This system shocked the monarchies and the hereditary
elites or the nobles such dukes and duchesses and to
retaliate they gathered their armies against the French
emperor.
• Anglo and Prussian armies finally defeated Napoleon
in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
• To prevent another war while still keeping their
privileges, the royal powers created a new system that
restored the Westphalian system.
• The Concert of Europe was an alliance of “great
powers”- the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia, and
Prussia – that sought to restore the world of
monarchial, hereditary and religious privileges of the
time before Napoleon and the French Revolution
came.
With his defeat came the end of his mission to spread the
liberal code all across Europe.
• Also, it was an alliance that sought to restore the
sovereignty of states.
• Under this Metternich system (named after the
Austrian diplomat, Klemens von Metternich, who was
the system’s main architect), the Concert’s power and
authority lasted from 1815 to 1914, at the dawn of
World War I.
• Despite the challenge of Napoleon and the eventual
collapse of the Concert of Europe after World War I,
present-day international systems still has traces of
this history.
• Until now, states are considered sovereign, and
Napoleonic attempts to violently impose systems of
government in other countries are rejected.
• Just like the Concert System, “great powers” still hold
significant influence over world politics.
For example, the most powerful grouping in the UN, the
Security Council has a core of five permanent members,
all having veto powers over the council’s decision making
process. The Security Council has primary responsibility
for the maintenance of international peace and security. It
has 15 Members, and each Member has one vote. Under
the Charter of the United Nations, all Member States are
obligated to comply with Council decisions. Five
permanent members: China, France, Russian
Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United
States, the remaining 10 are non-permanent and can be
changed every two years. A veto is a constitutional right
to reject a decision or proposal made by a law-making
body. Since pwede nila pugngan ang isa ka policy this
veto power is very controversial because the interests of
these nations are not always for the welfare of everyone.
Internationalism
• The Westphalian and Concert systems divided the
world into separate, sovereign entities. Ever since its
existence, there have been attempts to transcend it.
• Internationalism comes in different forms but the
principle may be divided into two broad categories:
liberal internationalism and socialist internationalism.
Some like Bonaparte challenged the system by meddling
with other states’ sovereignty while others sought to
imagine other systems of governance that go beyond but
do not necessarily challenge sovereignty. There are also
others who imagine a system of more interaction between
sovereign states for the desire of greater cooperation and
unity. This is what we call internationalism.
Group activity: discuss in your group whether you prefer
nationalism or internationalism and why. Present your
findings to the class.
Liberal Internationalism
• The 18th century German philosopher Immanuel
Kant likened states in a global system to people
living in a given territory.
• If people living together require a government to
prevent lawlessness, shouldn’t that same principle
be applied to states?
• States must give up some freedoms and “establish
a continuously growing state consisting of various
nations which will ultimately include the nations of
the world.”
He argued that without a government, the international
system would be chaotic.
In short, kant imagined a form of global government.
• British philosopher, Jeremy Bentham, advocated
the creation of international law that would govern
the inter-state relations.
• He believed that objective global legislators
should aim to propose legislation that would
create the “greatest happiness of all nations taken
together.
• To many, these proposals for global government
and international law seemed to represent
challenges to states.
• The first thinker to reconcile nationalism with
liberal internationalism was the 19th century Italian
patriot Giuseppe Mazzini. He was an advocate of
unification of the various Italian-speaking mini
states and a major critic of the Metternich
systems.
• He believed in a Republican government (without
kings, queens, and hereditary succession) and
proposed a system of free nations that cooperated
with each other to create an international system.
Ask yourself this; if there is a world or global government,
won’t it be reigning supreme? And also who will constitute
this global government that will ensure every country is
not at a disadvantage? And would international laws not
overwhelm the sovereignty of individual states? A global
government is similar to that of federalism in the sense
that there is a central government in this case the world or
global government and there are state or regional
governments in the form of the different countries in the
world. The problem is when a state law for example
legalization of marijuana for medical purposes clashes
with the national law. Since the national government is
more powerful it would ultimately result in the bigger and
more powerful entity winning or getting the upper hand.
• For Mazzini, free, independent states would be
the basis of an equally free, cooperative
international system.
