Photographs of the Past

Process and Preservation

Bertra n d Laved ri n e
with Jean-Paul Gandolfo, John McElhone, and Sibylle Monad

Translated by John McElhone

The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles

The Getty Conservati o n Institute

Timothy P. Whalen, Director

J e a n n e Marie Teuto n i c o , Associate Director, Programs

The Getty Conservat i o n I n stitute works i nternationally to advance conservation a n d to e n h ance a n d

encourage the preservation a n d u n d e rstanding of the v i s u a l a r t s i n a l l of t h e i r d i mension s-objects,
collections, architecture, and sites. The I n s titute serves the conservation c o m m u n ity th rough scien tific
research; education and traini ng; fi e l d projects; and the dissem i nation of the results of both its work a n d
the w o r k of others i n t h e fi e l d . In a l l its endeavors, the I nstitute i s committed to addressing u n answered
questions and promoting the h ighest possible standards of conse rvati o n practice.

P u bl ished in France in 2007 by the Comite des travaux historiques et scientifiques u n d e r the title
{re]Connaitre e t conserver /es photographies anciennes

English translation © 2009 J. Pau l Getty Trust

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Second printing

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O N T H E COVER: Picnic a t the Water's Edge, photogra pher u n k n o w n , ca. 1 920. F r o n t cover: print.
Back cover: negative

L i brary of Congress Catal oging- i n - P u bl ication Data

Laved r i n e , Bertran d .
[Reco n n aitre e t conserver l es photographies anciennes. English]
Photographs of the past process a n d preservati o n I Bertrand
Laved r i n e ; with J ea n - Paul Gando lfo, J o h n McElh o n e , a n d Sibyl l e Monod
; translated by John McElhone.
p . cm.
I n c l u d es b i b l iogra p h i cal references a n d index.
ISBN 978-0-89236-957-7 (pbk.)
1. Photographs-Conservation a n d restorat i o n . I. Title.
TR465 . L393 1 3 2009
7 7 1-dc22
20090 1 0 1 89
Contents

Foreword to the E n g l i s h -Language E d ition viii

F o reword x
Acknowledgments xii
I ntro d u ct i o n 1

PART ONE POSITIVES

Chapter 1 Positives on Metal 17

M o n o c h ro m e Positives o n Metal 18
The h e l iographs of N ic e p h o re N iepce ( 1 82 5- 1 8 2 7) 18
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Photography was invented more than once 22
Dague rreotypes (1 8 3 9 -1 8 6 0) 24
Ti ntypes (1 8 5 3 - 1 9 3 0) 34
Color Positives o n Metal 40
The d i rect h e l i oc h ro mes of B e c q u e re l and N i epce de Sai nt-Victor (1 8 4 8- 1 8 55) 40
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Hillotypes (1 8 50-1 8 60) 46

Chapter 2 Positives o n Glass 49

M o n o c h ro m e Positives o n G lass 50
A m b rotypes (1 8 5 2 - 1 8 70) 50
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Identification o f cased photographs: daguerreotype o r ambrotype? 55
M o n o c h ro m e transparen cies o n glass: lantern s l ides a n d stereogra p h s l i d e s
(1 8 5 0- 1 9 5 0) 58
C o l o r Positives o n G lass 64
The L i p p m a n n p rocess (1 8 9 1 - 1 9 1 4) 6 4
T h re e - c o l o r L u m iere transpare n cies (1 8 9 6- 1 9 03) 70
Autoc h romes (1 9 07- 1 93 5) 76
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Other additive color screen transparencies 82

v
 Chapter 3 Positives o n Plastic Film 85
M on o ch ro m e t ranspare n cies o n plastic fi l m ( 1 93 0 -1 9 70) 86
C o l o r transpare n cies on p l astic fi l m (1 9 3 1 to p resent) 86

Chapter 4 Positives o n Textile 91

M o n o c h ro m e Positives on Texti l e 92
Pann otypes (1 8 5 3 - 1 8 8 0) 92

Chapter 5 Positives on Paper 97

M o n o c h ro m e Pos itives on Paper 98
Ph otoge n i c d rawi ngs ( 1 8 3 4 -1 8 4 0) 9 8
S alted p a p e r p r i n ts ( 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 60) 1 0 4
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Printing out 110
A l b u me n prints (1 8 5 0 - 1 9 00) 112
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Photograph albums 1 24
P O P- Printing-out paper prints ( 1 8 6 0- 1 9 4 0) 126
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Toning 136
G e latin silver deve l o p i ng- o u t pri nts (1 8 8 0 to p rese nt) 138
Cya notypes (1 8 42 t o m i d -twentieth centu ry) 1 50
Plat i n u m a n d pal l a d i u m p r i n t s (1 873 - 1 9 3 0) 156
Carbon pri nts ( 1 8 5 5- 1 93 0) 1 6 4
G u m b i c h ro m ate pri nts (1 8 9 4 - 1 93 0) 1 70
Woo d b u rytypes (1 8 6 4- 1 9 00) 1 76
C o l l otypes (1 8 6 8 - 1 940) 1 82
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Identification of monochrome positives on paper 1 88
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Scientific methods of analysis and identification 1 94
C o l o r Positives on Paper 1 98
C o l o r pigment p r i n t s (1 8 62 to present) 1 98
SECTION SIDEBAR: The heliochromes of Louis Ducos du Hauron 202
Dye t ransfe r pri nts ( 1 94 6 - 1 9 93) 204
C i bachro m e o r l lfoc h ro m e Classic pri nts (1 9 6 3 to p resent) 208
C h ro m oge n i c process pri nts (1 942 to p resent) 212
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Polaroid instant prints in black-and-white and in color 218

PART TWO NE GATIVES

Chapter 6 Negatives on Paper 223

P a p e r negatives (1 8 41 - 1 8 60) 2 24

Chapter 7 Negatives on Glass 233

A l b u m e n n egatives (1 8 47- 1 8 6 0) 234

vi
 C o l l o d i o n n egatives (1 851 - 1 8 8 5 ) 238
G e latin s i lver n egatives o n glass (1 8 7 8- 1 9 40) 244

Chapter 8 Negatives on Plastic Film 253

G el at i n si lver n egatives o n fi l m (1 8 8 9 to p rese nt) 254
C h ro m oge n i c p ro cess negatives ( 1 9 3 9 t o p resent) 260
CHAPTER SIDEBAR: Identification o f negatives 264

PART THREE CONSERVATION

Chapter 9 Types of Deterioration and Influencing Factors 273

I m age d i sco l o ration 274
D eteri o rati o n of p l astic fi l m s u p p o rts 278
M o l d i n festation 279
T h e e n v i ro n m e nt 280
Storage 285
Exhi bition 296
F ra m i ng 298

Chapter 10 Conservation Treatment 301

The con se rvator 3 02
D igital tech n i q ues for i m age reconstru ction 303

Chapter 11 Digital Imaging and Conservation 3 05

D ig it izat i o n of p h otograp h col lections 306
SECTION SIDEBAR: SEPIA recommendations o n digitization o f photograph collections 308
Prese rvat i o n of d igital fi l e s 310

Chapter 1 2 Disasters 313

D a m age t o ph otographs caused b y d isasters 314
I m m e d iate a i r d ry i ng 314
F reez i ng 314
M o l d a n d pest i nfestation 316

G l ossary 319
E n d n otes 334
F u rt h e r Read i ng a n d Informat i o n 339
Ill u strat i o n Credits 340
I n d ex 341

vii
 Foreword to the
English-Language Edition

Photogra p h i c p ractice has p rod uced a n

extraord i na r i ly rich c u l t u ra l l egacy. T h i s
legacy i s now u n d e r t h reat, as t h e pace o f
artistic a n d tec h n ical i n n ovation has meant
that p rocesses that were o n ce p revalent
have n ow d i sap peared entirely. S i m u lta­
neo u sly, the p h otogra p h i c i mages that
re m a i n are aging a n d fad ing. These facts
s uggest that research into b oth the p ractice
and mate rials of p h otograp hy is essential if
we are to p rese rve this q u i ntessentially
m o d e r n art fo r m .
I t i s i m po rtant t o u n d e rstand as m u c h
about p h otograp h s as poss i b l e i n order to
prese rve t h e m . T h i s b o o k focuses on identi­
fying a n d classifying p h otogra p h s by t h e i r
processes, a n d then catego rizing t h e m by
the n at u re of t h e i r s u p p o rts (metal , glass,
paper, o r p lastic). It also i n c l udes a secti o n
d evoted to t h e i r care, p rovid i ng readers w ith
essential i nfo rmat i o n o n the most co m m o n
types a n d causes o f d eterio ratio n , as w e l l as
o n s u c h i m p o rtant s u bjects as conse rvation
treat m ents, the d igitizat i o n of col l ecti o n s ,
a n d d i saster m itigatio n .

viii
 The G etty Conse rvation Institute has W e e x t e n d o u r s i ncere thanks to B e rtrand
been e ngaged i n adva n c i ng t h e conse rva­ Laved rine, with whom t h e G C I has e njoyed a
tion of photogra p h s s i n c e 2 0 0 0 t h rough long a n d p roductive fri e n d s h i p as a guest
research , trai n i ng, and p u b l i s h i ng . I n c l u d e d schol ar, a partner, a n d an advisor i n o u r
i n t h e se efforts was the p u b l i cation i n work. W e a r e grateful for h i s generous s p i ri t ,
2 0 0 3 o f B e rtrand Laved r i n e ' s
Guide to the k e e n i ntel lect, and extraord i n ary d e d i c ation
Preventive Conservation of Photograph Collec­ to the field of photograph conse rvat i o n .
tions, a t ra n s l ation of the Fre n c h edit ion W e a r e also gratefu l to h i s coauthors,
p u b l is h e d in 2 0 0 0 . The response and a p p ro­ J e a n - P a u l G a n dolfo a n d S i by l l e Monod ,
val t h at book received confi r m ed beyo n d a n d to J o h n M c E l hone, t ra n s l ator a n d
d o u bt that professional con se rvators , stu­ col laborator, for their v a l u a b l e contri b u ­
dents, a n d col l ectors of all kinds are sear­ t i o n s t o this i m portant boo k .
c h ing for p ractical i n formation on early
p h otographic tec h n i q ues a s w e l l a s on the T i m othy P. W h a l e n
p reservation of t h e p h otogra p h i c record s DIRECTOR
themselves. The G etty Conse rvation Institute
O f c o u r s e we were the refore d e l ighted www.getty. edu/conservation
when B e rtrand s uggested t h at we m ake h i s
latest work, (re)Connaitre et conserver !es
photographies anciennes, p u b l ished in F rench
i n 2007, ava i l a b l e to E n g l i s h - l anguage
a u d i e nces. It is o u r hope that t h i s t rans la­
tion, Photographs of the Past: Process and
Preservation, wi l l further h e l p those who
h a n d l e photographs to u n d e rstand t h e i r
frag i l ity a n d the specific care t h at m ust b e
exercised t o p reserve t h e m .

ix
 Foreword to the
French-Language Edition
A bove a l l , photograp h s are meant to be
l o o ked at. We m ight also l i ke to touch t h e m
i n o rd e r to appreciate them a l l t h e better,
b ut we are for b i d d e n t h is p l e a s u re by the
c u rato rs, and t h ey are right to stop u s . This
s a i d , n o t h i ng sharpens the eye as m u c h as a
p h otograph. From the fi rst a p pearance of
t h e d ag u e rreotype i n 1 8 3 9, obse rvers were
asto n ished by the o p p o rt u n ity to d i scern the
t i n iest and m ost u n i m portant details with
t h e aid of a m ag n ifying glass. I t is i n the
n at u re of ph otography to record these
m i n us c u l e features, without t h e p hotogra­
p h e r noticing; these are then passed o n
t h ro ugh the centu ries and give t h e i mages
t h e i r u n pa ra l l eled d o c u m e ntary val u e . We
ret u rn to t h e m t i m e a n d aga i n to d i scover
t h i ngs not yet d etected or recog n ized a n d
we m ay cont i n u e to d o so as J o n g as alte ra­
tions d o n ot o b s c u re the i mage.
Ph otographs are essentially su rfaces, t h e i r
s u p p o rts l ightly brushed w i t h ph otosensitive
s o l u t i o n s or covered with extre m ely t h i n
coati ngs. The c o n d i t i o n o f the s u rface i s
c r i t i c a l to seeing the i mage. Brightness,
reftectivi ty, o r c o l o r, a l o ng with other p hysi-
x
cal c haracteristics, i nfo rm u s about the p h o ­
togra p h i c process used, the age of the
o bject, a n d how it has been affected by
t i m e . A s i ng l e process can show i n fi n ite vari­
ati o n s d erived from local c h e m ical effects or
from t h e u n iq u e m a n n e r i n which t h e pho­
togra p h e r has handled the p rocess .
We can never stress e n o ugh that a p h oto­
graph is, fi rst and forem ost, a n egative,
which is the pri mary i m age and t h e p ro d u ct
of t h e d i rect action of l ight for m ost of the
photograp h i c p rocesses . But the c o m p o ­
n e n t s that co nstitute t h e n egat ive are
e p h e m e ral a n d , i n any case, they represe nt
a n intermed iate stage on the way to t h e
positive p r i n t . N o o n e e v e r t h o u g h t t h at
n egatives wou l d need to last fo r two centu­
ries. B u t it is the n egative that contains the
m ost i nfo rmat i o n , a n d sometimes it m ay be
all that re m a i n s fro m a particular exposure.
I n the past, ph otogra p h s were often
n eglecte d : th ere were too m any of t h e m ;
they were n ot i nteresting; they were t o o
o rd i na ry. B u t rece ntly o l d p h otogra phs have
become valuable; they are collected,
acq u i red by m us e u m s , a n d bought a n d sold.
T h e m otivation m ay be n ostalgia, but it m ay of scientific c o m pete nce c o m b in e d with a
a l s o be a d e s i re for i n d ivid uati o n , perso n a l ­ great fo n d ness for p h otograp h i c i mages­
izatio n , o r the recog n i t i o n of t h e ritual p rovides a system for s e e i ng p h otogra p h s
power of i m ages. We see that p h otograp h s that c o n t a i n s a wealth of u sefu l i nfo rmatio n .
p resent a parad ox: t h e i mage i s , i n theory, I t is p recisely t h e guide w e need to b eg i n o u r
i nfi n itely repro d u c i b l e , but each generati o n jou rney o f d i scove ry- eyes wide o p e n a n d ,
of reprod uction causes s o m e loss of i nfo rma­ p l ease, without to u c h i ng'
tio n , and this rei n fo rces the u n i q u e power
a n d val u e of the o rigi n a l . I t i s essential that M i c h e l Frizot
we take good care of these d o c u m e nts, t h at D I R E C T O R OF R ESEA R C H
we resist i nterve n i ng hastily to " save" t h e m , Centre de recherche sur /es arts et le langage,
a n d that w e a c t wisely t o e n s u re a safe Centre national de la recherche scientifique
futu re fo r t h e m .
A l l t h i s req u i res knowl edge a n d the
capacity to disti ng u i s h , to ch aracte rize, to
name. To d o this we m ust look, using a l l of
o u r different ways of seeing . To n a m e s o m e­
thi ng, we m u st know exactly w h at t h e words
m e a n ; we m u st b e a b l e to differentiate a n d
p rovide n u ance to o u r m e a n i n g s ; w e m u st
b e w i l l i ng to i n co r p o rate contrad iction and
accept the l i m it s of our k nowledge. W h i l e
conte m p o rary p h otograp h s a r e co m m o n ­
place, p h otogra p h s d e picting s c e n e s of t h e
p a s t m ay appear u n fa m i l iar a n d fo reign t o
u s . B e rtrand Lave d r i n e ' s book-the p rod uct

xi
 Acl<nowledgments
T h i s b o o k would not h ave been possible
without the s u pport a n d e n c o u ragement of
Bruno D e l mas a n d Martine Fran�ois (Co m ite
des travaux h i sto r i q ues et scienti fi q u es) as
well as Cynthia G o d lewski a n d l< ristin l<e l ly
(G etty Conservation I n stitute). We would
a l s o l i ke to thank t h e i n stituti o n s a n d i n d i ­
vid uals w h o h ave a l l owed u s to asse m b l e t h e
i l l ustrat i o n s . F i rst, the Musee N i ceph ore
N i e pce s h o u l d b e m e ntioned for its rap i d
a n d effi cient r e s p o n s e to o u r req u ests. We
w o u l d parti c u l a rly l i ke to give o u r warmest
t h a n k s to Fran�ois C h eva l , Cu rator, and
C h ristian Passeri fo r t h e cooperat i o n and
attention we received . The M u see des
arts et m etiers - C NAM , the J Paul G etty
M u se u m , the F e l i x S c h o e l l e r G ro u p , and the
l i b rary of the Museum national d ' h istoire
n at u re l l e a l l made t h e i r re markable res o u rces
avai l a b l e to u s .
T h e following p e o p l e m a d e t h i s p roj ect
possi b l e t h rough t h e i r contri b u t i o n s :
C h ristine B a r t h e ( M u s e e d u Q u a i B ran ly,
Paris), M i c h e l D u rovic ( N aro d nf arch iv,
Prague), Michel F rizot (Centre de recherche
sur les arts et l e langage, Paris), Marc H arnly
(J. Pau l G etty Museu m , Los Angeles),
xii
P h i l i p pe and Marion J acq u i e r (La L u m iere des
Roses, Montre u i l ) , l<ate rina S u p ova ( N aro d n f
tec h n icke m uze u m , Prague), a n d F ran�oise
Vienot (CRCC, Centre de recherche s u r la
conservation des col lecti o n s , Paris).
A m o n g all of th ose who generously
offered their help a n d advice are S a b i n e
Arq u e , J ea n - Fran�ois Aussenard , M i c h e l
Azi m , Patrick Baro i s , Tak o u i and J ea n
B iscigl ia, B e rtrand Lefebvre, G e rard
Mava l a i s , F ran�ois M i c h e l , Erin M u r p hy,
C l a u d e N evet, W i l l ia m Reyes , C lara von
Wal d t h a u s e n , and Marc Walter.
F i n a l ly, we recogn ize t h e many p ro m i n e n t
as well as u n known p h otograph ers w h o
m a d e t h e i mages w e use as i l l u strat i o n s . We
h o p e that the advice offered he re w i l l h e l p
t o p rese rve t h e i r works far i nto t h e future;
this would b e the best way to h o n o r t h e i r
efforts .
B e rtran d Lave d r i n e , J ea n - Pa u l G a n d o lfo ,
J o h n M c E l h o n e , a n d S i bylle Monod
 Introduction
To i d e ntify and name something in o rder to
u n d e rsta n d it, to g i ve it a date, to class ify it,
to p rese rve it-these are the essential proce­
d u res fo r arch ivists a n d collectors . Carl
L i n n ae u s , that great c o l l ector a n d classifier,
s a i d , " If you do n ot know the names of
t h i ngs, the knowl edge of them is lost too . "1
T h e p u rpose of this guide is to introduce,
as c o n c i s e ly as possi b l e , the e m e rging field
of ph otograph p reservation . In 1 9 9 0 , when
we p u b l ished a n earl i e r b o o k o n t h e s u bject
(now o u t of pri nt) t h e re was a need for a
g u i d e to identify i ng the processes used i n
t h e m a k i ng of o l d p h otogra p h s . 2 I t a i m ed to
situate t h ese o bjects in the rich and s o m e ­
t i m e s c o m p l ex tech n ical h i story of p h otogra­
p hy. And it put forward the noti o n , n ew at
that t i m e , that p h otograph e rs t h e mselves
were not the p e o p l e w h o were i d e a l ly su ited
to treat, i . e . , to restore, old p h otograp h s .
W e i l l u strated this i d ea b y s h owing exam p l es
of h o w conse rvat i o n treatment, i n b oth its
theory a n d its p racti ce, went well beyond
the capacities of a m ate u rs , even those who
were q u ite experienced in p h otograp hy.
Twenty years l ater the sit u ation has s u b ­
stantially i m p roved T h e d ig ital i m ag i ng rev-
o l ution has encou raged the recog n i t i o n of
trad i t i o n a l , i . e . , si lver- based, p h otography as
a h i storical res o u rce, part of o u r cu ltural
h e ritage ; the art ph otography market has
attained astro n o m ical sales record s ; the
co nse rvation p rofession has o rgan i zed a n d
fo rmal ized itself; and p h otograph conse rva­
t i o n has become the d o m a i n of a gro u p of
profess i o n a l ly trained special ists who have
o btai n e d specific tra i n i ng and graduate u n i ­
versity d egrees i n t h e s u bject.
B u t s t i l l people need a c l ear a n d straight­
forward way to recogn ize and prese rve t h e i r
o w n ph otogra p h s . This has led u s t o c o m ­
p l etely u pdate t h e 1 9 9 0 p u b l i cati o n t o
i n c l u d e t h e m ost recent t h i n ki n g a b o u t h o w
t o co nserve the ph otographs that were
made prior to the d igital i mag i ng revo l ut i o n .
T h e approach w e use he re a l l ows b eg i n ­
n ers t o m ake t h e fi rst steps with a m i n i m u m
o f i nvestment o r trai n i ng a n d to o r i e nt them­
selves q u i ckly with i n the tangle of d ozens of
photogra p h i c processes. The book i s o rga­
n i zed not so m uch acco rd i ng to a c h ro n o l ogy
of p h otographic processes, but rat h e r as a
classificat i o n of processes based on visual
o bservati on of the p h otographs t h e m selves.
 This al lows read e rs to fi nd what they are
l o o k i ng for by m a k i ng their own o bservations
a n d d e d u ct i o n s .
F i rst, w e dete r m i n e the n at u re of t h e
i m age: is it a posit ive o r a n egative? (This
d istinction is not always as easy to m ake as
it s e e m s .) Processes are then catego rized
accord i ng to the n at u re of t h e i r s u pports­
metal, glass, pape r, o r plastic-and then
further s u bd ivided into color i mages and
b l ack-and-white i m ages . The l atter are
s o m e t i m e s also called " m o n o c h ro m e , " as
they m ay be m o re b rown o r b l u e than black.
S o m e m o nochrome p rocesses can be identi­
fi e d with m o re precision by l o o k i ng at their
structure and characteristics with a m agn ify­
ing glass or a m i c roscope.
This basic identifi cation m ethod is not
absol utely accu rate, even in the hands of an
experienced observer. The refo re, we caut i o n
t h e reade r t o expect a n d accept some degree
of u n certainty. Even scientifi c methods of
a nalysis, w h i l e they m ay identify with cer-
tainty s o m e of t h e constitu ents fou n d i n
p h otographs, w i l l n ot n ecessarily dete r m i n e
the p recise way i n which p h otographs were
made and p rocessed. A n d , of course, this
book is o n ly a starti ng p o i n t . The p rocesses
i n cluded h e re have been se lected for t h e i r
h i storical sign ifi cance o r t h e i r u b i q u ity. Less
c o m m o n p rocesses have been o m itted .
The latter part of t h e book is d evoted to
conservat i o n . A photograph is m o re than an
i mage; it is also a c o m p l ex asse m b l age of
materials and layers , which can d eteri o rate ­
they c a n weake n , d istort, o r break-thus
e n dangering the s u rvival of the i mage. From
this point of view, tech n i cal progress has n ot
always been acco m pa n i ed by i m provements
i n the stabil ity of the m aterials. F o r exam ple,
the heavy, fragile glass plates that were u sed
as s u p p o rts for so m any n egatives were m ade
obsolete near the end of the ni neteenth cen­
t u ry when glass was rep l aced by clear p l astic
fi l ms de rived from cel l u l ose. W h i l e some of
this fi l m m aterial seems to b e in good c o n d i-

1 . Negative or positive image?

l
2. Metal, paper, glass, or plastic support?

l
3. Black-and-white (monochrome) or color image?
Figure 1

!
Flowchart for the
identification and
classification of
4. Identification of the process photographic processes
referred to in this book.