• He was a nationalist internationalist who believes
that free, unified nation-states should be the basis
of global cooperation.
• President Woodrow Wilson saw nationalism as a
prerequisite to internationalism that he forwarded
the principle of self-determination – the belief that
the world’s nations had a right to a free and
sovereign government.
He argued that if the various Italian mini-states could
unify, one could scale up the system to create for example
a United States of America or a United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland.
Mazzini influenced the thinking of United States president
from 1913 to 1921 Woodrow Wilson who later on became
the 20th century’s most famous internationalist.
Wilson hoped that these free nations became
democracies. In a "pure democracy," the majority is not
restrained in this way and can impose its will on the
minority. Only by being democracies would they be able to
build a free system of international relations based in
international law and cooperation.
• Because of his efforts, he became the most
notable advocate for the creation of the League of
Nations, which after World War I in 1918, he
transformed it into a venue for conciliation and
arbitration to prevent another war.
• He was thus awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
1919.
• The League came into being that same year but
unfortunately and ironically, the USA was not able
to join because of strong opposition from Senate.
Any of six international prizes awarded annually for
outstanding work in physics, chemistry, physiology or
medicine, literature, economics (since 1969), and the
promotion of peace. The Nobel Prizes, first awarded in
1901, were established by the will of Alfred Nobel and are
traditionally awarded on December 10, the anniversary of
his death.
Despite its supposed objective, the League was not able
to prevent another war from breaking out. It was helpless
in stopping World War II.
• On one side of the war were the Axis Powers –
Hitler’s Germany, Mussolini’s Italy, and Hirohito’s
Japan – who were ultranationalists.
• The Allied Powers were composed of the US, UK,
France, Holland, and Belgium.
• Despite its failure, the League still gave birth to the
World Health Organization (WHO) and International
Labor Organization (ILO).
Ultranationalists means they are very much against
internationalism and preferred to use violence to impose
their dominance over other nations.
It was during this war that the main goal of
internationalism, which is global cooperation and peace
was forgotten.
Masking wala na ang league of nations today because of
their dissolution, their principles still survived the war and
became the inspiration for future forms of international
cooperation.
• The League was the concretization of different
concepts of liberal internationalism.
• For Kant, it emphasized the need to form common
international principles.
• For Mazzini, it emphasized principles of
cooperation and respect among nation-states.
• For Wilson, it called for democracy and self-
determination.
• All these ideas will be the foundation of the
creation of the United Nations.
• One of Mazzini’s biggest critics was German
socialist Karl Marx, who was also an
internationalist, but who differed from the former
because he did not believe in nationalism.
• Instead Marx, placed a premium on economic
equality; he did not divide the world into countries
but into classes.
 • The capitalist class referred to the owners of
factories, companies, and other “means of
production.”
• The proletariat class included those who did not
own the means of production, but instead, worked
for the capitalists.
For Marx, any true form of internationalism should reject
nationalism because nationalism is all about domestic
concerns contrary to internationalism’s global ones.
• Marx and his co-author, Friedrich Engels believed
that in a socialist revolution seeking to overthrow
the state and alter the economy, the proletariat
“had no nation.”
• Marx died in 1883 but his followers established
the Socialist International (SI), a union of
European socialist and labor parties in Paris in
1889.
• Though short-lived, the SI achieved the
declaration of May 1 as Labor Day and the
creation of an International Women’s Day. Most
importantly, it successfully campaigned for an 8-
hour workday.
That’s why their battle cry during the revolution became
famous “workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to
lose but your chains.”
They opposed nationalism because they believed it
prevented the unification of the world’s workers. Instead,
nationalism could make workers in individual countries
identify with the capitalists of their countries.
• The SI collapsed during World War I as the
member parties refused or were unable to join the
internationalist efforts to fight for the war.
• Many of these parties even ended fighting with
each other.
• As the SI collapsed, a more radical version
emerged.
• In the so-called Russian Revolution of 1917, Czar
Nicholas II was overthrown and replaced by a
revolutionary government led by the Bolsheviks
their leader, Vladimir Lenin.
Marx’s warning came true. When workers and
organizations take the side of their countries instead of
each other, their long-term interests are compromised.
Give brief background on Nicholas !! The emperor of
Russia and father of Anastasia.