2

tion, a good deal of it has beg u n to s h ow
signs of i r revers i b l e d a m age caused by i nter­
nal factors. S i m i larly, most color p h otograph s
a r e bou n d t o fad e . T h e best ap p roach to
p reserving objects that h ave such " i n h erent
vices" is to store them i n an appropriate envi­
ron m e nt , u nder con d itions that w i l l not stop
the effects of t i m e but can slow them down
and make them more predicta b l e .
I n a p revious p u b l ication we a d d ressed
the larger concepts and p r i n c i p l e s of p reve n ­
tive conservation . 3 I n t h i s book w e s u m ma­
rize only the most fu n damental of th ese
p r i n c i p les and we p resent the standard con ­
se rvation recom m e n d ations that h ave been
con ce ived for large col lecting i nstitutions,
Figure 2
Engraving, The Photographer and His
Assistant, from Louis Figuier. Les merveilles
de la science, ou description populaire des
inventions modernes (Paris, 1 8 69).
adapting t h e m for a nonspecialist a u d i e n c e .
W e recognize that the respon s i b i l ity for
p reservation a n d m anagement of collections
is not l i m ited to a small g ro u p of p rofession­
als. I n d e e d , the partici pation of the p u b l i c i n
p reservi ng a n d p rotecting c u l t u ral p roperty
is not only a n e cess ity b ut also a p riority.4
O u r p h otographic heritage - s u rely one of
the most b roadly d i strib uted and pop u la r
e l e m e nts o f c u l t u ra l p roperty- richly
d eserves s u c h public i nvolvem e n t .
I ntroduction 3
 Positives
Mo n o c h ro m e on metal
Color on m etal
Monochro m e o n glass
Color on glass
Mon oc h r o m e on plastic
Color o n plastic
Mo n o chro m e o n fabric
Monochro m e o n paper
Color o n paper
Negatives
Monochro m e o n paper
Monochro m e o n glass
Mo nochro m e o n plastic
Color o n plastic
4
H e l iograph (Nicephore N i epce)
Daguerreotype
T i n type
D irect h e l i o c h ro m e
H i l lotype
A m b rotype
Monochro m e transparency
L i p p m a n n p hotograph
Three-c o l o r L u m iere transparency
A utochro m e
Mo n o c h r o m e transparency
Color transparency
Pan n otype
Photogen i c drawing
Salted paper p r i n t
Albu m e n p r i n t
Printi ng-out paper ( P O P) p r i n t
Gelat i n si lver developi ng-out paper p r i n t
Cya notype
Plat i n u m o r pal ladi u m p r i n t
Carbon p r i n t
G u m b i c h ro m ate p r i n t
Woodburytype
Col lotype
Col o r pigment print
Dye transfer p r i n t
llfochrome C l assic (Cibachrome) p r i n t
Chromog e n i c process p r i n t
Paper n egative
Albu m e n negative
Col lodion negative
Gelat i n silver brom ide negative
Gelat i n silver brom ide n egative
Chro m og e n i c process n egative
S o m e term s
Although p h otograp h s are a relative ly rece nt
ad d it i o n to our c u l t u ral h e ritage, p h otogra­
phy has a rich artistic and tec h n i ca l l egacy.
P h otogra p h i c p rocesses t hat occ u p i e d , a n d
even d o m i nate d , the fi e l d in t h e p a s t have
now d isappeared enti rely. Each succeeding
process has req u i red the deve l o p m en t of
part i c u l a r tec h n i q u es a n d term i n o l ogies, a n d
t h e s e c hange o r d i sappear as t h e process
becomes o bso l ete. At t h e I nternat i o n a l
Co ngress of P hotography i n B russels i n 1 8 9 1
i t was d e c i d ed t o p u t s o m e m u c h - n eeded
ord e r a n d rigor i n to p h otogra p h i c ter m i n o l ­
ogy. The res ult w a s the F r e n c h d efi n it i o n o f
t h ree d isti n ct classes of o bjects: 1 . photo­
types were d e fi n e d as pos itive or n egative
i m ages o btained d i rectly by the act i o n of
light; 2 . photocopies were those made by light
s h i n i ng t h rough a phototype a n d o nto a
p hotosensitive material; and 3 . photocalques
were those m ade on a p h otosensitive mate­
rial with light s h i n i n g t h rough any translucent
material other than a phototype. B u t t h e
t e r m s that e ntered c o m m o n usage tu rned
o u t to b e those proposed in 1 8 3 9 by t h e
Engl ish astro n o m e r a n d c h e m ist J o h n
H e rschel (1 792 - 1 8 7 1 ) " p h otogra p h , " " nega­
tive , " and " positive." These are the terms
used for the fi rst two parts of t h is book­
Part 1 , d evoted to p h otogra p h i c positives,
a n d Part 2 , to n egatives Today these words
risk losing t h e i r original sense, somet i m e s
b e i ng forced t o fit i nto n ew a n d u ns u itab l e
contexts , but h ere w e ret u rn to the m e a n i ngs
they had in t h e fi rst d ays of p hotograp hy.
O utside of these two large classes­
p ositives a n d n egatives - a few processes
can p ro d u ce particular i mages that can be
considered both positive a n d n egative ,
d e p e n d i n g on how o n e l o o k s at them .
Daguerreotypes a n d s o m e c o l l o d i o n p l ates
m ay show this d ual ap pearance. I n t h ese
special cases we class the i mages acco rd ing
to t h e i r i ntended use. T h u s t h e daguerreo­
type is c l assed with positives since it is
m eant to b e seen u n d e r cond itions that
make it appear to be a positive. S i m i larly,
a c o l l o d i o n on glass p h otogra p h can be a
n egative (co l l o d i o n n egative) or a positive
(am brotype) d e p e n d i n g on h ow it is viewe d .
I n troduction 5
 The p h otograph
In the n i n eteenth and twe ntieth centuries,
a p h otograp h was u n d ersto od to be a visible
and permanent image on some type of s u p ­
port that h a d b e e n produced b y the action o f
v i s i b l e o r invisible rad iation on a photosensi­
tive su rface.
Tod ay the e m erge n ce of d igital imaging
has caused some confusion i n te r m i n o l ogy
s i n ce t h e digital output pri nts fro m a p r i n te r
attached to a co m p uter a r e often c a l l e d
p h otograp h s . W h i l e t h e s e m a y well be c o m ­
p a r a b l e to true p h otogra p h s i n t e r m s o f
res o l u t i o n a n d ren d it i o n , t h ey a r e the prod-
image material consisting of metal
particles, dyes, or pigments
b i nder: gelat i n , albumen,
coll odion, or other
intermediate layer or
subbing layer
s u p port: paper,
metal, glass,
or other
Figure 3
The structure of a
photograph.
6
uct of a fu n d a mentally d iffe re nt tec h n o l ogy.
T h e term " d igital p h otogra p h " is both vague
and i n co rrect. I t s h o u l d be avo ided s i n ce it
c o u l d mean any n u m b e r of very d i ffe rent
t h i ngs: a d igital i mage fi l e , a gelat i n s i lve r
print d e rived from a digital i m age fi l e , a n
i n k-jet p r i n t , a laser print, a n d s o o n .
A p hotograph h a s a l a m i n a r structure .
The u n d erlying s u p p o rt is the t h i ckest layer;
it may b e made of metal, paper, glass, syn­
thetic polymer ( pl astic), fab r i c , a n d so o n .
T h e s u p port is covered with a transparent
layer-a binder of gelat i n , a l b u m e n , o r c o l l o ­
d i o n - wh i c h h o l d s t h e i mage-fo r m i n g mate­
rials, s u c h as metal l i c particles, p i g m e n t s ,
dyes, a n d so o n . I n t h i s b o o k we wi l l use the
terms " i mage mate r i a l , " " b i n der," a n d " s u p ­
port" i n t h e strict sense o f the words: " i mage
mate r i a l " for the s u bstan ce that absorbs or
scatters i n c id e nt l ight; " b i n d e r " fo r the s u b ­
stance t h at h o lds t h e i m age m aterial o n t h e
s u p p o rt; a n d " s u p p o r t " for the material that
u nd e rl ies a n d carries t h e b i nd e r a n d i mage
mate rial .
Figure 4
G u m bichromate print, Robert
Demachy, Primavera , ca. 1 900.
 The negative
A n egative is a p h otograph in w h i c h t h e
s c a l e of t o n e s of t h e i m age - d ark t o
l ig h t - i s reversed w i t h res p e c t t o t h at o f
t h e s u bj e ct p h otogra p h e d . I n a c o l o r
n egative, t h e c o l o rs a r e a l s o c o m p l e m e n ­
tary to t h o s e o f t h e s u bject.
T h e n egative-pos i tive syste m h e l pe d
e a r l y p h otogra phy to e m e rge a n d e x p a n d
by a l l o w i ng m u l t i p l e c o p i e s of t h e s a m e
i m age to b e p r i n t e d . Sti l l , t h e n egat ive was
always c o n s i d ered a p re l i m i n ary o r inter­
m e d iate step toward a fi n a l p ro d u c t a n d
was t h u s often forgotte n , n eg l e c t e d ,
8
relegated to t h e ju n k c l o set, o r, w o r s e
yet, d e stroye d . Recently, n egatives h ave
g a i n e d s o m e n ew degree of res p e c t .
S o m e - s u c h a s W i l l i a m H e n ry F o x Tal b o t ' s
calotypes a n d t h e n egatives of G u stave Le
G r ay a n d Edgar Dega s - h ave even been
ex h i b ited. In i n stitu t i o n s a n d archives t h at
contain large n egative c o l l e c t i o n s , d igitiza­
tion a n d the I nt e r n et h ave made pre­
v i o u sly u n known caches of our c u l t u ra l
h e ritage e a s i l y access i b l e , o c ca s i o n i ng a
welco m e reeval uat i o n of p h otogra p h i c
n egativ e s .
 Figu re 5
(a) A negative o n
cel l u lose nitrate fi l m
a n d ( b ) its positive
print.
b

Introduction 9
 The pos itive
A positive is any p h otogra p h i c i m age in
which the to n a l s c a l e - dark to l ight- is
the same as, n ot reve rsed fro m , that of the
s u bject p h otogra p h e d . W h i l e t h e word
" n egative" is used in t h e description of p h o ­
togra p h i c objects ( a glass p late n egative, a
fi l m n egative, or a 35 m m negative), the
word " print" is often used for n a m i n g t h e
positive p ro d u ced fro m the n egative.
D e p e n d i ng on the p rocess u s e d , m o re i n fo r­
m at i o n is added a b o u t the n at u re of the
i mage - m a k i ng s u bstan ces , s u c h as a l b u m e n ,
gelat i n , o r plati n u m . Positive i m ages may
also be named u s i ng the suffix " -type" (co l ­
l otype, p l at i n otype, etc.) o r u s i ng a brand
n a m e (Po laro i d , Auto c h ro m e , etc.).
Over time, a negative m ay b e used as the
s o u rce i m age fo r many ge n e rat i o n s of posi­
tive p r i n t s . The earliest prints fro m a nega-
10
tive - t h ose m ade w i t h i n a few years of t h e
n egative itself-are t e r m e d "vi ntage pri nts."
Prints made considera b ly later, b ut sti l l by
the p h otogra p h er o r u n d e r the p h otogra­
p h e r ' s s u pervisio n , are variously c a l l e d
" m odern pri nts," " l ate r prints," o r " l ifeti m e
prints." Prints made after t h e p h otogra­
p h e r ' s d eat h u s ing a n original n egative are
called " post h u m o u s p r i n t s . " If o n e of t h e
p reced i ng t y p e s of prints i s rep h otogra p h ed
fo r t h e p u rpose of rep rod u c t i o n , t h e res u l t is
a "co py n egative" used to m ake " co py
prints." T h e sales m a rket fo r ph otograp h s
has esta b l i s h e d a scale of m o n etary val u e s
fo r t h e s e various types of pri nts. H o wever, i t
is often d iffi c u l t t o d istinguish e a r l i e r pri nts
from m u c h later o n es if t h ey h ave not been
clearly i d e ntified by t h e p h otograp h e r o r
printe r.
b

Figure 6
(a) A glass p late negative, (b) a
print made around the time of
the negative, and (c) a modern
print from the negative.

I ntroduction 1 1
 Important p h otographic processes of the n i n eteenth a n d twentieth centuries
with their approximate periods of use

1 850 1860
Calotype Dague rreotype

C o l lodion glass
p l ate negative A l b u m e n paper
1 890
1 8 80

1 92 0

Gel atin silver negative Pri nting- o u t p a p e r

o n glass p l at e ( P O P)

Gelat i n silver n egative o n fi l m Gelatin s i l ve r developing-o u t p a p e r

1 97 0 t o
I I I I I I I
present

2000
I I I I I I I

Ch romogenic p rocess n egative

Ch romogenic process p r i n t
 • .<
...-· .'1'. '-.
..
.. . .. . ·:·
·'
.···- :.
�.i..
i ..
?·. �.. . .
:; . ....._ -.
"'··�
r, -
r �:.
:: ::- �'-·
,: . ·"
:)·
'.i\.,
-

c
0
 Monochrome Positives
on Metal
T h e h e l i ogra p h s of N i cep h o re Niepce (1825-1827)
H i story
" My d iscove ry, w h i c h I c a l l h e l i ography,
c o n sists of t h e s p o ntan e o u s repro d u ct i o n ­
b y t h e acti o n o f l ight a n d w i t h a l l t h e i nter­
m e d iate shades fro m black to w h i te - of
i m ages received by t h e c a m e ra o bscura. "1
With th ese word s , t h e pro l i fi c a n d persis­
tent i nventor Jo s e p h N ic e p h o re N i epce
(1 7 6 5- 1 8 3 3 ) a n n o u nced a d iscovery t h at
w o u l d transfo r m s o c i ety by a l l ow i n g v i s u a l
i m ages to be reprodu ced a n d propagated , i n
m u c h t h e way t h e printing p ress had d o n e
b y spreading t h e written word . I n 1 8 2 7
N i e p ce m a d e a p h otogra p h fro m a n u p p e r­
sto ry w i n dow of h i s h o use, Le G ra s , in t h e
v i l l age of Saint- Lo u p - d e-Vare n n e s . 2 The
p late sti l l exists a n d is now d e s c r i b e d as
1 8 P OSI T I V E S
"The F i rst Ph otogra p h "; it is t h e o l d est­
known c a m e ra i m age recorded p h otogra p h ­
i c a l ly fro m nature. The h istorian H e l m ut
G e r n s h e i m d i scove red a n d acq u i re d t h e
p late i n 1 9 52 , after m a ny years of searc h ing,
a n d View from the Window at Le Gras i s now
i n t h e col lection of t h e H arry R a n s o m
C e n t e r a t t h e U n ive rsity of Texas a t Austi n .
S o m e h e l i ograp h s s u p ported o n s h eets
of pewte r have a l so s u rvived; these a re
reprod u c t i o n s of e n g ravings, t h e m ost
fam i l i a r one being a p o rt rait of Card i n al
G e o rges d 'A m b o i s e . N i e pce i nt e n d e d t h e s e
to s e rve as p r i n t i n g p lates f o r t h e p ro d u c­
t i o n of m u l t i p l e c o p ies of p h otograp h ic a l ly
d e rived i m ages.
Figure 8
Hel iograph on pewter, N i cephore
Nie pee, View from the Window at Le
Gras, 1 826. Harry Ransom Center,
The University of Texas at Aust i n .

Positives on Metal 1 9
 Figure 9
N i ceph ore Nie pce treated t h i s engraving with colophony
varnish to ren der it transparent; Isaac Brio!, Cardinal
d'Amboise, seventeenth century.
Figure 1 0
Heliograph on pewter, N icephore N iepce, Cardinal
d'Amboise-First plate, 1 826.
Figure 11 (above right)
Ink print made from the hel iograph plate, N i cephore
N i epce, Cardinal d'Amboise-First plate, 1 826.

W h at is a h e l i ograph?
A h e l i ograph is a p hotograph pro d uced by sensitizing a s u pport (glass , m et a l ,
sto n e , e t c . ) w i t h a n a p p l i e d l ayer of asphaltum, a p i tc h l i ke natural res i n . N i epce
h i mself use d many variants of this p rocess. I n t h e n i n eteenth century, the term
was used rat h e r i n d iscri m i nately to describe a variety of different photogra p h i c
p rocesses, b u t eve n t u a l ly a m ore standard ized term i n ol ogy w a s adopted .

2 0 P O SIT I V E S

F a b r i cati o n a n d use3
A pewter sheet is carefu l ly polished a n d t h e n
t h i n ly coated with a s p h a l t u m (1 5 - 3 0 %) d is­
solved in lave n d e r oil (s p i ke o i l ) . The coating
is photo s e n s itive w h e n d ry, a n d t h e p l ate can
b e exposed i n a c a m e ra d i rected toward a
bright outdoor sce n e . Pat i e n c e is req u i red ,
t h o u g h , s i n ce t h e expos u re req u i res several
h o u rs . After exposu re the i mage is sti l l not
v i s i b l e ; it is revealed when a solvent m ix t u re
of lave n d e r and paraffi n o i l s d i ssolves the
asphaltum fro m t h e u n exposed areas. T h e
e x p o s e d areas a r e l eft with a t h i n layer o f
t h e a s p haltu m , w h i c h d iffuses any l ight fal l ing
o n t h e p l ate. T h e d i ffe rential l ight refi ect i o n
fro m t h e e x p o s e d a n d u n exposed areas cre­
ates a n i mage of the o riginal scene.
At this point the plate may rem a i n as a
u n i q u e photographic i m age or it may be fu r-
Figure 1 2
Analysis o f a Niepce hel iograph performed at the Centre
de recherche et restauration des Musees de France
(C2RMF) using particle-i nduced X-ray emission (PIXE)
analysis. Photographs have become a subject of
particular interest for scientists who study and analyze
the constituents of art objects. N iepce's hel iographs are
the subject of a collaborative research effort by the
C2 RMF, the Musee Niepce, the Centre de recherches
sur les arts et le langage, the Centre de recherche sur la
conservation des collections (CRCC), and the Getty
Conservation I n stitute.
ther processed in an acid bath. As with an
etching plate, t h e areas not covered with the
" stop" (in this case, the asphaltum) are etched
by the aci d , while the protected areas rem a i n
u netched. This c a n n ow be u s e d as a printmak­
ing plate: repeatedly i n ked and run thro ugh a
press to transfe r i n k i m ages to sh eets of paper.
O n e of N iepce's variant p rocesses starts
with a si l ve red m etal p l ate. In this case, after
the coat i ng is removed fro m the u n exposed
areas, t h e p late is fu m ed with i o d i n e vapor.
These u n p rotected (u nexposed) areas w i l l
form s i lver i o d i d e a n d w i l l p r i n t o u t i n light.
The hard e n e d coat i ng i s t h e n rem oved ,
revea l i n g a p h otogra p h i c i mage with good
co ntrast. The extens ive research by J ea n ­
lo uis Marig n i e r fu rther e x p lo res t h e early
p h otograp h i c achieve m e n t s of N iepce.4
Positives on Metal 2 1
 PHOTOGRAPHY WAS INVENTED
MORE THAN ONCE

The era of the first photographic processes was one in

which the knowledge of chemistry and physics was devel­
oped enough to al low a determined inventor to make a
permanent image on a photosensitive material through
the e ffects of l ight . The observation had a l ready been
made that paper or leather treated with horn s i lver
( s i lver chloride) darkened in the l ight and was capable
of recording the silhouette of an obj ect l a id on top of
it . But the image would eventual ly blacken entirely,
obliterating the recorded s ilhouette, and there was no
known way of stab i l i zing it . In the first half of the
nineteenth century a number of talented inventors came
up with variously successful solutions to this puzzle .
Wi l l iam Henry Fox Talbot ( 180 0-1877) , Hippolyte Bayard
( 18 0 1-1877) , John Herschel ( 1792-1871) , Hercule Florence
( 1804-1879) , and Jean-Louis Lassaigne ( 1800 -1 8 59 ) are
among those who have the strongest claims to early
photographic successes .
Yet , undoubtedly there were others . For instance, the
optical device maker Charles Chevalier related this
event that occurred toward the end of 182 5 . A destitute
stranger came to his shop on the quai de l'Horloge in
Paris and presented him with "nothing less than a photo ­
graph o n paper, and not a poor one , but a r e a l positive
print as we would later call them , " and then disap­
peare d . 5 This incident , romanticized as it may b e ,
shows how difficult it i s to unequivocally attribute Figure 1 3
The Inventor, engraving,
any discovery to a s ingle person . Thus, one could say
from Louis Figuier, Les
that it might be more accurate to talk not of the
merveilles de la science,
invention but the inventions of photography. ou description populaire
des inventions modernes
(Paris, 1 8 69) .