• This new state was called the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, or USSR. Unlike the majority
of the member parties, the Bolsheviks did not
believe in obtaining power for the working class
through elections.
• To encourage these socialist revolutions across
the world, Lenin established the Communist
International (Comintern) in 1919, which served
as the central body for directing Communist
parties all over the world.
Instead, they exploited the revolutionary vanguard parties
to lead revolutions across the world, using methods of
terror. Today parties like this are referred to as Communist
parties.
Many states feared the Comintern believing that it was
working in secret to stir up revolutions in their countries,
and this suspicion was actually true.
• A problem arose during World War II when the
Soviet Union joined the Allied Powers in 1914.
• To appease their allies, Lenin’s successor Joseph
Stalin dissolved the Comintern in 1943.
• After the war, however, Stalin re-established the
Comintern as the Communist Information Bureau
(Cominform).
• The Soviet Union took over the countries in
Eastern Europe when the US, the Soviet Union,
and Great Britain divided the war-torn Europe into
respective spheres of influence.
Since the Soviet union was controversial and suspected of
encouraging revolutions… a problem…
The US and the UK of course did not trust the Soviet
Union in their fight against Hitler’s Germany but tthey had
good reason to suspect given the Soviet Union’s
reputation. Although the Soviet Union was officially part of
the Allied Powers, the other member states wondered if
the Soviet Union was trying to promote revolutions in their
backyard.
The Cominform just like the Comintern before it directed
the various communist parties that had taken over Eastern
Europe.
• With the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union in
1991, whatever existing thoughts about
communist internationalism also disappeared.
• The SI managed to re-establish itself in 1951, but
its influence remained contained in Europe and
has never been considered as a major player in
international relations to this very day.
• For the postwar period, however, liberal
internationalism prospered again with its best
example in the rise of the UN as the center of
global governance.
To summarize, we’ve discussed the beginning of the
international system we have today built on nationalism
and internationalism. Though it is just one part of
globalization, it is very important since global interactions
are heightened by the increased interdependence of
states. And these international relations are facilitated by
international organizations that promote global norms and
policies with United Nations as the example. That is why
our next lesson would be all about the United Nations.
ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
IN THE CREATION OF A GLOBAL ECONOMY
Overview of IFIs
(International Financial Institution)
 In many parts of the world, IFIs play a major role
in the social and economic development programs
of nations with developing or transitional
economies. This role includes advising on
development projects, funding them and assisting
in their implementation.
 Characterized by AAA-credit ratings and a broad
membership of borrowing and donor countries,
each of these institutions operates independently.
Common examples were the ones I mentioned previously
such as the World bank and the IMF however there are
still many others. But the biggest IFI in the world is the
European Investment Bank which lent 61 billion euros to
global projects in 2011.
Shared Goals and Objectives:
 To reduce global poverty and improve people’s
living condition and standards;
 To support sustainable economic, social, and
institutional development; and
  To promote regional cooperation and integration.
 IFIs achieve these objectives through loans,
credits, and grants to national governments. Such
funding is usually tied to specific projects that
focus on economic and socially sustainable
development.
 IFIs also provide technical and advisory
assistance to their borrowers and conduct
extensive research on development issues.
 In addition to these public procurement
opportunities, in which multilateral financing is
delivered to a national government for the
implementation of a project or program, the IFIs
are increasingly lending directly to non-sovereign
guaranteed (NSG) actors including sub-national
government entities as well as the private sectors.
NSG or NGO
For the IFI World bank alone they had cumulative lending
commitments from 1947 to the present of 13,753 projects
in 174 countries.
Among their recently approved projects were the
balochistan education project in Pakistan: with a total
project cost of 10.71 million USD; we also have Liberia’s
public financial management reforms for institutional
strengthening project with a totalof 19 million USD. These
projects are categorized into different sectors: agriculture,
education, energy, financial, health, industry/trade,
info/communication, public admin, social protection,
transportation, and water/sanitary/waste management
Working with IFIs
 During recent years, IFIs have made considerable
progress in harmonizing the way they procure
goods and services. In many cases, they are now
using similar policies and procedures, although
the interpretation of these processes may still vary
at the level of the individual institution.