22
 Dague rreotypes (1839-1860)
H i story
N i e p c e ' s ph otogra p h i c p rocesses were i n suf­
fi c i ently sensitive to l ight to fi n d m any a p p l i ­
cat i o n s o r to b e c o m e very s uccessfu l . B u t
N i e p c e ' s w o r k d i d m ake it poss i b l e for Lou is­
Jacq u es M a n d e Daguerre ( 1 7 8 7- 1 8 5 1 ) to
p e rfect his own p rocess: the dague rreotype.
D a g u e rre , a painter and stage d e s i g n e r,
fi rst g a i n e d renown i n 1 8 2 2 fo r h i s
d i o ra m a , b u i l t i n P a r i s n e a r t h e present
p l ac e de l a R e p u b l i q u e . T h e D i o ra m a pre­
s e nted t h e pay i n g p u b l i c w i t h a s e r i e s of
very l a rge ( 1 4 x 2 2 m) painted scrims s h ow­
i ng d ra m atic l a n d s c a p e p a n o r a m a s - t h e
B l ack F o rest o r t h e G o ldau l a n d s l i d e , fo r
i n s t a n c e - o r events in i nteresting l ocati o n s ,
s u c h as m i d n ig h t m a s s a t t h e C h u rc h of
S a i n t Et i e n n e - d u - M o n t or the d e d i cati o n
o f S o l o m o n's te m p l e .6 I n 1 8 3 4 Dague rre
a d d e d a c u n n i ng m i rror d e v i c e t h at a l l owed
t h e p a i n te d scrim to b e lit fi rst from the
fro n t , m a k i n g t h e scene appear a s it wo u l d
i n d ayt i m e . T h e n , b y a grad u a l rotat i o n o f
t h e m i r ro r, t h e fro ntal lighti n g w a s red u ce d
a n d t h e b a c k l ig h t i n g i n creased s o that a
s e c o n d p a i n t i n g o n t h e back of t h e s c r i m
b e c a m e vi s i b l e , g ra d u a l l y t r a n s fo r m i n g
t h e s c e n e i nto a n ightti m e vi ew. T h e effect
was q u ite r e m a r ka b l e and D ag u e rre's b u s i ­
n ess t h r i v e d . O n e of Dag u e rre's d i orama
p a i n t i ngs s u rvives i n t h e c h u rc h at B ry­
s u r- M a r n e .
24 P O SI T I V E S
I n ad d it i o n to a l l this, Dague rre was work­
ing, with little success, o n a way of fi x i ng
came ra obscura i m ages u s i ng p h o s p h o res­
cent c o m p o u n d s . Early i n 1 82 6 his o ptical
d evice fabri cator, Charles C heval i e r, to ld h i m
o f N ie p c e ' s work o n the s u bject. I n 1 8 2 9,
after considerable hesitation on N ie p c e ' s
p a r t , D ag u erre a n d N i e pce s igned a n agree­
ment to associate t h e i r efforts. Except for
s o m e l etters to N iepce, l ittle evid e n ce of the
su bstance of this cooperative effort has sur­
vived s i n ce a fi re damaged the D i o rama and
Dag u e rre's workshop i n 1839, d estroying
most of h i s d o c u m ents and archives.
T h e association did produce at least o n e
p h otogra p h i c p r o c e s s - t h e physautotype
of 1 8 3 2 . 7 Two yea rs afte r N i e p c e ' s d eath i n
1 8 3 3, D ag u erre w a s hard a t work o n t h e
n ew process that wo u l d b e a r h i s n a m e . O n
J a n u a ry 6, 1 8 3 9 , t h e Gazette de France
s a i d : " We a n n o u n c e an i m po rt a n t d i scov­
ery by o u r r e n o w n e d d i o ra m a p a i n t e r,
M . Dague rre. T h i s p r o d i g i o u s d iscovery
rewrites all t h e t h e o r i e s of s c i e n c e c o n ­
c e r n i n g l ight a n d o p t i c s a n d w i l l rev o l u t i o n ­
i z e t h e art of drawing. M . Dagu e r re h a s
fo u n d a w a y of fi x i n g t h e i mages t h at p a i n t
t h e m s e l ve s o n t h e s c r e e n of t h e c a m e ra
o bscu ra so th at t h e s e a re no l o nger JUSt
a p a s s i n g refl ect i o n of o bj e c t s , b u t rat h e r
t h e i r fi x e d a n d p e r m a n e n t i m p rint, to b e

c a r r i e d away fro m t h e o ri g i n a l s c e n e l i ke
a p a i n t i n g o r a n e ngrav i ng."
The French gove r n m e n t b o ught the
invention from Dague rre and p rovided it
freely to t h e world, with the except i o n of
E n g l a n d , wh ere a pate nt was sought a n d
grante d . O n A u g u s t 1 9 Fran<;:o is A rago,
s ecretary of the French Acad e m y of
Figu re 1 4
Diorama painting, 5 . 4 6 . 0 meters, C h urch o f Saint
x
Gervais and Saint Protais, B ry-sur-Marne, France. Louis
J . M . Daguerre, Perspective of a Gothic Church Nave,
1 842. This is the last surviving d iorama painting by
Daguerre. Its restoration treatment (2006-9) was
funded by the city of Bry-sur-Marne with the help of
the Getty Foundation.
S c i e n ces, made the offi cial a n n o u n ce m e n t
t o the Acade my, and word s p read q u ickly
th rough E u ro p e , p ro d u ci ng considerable
excite m e n t : " O n ly h o u rs l ater, optical device
vendors were under s iege. T h e re were n ot
n early e n ough cameras o b s c u ra ava i l a b l e to
satisfy t h e zealous enthusiasm of a n x i o u s
p ractitioners. "8
Positives on Metal 2 5
 Figure 1 5
Daguerreotype i n a case housing,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 850.

W h at i s a daguerreotype?
A dague rreotype i s a ph otograph on a copper p l ate covered with a l ayer of fi n ely
polished s i lver. The i m age m aterial consists of tiny part i c l e s d eposited o n t h e
polished s i lver s u rface. These sl ightly off-white partic l es fo rm t h e i m age h igh­
l ights by d iffus i ng t h e refl ection of light that fal ls o n t h e fi n i shed p l ate. D e p e n d i ng
on t h e viewing angle, a d ague rreotype can appear as e i t h e r a posit ive or a
n egative.
The daguerreotype is a single, u n i q u e i mage; t h e o n ly way to make a copy of
it is to ph otograp h the o riginal p l ate. U s u a l l y the i mage is laterally reverse d , as
i n a m i rror i m age: right i s l eft a n d l eft i s right. I n t h e U n i te d States a n d B ritain
daguerreotypes are often conta i n ed i n s m a l l cases with h i nged covers; i n conti­
n e ntal E u ro p e , they are m o re oft e n h o u se d i n glazed packages o r frames
(passepartout) that can b e h u ng u p o r propped o n a table.
Plate sizes were roughly standard i zed and ranged from a fu l l p late to a s ix­
teenth p l ate.

26 P O S I T I V E S
Fabri cat i o n a n d use
I n p r i n c i p l e , m a k i n g a d ague rreotype i s a
s i m p l e o p e rat i o n , b u t t h e practice d e m a n d s
extre m e care a n d dexterity. T h e secret t o
s u ccess l i es in t h e care taken i n t h e p repara­
Figure 1 6
t i o n and p o l i s h i n g of t h e pl ate. S i lvered
Equipment for polishing
p lates were com m e rc i a l ly ava i l a b l e soon daguerreotype plates.
after the adven t of the p rocess . They we re
made e i t h e r by u s i ng mechanical p ress u re to
b i n d a t h i n silver sheet to a t h icker c o p p e r Figure 1 7
p late o r by an e l ectrop lating p rocess. T h e Iodizing box.
c o p p e r p l ate i s gen erally 0 . 4 m m t h i c k ; t h e
t h i ck n ess of t h e s i lver l ayer i s a p p roximate ly
0 . 0 1 m m . T h e s i lver s u rface i s p o l i s h e d with
a series of abrasives-fi rst with rotte nsto n e
(calcite, s i l ica) a n d t h e n with jewe l e r ' s rouge
Figure 1 8
(fe rric o x i d e). T h e n the p o l i s h e d s i lvered
Developing box i n
s u rface is made p h otosensitive by exposing which the exposed
it to t h e vapors given off by a few c rystals of daguerreotype plate is
i o d i n e ; this p ro d uces a n even t h i n n e r layer fumed with mercury
vapor. Figs. 1 6- 1 8 are
of silver i o d i d e o n top of t h e s i lver metal.
engravings, from Louis
T h e p late i s then exposed i n t h e cam e ra . Figuier, Les merveil/es de
T h i s m ay take fro m a few m i n utes to as l o ng la science, ou description
as t h i rty m i n u t e s , d e p e n d i ng on t h e l ight populaire des inventions
modernes (Paris, 1 869).
c o n d it i o n s , s i n c e s i l v e r i o d i d e i s n ot par­
t i c u larly p h otosens itive a n d early camera
l e nses were n ot particu l arly effi c i e n t , e i t h e r.
T h e i mage is n o t v i s i b l e w h e n t h e p l ate i s
re move d from t h e c a m e ra a n d i s reveal e d
o n ly b y deve l o p i ng t h e p late i n t h e vapors
of h eated m e rc u ry. This causes m i cropar­
t i c l es to fo rm w h e re l ight has acted o n
t h e p l ate. T h e s e w h i t i s h , l ight-d iffu sing
m i c roparticles are a m e rc u ry-silver a m a l ­
g a m . E d m o n d Becq u e re l l at e r s h owed that
the m e rc u ry deve l o p m ent step c o u l d be
e l i m i n ated by re m o v i n g t h e exposed plate
fro m the c a m e ra and giving it a n overall Figure 1 9
expos u re u s i ng y e l l ow a n d red light, w h i c h Lithograph, Honore Daum ier,
A New Process Used to Achieve
B e c q u erel called t h e "conti n u ing rays . "
Graceful Poses, ni neteenth century.

Positives on Metal 27
 O n ce the p l ate is deve l o p e d it i s
i m m e rsed i n a h eated s o l u t i o n of t a b l e salt
(so d i u m c h l o ri d e) to stabi l i ze the res i d u a l
p h otose nsitive c o m p o n e nts. H ersch e l
showed that t h i s s t e p wou ld b e m o re effi ­
ciently acco m p l i s h e d u s i ng sod i u m t h i o s u l ­
fate , o r hyposu lfite, as it w a s k n ow n i n t h e
n i neteenth cent u ry. A n ot h e r i m p rove m e n t
w a s suggested by H i p po lyte- L o u i s F izeau i n
1 8 4 0, w h o intro d u ced a t o n i ng (or "gi l d i ng " )
s t e p u s i n g a gold c h l o ride s o l u t i o n . T h is
s o l i d i fi e s the m ic roparticles, w h i c h can oth­
erwise b e wiped off t h e p l ate at t h e s l ightest
t o u c h , a n d gives the i m age a warmer to n e
a n d higher contrast.
With these tec h n i q ues, a n d given a spe­
cial lens and a suffi c i e n t ly bright o u td o o r
posing locat i o n , it w a s n ot i m p o s s i b l e to
make a portrait i mage i n a few m i n utes. B u t
t h e result was n ot always a l l t h at was hoped
for : " Yo u take y o u r seat with that agreeab l e
expre ss i o n that anyo n e wo u l d have w h e n
p o s i ng fo r a p o rtrait, a n d then t h e o p e rato r
d e l ivers to you the i m age of a m artyr i n the
throes of tortu re."9 T h e Swe d i sh actor G e o rg
Dah lzwist nearly lost h i s sight after a five­
m i n ute p o rtrait session i n t h e s u n .10
While a few daguerreotype portraits from
the fi rst years of the process have s u rvived, it
was o n ly at the end of 1840 that another inno­
vation increased the sensitivity of the plates
and red uced the exposu re time, bringing on
the explosive growth of the dague rreotype
portrait ind ustry. The use of "accelerators"­
b ro m i ne and chlorine vapors used in addition
to the iodine sensitizer- increased the plate
sensitivity as much as tenfold. Exposure times Figure 20
Depending o n the angle at which a
dropped to a few seconds.
daguerreotype is observed, it can
appear as (a) a positive or (b) a negative;
photographer u n known, ca. 1 8 50.

28 P O S I TI V E S

Dague rreotype d eteriorat i o n a n d care
In 1 8 8 9 A l p h o n s e Dava n n e s u pposed that
nearly al l original d ag u e rreotypes h ad d isap­
peare d . A n d w h i l e it i s true t h at a great deal
of them were destroyed t h rough careless­
n ess a n d lack of i nterest, many others have
s u rvive d . S o m e a re in s u perb c o n d it i o n but
many are q u ite altere d . Portraits a re m uch
m o re n u m e rous than l a n d scape a n d b u i l d i ng
views. Daguerreotypes show u n i q u e pat­
terns of d eteri o rati o n , caused p r i m arily by
p o l l uted or h u m id sto rage e n v i ro n m ents, o r
b y i n a p p ro p riate hand l i ng.
A dague rreotype i mage exists o n ly on
the o uter s u rface of the p late . T h e least
co ntact or the l ightest touch can i rrevers i b ly
d a m age it. T h i s is part i c u l arly t r u e of those
fi rst p l ates that were not gilded. In some
Figure 2 1
Tarnished daguerreotypes, photographers
u n known, ca. 1 8 50. The silver layer has
been oxidized by at mospheric pollutants.
i n stances, the s i lver layer i s d e l a m i n ating.
B u t the m ost co m m o n deteriorati o n i s tar­
n i s h i ng. L i ke a l l s i lver o bj e c t s , dague rreo­
types tarn i s h when exposed to a i r, m o re
part i c u l a rly to a i r conta i n i n g o xi d i z i ng p o l ­
l utants . T h e tarn ish fre q u ently ap pears as a
c o l ore d haze (ye l l ow, m agenta, or b l u e ,
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t h i c k n e ss o f t h e t a r n i s h
layer) of s i lver s u l fi d e a n d s i l ve r o x i d e . T h i s
haze m ay begin t o o bs c u re t h e i m age b u t
u s u a l l y i t w i l l b e seen t o b e fo r m i ng i n
c o n ce ntric r i n g s pro c e e d i ng from t h e o u t e r
p e r i m eter of t h e i m age i nward toward t h e
center, fo l l ow i n g the pathway of ox i d iz i n g
Positives on Metal 2 9
 gases as they s l owly seep i n s i d e t h e closed
dague rreotype package. Many restorat i o n
treat m e nts to r e m ove ta r n i s h have b e e n
used o v e r t i m e , i n c l u d ing t h o s e u s i ng cya­
n i d e o r aci d i c t h i o u re a s o l u t i o n s . These
treat m ents are n ot w i t h o u t s i g n i fi c ant
r i s k s . The dague rreotype p o rtrait made by
J o h n W. Draper of h i s siste r, the earliest
dague rreotype p o rtrait made i n t h e U n ited
States, was treated i n London i n 1 93 4 to
re m ove tar n i s h . I t was retu rn e d accom pa­
nied by a letter t hat i n c l u d e d the fo l lo w i n g :
"I . . . a m wo rried v e r y m u c h o v e r yo u r
dague rreoty p e . I t h a s not g o n e right i n
c l e a n i ng off t h e oxidati o n . I n a l l t h e twe n ty­
five years, and more, that I h ave been c l e a n ­
i ng t h e m I h ave n e v e r h a d o n e b e h ave i n a
s i m i l a r m an n e r. . . . It co m p l etely m ortifi e d
m e as I h ave n e v e r p reviously had o n e act
l i ke i t . " 1 1 The i m age had n ot s u rvived t h e
c l e a n i n g treat m e nt .
T h e portrait of Edgar A l l a n Poe i n t h e
c o l l ection of t h e G e o rge E a s t m a n H o u s e i n
Roch ester w a s c l e a n e d w i t h acid ifi e d t h i o ­
u re a , a c o m m o n p ractice i n t h e 1 9 60s.
Today it s h ows sign i ficant d eteriorati o n ,
probably d u e t o resid u es l eft b y t h e c l ea n i ng
s o l u ti o n . Many other plates t hat have
u n d e rgo ne s i m i la r c l e a n i ng treat m e nts today
s h ow evi d e n ce of t h e " Dagu e rreian mea­
s l e s , " a c o n d i t i o n i n w h i c h s m a l l b rown
spots appear o n t h e s i lver s u rface i n the
years fo l l owi ng t h e cleaning t reat m e n t .
These spots m ay a l so be s u r ro u n d e d b y a
w h i t i s h h a l o .1 2
Resea rch h a s offered several possi b i l it i e s
fo r r e m ov i ng t a r n i s h l aye rs from daguerreo­
types, i n c l u d i ng hyd rogen plasma c l ea n i ng
a n d e l e ctrolytic c l e a n i n g in s o l u t i o n or i n
g e l m e d i u m . B u t t h e s e are n o t fre e of r i s ks
30 POSITIVES
s i n c e t h e t re at m e nts are i r reve r s i b l e a n d
t h e i r effects - i n b o t h t h e s h o rt a n d l o n g
term - a re d iffi c u l t t o dete r m i n e . I f t h e
peri p h e ra l tarn i s h does n o t o b s c u re t h e
i mage , it i s b etter t o l eave it w h e re it i s a n d
i nstead i m p l e m e n t p reventive m ea s u re s t o
s t o p i t f r o m go i ng fu r t h e r. T h i s fo l l ows c u r­
rent i d eas i n c o n s e rvat i o n t h at p refer to
stab i l ize the p re s e n t c o n d i t i o n of a n o bj e c t
a n d s l ow down its d e t e r i o rati o n p rocesses
rat h e r than carry i n g o u t pote n t i a l l y h azard­
ous treat m e n t s a i m e d at reattai n i ng s o m e
previ o u s state .
Dague rreotypes were o rigi n a l ly-and
s h o u l d c o n t i n u e to b e - e n closed i n a sealed
package t hat i n s u l ates them fro m the s u r­
ro u n d ing e n v i ron m e nt a n d protects t h e m
from m ec h a n i cal d a m age. T h e o l d cover
glasses t h e m s e lves m ay show signs of a par­
t i c u l a r type of deteriorati o n that m a n ifests
as t i ny w h it i s h spots on the interior s i d e of
t h e glass, adjacent to t h e p l ate s u rface. O n l y
a specialist conse rvator s h o u l d carry o u t t h e
d isass e m b ly a n d reassem bly o f dag u e rreo­
typ e s , u s i ng o n ly m aterial s - s u c h as paper,
card board , or ad hesives-that w i l l n o t cause
furt h e r oxidation a n d d eteriorat i o n o n t h e
p late . Dague rreotypes s h o u l d be stored i n
c o o l a n d d r y enviro n m e nts. Care s h o u l d be
taken to avo id overly intense l ight s o u rces
d u r i n g d isp lay.
C o l o re d daguerreotypes
H a n d c o l o ri ng was fre q u ently a p p l i e d to
fi n i s h t h e d aguerreotype i m age. S o m e com­
mentato rs at the t i m e strongly o bjected to
this p ractice o n aesthetic gro u n d s n
N everth e l ess, it was c o m m o n to h ig h l ight
j ewelry with go l d - c o l o re d paint, to add a
touch of p i n k to the c h e e k s , and to t i nt the
Figure 22
H an d-colored daguerreotype
h oused i n a frame, photographer
unknown, ca. 1 8 50. The tarnish bands
form o n the periphery and progress
inward toward the center of the plate.

backgro u n d with b l u e . Occas i o n a l ly a fu l ly a p p l i e d to the plate to prepare it fo r c o l o r­

c o l o red i m age was atte mpte d - not a lways
with great success. The pigments used for
s u c h exten s ive c o l o r i ng were m ixed in an o i l
o r water m ed i u m a n d a p p l i e d t o t h e plate
with a s m a l l b r u s h . A b i n d e r, such as gum
arab i c , starc h , o r ge lati n , m ay have been
ing. S o m etimes b l u ish tones may appear i n
the s k i e s o r i n s o m e of t h e l ighter a reas of
t h e i m age : these, h owever, are n ot hand
colored but seem to b e due to solarizat i o n , a
p h e n o m e n o n associated with overex p o s u re
of t h e d ag u e rreoty p e .

Positives on Metal 3 1
 T h e d agu e rreotype 1 8 3 9 -1 860

O c c u r re n c e i n c o l l e c t i o n s rare

Common A m e r i can stan dard plate s i z e s ( i n . ) E u ropean standa rd plate sizes (cm)

sizes and F u l l p l ate 6Yi x 8 Yi F u l l p l ate 16 . 2 x 2 1 . 6

fo r m ats H a l f p l ate 414 x 5Y2 H a l f p l ate 1 0. 8 x 16. 2

Q ua rter p late 314 x 414 T h i rd p l ate 7. 2 x 1 6 . 2
Sixth plate 2% x 3 14 Q u arter plate 8 .1 x 1 0 . 8
N i nt h plate 2 x 2 Yi Sixth p l ate 7. 2 x 8 . 1
S ixteenth p late 13/s x 1 5/a Eighth plate 5. 4 x 8 .1
G e m type 1 x 1 N i nt h p late 5 . 4 x 7. 2
Sixteenth p late 4 .0 x 5 .4
Stereogra p h 8 . 5 x 17. 0

silver-mercury amalgam

St r u c t u re
polished silver - �==========I'"
copper

Re c o m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n servat i o n o f d a g u e rreoty p e s
N ever tou c h t h e p late s u rface
T h e p l ate s h o u l d always be sealed in a package, u n d e r glass, to p rotect it from abrasion
a n d fro m expos u re to a i r a n d p o l l u tants

S e n s i t i vity Light A b rasion P o l l utants H u m i d ity Flood

CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
sensitive very sensitive very sensitive average average

,,.; .
.... . . . . . .... .
.� .. . . .

' · . ... �
. ,, . ·- . . . •..
.
. .. ...
. .., . . ._....
.---
e.t.
·��• " .
.
- ��
.
: ··� :. .
_,. '
..

Overall v i ew Magnified view Sca n n i ng e l e ctron

m icroscope view

32 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 2 3
Sixth -plate format daguerreotype i n
a modern conservation housing,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 8 50.

Positives on Metal 33
 T i ntypes (1853-1930)

H istory
T i n t y p e s - a l s o c a l l e d fe rrotyp e s - were fi rs t
d e s c r i b e d i n 1 8 5 3 by A d o l p h e A l e x a n d re
M a r t i n (1 824 - 1 8 9 6 ) i n an acco u n t d e l iv­
ered to t h e F r e n c h Acad e my of S c i e n c e .
T h i s p o p u la r p r o c e s s w a s sti l l i n u s e w e l l
i nto t h e twe n t i et h c e n t u ry. I t i n e ra n t p h o ­
togra p h e r s c o u l d p ro d u ce t i ntype portraits
q u i c k l y a n d c h e a p ly o n street c o r n e rs o r at
p u b l i c fai rs a n d even n ear batt l e fi e l d sites,
a s was done d u ri ng the Civil War i n the
U n ited States .
T h e u s u a l ti ntype fo rmat i s t h e carte­
d e -visite size (ap p roxi m ately 2 Y2 x 4 to
4Y., i n .) , but s m a l l e r p l ates m ay b e fo u n d
m o u n te d in d e co rated p a p e r w i n d o w m at s ,
i n c o p p e r fram e s , o r e v e n m o u nted i n j ew­
e l ry. T h e s m a l l es t fo rmat i s no b igger t h a n a
postage s t a m p ; twelve o r sixteen of t h e s e
s m a l l i m ages w e r e p r o d u c e d o n a s i n g l e
larger p l ate with a s p e c i a l " m u lt i p l y i n g "
c a m e r a , t h e p r e c u r s o r of t h e p h oto b o o t h
c a m e ra . A n A m e ri c a n pate nt o n t h e
m ul t i p l e e x p o s u re c a m e ra w a s granted
i n 1 8 6 2 and i t was used widely i n t h e
U n ited States u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e ­
teenth c e n t u ry.

W h at i s a t i ntype?
A ti ntype is a positive p h otograp h s u p ported o n a s h eet of l acq u e red i ro n . T h e
process gives a positive d i rectly from t h e c a m e ra u s i ng a variati o n o f t h e w e t
col l o d i o n p rocess ( s e e A m brotypes a n d Col l o d i o n n egatives). T h e i m age pro ­
duced is actua l ly a n egative; h owever, s i n c e t h e s i lver i m age areas are lighter
than t h e n o n i m age areas, t h rough w h i c h t h e dark backgro u n d l acq u e r i s s e e n ,
the i m age a p pears as a positive. This i s s i m i lar to t h e way a n a m b rotype i s
m ad e - o nly the s u p port is differen t . Ti ntype i m ages a r e latera l ly reve rse d , as
i n a m i rror.