Country Strategies
 All IFIs use country strategy documents, as these
are fundamental to establish an IFI’s lending
priorities for a particular country.
 Based on the country’s own vision for its long-
term development and written by the IFI, the
document lays out the IFI’s support program for
the nation.
 A country strategy begins by analyzing the causes
of poverty within the population and identifying
key areas where the IFI’s assistance can reduce it
most effectively. This establishes a foundation for
the IFI’s future activities in the country, which can
range across the entire spectrum of economic and
social needs.
 The development of the country strategy involves
extensive discussions with many stakeholders,
including government authorities, representatives
of civil society, NGOs, development agencies, and
the private sector. These discussions are crucial
to the success of the strategy because they
promote collaboration and coordination among
various national partners.
The Project Cycle
 All IFI-funded projects are implemented by the
borrowing countries, not by the IFI providing the
funds. However, all borrowers must follow the
IFI’s rules and procedures throughout the entire
project cycle. This is intended to guarantee
efficiency and transparency in the use of IFI
funds.
 The project cycle, which has similar stages for all
IFIs, is the framework for the design, preparation,
implementation, completion and evaluation of a
project. Business opportunities occur throughout
the cycle, so becoming familiar with it will increase
your chances of identifying an opportunity and
securing a contract.
 You should be aware, though, that project cycles
can often last for several years, so being involved
in a project from start to finish can require a
substantial long-term investment on your part.
However, the smaller components within a given
project cycle can provide many shorter-term
opportunities.
Project Cycle General Stages:
1. Identification
 The IFI and the borrowing country identify
projects that are appropriate for the country's
development strategy and suitable for IFI
support. Pre-feasibility studies are often
required at this stage.
2. Preparation
 Once a proposed project has entered the
project pipeline, the borrower and IFI technical
staff study and define it further. The actual
design and preparation of the project are the
borrowing country's responsibility. During this
stage, the borrower and/or the IFI frequently
hire consultants to help with feasibility studies,
detailed project design and the assessment of
the project's environmental and social effects.
3. Appraisal
 IFI staff conducts in-depth assessments of the
technical, financial and economic elements of
the project. The appraisal phase is the IFI's
responsibility and culminates in a project plan.
4. Negotiation
 The IFI and the borrower negotiate the funding
agreement and the project implementation
plans. Negotiations result in a loan or funding
document that is presented to the appropriate
IFI board(s) for approval. The funding becomes
effective after board approval and after the
country has signed the documents. Funds can
now be disbursed, thus commencing the
implementation stage of the project.
5. Implementation and Supervision
 Implementation of the project, including
procurement, is the responsibility of the borrower
and is carried out with minimal IFI assistance.
However, the IFI does oversee all major
procurement decisions made by the borrower.
Most of the funds are spent during this phase,
which provides the bulk of the procurement
opportunities for contractors.
6. Evaluation
 This final phase is an assessment of the project
and of the results achieved. It is performed after
the project has been completed and all funds
have been disbursed.
Suppliers of Goods, Works, Equipment and Non-
Consulting Services
 For the procurement of goods, equipment, civil
works and non-consulting services such as
transportation and maintenance, most
opportunities occur during the implementation
stage of the project.
  International competitive bidding (ICB) is the
preferred method when procurement involves
large monetary values and/or complex needs. The
objective of ICB is to provide all eligible firms with
timely notification so that they all have an equal
opportunity to bid. Borrowers must issue bid
invitations or prequalification invitations in at least
one local publication and in UN Development
Business Online. In some cases, invitations will
also appear on the IFI's website.
Corporate and Institutional Procurement
 IFIs also generate business opportunities through
corporate or institutional procurement, when they
purchase goods or services for their own internal
needs. They buy a wide variety of goods and
services including:
 information technology;
 communications equipment and services;
 office equipment and supplies;
 graphic design and publications; and
 printing services.
Private Sector Lending
 In recognizing the important role of the private sector
to catalyze positive economic development, the IFIs
have in recent years, increased their focus on direct
financial lending to the private sector. Some of the
IFIs also lend directly to non-sovereign guarantee
actors such as municipal or local governments and
other financial institutions.