34 POSITIVES
 Fig ure 24
tin typ e .
Ge m-f orm at
gra ph er unk now n ,
ph oto
ca. 1 90 0 .

« La Ferroty pie a u n e mauvais e reputati

E l l e la m e rite un peu. C'est u rtout iia.na
rej o u issances p u b l iq ues qu'elle sevi t : Aprem
racco l e , le client q u 'on decide - par les epau l
- a pcnetrer dans la baraq u e OU o perent de
vagues praticien s, rec;oit d'eu.· ( con t re u n verse­
m e.nt, ii e s t vrai, bi en m i n i mc ) d e petites epreu­
ves, ternes, c n fu m ces, ne prcsentan t guere a
l e m odcle q ue « I'ai1· de fam i lle » p ro m 1 s par un
en eigne go gu enard e . Joint aux decept1 0 �
ver es q u'i l a deja ressenti ?s dcvant lea
}i'atmas et l e s l u t t eurs i nvaincus, ce m
ac heve de l e deco urager. 11 j u re ; on ne
dpa pltts . j tta q u'a la- fete -suiv;mte, et,
p l u s , la Ferro t y p i e tombe dans le decri.
» l\lais n ' i ns u l tons � amai s u n p roced6 :ti
tombe. E n core q u e d i m pitoyables orgues '1
arbarie s'acharnent a Jes m o u d re sans tr�
t e l les hautes i nspirations m u sicales n 'en re plen­
i ssent p as J!lOi n s d ' u n. charme inviole. I I. en
e m e m e , si pa1·t:a heel, de la Ferrotyp1e : I
ttei ntcs des bohemes hesogneux qui l'explof.
tent n'ont pu q u 'obsc u rc i r son renom ; a u x JD a i
d'un artiste c l le fera merve i l l e .
» Lisez ce J ivre ( ' ) , essayez, e t di tes i J
tort.

Fig ure 25
tus
oo m app ara
C a m era-da rkr il an d So ns, Fig ure 26
F Ber neu
ed by . ent fo r a
ma nuf actur Adv erti sem
de sig n allow ed
Thi s c am era nual , 1 89 1 . "
c a . 1 90 0 . also tinty pe ma
her s to ex pose a nd
og rap
street ph ot era body.
cam
MetaI
the
typ es .1ns1'd e 35
develo p tin Po sitiv es o n
 Figure 27
T i ntype, p h otographer
unknown, ca. 1 880, recto.

Fabri cat i o n a n d use 1 5

A t h i n sheet of iron (ab o u t 0 . 1 5 m m t h ick) is
coated with a dark b rown or black lac q u e r,
w h i c h can be s h e l lac or l i nseed o i l mixed
with a p igm e n t . T h e l ac q u e re d p l ate is usu­
a l l y p u rchased by t h e p h otogra p h e r as a
m a n ufact u red p r o d u c t . T h e p h otogra p h e r
coats t h e p l ate w i t h c o l l o d i o n contai n i ng
b r o m i d e an d/or i o d i d e a n d i m m e rses it i n a
s i lver n it rate s e nsitizer bath b efo re t h e c o l ­
l o d i o n solvents eva p o rate . T h e p late i s t h e n
i m m ed iately e x p o s e d i n t h e c a m e r a ; i t i s
deve l o ped with a s o l u t i o n of fe rro u s s u lfate
and n itric acid and then fixed in a s od i u m
t h i o s u lfate o r p otassi u m cyan i d e b ath . Aft e r
was h i n g a n d d rying, the i mage i s u s u a l l y
g i v e n a c o a t of p rotective varn i s h . I n t h e
twe n t i eth c e n t u ry, ge l at i n b ro m i d e e m u l ­
s i o n s were i ntroduced for m a k i ng ti ntype s ;
t h e s e req u i re d t h at t h e i m age b e whitened
u s i ng m e rc u r i c chloride. B lack card b oard
m ay h ave b e e n used i n stead of the lac­
q u e re d i ro n p l ate. Variants of the p rocess
conti n u e d to b e used into t h e 1 9 3 0 s .

Figure 2 8
Tintype, photographer
u n known, ca. 1 8 80, verso.

36 P O S I T I V E S

Ti ntype d eteriorat i o n a n d care
U n l i ke d ague rreotypes and a m b rotype s ,
ti ntypes were not always p rov i d ed w i t h pro­
tective glass. Because t h ey were meant to be
h a n d l e d a n d put i nto a l b u m s o r between t h e
pages of a b o o k , t h e s u rviving ti ntype por­
traits are often scratc hed a n d bent. Storage
in a n e n v i ro n m e nt that is even s l ightly h u m i d
Figure 29
Sixteenth- plate format tintype,
photographer unkn own, ca. 1 880.
I ron corrosion has caused the
i m age layer to flake off.
can cause rust to ap pear, w h i c h in t u rn
causes t h e overlying l ac q u e r and i m age laye r
to b l ister a n d d etac h . S o m e of the c o m p o ­
n e nts of t h e t i ntype , s u c h as varn ish a n d
c o l l o d i o n , may b e s u bject to light dam age; it
i s therefore b etter not to d isp lay them p e r­
mane ntly u n d e r strong i l l u m i n ation
Positives on Metal 3 7
 T h e t i n type 1 8 53-1 9 3 0
Syn o n y m s : fe r rotyp e , m e l a i n otype , m e l a n og ra p h

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e c t i o n s com m o n 'l

Common 8 x 10 in.
sizes and 5 x 7 in.

fo r m at s 2 V2 x 4 i n . ( " b o n t o n " : e ight o n a n 8 x 1 0 p l ate)

(A m e r i ca n ) " 2 1h x 3 1h i n . ( " b o n t o n " o r carte-de-visite: fo u r o n a 5 x 7 plate)

2 x 2 1h i n . (sixteen on an 8 x 1 0 plate)
1 % x 2 V2 i n . (eight on a 5 x 7 p late)
1 3/a x F/3 i n . and various s m a l l e r fo rmats, often cal l ed "gem s "

s i lver particles

St r u c t u re

iron ---+-.
lacq u e r

Reco m m e n d at i o n s fo r co n s e rvat i o n of t i ntypes

J<ee p i n sto rage envelopes, p rotected fro m h u m i d ity and l ight
• Add a piece of card board i ns i d e t h e storage e nvel o p e to p revent d efo rmation

S e n s it i vity Light Abras i o n Pollutants H u m i d ity Flood

CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ
sens itive average average very sens itive very sensitive

Overall view Magnified view

38 POSITIVES
Figure 3 0
Tintype, photographer unknown,
Portrait of a Man, ca. 1 900.

Positives o n Metal 3 9
 Color Positives on Metal
T h e d i rect h e l i o c h ro m es of Becq u e re l a n d Niepce d e
S a i nt-V i cto r (1848-1855)
H isto ry
By t h e e n d of t h e eighteenth c e n t u ry s c i e n ­
t i s t s were fam i l ia r with t h e fact t hat si lver
c h l o ri d e c o u l d record a n d re p ro d u c e spe­
c i fi c c o l o rs of l ight. A t h i n layer of s i lver
c h l o r i d e i l l u m i n ated by red o r gre e n light
would take o n , respective ly, red o r green
tones. E d m o n d Becq u e re l , a p rofessor at t h e
M u s e u m of N at u ral H i story i n P a r i s was
c u r i o u s a b o u t t h is p h e n o m e n o n and in 1 8 4 8
u s e d it to p rod u ce c o l o r p h otographs o n
s i lvered p lates . H e c a l l ed t h e s e h e l i o ­
c h r b m e s . O n ly a few of B e cq u e r e l ' s h e l i o ­
c h r o m e s have s u rvived b ut , a t t h e t i m e t h ey
were made, t h e s e i m ages - s t i l l l ifes , repro­
d u c t i o n s of c o l o re d e ngrav i ng s , a n d i m ages
of the solar spectru m - e l icited i n te n s e
40 P0 SITIVES
i nterest a m o n g scientists a n d p h otogra­
p h e r s . H e l i oc h ro m e s are renowned as t h e
fi rst s u ccessfu l e x p e r i m e nts i n c o l o r p h otog­
raphy, but t h ey s u ffe r fro m two m aj o r p ro b ­
l e m s : 1 . t h e plates have v e r y low sen sitivity
(speed), req u iring long e x p o s u re t i m e s , a n d
2 . t h ey c a n n ot b e fi x e d a n d t h erefore fad e
away slowly if e x p o s e d to l ight. B u i l d i ng on
Becq u e re l ' s p rocess, A b e l N iepce d e Sai nt­
Victor ( n e p h ew of N i c e p h o re N i e pce)
worked to create a p racti cal m e a n s of m ak­
i ng c o l o r p h otographs n Altho ugh he s u c­
ceeded i n i m p roving t h e fi d e l ity of t h e
colors a n d fu rther s t a b i l i z i n g t h e m against
l ight, h e was not a b l e to create a t r u ly stable
a n d p e r m a n e n t i m age.
Figure 3 1
Heliochrome, A b e l N iepce de
Sai nt-Victor, Doll on a Stand,
between 1 8 51 and 1 8 59.
Positives on M etal 41
 Figure 3 2
Helioc h rome, Edmond
Becquerel, Reproduction of
Colored Engravings, ca. 1 8 50.

W h at is a d i rect h e l i o c h ro m e?
A d i re c t h el i o c h ro m e i s a col o r p h otogra p h on a s i lvere d c o p p e r plate made
using t h e methods of Becqu erel o r N ie pce d e Sai nt-Victor. T h e i m age i s pro­
duced d i rectly i n t h e camera u s i ng a p l ate with a p h otosens itive l ayer of s i lver
c h l o r i d e . No s u b s e q u e n t processing of the p late, such as deve l o p me n t o r fix­
i ng , takes p lace. T h e m ec h a n i s m by w h i ch such i m ages are fo rmed has n ot
been c o m p l etely esta b l i s h e d .

42 P O S I T I V E S
 Figure 3 3
Edmond Becquerel's research
notes on the heliochrome,
ca. 1 8 50.
F a b r i cat i o n and use
E d m o n d B e cq u e re l p u b l i s h ed two m et h o d s
fo r m ak i n g d i rect h e l i o c h r o m e s . T h e fi rst
provides fo r a s e n s itizat i o n of t h e s i l vere d
p l ate by i m m e r s i o n i n a s o l u t i o n of s o d i u m
c h l o r i d e a n d c u p ri c c h l o r i d e . T h e s e c o n d
prod u ce s a s i l v e r c h l o ri d e l ay e r o n t h e s i l ­
v e re d p l ate t h r o u g h e l e ctrolysis of a s o l u ­
t i o n of hyd ro c h l o ric ac i d . T h e s e n s itized
p l ate i s then p l aced in t h e cam era a n d
e x p o s e d to fu l l d ayl ight for several h o u rs .
T h e i m age is v i s i b l e o n t h e p l ate d i rectly
Figure 3 4
H el i ochrome, Edmond Becquerel,
Solar spectrum, 1 8 4 8 .
after e x p o s u re but remains p h otosensitive.
N i e p c e d e Sai nt-Victor reduced t h e p h oto­
s e n sitiv ity of t h e i m age by coating it with
dextrin m ixed with l ead c h l o ri d e .
D i rect h e l i o c h rome d et e r i o rat ion a n d care
Light w i l l rap i d ly d e st roy these i mages . T h ey
m ust never be p u t on d i s p lay and s h o u l d b e
e xa m i n e d fo r o n ly t h e b ri e fest p e r i o d s
u n d e r weak, d iffuse i l l u m i n a t i o n .
Positives on Metal 43
 D i re ct h e l i o c h ro m es 848-1 8 5 5

O c c u r r e n c e i n c o l l e cti o n s very ra re

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo rmats
• Vari a b l e , often s i m i la r to those of dague rreotypes

S t r u c t u re

R e c o m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of d i re c t h e l i o c h ro m e s
• D o n o t expose to l ight
• The p l ate should a lways b e sealed i n a package, under glass, to p rotect it fro m abrasion and
fro m exposure to a i r a n d p o l l u tants

S e n s i t iv ity L ight Abrasion P o l l utants H u m id ity Flood

c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J
very sen sitive sens itive s e n sitive sensitive average

Figure 35
H eliochrome, Edmond,
Becquere l , Birds, ca. 1 8 50.

44 P O S I T I V E S
Positives on Metal 4 5
 H i L LOTYPES (1 850-1 860)
I n 1 8 5 0 the Reverend Levi H i l l o f
Wes t Ki l l , New York, announced that
he had perfected a process capable of
producing color daguerreotypes . The
process was complex and the results
unreliable according to the accounts
of the many daguerreotypists who
tried it at the time . Some historians
considered the process as something
of a hoax, despite the commendations
of wel l-known contemporary scien­
t i s t s such a s Samuel Morse . H i l l ' s
reserved character may not have
F ig u re 36
helped his process find recognition.
Cover of Treatise on
Additionally, hillotypes may have arrived Heliochromy or Reproduction
rather too late , when the daguerreotype itself of Pictures by Means of Light
was entering its period of decl ine . There are in Natural Colors, by Pastor
Levi H i l l , 1 85 6.
some sixty hillotypes in the collection of
the Smithsonian' s National Museum of American
History, and the process was successfully recre­
ated in 1985 . 18
The hil lotype is one of the rare examples of a
process derived from the daguerreotype . It gives a
true color image derived directly from nature .
The process requires a series of complex manipula­
t ions . A s i lvered copper plate i s polished and then
exposed to a series of sensitizat ion steps involving
iodine monochloride, chlorine , and mercury vapors .
It is exposed in a camera and then immersed in
various solution s , some of which have functions that
are poorly understood . 19
Few studies have been devoted to Figure 37
Autochromes, stereographs, photographer
this proces s . 20 Light seems to be a
u n known, Family Portraits, ca. 1 9 1 0. The hope for a
determining factor in deterioration truly integral photography was to be able to capture
of hillotypes, which therefore must nature's movement, colors, and three-dimensional
be kept in dark storage . They must s h ape. Scientists began p u rsuing these goals in the
m i d - ni neteenth century. I t was not u ntil 1 907, with
never be displayed and should be
the advent of the Autochrome process, that the
examined for only brief periods general p u bl i c had access to a process that recorded
under weak, diffuse i llumination . the colors of nature.

46
47
V>
V>
ro
-

CJ
c
0
 Monochrome Positives
on G lass

A m b rotypes (1852-1870)

H i story
T h e a m brotype process is p r i m a r i l y a We may call it "wandering photograp hy "
m et h o d of viewing a g l ass p l ate n egative so s i n c e i t s practitioners move about as
t hat the i mage ap pears as a positive, a p h e ­ nomads, from fairs to marketplaces and
n o m e n o n that w a s n oted fro m t h e earl iest hastily set themselves up in a stal l , a vacant
ap pearance of these n egatives i n 1 8 5 0 . shop, or an u n fi n ished house. They deal in
Lou is- D es i re B la n q uart-Evrard (1 802 -1 8 7 2 ) portraits on glass or waxed canvas, priced
remarked that some of h i s n egatives moderately at 1 or 2 francs. These l ittle
ap peared as positives w h e n v i ewed o n a pictures are not l i kely to be classed as great
black backgro u n d . H e proposed m o u nting art . . . . Although we see no great artistic
t h e m i n t h is way, c a l l i ng t h e m " a m p h itypes" effects-the appearance always seems a bit
o r " a m p h ipositives" to signal t h e i r d ual cool-these pictures may be reco m m ended
n at u re . T h is type of backed glass p late i m age for their finen ess of deta i l , which alm ost
was c a l l e d a c o l l o d i o n positive in B ritai n . I t equals the pu rity of the daguerreotype but
w a s i n t h e U n ited States t h at James A m b rose without the displeasing m i rror effects of
Cutting (1 8 1 4 - 1 8 6 7 ) truly p o p u l arized the that process. The oth er advantage is that
p rocess u n d e r the name " a m b roty p e . " H e these direct positives can be fi n ished and
pate nted a m e t h o d of m o u nting a n d seal i ng del ivered in a very short time, which allows
t h e c o l l o d i o n i mage p l ate in 1 8 5 4 . T h i s for a modest price as well as great satisfac­
proved an eco n o m ical - a l b ei t not e q u a l i n tion to i m patient cl ients.
q u a l ity- alternative t o t h e d ague rreotyp e
To avo id the frag i l ity of glass, the positive
p o rt rait, w h i c h w a s sti l l considere d the fi n ­
c o l l o d i o n p rocess was tried on oth e r s u p ­
est p h otogra p h i c portrait m ed i u m . A French
ports, s u c h as m etal ( t h e t i ntype) o r c anvas
p h otography m a n u a l p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 62
(the pann otype).
stated:'

50 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 3 8
Am brotype, photographer u n known,
ca. 1 8 6 0 . Amb rotypes were housed
either i n frames or in cases .

Positives on Glass 51
 Figure 3 9
Ambrotype,
photographer
u n known, ca.
1860. Half of the
ambrotype plate is
placed o n a black
background and
appears as a positive;
the other half i s seen
by transm itted light
and appears as a
negative.

W h at i s a n a m brotype?
The a m b rotype i mage p l ate is a c o l l o d i o n n egative on glass (see C o l l o d i o n
n egatives) except for t h e fact t h at t h e p late i s u n d e rexposed a n d t h e n treated
with a c h e m ical s o l u t i o n that gives the silver i m age a whitish t o n e rat h e r than
the brown tones it w o u l d n o rm a l ly s how.
This whitish i m ag e - a negative w h e n v i ewed by trans m itted l ight- ap pears
to be a positive when it is viewed by reflection over a dark backgro u n d m ate­
r i a l , w h i c h can b e paper, velvet, o r a p p l i e d l ac q u e r. T h e p l ate , along with its
backgro u n d mate r i a l , i s h o u se d i n a case o r a fram e s i m i l a r to t h at used for
d agu e r re otypes; t h i s is often a s o u rce of confusion when o n e i s trying to d i s­
tinguish among ph otographs made with these processes (see I d e ntifi cat i o n of
cased ph otographs: d ag u e rreotype or am brotype?).

52 POSITIVES

Fabricat i o n a n d u s e
A c o l l o d i o n s o l u ti o n , m ixed with a c h l o ride
an d /o r an iodide, i s p o ured onto a scru p u ­
l o usly c l e a n piece of glass, where it fo rms a
thin coating. It is then sensitized fo r a few
m i n u te s i n a bath of ac i d ified si lver n it rate .
O n rem oval from t h e se nsitizer, t h e excess
sensitizer s o l u t i o n is al l owed to d ra i n briefiy
a n d t h e p late is p l aced i n t h e camera. The
expos u re m ust take p l ace befo re the col­
l o d i o n solvents h ave c o m p letely evapo rated .
S u b s e q u e ntly, t h e plate goes into a deve l -
Figure 4 0
Hand-col ored ambrotype,
photographer unknown,
ca. 1 860.
aper contai n i n g s i lver n itrate, n itric acid, and
fe rro u s s u lfate; it is then fixed i n a potas s i u m
cya n i d e s o l u t i o n . When d ry, t h e c o l l o d i o n
i mage s u rface i s coated w i t h a transpare n t
v a r n i s h to protect it; tra n s l u cent c o l o rs m ay
be ad d e d fo r a h e ighte n ing effect. B l ac k
backgro u n d p a p e r o r velvet i s a d d e d b efore
the plate is fit into a p resentation case o r
fra m e . B l ack o r dark b rown l acq u e r m ay b e
a p p l i e d o n t h e back of t h e i m age p late as a
s u bstitute for a sepa rate backing m ate r i a l .
Positives o n Glass 5 3
 Figure 41
Broken ambrotype, photographer
u n known, ca. 1 8 60.
A m b rotype d et e r i o rat i o n a n d care
S o m e a m brotypes have s u rvived i n i m pec­
cable cond itio n ; others h ave not done as
we l l , showi n g overa l l o r local deteriorat i o n ,
often a t t h e i mage p e r i m et e r. I f the i mage
receive d insuffi ci e n t varnish o r was not
var n i s h e d at a l l , o r also if the var n i s h has
disi ntegrated, the s i lver i mage m ay have
u n d e rgo n e c o n s i d e ra b l e oxidative d amage
by exposure to the a i r. S u ch i mages may
appear darken ed and lacking contrast,
s o m e t i m es showing a kind of m etallic s h e e n .
54 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 42
A m b rotype, photographer u n known,
ca. 1 860. The lack of a varnish coating
on some a m brotypes can lead to
oxidation and image deterioration.
There may be a n etwork of cracks t h rough
the c o l l o d i o n i mage l ayer, which m ay fu rther
deteriorate i n to i m age l ayer losses.
Like a l l glass- s u p ported photogra p h s ,
a m b rotypes risk b e i ng severely d a m aged
through b rea kage . A m b rotypes are also s e n ­
s itive t o abrasio n , especially if t h ey have not
been varn i s h e d . The i m age su rface s h o u l d
n ever b e to u ch e d , a n d t h e plates s h o u l d be
housed i n t h e same kind of sealed packages
used for daguerreotypes.
I DENT I F ICATION OF
CAS E D PHOTOGRAPHS :
DAGUERREOTYPE OR
AMBROTYPE?

Of a l l the types of photographs

on met a l , the ones most likely
to appear in collections are the
daguerreotype and the tintyp e ,
t h e other processes o n meta l
being extremely rar e . A sharp
eye will usually identify a
daguerreotype . But tintypes and
ambrotypes are often confused
with daguerreotype s , since a l l
o f them have simi lar formats and
often also the same type of
housing.
Remember that a daguerreo­
type is an image formed by a
white deposit on a mirror
surface . The shadow areas of the
image are not dark unti l the
plate i s posit ioned to reflect
a dark surface . Facing a bright
surface , the image appears
negative . The daguerreotype
must be turned back and forth to
obtain the best viewing angle .
'
One can also see one ' s own
reflected image in the daguerre­
otype plate . None of these
things are true of ferrotype
and ambrotype images . b

Figure 43
(a) Daguerreotype, (b) ambrotype,
photographers u n known, ca. 1 860.
Dague rreotypes and ambrotypes are often
housed in a similar way. The daguerreotype can
be d isti ngu ished by its m i rrorlike reflectio n s.

55
 T h e am b roty p e 1 8 52-1 8 70
Syn o n y m : c o l l o d i o n p o s i t i ve

O c c u r re n ce i n co l l e c t i o n s rare co m m o n

C o m m o n s iz e s a n d fo r m at s
• Vari a b l e ; s i m i l a r t o daguerreotype plate sizes t o fi t cases designed fo r daguerreotypes

glass

Str u c t u re

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of a m b roty p e s
• E n cl o s u re i n a s e a l e d package

S e n s i t i v ity Light Abrasion Pol lutants H u m i d ity Flood

CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
sens itive sens itive sensitive sensitive very sensitive

Overall view Magnified view

56 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 44
Ambrotype ho used in a case,
photographer unknown, ca. 1 8 70.