IFIs offer this lending through a variety of financial
instruments including direct financing and private equities,
as well as other innovative financing mechanisms.
Trust Funds
 IFIs complement their resources through trust funds.
These funds are financial and administrative
arrangements with external donors, and are intended
to finance high-priority development needs such as
research, technical assistance, advisory services,
debt relief and post-conflict transition. The funds
come from donor countries, foundations, the private
sector and sometimes the IFI's own grant resources.
The IFI is responsible for administering and
allocating the funds.
 Until recently, many consultant trust funds (CTFs)
were donor-based and tied, which meant that they
could only be used to hire consultants who were
nationals of the donor country. Currently, however,
almost all IFIs have phased out tied trust funds or are
doing so. Most new trust funds are untied, are sector-
or theme-specific, and are either multi- or single-
donor funds. Their main purpose is to advance
international development by providing targeted
grants for key strategic needs.
THE UNITED NATIONS AND CONTEMPORARY
GLBAL GOVERNANCE
 Although many internationalists like Bentham and
Kant imagined the possibility of a global government,
nothing of the sort exists today.
 No organization can militarily compel a state to obey
predetermined global rules.
 However, there is regularity in the general behavior of
states.
 The fact that states in an international order continue
to adhere to certain global norms means that there is
a semblance of world order despite the lack of a
single world government.
Which means that there is no one organization that
various states are accountable to.
For example, they more or less follow global navigation
routes and more often than not they respect each other’s
boundaries. If they do not respect a state’s jurisdictions for
example, when Russia invaded Crimea in 2014 or just
recently the territorial dispute of the West Philippine Sea
or the South China Sea, it becomes a cause for global
concern and debate.
Global Governance
 Global governance refers to the various intersecting
processes that create this order.
 There are many sources of global governance.
 States sign treaties and form organizations, in the
process legislating public international law
(international rules that govern interactions between
states).
 International non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
though not having formal state power, can lobby
individual states to behave in a certain way (for
example, an international animal protection NGO can
pressure governments to pass animal cruelty laws).
 Powerful transnational corporations can likewise have
tremendous effects on global labor law, environmental
legislation, trade policy, etc.
Even ideas such as the need for global democracy or the
clamor for good governance can influence the way
international actors behave.
It’s impossible to cover the various ways global
governance happens. We will only examine how global
governance is articulated by intergovernmental
organizations. That is why we will focus on the UN which
is the most prominent organization of today.
What is an International Organization?
 When scholars refer to groups like the UN or
institutions like the IMF and the World Bank, they
usually call them international organizations (IOs).
 One major fallacy about international organizations is
that they are merely the combination of various state
interests.
 During the 1960s and the 1970s, it was believed that
IOs were just venues where the contradicting, but
sometimes intersecting, agendas of countries were
discussed.
Although, international NGOs are sometimes considered
as Ios, the term is commonly used to refer to international
intergovernmental organizations or groups that are
primarily made up of member-states.
 What has become more evident in recent years is
that IOs can take lives on their own.
 For example, the IMF was able to promote a
particular form of economic orthodoxy that streamed
mainly from the beliefs of its professional
economists.
 IOs can thus become influential as independent
organizations.
Powers of IOs
 First, IOs have the power of classification. IOs can
invent and apply categories, they create powerful
global standards.
  For example, it is the UN High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) defines what a refugee is.
And since states are required to accept refugees
entering their borders, this power to establish
identity has concrete effects.
 This list is done by international relations scholars
Michael N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore.
 Second, IOs have the power to diffuse norms.
 Norms are accepted codes of conduct that may
not be strict law, but nevertheless produce
regularity in behavior.
 IOs do not only classify and fix meanings; they
also spread their ideas across the world, thereby
establishing global standards.
 Their members are the “missionaries” of our time.
 Their power to diffuse norms stems from the fact
that IOs are staffed with independent
bureaucracies, who are considered experts in
various fields.
 For example, World Bank economists come to be
regarded as experts in development and thus
carry some form of authority.
 They can create norms regarding the
implementation and conceptualization of
development projects.
 Because of these great powers, IOs can be
sources of good and harm.
 For example, they can promote environmental
protection and human rights but they can also
become sealed-off or exclusive communities that
fail to challenge their beliefs.