Positives o n Glass 5 7
 M o n o c h ro m e tra n s pa ren c i e s on g l a s s :
l antern s l i d es a n d stereogra p h s l i d es (1850-1950)
H istory
The p rojection of i mages made on glass
through a n optical device c o n s i d e rably p re­
d ates p h otograp hy. From as early as the
seventeenth c e n t u ry t h e royal c o u rts of
E u rope were b e i ng e nte rtai n e d by i mages
painted on glass p rojected through a magic
lante r n , a precursor of the s l i d e p roj ector.
T h e invention of the m agic lantern is trad i ­
t i o n a l l y att r i b u te d t o the D utch p hysicist
Ch ristian H uyge n s (1 62 9-1 695). Later, the
p rojection of p h otogra p h i c i m ages revived
the i d ea of the m agic l antern show, and
projection of m o n o ch ro m e transpare n c i es
was used for a w i d e range of e d u cati onal
a n d e nterta i n m e n t p u rposes w e l l into the
58 P O S I T I V E S
1 940s. T h e fi rst p h otograp h s p re pared for
this p u rpose were made in 1 850 on a l b u m e n
plates b y t h e Lange n h e i m b rothers o f
P h i l ad e l p h i a ; they refe rred t o t h e s e p lates a s
hyaloty p e s . Later i n t h e century, specialist
c o m p a n i e s maintained a catal og of lantern
vi ews ava i l a b l e for p u rchase. After 1 890
amate u rs could make lantern slides a n d ste­
reograph slides fro m their own n egatives
u s i ng co m m e rc i a l ly avai l a b l e gelatin s i lver
p lates . M o n o c h r o m e transpare n cies on
glass grad u a l ly d isap peared as color trans­
pare ncy m aterials o n fi l m - l<odach ro m e ,
E ktach ro m e , and Agfac o l o r - b e c a m e
i n crea s i ngly avai l a b l e after W o r l d W a r I I .
Figure 45
Lantern slide, photographer
u n known, Printing Press,
ca. 1930.
What is a transpare n cy on gl ass?
A transparency is a positive p h otograph designed to be v i ewed by transm it­
ted l ight or by p roj e c ti o n . D e p e n d i n g on the era, these were made u s i ng t h e
al b u m e n , t h e c o l l o d i o n , o r the ge l ati n p rocess. T h ey could be s h ow n u s i ng a
magic lantern (a p rojector) , fram ed a n d h u ng i n fron t of a w i n d ow, i n co r p o ­
rated i nto decorative wi ndow d e s igns, o r v i ewed i n a ste reoscope to g i v e a
t h re e - d i m e n s i o n a l effect. T h e n o n i m age s i d e of t h e glass may have been
etched to p rovide a d iffu s i ng screen for t h e tra n s m itted light.

Positives on Glass 59
60
Fabri cati o n a n d use
F i rst, a glass p l ate n egative i mage is
req u i re d . This i mage is rep h otograp h e d ­
e n larged, red u c e d , o r b y contact - o n to
a n o t h e r p h otograp h i c p l ate that w i l l
beco m e t h e positive transparen cy. B efore
t h e 1 88 0 s the a l b u m e n on glass p ro cess Figure 47
was p refe rred -fo r both the n egative a n d the J u l es Richard Verascope, ca.
transpare n cy - b ecause of its s u p e r i o r i mage reso­ 1900. Stereoscopic camera for
making stereographs.
l ut i o n c o m pared to that of c o l l od i o n . After the
1 88 0 s t h e gelatin p l ate p rocess , u s i ng s i lver c h l o -
r i d e a n d/or si lver b ro m id e , b e c a m e an alter-
n ative to t h e a l b u m e n p rocess . I n t h e
-----�""""-����=� ��-!!!,
twentieth centu ry, p hotogra p h i c m a n u fac­
t u re rs provided p l ates made with si lver c h l o ­
ride c o m p l exed w i t h o rga n i c c o m p o u n ds that
were designed especially to p ro d u ce warm
tones in i mages made either by printing o ut o r
b y deve l o p m ent. T h e l antern s l i d es are fi n ­
ished with a black paper apertu re that serves
as a kind of mat or separating layer a l o ng with
a cover glass; then t h ey are sealed arou n d the
edges with a g u m m ed paper strip, u s u a l ly black Figure 48
in c o l o r. Stereograph transpare n cies were p ro­ Package of Vari eta positive plates,
ca. 1 9 0 0 . These plates were designed
d u ced fro m stereoscopic n egatives fo l l owing t h e
for making lantern slide positives.
same p roced u re , b u t o n ly a l b u m e n p rocess stereo­
graphs were s u p p l i e d with a cover glass.
Tra n s parencies o n glass were s o m et i m e s hand
colored, tinted, o r to n e d .

D et e r i o rat i o n a n d care of transpare n cies o n g l ass

S i n ce these types of transpare n cies are usually p ro ­
tected b y a cover glass that h a s b e e n sealed o nto
the transparen cy, they are often fou n d i n good
conditi o n . Occas i o n a l ly some delam i n ation of the
i mage layer is o bserved i n ge latin si lver plates. Like
a l l glass-s u p po rted p h otographs, glass transpare n ­ Figure 49
c i e s r i s k severe damage t h ro ugh breakage. Magic lantern projector,
engraving, ca. 1 90 0 .
Figure 46
Three gelatin silver stereograph lantern s l ides,
photographers u n known, ca. 1 920.

Positives on Glass 6 1
 M o n o c h ro m e tran s pare n c i es o n glass: l antern s l i d es and
ste reograph s l i d es 1 8 50- 950

O c c u rre n ce i n c o l l e c t i o n s com m o n

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m at s
• l a n t e r n sl i d e
cm 8 . 5 x 8 . 5 ; 8 . 5 x 1 0
i n . : 3 % x 3 % ; 3 V2 x 3 V2 ; 3 % x 4
• stereograph s l i d e
c m : 4 . 5 x 1 0. 7; 6 x 1 3 ; 7 x 1 3 ; 7 x 1 5 ; 8 . 5 x 1 7
i n . : 3 V2 x 7

s i l ve r

St r u c t u re gelati n , co l l o d i o n , or a l b u m e n

��=====f
glass _____,___

R e co m m e n d ati o n s fo r c o n s e rvat io n of m o n o c h ro m e t r a n s pare n c i e s o n g l a s s

• Avo i d extre m e s of h u m i d ity i n t h e storage e n v i ro n m e nt

S e n s i t i v i ty Light A b rasi o n Pol l utants H u m i d ity Flood

c::::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J
ave rage average sens itive average sensitive

62 POSITIVES
Fig u re 50 e ncie s .
ansp ar
gr aph tr
ste re o
20 .
c a. 1 9

51
Fi gu re 20 .
ca . 1 9
n sli d e s ,
L ante r

Gl ass
63
es o n
Po sitiv
 Color Positives on G lass
T h e Li p p m a n n p rocess (1891-1914)
H i story
T h e scie ntific c o m m u n ity of t h e late n i n e ­
teenth century w a s n ot entirely convi nced
that Ducos d u H a u ro n ' s h e l i o c h ro m e process
(see The h e l i o c h ro m e s of Louis D ucos du
H a u ro n) constituted a true c o l o r p h oto­
grap h i c p rocess . At best, it was t h ought of as
a trick that a l l owed c o l o rs to be artificia l ly
constructed . This was the preva i l i n g o p i n i o n
even a m o n g t h e m o s t res pected h el i o­
chrome p ractitio n e rs , such as Leon V i d a l ,
w h o wrote: " I t is far fro m b e i ng a m eans o f
c o l o r re p rod uction b y l i g h t , n o r can it g i v e a
t r u e representat i o n of colored o bj ects."2
What was sought, rat h e r than t h i s i n d i ­
rect m e t h o d , w a s a m eans o f d i rectly record­
ing all the colors of l ight, as had been d o n e
b y the p rocess of B e c q u erel a n d N iepce d e
Sai nt-Victor, a l b e i t with serious s h o rtco m ­
i ngs with regard t o sta b i l ity.
I n 1 8 9 1 t h e physicist G a b r i e l L i p p m a n n
(1 8 4 5 - 1 92 1 ) s u cc e e d e d i n t h i s w i t h a n
i n n ovative tech n i q u e , u s i ng a m e t h o d o f
record i ng a n d rec o n structing c o l o rs that
was based on t h e physical p h e n o m e no n of
i nterfe re n ce of wave s - i nterferen ce of l ight
waves i s the p h e n o m e n o n t h at gives us t h e
c o l o rs i n a soap b u b b l e , i n a p u d d l e o f water
64 P O S I T I V E S
covered with a bit of o i l , o r i n t h e feat h e rs
of certain b i rd s . F o r h i s i nvent i o n , a n d fo r
what it d e m o n strated a b o u t the n ature of
l ight, L i p p m a n n was award ed t h e 1 9 0 8
N o b e l P r i z e i n Physics.
To make a L i p p m a n n p h otograp h , a glass
plate with a gelat i n si lver b ro m i d e e m u ls i o n
( s e e G e l ati n s i lver n egatives o n glass) is p u t
i nto a s p e c i a l ly co nstru cted cam e ra p l ate
h o l d er. In contrast to conventional c a m e ra
arrange m e nts, here t h e p late is p l aced with
its glass s u pport toward the l e n s , w h i l e the
p hotose n s itive e m u ls i o n faces t h e back of
the c a m e r a , w h ere it is i n co ntact with m e r­
c u ry. D u ri ng exposure, t h e l ight co m i ng from
the l e n s crosses t h ro ug h the p h otose nsitive
laye r and is reflected back from the s u rface
of t h e m e rc u ry. Constructive a n d destru ctive
i nterfe re n c e of the i n c i d e n t and reflected
rays w i l l create exposed and u n exposed sites
through the d e pt h of the e m u l s i o n . These
are i nte rference fringe patte r n s , t h e spacing
of which re p resents the i ntens ity a n d wave­
l e ngth of t h e i n cident l ight. W h e n t h e p l ate
i s deve l o pe d and exam i n ed by refl ection
under diffuse i l lum i n at i o n , the laminar s i lver
d e posits i n the e m u ls i o n will diffract the
 Figure 52
Color engraving, artist
u n known, Color Reflections
on a Soap Bubble, ca. 1 9 3 0 .
T h e colors in a Lippmann
photograph derive from
the same phenomenon­
interference-that produces
the colors reflected from a
soap bubble.

refl ected l ight, a n d t h e original scene will be notably b y Z e i s s . I n M a y 1 8 9 3 , a d is p l ay o f

reconstructed with the original spectral
c o m p o ne n t s .
T h e L i p p m a n n p rocess st i m u lated excite­
m e nt a n d h o pe for a p ractical m et h o d of
m a k i ng c o l o r p h otogra p h s . The L u m i e re
b roth e rs worked fo r several years to achi eve
t h e i m p rovem ents n ecessary to m a ke the
p rocess u s a b l e by a l a rger photogra p h i c
p u b l i c . S p ec i a l l y e n g i n e e red p h otogra p h i c
p lates a n d vari o u s devices fo r v i ew i ng a n d
proj e c t i ng the i m ages were m a n ufac t u re d ,
L i p p m a n n i mages i n P a r i s c reated a sen sa­
t i o n . 3 Sci e n t ists saw the e l egant p rocess as a
s u p p l e m e ntary p roof of t h e wave n at u re of
l ight, b ut t h i s d i d l ittle to convince p h otog­
rap h ers of its p ract ical a p p l i cati o n s . Long
expos u re times, d iffi c u l t m a n i p u lati o n s ,
t h e n e cessity fo r co m p l ex viewing arrange­
m e n t s , the lack of paper p r i n t s - a l l t h e s e
p roved to b e i n s u r m o u nt a b l e o bstacles t o
t h e c o m m e rc i a l success of t h e p ro c e s s .

Positives on Glass 6 5
 Figure 5 3
I mage formation i n a
Lippmann photograph,
engraving, ca. 1900.
S u bject

E m u lsion Mercury

Figure 54
Plate holder
for Lippmann
photography,
W h at is a L i p p m a n n p l ate?
engraving, ca.
A L i p p m a n n p late is a c o l o r p h otograp h on a 1 90 0 . This special
gelatin silver b ro m id e e m u l s i o n that recon ­ holder allows the
structs a l l o f t h e col ors o f t h e o rigi nal s c e n e , Lippmann plate to
be exposed in the
w h i c h a r e recorded b y t h e p hysical p h e n o m ­
camera while the
e n o n o f i nterference of l i g h t waves . T h e emu lsion is in
e m u l sion i s exposed to l i g h t w h i l e it i s i n contact with a
contact w i t h a m i rrorl ike layer of mercury. reflective layer
of mercury.
T h e refl ected a n d i nc i d e nt l ight waves create
inte rferen ce fri nges that res u l t in m i croscopic
l ayers of developed s i l ve r located t h rough
the d e pt h of t h e emulsi o n . The periodic
spacing of these l ayers is proportional to the
l ight wave l e ngths-and thus t h e colors­
originating fro m t h e s u bject. T h e plate m us t
b e t i l t e d b a c k a n d forth to fi n d the angle a t
w h i c h the i mage i s optimally reconstructe d .
L i p p m a n n p l ates a r e often a d h e red b e h i n d a
glass p r i s m , a n d t h e back of t h e p late is often
painted with a black l ac q u e r. T h ey are u s u a l l y
s m a l l i n s ize (ap p rox. 6 x 9 cm).

Figure 5 5
Alphonse Berget, Gabriel
Lippmann in His Laboratory
at the Sorbonne, ca. 1 90 0 .

66 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 56
l nterferential (Lippmann)
photograph, P. Faligot, Bouquet
of Flowers, ca. 1 900.

Positives on Glass 6 7

Fabri cati o n a n d u s e
Two sol u t i o n s of warm ge l ati n are m ixed,
one contai n i ng s i lver n itrate a n d t h e other
pota ss i u m b ro m i d e . (A l b u m e n a n d c o l l o ­
d i o n b i n d e rs have a l s o b e e n used i n stead
of ge latin fo r m a k i n g L i p p m a n n p l ates.)
S p e ct ra l sensitizers are added to m ake the
e m u l s i o n pan c h ro m at i c , i . e . , sen sitive to all
t h e c o l o rs conta i n e d i n fu l l -spectrum l ight.
T h i s e m u l s i o n i s t h i n ly spread o n a glass
p late. When d ry, t h e plate i s p u t i nto a
special p l ate h o l d e r arranged so that t h e
e m u l s i o n faces away fro m t h e c a m e ra l e n s
a n d contacts t h e m e rc u ry h e l d i n a reser­
voir at t h e back of t h e h o l d e r. The c a m e ra
exposu re may take m o re than a m i n ute,
d u ring which t h e i n c o m ing l ight rays and
those refl ected fro m t h e m e r c u ry s u rface
i nteract with each other, i m p r i n t i n g
t h rough t h e depth of the e m u l s i o n a pat­
tern of expos u re that is characteristic of
each of the i n cid ent light wave l e ngths.
Deve l o p m e n t of t h e exposed e m u l s i o n
produces a m i c rostratified s i lver d e posit.
T h e p l ate is then fi xe d , was h e d , a n d dried
68 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 57
Devices made for viewing
Lippmann photographs,
engraving, ca. 1 9 1 0 .
conve n t i o n a l ly. The p l ate ' s c o l o rs can be
seen o n l y w h e n a d iffus e l ight s o u rce is
reflected i n a p l a n e para l l e l to t h e p l ate. To
avoid t h e o bscuring refl ection of t h e light
s o u rce fro m t h e top s u r face of t h e glass
p late , a p r i s m deflecting t h i s refl ec t i o n is
ofte n affi xed to t h e p l ate.
L i p p m a n n p l ate d et e r i o rat i o n a n d care
Little i nfo r m at i o n is ava i l a b l e on the c o n ­
servat i o n of t h e s e p lates . Si nce these are
fi n e-gra i n i mages with m u ch of t h e i r i n fo r­
m ation e n coded i n t h e fo r m of i n ternal
spac i n g of s i lver d e posits t h rough t h e d e pth
of the e m u ls i o n , it i s i m portant t h at e n v i ­
ro n m e n tal p o l l utants b e m i n i m ized a l o n g
w i t h variat i o n s i n relative h u m i d ity. The
attached glass prism m ay b e c o m e
d etac h e d . L i ke a l l glass-s u p p o rted p h o t o ­
g r a p h s , L i p p m a n n p l ates are a t risk of d a m ­
age t h rough b reakage. T h i s t y p e of risk m ay
be even h ig h e r for L i p p m a n plates because
of t h e i r weight: they are q u ite h eavy due to
t h e weight of the glass p r i s m .
T h e L i p p m an n p l ate 1 8 9 1 -1 9 1 4

O c c u r re n c e i n c o l l e c t i o n s rare

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo rmats
· G e n e rally small: 6 x 6 c m ; 6 x 9 cm; 9 x 1 2 cm

St r u c t u re

gelat i n , collod i o n , or albumen �F=======t:"

glass ------+--•
lacquer _ __________

R e c o m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of L i p p m a n n p l ates
• Store i n p rotective envelopes p l aced in custo m -s ize boxes

Light A b ra s i o n Poll utants H u m i d ity F l ood

S e n s it i v i ty CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
average average average average sens itive

Positives on Glass 69
 Th re e - co l o r Lu m i e re t ran s pare n c ies (1896-1903)

H istory
Aro u n d 1 895 i n the course of t h e i r experi­
m e nts o n color p h otography, which wo u l d
eve n t u a l ly lead t h e m to t h e creat i o n o f t h e
autochrome (discussed in t h e n ext section),
t h e L u m i ere b rothers patented a color trans­
parency p rocess.4 T h i s was a refi n ement of
the D u cos du H a u ro n process of 1 868
involving the s u p e ri m position of t h ree
m o n o c h ro m e laye rs: o n e y e l l ow, one p u r p l e
(magenta), a n d o n e b l u e (cyan). U s i ng t h i s
process t h e L u m i e re factories pro d u ced
s u p e r b stereograph t ranspare n c i e s depicting
s t i l l l ifes of jewelry, fl owers, a n d other pre ­
c i o u s o bjects. T h ey were s o l d b y agents a n d
shown i n profe s s i o n a l p h otography stu d i o s
and were particularly re m arked o n at the
U n iversal E x h i b i t i o n i n Paris in 1 90 0 . A l l this
served n ot so much to i nt rod u ce a new p ro­
cess as to promote t h e reputat i o n of the
L u m i e re b r a n d . In fact, these rich c o l o r
i m ages a re d i ffi c u l t t o make a n d req u i re a
great deal of t i m e a n d expertise. Th ere were
some att e m pts to produce a s i m p l i fi e d ver­
sion of t h i s process for w i d e r u s e - s u c h as
H o e c h s t ' s Pi natype process, pate nted i n
1 90 5 - bu t its c o m p l exity fi na l ly l i m ited its
use to a co m m u n ity of d e d icated and s k i l l e d
amat e u rs a n d a h andful of professi o n a l s . I n
1 907 t h e c o m m e rc i a l ly s u ccessful auto­
c h ro m e p ro cess took over the m arket.

Figure 5 8
The Hess-Ives H 1 - CRO camera for making three-col o r exposures, ca. 1 9 1 1 , from Lou i s
Walton Sipley, A Half Century of Color (New York, 1 95 1 ) . This camera allowed f o r the
sim ultaneous exposure of three monochrome plates using a sem itransparent m i rror
with an incorporated fi lter. The three-color separation negatives obtained in this way
could be used to print a three-color positive on a paper or glass support.

70 P O S I T I V E S
Fabricat i o n and u s e
T h e re a r e t w o d i st i n ct stages i n t h e p rod u c­
t i o n of a t h re e - c o l o r i m age: 1 . t h e making
of t h e c a m e ra i mages , a n d 2 . t h e p rod uc­
t i o n of t h e c o l o re d print laye r s . The s u bject
i s p h otographed onto m o no c h r o m e pan­
c h romatic p l ates t h ree t i m e s , each time
u s i ng a d i ffe rent fi lter: v i o l et , gre e n , and
o range. After deve l o p m e nt, t h re e b lack­
and-wh ite n egative s - t h e t h re e - c o l o r sepa­
rat i o n n egatives - are produced. Some of
the c a m e ras also i n co rporated optical
devices with the capa b i l ity of prod ucing a
set of t h ree-color s e parat i o n n egatives i n
o n e s i m ultaneous expos u re. T h e c h ro ­
m ographoscope of D u cos d u H a u ro n and
the p h ot o c h ro m oscope of Fre d e ri c E . I ves
a re e xa m p l es of such devices.
T h e second step involves printing the
thre e n egatives to p ro d u ce t h re e positive
m o n oc h ro m e c o l o re d i m ages-ye l l ow,
magenta, and cya n - by a process s i m i l a r to
thre e- c o l o r gum b i c h ro mate pri nting (see
G u m b i c h ro m ate p r i n ts). Three glass plates
are coated with gelat i n made p h otosensi­
tive by t h e addition of a m m o n i u m d i c h ro­
mate -the L u m iere fo r m u lat i o n also
i n c l u d e d s i lver b ro m i d e . F i rst, the se para­
tion n egative made with the v i o l et fi lter is
placed in co ntact with one of t h e d ic h r o ­
mated g e l a t i n p lates a n d e x p o s e d to l ight,
causing the areas of d i c h ro m ated gelatin
correspon d i ng to the s h ad ows of the origi-
n a l scene to hard e n a n d b e c o m e i n s o l u b l e .
T h e ge l ati n p l ate is t h e n wash e d w i t h warm
water to e l i m i n ate the s o l u b l e parts, and
t h e rem a i n i ng hard e n e d ge l ati n is tinted
with a s o l ut i o n of yel l ow dye. This i s fo l ­
l owed by rinsing, fi x i ng i n sod i u m t h i o s u l ­
fate , and wash ing. The w h o l e o perat i o n is
repeated with the green-fi ltered i mage (to
be ti nted m agenta) a n d t h e o range-filtered
i m age (ti nted cyan). W h e n transfe rred from
t h e i r o rigi n a l glass su pports and s u p e r i m ­
posed o n a s i ng l e glass p late, t h e t h re e
tinted layers reconstruct the colors of t h e
origi nal s u bject w h e n v i ewed by transm it­
ted l ight.
Deterio rati o n a n d care of t h re e - co l o r
L u m i ere transparencies
C o n sisting o n ly of gelatin m i xe d with dyes
a n d s u p p o rted o n a s h e et of glass, t h ese
transpare n c ies are relatively stable w h e n
stored i n t h e dark. H owever, the c o m p o ­
n e n t gelatin layers may d e l a m i nate a n d
fractu re , c a u s i ng separat i o n a n d l o s s .
D e l a m i nati o n m ay be c a u s e d by sign i fi cant
variations i n relative h u m i d i ty. These trans­
pare n cies s h o u l d n ot be exposed to i ntense
l ight since their dyes are a l most ce rtai n l y
s u bject to rap i d l ight- i n d uced fad ing. L i ke
a l l glass-s u p p o rted p hotogra p h s , transpar­
e n cies are at risk of b e i ng severely dam aged
t h rough b reakage.
Positives on Glass 71
 Figure 59
Three-color L u m i ere stereograph transparency, Gabriel
Veyre, Bouquet of Flowers, ca. 1 900. Gabriel Veyre was
the Lum iere brothers' camera operator; he experimented
with all of the products made by their com pany.

W h at is a t h r e e - co l o r L u m i ere t r a n s paren cy?

A t h re e - c o l o r L u m i e re transpare n cy is a c o l o r p h otograp h m eant to be v i ewed
by transm itted l ight o r projecte d ; it s u p e r i m poses t h ree l ayers of gelatin t h at are
tinted yel l ow, m agenta, a n d cya n , as i n the t h ree-color gum b i c h ro mate pro­
cess. C o m pared to autoch romes, these i m ages are l u m i n o u s a n d saturat e d . The
p ro cess was used m a i n ly to produce lantern s l i de s a n d stereograp h s .

72 POSITIVES
Figure 60
Three-color L u m i ere
transparency, Gabriel Veyre,
Greenhouse. ca. 1 9 0 0 .

Positives on Glass 7 3
 T h e th re e-co l o r Lu m i e re tran s pare n cy 1 89 6 -1 903

O c c u rre n c e i n c o l l e cti o n s rare

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m at s
• 8.5 x 1 0 c m ; 8 . 5 x 1 8 cm

\
yel low gelat i n l ayer

magenta gelatin layer �

S t r u c t u re
cyan ge I at i n I aye r i iii�iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii�,,.
-·iiiiiiiiiiiiii
g l ass

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvati o n of t h ree - co l o r Lu m i e re t r a n s pare n cy p l ates

• Avoid p ro l o nged d isp lay u n d e r i ntense i l l u m i nation
• Avo i d exposure to h eat

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m id ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty C:JC:JC:J C:J C:J C:J C:JC:JC:J C:JC:JC:J C:JC:JC:J
sensi tive average average sensitive very sensitive

74 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 61
Three-color Lumiere transparency,
Gabriel Veyre, Self- Portrait in
M exico, ca. 1 9 0 0 .