 The Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph
Stiglitz famously criticized the IMF for using a
“one-size-fits-all” approach when its economists
made recommendations to developing countries.
The United Nations
 After the collapse of the League of Nations at the end
of World War II, countries worried about another
global war begin to push for the formation of a more
lasting international league which resulted in the
creation of the UN.
 Though far from perfect, it has achieved its primary
goal of averting another global war.
 The UN is divided into five organs.
 First is the General Assembly (GA) which is the UN’s
“main deliberative policymaking and representative
organ.”
 According to the UN charter, “Decisions on important
questions, such as those on peace and security,
admission of new members, and budgetary matters,
require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly.
 The GA is the only UN body with universal
representation.
 Each year, in September, the full UN membership
meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York for
the annual General Assembly session, and general
debate, which many heads of state attend and
address
 Decisions on other matters are done by simple
majority.
 Annually, the General Assembly selects a GA
president to serve a one-year term of office.
 All member states (currently at 193) have seats in the
GA.
 The Philippines played a prominent role in the GA’s
early years where Filipino diplomat Carlos P. Romulo
was elected GA president from 1949-1950.
 María Fernanda Espinosa Garcés of Ecuador is the
current President of the United Nations General
Assembly for the 73rd session, office which started in
September 2018.
 Although the GA is the most represented organization
in the UN, many commentators consider the Security
Council (SC) to be the most powerful.
 The SC takes the lead in determining the existence of
a threat to the peace or an act of aggression.
 It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle the act
by peaceful means and recommends methods of
adjustment or terms of settlements.
 As I previously discussed, this body consists of 15
member states where 10 are elected and 5 are
permanent and cannot be replaced through election.
 In some cases, it can resort to imposing sanctions or
even authorizing the use of force to maintain or
restore international peace and security.
 Because of these powers, states that seek to
intervene militarily in another state needs to obtain the
approval of the SC. With their approval, a military
intervention may be deemed legal.
 This is an immense power which is why the SC is
considered the most powerful organ of the UN.
 There has been much controversy on the SP’s P5 or
the Permanent 5 because each country holds veto
power over the council’s decisions.
 The third UN organ is the Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC), which is the “principal body for
coordination, policy review, policy dialogue, and
recommendations on social and environmental issues,
as well as the implementation of internationally agreed
development goals.”
 It only takes one veto vote from a P5 member to
completely stop an SC action. In this sense, the SC is
heir to the tradition of great power that began with the
Metternich/Concert of Europe system.
 The ECOSOC has 54 members elected for 3-year
terms. Currently, it is the UN’s central platform for
discussions on sustainable development.
 The fourth is the International Court of Justice whose
task “is to settle, in accordance with international law,
legal disputes submitted to it by states and to give
advisory opinions referred to it by authorized United
Nations organs and specialized agencies.”
 The major cases of the court consist of disputes
between states that voluntarily submit themselves to
the court for arbitration.
 The court ,as such, cannot try individuals
(international criminal cases are heard by the
International Criminal Court, which is independent of
the UN), and its decisions are only binding when
states have explicitly agreed to place themselves
before the court’s authority.
 The SC may enforce the rulings of the ICJ but this
remains subject to the P5’s veto power.
 Finally, the secretariat consists of the “Secretary-
General and tens of thousands of international UN
staff members who carry out day-to-day work of the
UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the
other principal organs.
 It is the bureaucracy of the UN, serving as a kind of
international civil service where members of the
secretariat serve in their capacity as UN employees
and not state representatives.
 So once you are part of the secretariat ang imong
ipromote na interests is not that of the country you
came from but the UN in general.
 The Filipinos played a significant role in the creation of
human rights arbitration rules in the UN.
 In the late 1960s, the diplomat Salvador P. Lopez was
chairman of the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights (UNCHR), and other Filipinos helped
design the system whereby any citizen of any state
may petition the UN to look into human rights
violations in a country.
 This particular system exists until today. That is why,
contrary to President Duterte’s words, human rights
are not foreign impositions. They are part of our
national heritage. This is most reflected in the current
relations between the Philippines and Iceland where
the latter proposed a resolution to review the killings
where human rights were supposedly violated.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF
GLOBALIZATION
Brief Recap
 Globalization is simply the process through which
there is integration and interaction of countries,
companies, and people across the globe. The process
is as a result of the investment, outsourced
manufacturing and international trade.