Positives on Glass 7 5
 Auto c h ro m es (1907-1935)
H istory
I n 1 8 69 Louis D u cos d u H au ro n p roposed
u s i ng a fine patte rn of color fi lters to make
color ph otographs by add itive color m i x i n g .
This i d ea w a s not tra n s l ated i nto a practical
p h otogra p h i c p rocess u ntil the end of the
n i n eteenth century, fi rst by the I rish scientist
John J o ly ( 1 8 57-1 933), who s u ccessfu lly
made c o l o r i m ages i n 1 896 u s i ng a screen of
c o l o red l i nes, and s u bseq u e ntly i n 1 897 by
the A m e rican J a m es M c D o n o u g h . These
early products, worka b l e but not w i d ely
s u ccessfu l , were fo l l owed by the auto­
c h r o m e , a lege n d ary p h otograp h i c m aterial
whose production continued for several
decades d espite com petit i o n fro m many
s i m i l a r products. The autochrome fi na l ly
made c o l o r ph otograp hy relatively easy a n d
w i t h i n the capacity of m ost a m ateur ph otog­
rap h e rs . Its s u ccess is largely d u e to the
determi nation of the b roth e rs Louis and
Auguste L u m i e re , w h o had taken over their
fat h e r ' s d ry p late factory near Lyo n . Perhaps
best k n own fo r t h e i r late r p i o neeri ng work i n
c i n e m atography, i n t h e 1 890s t h e L u m i eres
were eager to i ntro d u ce a new p rod u ct that
w o u l d b r i ng c o l o r p h otography to a w i d e
m arket. They tried to deve l o p both
L i p p m a n n ' s i nterfe rential method and the
t h ree- c o l o r separat i o n a p p roach (see Three-
76 P O S I T I V E S
color L u m i ere tran spa re n c i es). B u t b oth
these methods resi sted s i m p l ifi cati o n and
the b roth e rs eventu a l ly t u r n e d their atte n ­
t i o n to a d i fferent way of m a ki ng c o l o r
ph otogra p h s b y adopting the J oly a n d
M c D o n ough c o l o r screen meth o d .
T h e L u m i ere C o m p a ny b rought out t h e
fi rst auto c h r o m e p l ates i n 1 907, w h i c h
q u ickly fou n d a market. D u ri ng the fo l l owing
twenty years m i l l i o n s of p l ates were p ro­
d u ced. I n 1 93 1 the heavy a n d frag i l e glass
su pport was rep l aced by a fl e x i b l e s u p p o rt.
W ith the advent of the fol l owing generat i o n
of c o l o r p h otogra p h i c m aterials-the s u b ­
tractive system chromoge n i c mate rials p i o ­
n ee red b y Eastman l<o d a k and represented
fi rst by the Kodachro m e pos itive transpar­
e ncy fi l m (1 935) - c o l o r screen p rocesses
such as the auto c h ro m e q u ickly lost favor
and d isappeare d . They were less sensitive
than the new p rod u cts and their noticeable
g ra n u lation o r str i pes were not s u itable fo r
use i n the s m a l l er-fo rm at cameras that were
then beco m i ng stand ard . N evertheless, the
L u m i ere C o m pany continued to p ro d u ce a
fi l m - s u p po rted vers i o n of t h e i r p ro d uct i nto
the 1 9 50s (see Other add itive c o l o r screen
transpare n c ies).
 Fig u re 62
Autochrome, photographer
u n known, Military Officer,
ca. 1 9 1 4 .

W h at i s an auto c h rome?
An autochro m e is a color t ranspare n cy s u p p o rted o n a g l a s s p late . T h e c o l o rs of t h e
original scen e a r e recreated b y a mosaic of potato starch g ra n u l e s , e a c h gran u l e a b o u t
1 5 m icrons i n d ia m eter a n d dyed e i t h e r o ra n ge , v i o l e t , o r g r e e n . A b lack-and-white p h o ­
togra p h i c e m u l s i o n i s coated o nto this n etwork of c o l o red fi lter e le m e nts of starch gra i n s ;
after p rocessi ng , its s i lver i m age acts as a m a s k over t h e c o l o red starch g ra i n s , selectively
b l oc k i ng t h e t ra n sm ission of light t h rough some of t h e grain elements a n d a l lowing oth­
e rs to tra n s m it c o l o red l ight. The colors of t h e original scene are recreated by additive
synthesis of c o l o red l ight, u s i ng a p r i n c i p l e s i m i la r to t h e way i n which c o m puter m o n i­
t o rs a n d television screens produce c o l o r i mages. I n h i s p resentat i o n to t h e Fre n c h
Acad emy of S c i e n ce on May 3 0 , 1 9 04, L o u i s Lu m i e re described t h e process as " based
o n t h e use of c o l o red part i c l es s p read in a s i ngle layer over a glass p late, which are then
covered with a su itable var n i s h and, fi n a l ly, with a p h otosensitive e m u l s i o n . The p late
is exposed fro m the back and d eve l o p e d , a n d w h e n obse rved from the fron t by trans­
m itted l ight, i t s h ows the c o l o rs of the original as p hotograp hed." Autochromes c o u l d
b e p rojected o r also viewed u s i ng a s p e c i a l l y designed a pparatus made by the L u m iere
C o m pany, variously b randed as the d iascope, t h e c h ro mo d iascope, o r m i rror stan d s .

Positives on Glass 7 7
 Fabri cati o n a n d u s e
A u to c h ro m e p l ates were man ufact u red a t two to three tho usand color elements that
t h e p l a n t a t M o n plaisir, c l ose to Lyo n . A are orange, green, or violet.
c o m p l ete descri ption of t h e i r man ufact u re This su rface is covered with a varn i sh
a n d u se i s fo u n d i n a report made by L o u i s layer, as t h i n and i m permeable as possi ble
L u m i e re t o t h e Fre n c h Academy of S c i e n c e and having a refractive i n dex si m i lar to that
o n May 3 0 , 1 9 04 : of the starch granu les. Finally a thin pan­
chromatic gelat i n silver bromide emu lsion
Here are the detai ls regard ing plate manu­
is poured on to p of the varnish . This plate is
facture. The potato starch gran u l es are
exposed as usu a l , with the only precaution
sorted to select th ose with a diam eter
that it be placed i n the camera in such a
between fifteen- and twenty-tho u sandths
way that the i ncident l ight from the lens
of a m i l l i meter. These are divided i nto t h ree
passes t h rough the colored gran ules before
portions and then dyed: one portion
reaching the photosensitive layer. The plate
orange, one green , and the t h i rd violet. The
is develo ped as usual , but if one proceeds
colored gran ules are dried comp letely and
i m mediately to the sod i u m hyposu lfite fix­
then m ixed i n appro priate proportions. A
ing step, a negative is obtained that shows,
glass p late, al ready coated with a sticky
in transmitted l ight, the com pl ementary
su bstance, i s then covered with an even
colors of those of the p hotographed object.
layer of the colored gran ules with the aid of
To obtain an image corresponding to the
a brush . If the gran u les are a p p l i ed with
original colors, it will suffice to reverse the
great care, a u n iform single layer is achieved
image by disso lving the si lver obtained after
in which the starch gran u l es touch one
the development; then, without fixing, the
another without ever being superim posed.
silver bromide that was not exposed to l ight
The interstices between the gran u l es, which
in the camera should be developed. With
would otherwise transm it white l ight, are
this man i p u lati o n , a bit more complex than
bl ocked by the appl ication of a fine black
the usual ones, we obtain color reproduc­
powder, for exam ple carbon black. This
tions of the objects p hotographed.
powder i s appl ied using the same dusti ng­
on and brush i ng technique used for the It was fu rther rec o m m e n ded t h at t h e
starch granu les. Thus we obtain a colored a u t o c h r o m e s b e varnished and t h a t t h e pl ate
screen in which each square m i l l i meter has receive a p rotective cover gl ass.

78 P O S I T I V E S
 Figure 63
Autochrome plate damaged
by ft ooding, photographer
u n known, Fashion Photograph,
ca. 1 920.
Autochrome d ete r i o rati o n a n d care
The types of d eterioration o bserved on auto­
chromes are s i m i l a r to those seen o n gelatin
silver glass plate n egatives: b reakage, s i lver
oxidatio n , m i rroring, and so on. (see G el at i n
s i lver n egatives o n glass) . The structure o f
the autochro m e is c o m p l ex as it is m a d e u p
o f m u lt i p l e ad he red layers. Plates that d i d
n ot receive a fi n a l varnish layer often show
d e l a m i nation of the gelat i n si lver i mage laye r
on the periphery. These damaged p l ates
s h o u l d be h a n d l ed carefu lly a n d s h o u l d also
b e protected -as should all autochrome
p l ates - by a cover glass identi cal in size to
the autochro m e plate. Com pared to the
later c h ro m oge n i c c o l o r ph otographs, auto­
chromes are relatively dark stable a n d often
s u rvive in good cond itio n . H owever, they
may fade or d eve l o p cracks i n the screen
l ayer if exposed to too m u ch l ight. The m ost
serious types of damage suffered by auto­
c h ro m e plates (dye d isp lacement, d issolution
of the starch grai n layer, mold effl orescence)
are those p rod u ced by exposure to h igh
h u m i d ity i n the storage environment o r
b y fl o o d .
Positives on Glass 7 9
 T h e autoch ro m e 1 90 7-1 9 3 5

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e c t i o n s rare

C o m m o n p l ate s izes (cm)

• 4 . 5 x 1 0 . 5 ; 6 x 1 3 ; 9 x 1 2 ; 1 3 x 1 8 ; 18 x 24 ; 18 x 3 0
• P l ates w i t h m o re than 1 8 c m w i d t h a r e rare a n d were prod u ced o n ly experimentally

St r u c t u re gelatin-si lver image layer ::�����������!=?�==-- varnish

dyed starch granules -

g l ass ---+-

Reco m m e n d ati o n s for c o n se r v at i o n of a u t o c h r o m e s

• T h e p l ate s h o u l d always be s e a l e d i n a package, u n d e r g l a s s , t o p rotect i t from exposure to
a i r a n d p o l l utants
• Vu l n erable to wate r contact a n d h igh h u m i d ity
• Avo i d p rojection and permanent d isplay ; use fac s i m i les i nstead

Light A b rasion Pol l utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ
sensitive average sen sitive sensitive very sensi tive

Overall view Magn ified view M icroscopic view

80 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 64
Autochrome, photographer
u n known, A Park in Grenoble,
ca. 1 9 1 0 .

Positives on Glass 8 1
 OTHER ADD I TIVE COLOR SCREEN TRA NSPARENCIES

Figure 65
Fil mcolor stereograph
transparencies, photographer
u nknown, Jardin des Plantes
and Rose Garden at the Pare de
Bagatelle, 1 945 .

82
From 1896 on and into the 1 9 3 0 s other European
photographic manufacturers introduced color
screen plates based on the same principles a s
t h e autochrome , but these often had geo­
metric screen patterns that gave the
resulting images a somewhat mechanica l ,
o r photomechanica l , rendering.
For a quarter century after that ,
the Lumiere Company continued to produce
various versions of the autochrome on cel lulose
Figure 66
nitrate film support : first a sheet film, Filmcolor
F i l m co l o r package,
( 1931-1954) , and subsequently a roll film, 1951 .

Lumicolor ( 1933-1952 ) . And the last Lumiere

product using additive color screen tech-
nology was Alticolor, which went out of
product ion in 1956 . Many patent appl i­
cations were made concerning color
photography i n the years prior to the
release of the first chromogenic
process negative films, including such
F igure 67
workable products a s Omnicolore ( 1907 ) , Finlay F i l mcolor transparencies,
Thames ( 1 9 0 8 ) , Diopt ichrome ( 1909 ) , Paget Color 1 945 . Some F i lmcolor
transparencies have
( 19 13 ) , Agfacolor ( 1916 ) , Finlay Color ( 1 929 ) , and
delam inated.
Dufaycolor ( 1935) . It was not unti l 1985 that the
addit ive screen process was reintroduced by
Polaroid with its 35 mm instant color sl ide
film, PolaChrome ( 1985-2001 ) , which used a fine
l inear color screen.
The Lumiere film products are
subj ect to delamination of both the
s i lver image- carrying layer and
the color screen layer away from
the cel lulose nitrate film
support . To dat e , there has
been l ittle deterioration
noted in the c e l lulose
nitrate support itself,
Photomicrograph of PolaChrome
but this remains one of fi l m , 1 9 9 8 . I n PolaChrome fi l m ,
the maj or risks for the c o l o r reconstruction is based o n

preservation of such the use of a colored fi l t e r screen,

Figu re 69
PolaChrome fi l m along the same princip le used in
material .
package, 1 99 8 . autochrome plates .

83
-
E
· -

LL
u
· -

4--J
(./")

-
rd
CL
c
0
 M o n o c h ro m e tra n s paren c i es on
p l as t i c fi l m (1930-1970)
At the e n d of the n i neteenth century the
p h otogra p h i c manufactu ring i n d u stry started
to i ntro d u ce synthetic polymer fi l m s as a
replace ment for glass plates. F i rst used for
motion p ictu re fi l m in 1 889, p l astic fi l m was
grad u a l ly bro ught in as a re p l ace m e nt for a l l
cam era m ate rials, positive tran sparencies,
a n d n egatives. The p l astics used are ce l l u l ose
n itrate , cel l u lose acetate, and po lyester.
B l ac k-an d -wh ite transpare n ci e s a re
made u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l gelat i n s i l ver bro-
C o l o r tra n s p a ren c i e s on
p l astic fi l m (1935 to p resent)
H i story
D u ri n g the 1 93 0 s , L u m i e re p rod u ce d a
series of pro d u cts based on t h e i r auto­
c h ro m e p ro cess that used a plastic s u p p o rt
rat h e r than g l a s s . These add itive c o l o r
screen p rocess p r o d u c t s were d i s p l aced by a
new way of m a k i n g c o l o r p h otographs that
fi rst reac hed the m a r ket i n 1 93 5 . The new
c h ro m oge n i c deve l o p m e n t p ro cess was
based o n su btractive color m ix i n g . H e re the
c o l o r i m age i s p ro d u ced n ot by l ight trans­
m itted t h rough p reformed c o l o r fi l te rs
( b l u e , green , a n d red) but rat h e r by s u p e r­
i m posed laye rs of gelat i n , each of which
contai n s a dye i m age i n o n e of the t h ree
s u btractive p r i m ary c o l o rs yel l ow, mage nta,
a n d cya n . This system was o u t l i n e d by
86 P O S I T I V E S
m i d e p rocesses (see G e l at i n s i lver n egatives
on glass) , w h i c h can p ro d u ce a d i rect p o s i ­
tive by a d a r kroo m m a n i p u l at i o n c a l l e d
reve rse processing. A lternat ively, the n ega­
tive can b e co ntact p r i nted to p ro d uce a
seco n d -gen erat i o n positive. S u c h m o n o ­
c h r o m e transpare n c ies are relatively rare.
T h e p r o b l e m s assoc i ated with t h e i r c o n ser­
vat i o n are s i m i la r to those of n egatives o n
p l as t i c s u p p o rt ( s e e G e l at i n s i l ve r n egatives
on fi l m ) .
R u d o l p h Fischer as e a r l y as 1 9 09, b u t t h e
p ro b l e m s of ach i e v i n g a w o r k i n g system
were s o l ved only years later by two m u s i ­
c i a n s w i t h a pass i o n ate i n te rest i n c o l o r
ph otography- Leo p o l d M a n n e s a n d
Leop o l d G o d owsky-who were h i red by
Eastman l<o dak in 1 93 0 to fu rther deve l o p
t h e i r work o n this tec h n o l ogy. l<o dachrome
fi l m was fi rst i n troduced as a 16 mm m o t i o n
p i ct u re fi l m i n 1 93 5 b efore it w a s released
as a 3 5 mm still p h otograp hy fi l m . Agfa
fol l owed with Agfaco l o r N e u e in 1 93 6 .
l<o d a k ' s E ktachro m e fi l m fi rst ap peared i n
1 94 6 . Other E u ropean ( F e r ra n i a , Tu ra) a n d
Asian ( F uj i , l<o n i ca) c h ro m oge n i c fi l m a n d
p r i n t produ cts fo l l owe d .
W h at is a c h ro m oge n i c
process trans paren cy?
A c h ro m ogen i c process t rans­
parency is a positive p h otogra p h i c
i m age o n a fi l m s u p p o rt t h at i s
composed of t h ree s u pe r i m posed
layers of gelat i n , each contai n i ng
a dye i m age, either yel l ow,
m agenta, o r cya n . The p h otosen­
s itive m aterial i s a silver h a l i d e
(ch lo r i d e , b r o m i d e , o r i o d i d e)
i nc l u d e d i n t h e gelat i n laye rs , a n d
t h e dyes a r e formed ( h e n c e , the
term " c h ro m ogenic") o n ly at t h e
t i m e of t h e deve l o p m e n t of the
silver i m age. T h e s u p po r t i s either
cel l u lose acetate o r p olyester.
C o l o r t ransparency fi l m is avai l­
able i n r o l l s , with i m age sizes
ranging fro m 24 x 36 mm to 6 x
7 c m , a n d is intended for p rojec­
tion o r as s h eet fi l m .

Figure 70
Faded chromogen i c process
transparencies, photographers
un known, Beach and Gardens,
ca. 1 950.

Positives o n Plastic Film 87

 F a b r i cat i o n a n d u s e
The p l astic s u p port receives t h ree s u ccessive
appl icati ons of a gelatin s i lver b ro m i d e e m u l ­
s i o n . U s u a l ly the fi rst a p p l i e d l ayer is sensi­
tized to red l ight, the n ext to gree n , and the
topm ost to blue. A d i ffere nt c o l o r c o u p l e r,
or dye p recu rsor, is i n corpo rated i nto each
of the t h ree layers. D u ring the c o u rse of
p rocessi ng, these c o u p l e rs - co l o rl ess to
begin with - w i l l be transformed into the
t h ree dyes . After exposure, the fi l m i s deve l ­
oped a n d then b l eached to rem ove a l l the
meta l l i c si lver of the n egative i m age. A sec­
o n d ove rall exposure i s fo l lowed by treat­
m e nt with a c h ro m oge n i c d evel oper to
red u ce the rem a i n i ng s i lver salts. Where
meta l l i c s i lver is fo r m e d , the c h r o m oge n i c
deve l o pe r is oxid ized a n d reacts with t h e
c o l o r c o u p l e rs t o fo rm dye m o l e c u l e s . I n t h e
red-sens itive layer, cyan d y e is fo rmed; i n
t h e green-sensit ive l ayer, magenta; and
i n the to pmost, b l u e-sensitive, l ayer, ye l l ow.
A n ot h e r b leach step e l i m i nates the rem a i n ­
i ng s i lver, leav i n g a positive i m age com posed
of o rgan i c dyes. l<odachro m e was u n i q u e
a m o n g c h ro m oge n i c m ate rials i n that it d i d
n o t i n corporate the c o l o r c o u p l e rs i n t h e
fi l m ; these were i nt rod uced o n l y d u ri ng pro­
cessing, which was o n e of the most c o m p lex
88 P O S I T I V E S
p rocessing sequen ces for any ph otogra p h i c
m ate r i a l .
Ofte n the b r a n d n a m e of the fi l m w i l l
appear pri nted on its b o rd e rs .
C h ro m o ge n i c p rocess trans pare n c y
d et e r i o rat i o n a n d care
The dyes of most c h ro m oge n i c p rocess
photographs will fad e q u ite rap i d ly w h e n
e x p o s e d to l ight; b u t t h ey w i l l also fad e ,
a l b e i t m u c h m o re s l owly, w h i l e they a r e i n
dark storage. A n d s i n c e o n e dye m ay fad e
m o re rap i d l y t h a n t h e oth e r two, t h i s may
l ead to a c hange in the q ua l ity of the color
ren d e r i ng . T h i s is the rea s o n we often
o bserve a c o l o r sh ift toward the blue o r
toward t h e red , d e p e n d i n g o n the fi l m
b r a n d a n d o n i t s sto rage a n d d i s p l ay h isto ry.
Aga i n , l<o dachrome transpare n c i es are a n
exce ption s i n ce they h ave proven to b e rela­
tively stab l e in dark storage. Another prob­
lem fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of these p h otographs
is the pote n t i a l deteriorati o n of the fi l m
s u pport. Cel l u lose t ri acetate, fo r i nstance,
can show s i g n s of d eterio ration after only a
few d e cades. For these p h otogra p h s , l o n g­
term stab i l ity can be ach i eved o n l y by l ow­
tem p e ratu re sto rage.
C h ro m oge n i c p rocess tran s pare n ci e s 1 9 3 5 to pres e n t

O c c u r re n c e i n c o l l ec t i o n s (( very c o m m o n

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m ats
• 1 3 5 -for m at rol l film (mm): i mage s i zes 18 x 24; 24 x 3 6 ; 24 x 6 5
• 1 20-fo r m at rol l fi l m (cm): 4 . 5 x 6 ; 6 x 6 ; 6 x 7; 6 x 9
• 2 2 0 -fo r m at ro l l fi l m : same as 1 2 0 -fo rmat, b u t in a longer strip, a l l ow i ng twice as
many i m ages
· s h eet fi l m : cm : 6 x 9; 9 x 1 2 ; 1 2 x 1 8 ; 1 8 x 24
in.: 4 x 5; 8 x 1 0

gelatin and yellow dye

St r u c t u re gelatin and magenta dye

gelatin and cyan dye
ce l l u lose t riacetate -- --+-� �--------�

or polyester

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of c h ro m oge n i c p rocess t r a n s p a re n c i e s

• Protect from a l l l ight exposure
• l<eep i n a cool a n d dry enviro n m e nt
• Cold sto rage if poss i b l e

Light Abrasion Po l l utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i c::=i
sensitive average average sensi tive sens itive

Positives on Plastic F i l m 89
-
· -

+....J
x

�
c
0
 Monochrome Positives
on Textile

Pan n otypes (1853-1880)

H istory
The pan noty p e - a c o l l o d i o n s i l ve r p hoto­
graph on a s u p port of waxed textile fabric­
was i ntrod uced by t h e fi r m W u l ff a n d Co. in
1 8 53 . I t was a p pa rently used o n ly for por­
traits a n d was i ntroduced as an altern at i ve
to t h e m o re frag i l e s u pports used at the
time, such as glass, paper, o r meta l . "The
transfe r of the c o l l o d i o n layer o nto a waxed
text i l e reduces all d anger of b reakage and
makes it possi b l e to keep the p h otograph i n
a n a l bu m , a portfo l i o , a locket, etc . . . . O n ce
d ry, t h e i mage a d h e res strongly to t h e fab r i c
a n d res ists e v e n vigorous r u b b i ng . " 1 As i n t h e
case of a m b rotypes a n d tintypes, i n expen­
sive p h otograp h i c p rocesses s u c h as this o n e
were often used by itin erant p h otograp h e rs .

W hat i s a pannotype?
A pannotype i s a p h otograp h made by wet c o l l o d i o n p rocess on a b lack-waxed
texti l e s u pport. I t i s obta i n e d by transferring an a m b rotype i mage-carrying laye r
fro m its glass s u p p o rt to a waxed texti l e s u pport.

92 POSITI V E S

F a b r i cat i o n and u s e
T h e p h otograp h e r fo l l ows t h e s a m e p roce­
d u re as t h e o n e used fo r making an a m b ro ­
ty p e , changing t h e fo r m u l a fo r t h e c o l l o d i o n
o n ly sl ightly b y i n creasi ng t h e proportion of
alco h o l and t h u s m a k i ng t h e c o l l o d i o n
s o m ewhat l ess ad h e re n t t o glass. T h e p late
is p rocessed as u s u a l , b u t after wash i ng t h e
co l l o d i o n i mage-carry i ng layer i s s e parated
fro m t h e glass s u p p o rt and trans fe rred onto
a black-waxed text i l e . T h e waxed fab r i c has
been p rev i o u s ly p re pa red by fi oati n g it on a
s o l u t i o n of g u m arab i c . The excess g u m i s
a l l owed to r u n off and t h e g u m m e d s u rface
is brought i nto close c o n tact with t h e s u r­
face of t h e sti l l -wet a m b roty p e . T h e waxed
texti l e i s peeled fro m the glass s u rface , tak-
Figure 71 (above left)
Deteriorated pannotype,
photographer unkn own,
ca. 1 870.
Figure 72
Photographer's Darkroom,
engraving, ca. 1 8 70. Making a
pannotype begins with the
prod uction of a wet plate
collodion negative.
ing with it t h e c o l l o d i o n i m age layer. After
d ryi ng, t h e ph otograph is m o u nted in a
fram e or case, as is d o n e with an
am b rotyp e .
P a n n otype d et e r i o rat i o n a n d care
P a n n otypes are rare ly fo u n d in good c o n d i ­
t i o n . T h e i m age w i l l often s h ow reduced
contrast , t h e c o l l o d i o n i s often crack e d ,
a n d t h e text i l e s u p po rt is often b r i t t l e ,
fragi l e , a n d p ro n e to b reakage. Pan n otypes
s h o u l d n ot b e exposed to i ntense l ight. I f
t h ey are n ot fra m e d , t h ey s h o u l d b e p u t
i nto a p rotective mat o r i nto a sto rage
e n v e l o p e s u p p l e m e nted by a stiffe n e r of
c o n servat i o n - q ual ity card board.
Positives on Texti le 9 3
 T h e pan n otype 8 5 3 -1 8 8 0

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e ct i o n s rare

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m at s
• Carte-de-visite (ap p rox. 2 1 h x 4 t o 41/• i n .)
• Cabi net card (approx . 41/• x 61h i n .)

St r u c t u re collodion --..i====f'

waxed text i l e --+---

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of p a n n otypes
• D o not expose to i ntense o r prolonged i l l u m i n ation
• l<eep i n a storage envelope s u p p l em e nted with a card board stiffe n e r
• Alternative ly, s u p p ly w i t h a sealed package, as for a m b rotypes o r daguerreotypes

Light A b rasion Pol l u tants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty [=:J [=:J[=:J [=:J [=:J[=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J [=:J
sensitive average sensitive sensi tive very sensi tive

Overal l view Magn ified view

94 P O S I T I V E S
 b

Figure 73
Pannotype, photographer
u n known, ca. 1 870.
(a) Recto, (b) verso.

Positives on Textile 95
L
Q)
o_
rd
o_
c:
0
 Monochrome Positives
on Paper
P h otoge n i c d rawi ngs (1834-1840)
H istory
T h e observat i o n t hat s i lver c o m p o u n d s
d a r k e n when exposed t o l ight h a d a l ready
been used for centu ries for games, tricks,
o r serious study w h e n i n 1 8 02 Tho mas
Wedgwood (1 7 7 1 -1 8 05) used p h otosensi­
tive s i lver salts to reproduce designs fo r
cera m ic s .1 H e soaked t h e s u pport m ate rial ­
paper o r l eath e r- i n silver n itrate a n d cov­
e red it with a glass p late t hat h ad a des ign
pai nted o n it. This asse m b ly was t h e n
exposed t o s u n light. The s u p p o rt mate rial
darkens to varying degrees d e p e n d i ng o n
the opacity of t h e overlying paint layer, a n d
a s i l h o u ette i m age ap pears i n t h e form o f a
white figure on a dark backgro u n d . This is
a kind of negative , although it was n ot called
that at t h e time. B u t t h e w h ite areas q u ickly
darken once t h e glass p late is rem oved , a n d
Wedgwood w a s not a b l e to ove rco m e t h i s
probl e m .
I n 1 8 3 4 W i l l i a m H e n ry Fox Tal bot
(1 8 0 0 - 1 8 7 7 ) s uccessfu lly produced sta b l e
silver i m ages o n p a p e r b y treat i ng t h e m with
98 P O S I T I V E S
a satu rated salt s o l u t i o n after exposure . I n
ad d it i o n , h e considerably i m p roved t h e sen­
sitivity of t h e paper by u s i ng a weak salt
solution i n the prel i m i n ary sensitizing step.
H e was able to m a ke striking s i l h o u ette
i m ages of various tra n s l u cent o bjects, s u c h
as fl owers a n d leaves . Tal bot s a w t hat t h ese
p h otoge n i c d rawi ngs, as he called t h e m ,
c o u l d t h e m selves b e u s e d as the tra n s l u cent
o bjects to b e copied onto another piece of
sensitized paper. In this case, t h e second
i m age would have its tones reve rsed , c o m ­
pared to t h e fi rst, a n d c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d a s
a p hotoge n i c d rawing positive, i n contrast t o
the fi rst-generation p h otoge n i c d rawing
negative. The terms " positive" a n d " n egative"
as a p p l i e d to p h otoge n i c d rawings were fi rst
suggested by J o h n H e rsc h e l . This concept
marked t h e begi n n ing of a new e ra i n pho­
tography: t h at of n egative-to -p ositive proce­
d u re , which was the p red o m i n a n t system
d u ri ng the n i n eteenth and twe ntieth
centuries.
 Figure 74
Photogenic drawing negative,
W i l l iam H e n ry Fox Talbot, Leaves
of Orchidea, 1 8 39.

W h at i s a p h otoge n i c d rawi n g?
A ph otoge n i c d rawi n g is a p h otograph obtained by placing o bj ects d i rectly o n a
p i ece of p h otose nsitive paper. T h e paper is made s e n s it ive by treating it fi rst with
a weak sod i u m c h l oride (tab l e salt) s o l u t i o n and then with s i lver n i t rate to fo rm a
s i lver h a l i d e . When exposed to s u n l ight the paper darkens in pro portion to the
tra n s l u cency of the o bjects lying o n it: areas that are c o m p l etely b l o cked re mai n
w h ite, w h i l e those reached by l ight darken to a s e p i a o r dark b rown t o n e . T h e
i m age i s sta b i l ized - bu t not com p l etely fixed - by i m m e rs i o n i n a satu rated s o l u ­
tion of sod i u m c h l o r i d e o r a n oth e r s a l t .

Positives on Paper 9 9
1 00
Fabri cat i o n and u s e
The p reparation of the p h otosens itive paper
is s i m i l a r to that for salted paper (see n ext
section) except that the fi x i ng proce d u re
m ay vary. A piece of good - q u a l ity paper is
i m m e rsed for a few m i n utes in a 5 % solution
of sod i u m c h l o r i d e . W h e n this has d ried, it i s
fl o ated o n the s u rface of a 1 5% s o l ut i o n o f
si lver n it rate. I t i s carefu lly l i fted fro m the
s i lver s o l u tion and d ried i n t h e dark; after
t h i s , it is ready for use. Various tra n s l u cent
a n d opaque o bjects can be used to p rod u ce
s i l h o u ette i mage s . T h e s i lver i mage i n the
exposed paper i s stabil ized u s i ng a sod i u m
c h l o r i d e o r potass i u m i o d i d e s o l u t i o n .
Figure 7 5
Cyanotype, A n n a Atkins a n d A n n e D ixon,
Equisetum sylva ticum, 1 8 5 3 . The principle
of making a photoge n i c drawing using
sem itransparent objects was appl ied to
other processes, such as the cyanotype.
Deteriorati o n and care of
p h otoge n i c d raw i n gs
When stab i l ized i n a salt s o l u t i o n , photo­
ge n i c d rawi ngs re m a i n sensitive to l ight­
i n d u ced changes . U n l i ke a true fi x i ng bath
treatment, salt stab i l izat i o n does not com­
p l etely rem ove the res i d u a l p h otosensitive
c o m p o u n d s fro m the fi n i shed print.
Ph otoge n i c d rawings therefore h ave a ten­
d e n cy to darken and lose i m age contrast
when exposed to light and m ay also ye l l ow
over t i m e , particu larly if they are stored i n
a h u m id environment.
Positives on Paper 1 0 1
 T h e p h otoge n i c d rawi n g 1 8 3 4-1 840

O c c u rre n c e i n c o l l e ct i o n s rare 11 I

C o m m o n s iz e s a n d fo r m at s
• S izes vary, l etter size or s m a l l e r

silver

St r u c t u re

Re c o m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of p h otoge n i c d raw i ngs

• Store in c o m p l ete d arkn ess
• Do not disp lay with o ut c o n s u l t i n g a p h otograph conse rvato r

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t iv ity CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
very sensitive average very sensitive sensitive very sens itive

Overal l view Magnified view

1 02 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 76
A modern ph otogen i c drawing,
CRCDG, Leaves, 1 9 9 0 .

Positives on Paper 1 03
 S alted paper p r i nts (1840-1860)

H i story
I n S e pte m b e r 1 8 4 0 W i l l i a m H e n ry Fox
Tal bot s u ccessfu l ly used a c a m e ra o bs c u ra
to reco rd i m ages of nature o n paper. T h e
c a m e ra exposures took between a few sec­
o n d s a n d a few m i n utes a n d s u bs e q u e n t
deve l o p m e nt revealed the i m ages . The scale
of tones o n these i m ages was reve rsed , i . e . ,
d a r k wh e re t h e o ri g i n a l scene was l ight a n d
v i ce v e r s a . 2 These c a l otype n egatives were
t h e n used to produce salted paper positives.
Today we use t h e term " salted p a p e r " e x c l u ­
s i v e l y to designate t h e s e p r i n t s , w h i c h m ay
have p reviously been c a l l e d "calotype posi­
t ives . " While the salted paper p r i n t process
is s i m i la r to the one for p h otoge n i c d raw­
i ngs, the diffe rence in term i n o l ogy has m o re
to d o with the co ntext of u s e t h a n with the
nature of the mate r i a l . We use the term
" p h otoge n i c d rawi ng " to describe the p r i nt
made fro m trans l u cent a n d o p a q u e o bj ects
p l aced o n a sh eet of sens itized paper; b u t
w h e n t h e s a m e paper i s u s e d t o make a
positive p r i n t from a c a m e ra n egative it is
cal l ed a salted paper p r i n t . The n egative
used m ay b e a cal otyp e , a waxed paper
p rocess n egative, o r a c o l l o d i o n n egative. In
contrast to D aguerre ' s p rocess, w h i c h pro­
d u ced o n e u n i q u e c a m e ra i m age, the calo­
type c o u l d se rve to p ro d u ce m a ny positives.
Tal bot created the fi rst p h otogra p h i c p r i n t­
i ng h o u s e to produce salted paper p r i n t
i l l u strat i o n s fo r h i s b o o k , The Pencil of
Nature, w h i c h was p u b l i shed i n i n stal l m e nts
beg i n n i ng i n 1 84 4 .

W h at i s a salted paper pri nt?

A salted p a p e r p r i n t is a pos itive ph otograph pri nted fro m a n egative; t h e s u p p o rt
m aterial is a p i ece of o rd i nary paper that has been made p hotosensitive by b r i ng­
ing together ch loride and si lver n itrate on its s u rface. The i mage is p ri nted o u t
solely b y the acti o n of l i g h t : the n egative i s p l aced i n co ntact w i t h the sensitized
paper a n d the ass e m b l y is exposed to s u n l ight. After a few m i n utes the i mage
starts to a p pear (see P r i n t i n g out). The p r i nt has a m atte s u rface a n d warm i m age
tones: b rick red or p u rp l e - b rown d e p e n d i n g o n how it i s p ro cessed and how the
paper i s sized.

Figure 77
Salted paper print, Louis Adolphe
H u m bert de Molard, Louis Dadier with a
Wheelbarrow, Argentelle, ca. 1 85 0 .

1 04 P O S I T I V E S
1 05

Fabri cat i o n a n d use
T h e p re parat i o n of salted paper i nvo lves two
steps: salting and sens itizing. O n ce sensi­
tized, t h e paper d oes not re m a i n sen sitive
fo r l o ng so it m u st b e p repared o n ly as
n e e d e d . The c h o ice of paper has always
been c o n s i d e red of p r i m e i m portance. I t
s h o u l d c o n t a i n o n ly rag fi b e rs a n d have
no conta m i nants, especially no m etal par­
ticles, which can cause dark s pots d u ri n g
p ro cessi ng.
The salting o p e rati o n i nvolves i ntrod u c i ng
sod i u m c h loride i n to the paper. This is d o n e
b y i m m ersing a sheet o f paper i n a 5 % s o l u ­
t i o n o f s a l t i n water fo r a few m i n utes. T h e
s h eet can a l s o b e fi oated o n t h e s u rface of
the s o l u t i o n . W h e n it is d ry the s h eet is
ready to be sensitized. In a darkened ro o m ,
t h e salted sheet is fi oated o n t h e s u rface o f a
1 5 % s o l ution of s i lver n itrate i n water. An
i n s o l u b l e d e p o s it of s i lver c h l o ri d e fo rms in
t h e paper a n d ren d e rs it p hotosensitive.
O n ce d ry, the paper i s ready to use.
The negative i s b ro ught i n to c l ose co ntact
with the p r i nt i ng paper and t h i s " s a n d w i c h "
1 06 P O S I T I V E S
b
Figure 78
Preparation of salted paper.
engravings, ca. 1 8 60.
(a) Sensitizing and (b) drying
the paper.
i s exposed to s u n l ight i n such a way t h at the
n egative acts as a mask over the p h otos e n s i ­
t ive paper. The s i l ve r i mage is pri nted o u t
enti rely b y the acti o n of l ight, w i t h o u t use o f
a d evel o p e r. G ra d u a l l y the i m age becomes
v i s i b l e as the blue a n d vio l et l ight as well as
the u ltrav i o l et ( U V) rays cause t h e c o l o r l ess
si lver c h l o r i d e to b e transformed into dark
metal l i c si lver parti c l e s . The printing i s car­
ried out s o m ewhat beyo n d the d e s i re d d ark­
n ess of the fi n a l i m age s i n ce the print w i l l
l ose s o m e o f i t s d e n sity i n t h e sod i u m t h i o ­
s u l fate (hyposulfite) fi xi n g b at h , w h e re the
res i d u a l p h otosensitive c o m p o u n d s are
remove d . A s u p p l e m e ntary to n i ng step using
a bath conta i n ing go l d salts eve ntually
became a stan dard part of the p rocess. The
gol d to n i ng g ives t h e i mage a cooler tone­
away fro m red - b rown a n d toward p u r p l e ­
b row n - a s well as better stabil ity o v e r t i m e
(see To n i ng). I n t h e fi n al step, the print is
thoroughly washed i n r u n n i n g wate r to
rem ove resid ual c o m p o u n d s that m ight
cause deteriorati o n .
 PLATE I.

PART Of QUBB�'S COLLEGE. OlfOID.

':lJ��� O I S building: pretitnta oo ita

'...
... "'"'...,. turfatt tilt' m06l M"idnrt marb

TM view is taken &om thr odlt1'

llide of the High Strcc-t-s.wm, Xnrth.
The time i_,. momi�.
In d� distaotto bl llttb at tM imd r# • ml'1U9
strttt iM Cb�h m St. Ptotn-"s in thP r-t.. -.id 1o

Figure 79
Salted paper print, Will iam Henry Fox Talbot, Part of Queen's
College, Oxford, from The Pencil of Nature (1 844). Many salted
paper prints deteriorated to the point of il leg i b i l ity as a result
of exposure to humid ity and atmospheric pollutants.

D eterio ration a n d care of s a lted

paper p r i n t s
P h otogra p h ers h ave worried about the sta­
b i l ity of paper p h otographs fro m the ti m e
o f t h e i r earliest appearance; i n d e e d , early
paper p h otographs are i nfam o u s for yel ­
lowing a n d fad i ng. W h i l e t h e causes o f
daguerreotype deterioration were rap i d ly
i d entified and t h e effects m itigated , the
causes of deteriorati o n i n paper p h otogra p h s
rem a i n e d u n c l ea r f o r some t i m e . Special
c o m m issions of e n q u i ry were fo r m e d , such
as t h e so-called Fad i n g C o m m ittee estab­
lished by the P h otogra p h i c S o c i ety of
London i n 1 8 5 5 . In F rance the fad ing of
paper p h otogra p h s was stu d ied by scientists
associated with t h e Societe fran�aise de
p h otogra p h i e , notably by Louis A l p h o n se
Dava n n e . 3 Dava n n e dete r m i n e d that t h e
yel l owing of pri nts w a s d u e t o t h e for m ation
of silver sulfide associated either with the
use of exhau sted fi x i ng baths or with i n s uf­
fi c ient was h i ng, or also with t h e p resence of
at mospheric p o l lutants, parti c u larly hyd ro­
gen s u l fi d e . Th ese c o n c l u s i o n s rem a i n val i d
fo r a l l o f t h e s i lver- based p h otogra p h i c
i m ages p ro d u ced i n t h e fo l l owing 1 5 0 years.
N ote t h at salted paper p r i n ts are a m o ng the
s i lver prints that are most v u l n erab l e to t h i s
type of d eteriorati o n d u e to the s m a l l s i z e o f
t h e i r s i lver i mage part i c l e s a n d to t h e l a c k of
any b i n d e r m aterial a ro u n d t h e m .

Positives on Paper 1 0 7
 The salted paper pri nt 840-1 860

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e c t i o n s rare

C o m m o n s i ze s a n d fo r m ats
• I mage s izes are s i m i la r to those of the n egatives used to print them

St r u c t u re

paper ----+__.,•

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of s a lted p a p e r p r i n t s
• V u l n e rable to high h u m i d ity, l ig h t , a n d p o l l utants
• Store i n protective envelopes

Light Abrasion P o l l utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
sens itive average very sens itive sensitive average

Overal l view Magnified view

Figure 80
Salted paper print, J u l i e n Vallou
de V i l leneuve, Woman Holding a
Broom, ca. 1 860.

1 08 P O S I T I V E S
 PRINTING OUT

Many of the photographic processes devel­

oped in the nineteenth century used the
printing- out mode of image formation .
This is where a photosensitive mate­
rial darkens-and the photographic
image forms-gradually and cont in­
uously as exposure to l ight and UV
radiation continues . Formation of
s i lver images in this way is usual ly
appl icable only to contact printing
since the procedure is too slow for making images Figure 81
in the camera or by proj ection . The procedure is Contact printing frame,
engraving, ca. 1 900. This device,
simple : the photosensitive material i s placed
seen here from the back, is used
under a negative and this " s andwich" i s exposed to make contact prints, usually
to sunlight . The areas of the print blocked by by printing out outdoors u nder a
the darker parts of the negative will darken only cloud less sky.

a l ittl e , while the areas that receive full expo-

sure through the lightest parts of the negative will
darken rapidly. The residual photosensitive compounds
are then e liminated in the fixing step . S i lver prints
made in this way have warm reddish tone s , either brick
red or brown. The size of the printed image i s iden­
t ical to the size of the negative , which is why
nineteenth- century negat ives as we l l as cameras were
much larger than those used later. By contrast , devel­
oping processes are those in which an invisible latent
image , created during a very brief exposure , is made
visible by subsequent treatment in a developer solu­
tion . The developing processes for making print s
steadily replaced the printing- out processes during
the twent ieth century. Prints obtained through devel­
opment are more neutral in tone than those made by
printing out . This difference in tone is due to the
shape and s i z e of the s i lver particles produced by
print i ng out being different from the shape and size
of those produced during development . Printing out
produces an extremely sma l l particl e , sometimes
called a colloidal s i lver parti c l e , which gives these
images their characteristic warm tone s .

110
II •
Figure 82
Printing out in a contact
printing frame, 1990. The
h i nged back of the frame
opens to allow the progress
of the printing process to
be mon ito red .

Figure 83
Printing room f o r printing
out, engravi ng, c a . 1 900.

111
 A l b u m e n p ri nts (1850-1900)
H i story
Lou is- D e sire B l a n q uart-Ev rard s h owed t h e
fi rs t a l b u m e n pri nts to the F re n c h Acad emy
of S c i e nce i n 1 8 5 0 . P h otogra p h ers q u i c k ly
a d o pted t h i s n e w p r i n t i n g paper a n d used it
u n t i l t h e e n d of the n i n ete e n t h c e n t u ry. It
began to be re p l aced by i n d u st r i a l ly made
gelatin a n d c o l l o d i o n p r i n t i ng- o u t papers
start i ng a ro u n d 1 8 8 5 . T h e s u ccess of a l b u ­
m e n p a p e r is u n d e rsta n d a b l e given t h at its
i nt r i n s i c c h a racteristi c s - h ig h reso l u t i o n
a n d g o o d re p ro d u c t i o n of fi n e d e t a i l s a s
w e l l as a d e e p r i c h b rown i m age t o n e ­
m a d e it a n i d e a l m atch fo r t h e glass n ega­
tives ( b o t h t h e a l b u m e n and c o l l o d i o n
p ro cesses) t h a t a p peared a t a b o u t t h e s a m e
t i m e . L i ke salted p a p e r, a l b u m e n paper
ret a i n s it s e n s i t ivity fo r o n l y a brief t i m e ;
t h u s , its p reparati o n w a s d o n e i m m ed iate ly
befo re use. W h i l e the e n t i re p reparat i o n
s e q u e n c e co u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t by t h e p h o ­
togra p h er, several c o m p a n i e s m a n u factured
paper t hat was precoated w i t h salted a l b u ­
m e n a n d that req u i red o n ly s e n s i t i z i n g with
a s i lver n i t rate bath to be ready fo r use.
T h e G e rman firm D re s d n e r A l b u m i nfa b r i k
G m b H d istrib uted its produ cts t h ro ug h o u t
t h e world a n d was fam o u s fo r t h e q ua l i ty of
its papers. To satisfy the d e m a n d , t h is c o m ­
p a n y a l o n e c o n s u m e d m o re t h a n s i x m i l l io n
eggs p e r year.4 A l b u m e n paper p r i n t s grad­
ually replaced the d ag u erreotype as the
p rev a i l i ng p o rtrait m ed i u m . In a n effort to
112 POSITIVES
red u c e prod u ct i o n costs, t h e portrait
p h otogra p h e r A n d re Ad o l p h e D i s d e r i
( 1 8 1 9-1 8 8 9) d e v i s e d a m ethod of m a k i ng
six or eight p o rtrait i mages on t h e s a m e
p l ate, w h i c h w a s t h e n p r i nted o n a s i ng l e
s h eet of a l b u m e n p a p e r. C u t i nt o s i n g l e
i mages a n d m o u n ted o n card b o a rd , t h e s e
s m a l l ( 2 Y2 x 414 i n .) c a rte- d e -v i s i te p o rtrait
p h otogra p h s were extre m e ly p o p u l ar, n ot
o n ly fo r m a k i ng fam i l y a l b u m s b ut also
because t h ey a l l owed o rd i n ary people to
collect p o rtraits of re l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , m i l i ­
tary, o r e n tertai n m e n t perso n a l i t i e s .
By t h e e n d of t h e 1 8 5 0 s , t h e p u b l i c was
fl oc k i ng to h ave p o rt raits made in the c o m ­
m e rc i a l p h otography s t u d i os - v i r t u a l por­
trait factories -that had s p r u ng u p i n towns
and cities t h ro u g h o ut t h e worl d . At t h e
s a m e t i m e , a h a n d fu l of p h otogra p h e rs­
E d o uard Baldus, G u stave Le G ray, A l ex a n d e r
G ard n e r, Francis F r i t h , Fel ice B eato , a n d
others - we re a p proa c h i n g p h otography
d ifferently, b u i ld i n g the fo u n dati o n s of a
new way of seeing t h e world a n d a new
artistic expre s s i o n . 5
A l b u m e n reigned fro m 1 8 50 to 1 8 8 5 ,
a n d p h otogra p h i c p r i n ters l e a r n e d to use its
part i c u l a r c h a racte ristics to prod uce exq u i ­
site p h otogra p h i c p r i n t s . N o t s u rprisi ngly,
a l b u m e n p r i n t s are fre q u e ntly fo u n d i n
private as w e l l as archive a n d l i b rary
collect i o n s .
Figu re 84
Albumen print, photographer
unknown, Rauen, ca. 1 870.