 All these are supported by information technology,
with an aim of bringing economies of various countries
together.
 It is only through globalization that people, services,
and goods get to move freely across the world,
 Technology, goods, investments, information, and
services along with the labor market are the most
popular components of such activity.
 Nations have established worldwide integration over
many centuries by enabling economic, political, and
social partnerships.
Advantages of Globalization
1. Global Market
 It means encouraging nations to specialize and
produce plenty of goods available in their local
market. Different countries produce different
products and what is most surprising there is no
country which is self-sufficient.
 Some countries with developed economies don’t
have enough raw materials for their factories,
while the rest accumulate costs more than it
should. Worldwide integration has led the way to
cheap raw materials.
 Developed countries advertise for the low-
income community to buy their products with
compatible prices.
 They also sell goods to developing countries
because they are affordable.
 They have also expanded by acquiring
companies in developing countries, partnering
and merging with others to reach out to a big
market and produce cheaper goods due to the
availability of materials and labor.
 Availability of cross-border market encourages
companies from developed countries to create
various goods because they have consumers
worldwide.
 Some of them produce vehicles, other clothes or
foods. There are a range of products invented in
developed countries and sold elsewhere. For
example, Apple’s products are designed in the
US specifically California but assembled in
China.
2. Cross-Cultural Management
 Each country has its own culture. Incorporating
all cultures to form a global one is not easy.
 For instance, gender equality is not recognized in
some legal systems, and they do not allow
women to lead or engage in business.
 Before globalization, many countries would not
allow females to acquire education, and even if
they did, they were supposed to do jobs such as
teaching or nursing.
 Culture pertains to the way particular people do
things as well as their values and believes.
 There is no single civilization that had all good
practices. Instead, the coming together of various
cultures has made the world today a better place.
 Now a lot of states adopted American or western
culture and thus began the feminist movement.
The 1st wave focused on addressing legal issues
such as women’s suffrage.
 Second wave focused on cultural inequalities
and gender norms that women are born to be
domestic housewives.
 Third wave is the continuation of the second.
 Globalization is one of the main causes for both
cultural immersion and erosion from both
developed and developing countries.
3. Competition
 Competition is a healthy way of doing business.
 Without it, companies would not pioneer some
innovations in cross-border trade. It is the main
reason why the quality of goods and services
improve as well as why the prices drop.
4. Job Opportunity
 About 90 percent of the first-world population
earns for living through employment. Initially, job
 opportunities were quite scarce, and everyone
who graduated from college applied in a certain
government sector, but most of them ended up
working as a casual laborer in industries with a
low income.
 Globalization put a stop to this trend because
more job opportunities are now available locally
and internationally. By using technology, one can
access employment opportunities, work remotely
and even have more than one job (elaborate own
online job experience).
 Many students come out as entrepreneurs ready
to grow their own business and create job
opportunities for others.
 Globalization has brought diversification when
students interact with foreigners. They exchange
ideas on available job opportunities in different
countries.
 As a result, the major standards of living have
improved due to an extended labor market.
 Ideal job is to work for oneself and to decide your
hours and at the same time do what you love
while earning a living.
 Such discussions broaden their minds on how to
find employment or other ways to make a decent
living.
5. Reducing the Gap between the Poor
 For many centuries there has been a wide gap
between these groups, a gap that seemed to
widen every year. Globalization enabled poor
people to have access to job opportunities.
 The number of low-income people working as
casual laborers has continued to decrease as
most young people acquire education. These
young, educated people perform multitasking
jobs to get enough money to enable themselves
and their family to live a decent life.
 Most industries employ only skilled workers due
to complicated systems of operation. Those
without skills seek employment in other states or
specifically in other countries that’s why we have
OFWs. Instead of staying without an income,
most people don’t mind the displacement as long
as they are going to earn for a living. Even if they
have to live and work in a faraway country as
long as they get to provide for their family they
would do it.
6. Investments
 The population of developed countries prefers to
invest money in profitable businesses rather than
deposit it in banks.
 The reason is, they strive to earn for a living
remotely because investments assure they will
gain good profits without any efforts.
 Remotely from a distance without physical
contac
 That’s why nauso nang mga investment
schemes nowadays like rigen, kappa, everarm
and others, although questionable ilang practices
and lisod katuohan ang return sa imong capital,
they got the basic concept na without working,
patulugon lang nnyo ang kwarta mutubo na
though in reality sa legal jud dle dako ang
interest rate for example kanang time deposit
accounts sa mga bangko even the the number
one bank in the Philippines which is BDO 0.25 to
1.25% lang ilang interest rates.
7. Advanced Technology
 Advanced technologies are a result of
globalization. A constant need for innovations
appeared due to the lack of quick data transfer
and public communication. Lots of inventors
have tried to serve the needs of modern society
by improving technology.
8. Legal Effects
 Through globalization, people get to know what’s
happening in other countries. Media services
cover events which occur in other countries.
 Human rights have been improved as a result of
globalization since media coverage on violations
of the rights receives attention from all over the
world.
 As a result, various turmoil could be solved by
international mediators. Those who perform acts
against human rights are arrested and sentenced
by intergovernmental courts.
 There is currently no international court to
administer international human rightslaw, but
quasi-judicial bodies exist under some UN
treaties (like the Human RightsCommittee under
the ICCPR).
The International Criminal Court (ICC) has
jurisdiction over the crime of genocide, war
crimes and crimes against humanity.
9. Stable Security
 Although the effect cannot be seen directly,
globalization has contributed greatly in
enhancing the world security.
 For example, it is extremely difficult to see two
countries attacking each other if the economy of
one of the countries depends largely on the
economy of the other country.
 Irrespective of the many violence that is being
experienced in the world today, it is evidently
clear that if some countries were not depending
on each other’s economy, deadlier conflicts could
have or would occur, but all have been halted by
globalization.
Negative Effects of Globalization
1. Terrorism
 It is a significant problem in most developed
countries. Due to worldwide integration, people
travel a lot.
 Lots of terrorists came to a foreign country with
a worker visa having a hidden goal to perform a
terrorist attack.
 Some of them move abroad for studying,
business, visiting family or friends, work and
access to hospital services. However, not all of
them are totally honest. That’s why many
developed countries very strict ang immigration.
Mag-ask silag questions on your reason for
visiting their country. This is also the reason why
 some countries are preventing entry of citizens
coming from a country with high terrorism rates
especially those from the Middle East and some
parts of Africa. Particularly, the US in the last few
decades, ilang immigration policy nagafocus on
reuniting families and offering asylum to refugees
from war-torn countries however with Trump’s
presidency, they promote America First.

2. Job Insecurity
 Before globalization, skilled people got
employment in government sectors and
companies where they received high salaries.
Job opportunities were waiting for those who
completed colleges and earned a degree.
 People would easily resign a job and just get
another one but this is no longer possible
because having an open or borderless economy
means having more competitors. Mas lisod na
isustain imong job because you can be fired
even for the smallest mistake because ang
mindset sa employers nowadays, people are
replaceable and there are many others who
would gladly accept the job offer even if gamay
ra ang salary.

3. Price Instability
 Some people establish industries overseas
where they get cheap raw materials and labor.
They can cut production costs and sell their
goods at a low price.
 Relating to competition, some high-quality
products differ in prices.
 Many international companies choose to build
their business on developing countries because
they are rich in resources, have a high
unemployment rate and so they can cut back on
production costs.
 In such a competitive market, your business will
succeed or survive only if you can find an edge
to make you stand out from your competitors
while at the same time offer high-quality products
for a low price.

4. Price Fluctuations
 To withstand competition, Western countries are
forced to reduce their product prices because
countries such as China offer the same products
at lower prices.
 The impact is adverse, as the ability to sustain
social welfare in the US gets reduced.
 Again this is because of lower production costs in
China.

5. Environmental Damage
 Increased production means increased utilization
of natural resources.
 Besides, increased trade results to increased
transport, which uses fossil fuels. As a result,
pollution has increased, leading to climate
change.
 The changes in climate are now a serious threat
to humanity and the future of the world, all
because of globalization.