Positives on Paper 1 1 3
 W h at is an a l b u m e n pri nt?
An a l b u m e n print is a positive p h otograph
with a n a l b u m e n b i nd e r l ayer that holds a
silver i mage a n d is s u pported on a s h eet
of paper.
The i mage i s p ri nted o u t , toned with go l d ,
a n d t h e n fixed a n d was h e d . T h e i m age tones
range from b rown to purple to b l u ish black Figure 8 5
d e p e n d i ng o n the exposure, t h e p rocessing, Nineteenth-century photographic
portrait studio, engraving, ca.
a n d especially t h e toning. The s u rface has a
1880.
m o d e rate gloss level but m ay be extre m e l y
gl ossy if i t h a s been coated w i t h w a x o r a
varnish . I n prints made after 1 8 6 0 the a l b u ­
m e n l ayer itself m ay be tinted w i t h p i n k o r
b l u e dyes, partly to mask t h e y e l l o w i n g that
was expected to occur on many of these
prints. These part i c u l ar dyes, some of the
fi rst synthetic dyes man ufactured, may be
extre m e ly l ight fugitive.
A l b u m e n prints were often m o u nted on
secon d a ry card b oard su pports. These came
i n many "standard " sizes , but the m ost c o m ­
m o n formats w e r e t h e carte - d e-visite a n d the
cabi net card . T h e re are variations i n t h e p re ­
cise d i m e n s i o n s of these for m ats from o n e
p h otograp h e r to t h e n ext a n d between
cou ntries.

Figure 8 6
Albumen print, Andre Adolphe
D isderi, Portrait of a Man ca.
,

1 8 60. A carte-de-visite-format
print housed i n a carte-de-visite
albu m .

114 POSITIVES
Fab ricati o n and u s e
A salt s u c h as sod i u m c h lo r i d e i s added to a
certa i n a m o u n t of raw egg wh ite (al b u m e n ) ;
t h i s i s beate n to a froth , then a l l owed to
settle a n d strai n e d . A sheet of good - q ua l ity
rag paper i s fl o ated on t h i s v i s c o u s m ix t u re
a n d t h e n d ried . T h e paper is sen sitized by
float i n g t h e a l b u m e n ized side on a 1 2 %
s o l u t i o n of s i lver n itrate. When d ry, t h e
paper i s ready to b e used f o r co ntact pri nt­
Figure 8 7
i ng . The i m age p r i n ts o ut in s u n l ight and is
Preparation o f albumen paper:
then t o n e d , fi x e d , and washed in the s a m e drying the sensitized paper.
way as fo r s alted paper p r i n t s . engraving, n ineteenth centu ry.

D et e r i o rat i o n a n d care of a l b u m e n p r i nts

W h i l e s o m e a l b u m e n pri nts h ave s u rvived
i n excel l e n t co n d it i o n , many s h ow y e l l ow­
ing in the h ig h l ight area s , fad i n g of t h e
i m age, especially i n the l ightest area s , a n d
ove r a l l red u c t i o n of c o nt rast. T h e yell owing
of the a l b u m e n i s q u ite typical a n d can b e
used as a means of i d e n tify i ng t h e process.
Several p h e n o m e n a a re b e h i n d this y e l l ow­
i ng, i n c l u d i ng dete r i o ration of the a l b u m e n
p rote i n i t s e l f as w e l l a s deco m p o s i t i o n o f
s i lver-a l b u m i n ate c o m p o u n d s fo r m e d at the
time of s e n sitizat i o n . Both excessive h u m i d ­
i t y a n d l ig h t expos u re w i l l acce l e rate t h i s
dete r i o rati o n .
Figure 8 8
Albumen p r i n t , photographer
u n known, ca. 1 870. Old secondary
supports sometimes become acidic
and brittle, putting the mou nted
albumen prints at risk.

Positives on Paper 1 1 5
116
 Figure 90
Figure 89 Hand -colored alb umen print,
Hand -colored albumen stereograph, Felice Beato, Coolie, ca. 1 863-1 868.
photographer unknow n , Gallery of
the Trianon, ca. 1 8 70. (a) Seen in
reflected light, (b) seen i n trans­
mitted l ight and (c) verso, showing
,

the hand-colored surface.

Positives on Paper 1 1 7
 Cracks
The coat i ng a n d d ry i n g of a l b u m e n on paper
creates i nternal tensions i n the a l b u m e n
p r i n t structure, a n d th ese a r e accentuated
by the d iffering b e havior of the c o m po n e nts
as they react to ch anges in relative h u m i d ity.
The paper laye r absorbs water and expa n d s
read ily as h u m i d ity rises, w h i l e t h e a l b u m e n
laye r absorbs wate r o n ly spa ringly and its
d i m e n s i o n s re m a i n u n c h a nged . The stress
c reated i n this way i s released by the o p e n ­
i ng of a n etwork of fi n e cracks o n the a l b u ­
m e n s u rface, e a s i l y v i s i b l e u n d e r l o w
Figure 91
magn ifi cati o n .
Magnified detai l from an albumen print,
ph otographer u n known, ca. 1 870. Exa m i nation
Fading with a hand magnifier reveals a network of small
A l b u m e n s i l ve r p r i n t i m ages s h ow less of a cracks o n the surface of some albumen prints.
t e n d e ncy to fad e t h a n salted p a p e r i m ages,
since t h e a l b u m e n s u rro u n d s t h e s i lver par­
t i c l e s a n d p rotects t h e m s o m ewhat fro m
co n tact with t h e a i r. B u t as i n salted p a p e r
p r i n t s , the i mage i n a l b u m e n pri nts is a l s o
const ituted b y m i n ute si lver particles,
which a re most v u l n e ra b l e to o x i d ative
d et e r i o rati o n . Fad i n g starts in the I ightest
i m age areas, w h e re th ere i s l ittle s i lver to
b eg i n w i t h .
,-

\r
!/
Figure 92
Albumen print, Coulon &
Vo l l enweider, Portrait of a Man,
ca. 1 8 70. Albu men prints have a
tendency to yellow in the highlights
and fade i n the image areas. ALGER

118 POSITIVES

Cardboard mounts
The paper s u p p ort of the a l b u m e n p r i n t is
u s u a l ly made of fi n e - q u a l ity paper. T h i s i s
n ot true of the card b oard u s e d fo r seco n d ­
a r y s u p ports, w h i c h w a s often m a d e with
p o o r- q ual ity fi bers. These tend to b e c o m e
aci d i c a n d t h u s brittle as they a g e . W h i l e
o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t as a p rotect i o n fo r the th i n
a l b u m e n p r i n t s , these m o u nts t h e refore
b e c o m e a potential s o u rce of d a m age.
A l t h o ugh a p h otograph conse rvator m ay b e
Figure 9 3
Albumen print, photographer
u n known, Portrait of a Man, ca. 1 860.
This print has been damaged by mold
infestation and careless handl ing.
a b l e to safely se parate the p r i n t fro m its
d eterio rated second ary s u p port, the
stamps, the i n s c r i pt i o n s , a n d oth e r co ntex­
tual i n fo rm at i o n that m ay b e p resent often
m a ke the s u p po r t 's rete ntion n ecessary as
a n i ntegral part of the o bject. The B ristol
board m o u nts used for m a ny of t h e stan­
d ard card-fo r m at prints are a n except i o n
a n d are often fo u n d i n q u ite a g o o d state
of conse rvat i o n .
Positives on Paper 1 1 9
 Table 1 - Typical m o u n t formats for a l b u me n pri nts

Table 1a - Mount formats available i n the U n ited States aro u n d 1 86 0 6

M o u n t Name Mount Size ( i nches)

Carte-de-v i s i t e 4V. x 2 1;,
V i ctoria
Cabinet t
+
5 x 3 V.
6 1/2 x 41/2
P ro m e n ade I 7x4
+
Panel 8V. x 4
B o udo i r 81/2 x 5V.
I m p e ri a l 9'1a x 6 7/a
Stereo 3 x 7

Table 1 b - E u ropean m o u n t formats avai lable at the beg i n n i ng of the twentieth

century, taken from the catalogue of the Loebenstein Co m pany (Vien na), 1 9 1 0 7

M o u n t Name I m age Size ( m m ) M o u n t S ize ( m m )

Mignon* 53 x 3 7 67 x 45
l<o l i b r i 61 x 3 3 8 0 x 40
Frida 6 3 x 40 8 0 x 51
Visit 89 x 58 1 1 0 x 69
S e zession 98 x 4 6 1 1 5 x 55
t-
E l i sabeth
Melan i e
1 0 0 x 70
9 7 x 79
I 125 x 8 2
1 2 0 x 90
-r­
_ J_
Ma lvern 1 3 8 x 70 165 x 82
Chiq u e 1 3 1 x 45 1 50 x 5 5
+-
A l fo n s 1 46 x 4 6 1 65 x 5 5
I -
Kabi nett 1 4 0 x 1 00 165 x 1 1 0
Helene 150 x 117 1 80 x 1 3 0
Promenade 1 7 7 x 98 205 x 110
Boudoir 186 x 1 19 205 x 1 32
Salon 2 1 4 x 1 57 2 5 0 x 1 75
Val e r i e
Isabella
I 240 x 1 94
290 x 2 3 0
280 x 21 0
330 x 250
I m perial
Adel e
i 2 9 4 x 1 73
87 x 5 7
3 3 0 x 1 90
1 00 x 70
T
Adm i ral
Album
I 1 1 7 x 87
1 50 x 1 1 0
I 1 30 x 1 00
1 6 5 x 1 25
Rudolf 177 x 127 1 90 x 1 40
Franz 235 x 175 2 5 0 x 1 90
Madrid 5 8 x 58 70 x 70
L o n do n 87 x 87 1 0 0 x 1 00
Wien 94 x 94 1 0 8 x 1 08

* Mount names and sizes vary from one supplier to another; bold indicates the most common formats.

1 20 P O S I T I V E S
 Figure 94
Press and molds for producing a convex
surface on a mounted print, engraving,
ca. 1 90 0 .

R GA LLAS A/NE

EXPOSCT J O N S 1 8 6 6 1 8 6 9 1874 18 18

. \ "'

R G J.. LLAS A : N E. PH:>""

Figure 95
Carte-de-visite-format albumen print with a
convex surface, R. Ga/las, Portrait of a Man in
M ilitary Uniform, ca. 1 8 8 0 . Verso and recto.

Positives on Paper 1 2 1
 T h e al b u m e n p r i nt 1 8 50-1 900

O c c u r re n c e in co l l e ct i o n s common

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m ats
• I mages are s i m i l a r to those of c o l l o d i o n n egatives
• Prints are often m o u nted o n cards:
• Carte-de-visite fo rmat - a p p rox. 2 1/2 x 4 to 4114 i n .
• Cabi n et card fo rmat-approx. 4114 x 61/2 i n .
• Stereogra p h - a p p rox. 3 1/2 t o 41/2 x 7 in.

St r u c t u re a l b u m e n --F======f'

paper --+---

R e co m m e n d at i o n s for c o n s e rvat i o n of a l b u m e n p r i nt s
• P rotect fro m h ig h h u m i d ity a n d l ight
• Store in p rotective envelopes

Light Abrasion P o l l utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty c:Jc:Jc:J c:Jc:Jc:J c:Jc:Jc:J c:Jc:Jc:J c:Jc:Jc:J
sensitive average sensi tive sensitive average

Overall view Magnified view

122 P O S I T I V E S
F B E RT H AU LT AN G E R S

Figure 96
Cabi net card-format albumen print, F. Berthault,
Portrait of Bishop Freppel, ca. 1 8 8 0 .

Positives on Paper 12 3
 ';
PHOTOGRAPH ALB U MS

The practice of collecting and displaying photographs in

albums expanded during the albumen print era . The bind­
ings and mounting pages of photograph albums could be
very richly decorated with incised copper or sculpted
wood covers , bronze clasps , or even incorporated music
boxe s . Such e laborate constructions represented the
height of fashionable a lbum design . Yet , often the int e ­
rior pages o f such albums were made with papers , boards ,
and adhesives of poor qual ity. Sometimes the outer
layers of such pages seem in good condition but the
underlying core layers are severely degraded because of
the acid content in the board .
When pos sible , photograph albums should be maintained
and conserved in thei r original integral format . And
yet , the conservation of the individual photographs may
be compromised by contact with the poor-quality album
pages . This dilemma must be sorted out by the conser­
vator, whose dec ision about dismantling an album should
take into account the risks involved in treatment and
the overall condition of the album and of the individual
photographs as wel l as the historica l , aesthetic, and
evidence of use value of the album . 8
Sometimes disassembly is very straightforward since
the a lbum pages are designed so that the prints can be
s l ipped in and out of s tandard-format pockets . In this
case the album and the prints can be stored separately
after the intervention has been documented i n writing
and photographically. More problematic is the case in
which the prints are adhered directly onto the pages of
the album . Here , disassembly may turn into a complex and
t ime- consuming conservation treatment , in which the
a lbum pages have to be separated and the prints treated
one by one . This may result in the definitive loss of the
album, but such extreme measures may be neces sary to
preserve the print s .

1 24
Figure 9 7
Carte-d e-visite photograph
albums, ca. 1 860.

125
 P O P - P r i n t i n g- o u t pape r p r i nts (1860-1940)
H i story
Jean L a u rent and J os e Mart i n ez-S a n chez
i ntro d u ced t h e fi rst papers of this kind i n the
early 1 860s.9 F i rst branded as l e ptogra p h i c
p a p e r (1 866) i n F r a n c e , t h e s e early exa m ples
are c o l l o d i o n s i lver c h loride papers, factory
made i n m atte o r gl ossy fi n is h es a n d d e l i v­
e re d ready for use. U n l i ke p revious p hoto­
gra p h i c papers, these had a s m ooth wh ite
baryta layer u n d e rn eath the i m age-carry i ng
laye r T h e baryta l ayer, w h i c h is gelatin
m ixed with a w h ite p i g m e n t ( b a r i u m s u l ­
fate), gives t h e paper s u p port a s m o oth a n d
h ig h l y refiect ive s u rface. The advent o f
baryta coating- by its natu re a n o p e rat i o n
t h at c a n be carried o u t o n ly o n a n i n d ustrial
scale -was a n i m portant m i l esto n e i n t h e
evo l u t i o n o f p h otogra p h i c p r i n t i n g m ateri­
als. Yet , in spite of t h e i m p rove m en t , this
p ro cess did not ach i eve great c o m mercial
s u ccess , and t h e l e ptogra p h i c papers had
126 POSITIVES
d i sap peare d by 1 870. P h otograp h e rs were
q u ite sat i s fi e d with t h e fam i l i a r and less
costly a l b u m e n pri n t i ng papers.
I t was some fi fteen years later when the
gelatin s i lver b ro m i d e negative p ro cess ,
b e i ng so m uc h easier to use than t h e o l d
c o l l o d i o n process , b rought p h otography t o
a n e w category of a m ateurs. T h i s sti m u l ated
d e m a n d fo r a ready-to - u se printing paper
that would m atch t h e s i m pl i city of t h e new
camera process . The G e rm a n co m pa n ies
L iesegang ( D u ss e l d o rf) a n d O bernetter
(M u n ich) both b ro ught out c o l l o d i o n s i lver
c h l o ri d e baryta papers a ro u n d t h e m i d -
1 88 0 s , w h i c h they b ra n d ed Aristotype (from
the G reek aristo, " best"). T h ese were h ugely
p o p u lar, largely d u e to the posit ive c o m pari­
s o n with a l b u m e n papers. They were easier
to use a n d had an aesthetically p l easing
ren d it i o n as well as having s u bstantially

greater p hotose nsitivity, which res ulted i n
s h orter exposure t i m e s . A l b u m e n prints
often were fou n d to have ye l l owed after
o n ly a few years , w h e reas ari stotypes
s e e m ed to b e " permanent."
In 1 8 9 1 t h e B ritish fi r m l lford i ntroduced
a gelatin silver c h l o r i d e paper with t h e brand
name P O P. This term has becom e syno ny­
m o u s , in t h e English -speaking worl d , with a l l
of t h e p r i nti ng- o u t papers produced i n this
Figure 9 8
Package of printing-out
paper and prints,
photographers u n known,
ca. 1 920.
era. The term "aristotyp e " i s used s i m i larly i n
France a n d G ermany.
Aro u n d 1 8 93 a matte s u rface col l o d i o n
si lver c h l o r i d e p a p e r w a s i ntrod uced t o sat­
isfy the d e m a n d for an i n expensive material
that would m i m i c the ap pearance of a p l at i ­
n u m p r i n t ; s p e c i a l toners could b e used o n
th ese m atte papers t o repro d u ce t h e s u btle
gray tonalities of plat i n u m .
Positives on Paper 1 2 7

By 1 900 th e re were m u lt i p l e vers i o n s of
P O P on the market; t h ey were made with a
vari ety of b i n d e rs , i n c l u d i ng ge l at i n , co l ­
l o d i o n , starc h , case i n , a n d a l b u m e n . The
m ost p o p u lar of these were co l l o d i o n P O Ps
(so m et i m es c a l l e d c e l l o i d i n , after a G e r m a n
b ra n d n a m e) a n d gelat i n P O Ps (so m et i m e s
c a l l e d c i trate paper, d u e to the i n cl u s i o n of
c i t r i c acid i n s o m e of the e m u l s i o n s) .
P O P m aterials were pred o m i n a n t from
1 89 0 to 1 94 0 . They are the last of the
128 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 99
Gelatin P O P print, p hotographer
u n known, Farm, Maine-et-Loire,
France, ca. 1 900.
larger fam i l y of p h otogra p h i c papers t h at
were p r i nted o u t rat h e r than b e i n g devel­
o p e d in a c h e m ical bat h , b u t their i n d u strial
mass p ro d u c t i o n makes t h e m t h e p re cu r­
sors of m o d e r n p h otogra p h i c papers.
G e l ati n POP was i n c u rrent use in the
1 94 0 s . Even i n to t h e 1 9 8 0 s so m e c o m p a­
n i es sti l l prod uced P O P p r o d u c t s , s u c h
a s Eastman l<odak Stu d i o Proof a n d
G u i l l e m i n ot Pap i e r Citrate .
 Figure 1 00
Packages of pri nting-out paper
(citrate paper), ca. 1 920.

W h at is a P O P pri nt?
POP (wh ich stan d s for " p ri n t i ng- o u t paper") was the fi rst p resensitized p h oto­
graph i c paper man ufactu red i n d ustrially ; it fi rst a p peared as a c o l l o d i o n s i lver c h l o ­
r i d e p a p e r m a n ufactured i n Germ any i n 1 8 8 5 . G e n eral ly, P O P m aterials have a
paper s u p p o rt coated with a layer of gelatin m ixed with white pigment (th e baryta
layer) that gives t h e s u p port a s m o ot h , wh ite s u rface. The s i lver i m age i s pri nted
out rather than deve l o pe d and is c o n ta i n ed i n a n i mage-carrying l ayer made of any
one of a variety of b i n d ers: gelat i n , c o l l o d i o n , casei n , starc h , o r a l b u m e n .
P O P pri nts ge n e ra l ly h ave warm i m age to n e s , u s u a l ly b rown b u t they m ay have
b l u e-violet or warm gray tones d e p e n d i ng on the partic u l a r t o n i n g bath a p p l i e d .
T h e i r t h ree-layer structure- pape r, baryta, a n d i mage-carrying l ayer- d istingu i s h es
them from a l b u m e n pri nts and salted paper p r i n t s .

Positives on Paper 1 2 9

Fab r i cat i o n a n d u s e
The fi rst papers of this k i n d w e r e h a n d
coate d , but fab r i cati o n w a s soon mecha­
n ized. A coat i n g mach i n e b ri ngs one side of
a l o ng ro l l of baryta-coated paper in contact
with a l i q u i d p h otosensitive e m u l s i o n , w h i c h
can b e a c o l l o d i o n o r a gelatin s o l u t i o n h o l d ­
i ng a suspension of s i lver c h l o ri d e part i c l e s .
T h e paper then p a s s e s from the vat i nto a
d rying t u n n e l , w h e re warm a i r c i rc u l ates.
When it is d ry, the paper is p h otosensitive.
T h i s ro l l is then cut i nto standard-s ize s h eets
and packed in light-tight wra p p i ngs.
T h i s l evel of m e c h a n ization a l l ows p ro­
d uction to be carried out o n a ve ry large
scale. T h e fi rst-ge n e ration coat i ng m ach i n es
were relatively s i m p l e , and the i n itial costs of
setting up pro d u ction were low e n o u g h . As
a res u lt, aro u n d the turn of t h e twentieth
century a great n u m b e r of small companies
began to man ufact u re photograp h i c paper
to sati sfy t h e ever- i n creasi ng d e m a n d for
m o re P O P mate rials with d i fferent fi n is h e s .
A l l o f the man ufactu ring fo r m u las i n c l u d e a n
excess of s i lver n i t rate i n relation to the c h l o ­
r i d e ; i n d e e d , fo r t h e p r i nti ng-out p rocess to
be s u ccessfu l , it is essential t hat t h i s excess
of s i lver nitrate b e present. Citric acid is
1 30 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 1 0 1
Machines u s e d i n t h e
manufacture of printing-out
paper, engravings, ca. 1 890.
ad ded to i m p rove the s h e l f l i fe of t h e
papers , w h i l e glyceri n a n d castor o i l are
added to keep the paper fl at and to p revent
d e l a m i natio n .
T h e sheets are t r i m m e d t o match t h e size
of the various n egative fo rmats; t h ey are
fu r n i s h e d in a variety of fi n ishes- m atte,
glaze d , o r h ig h gloss - a n d ti nted vers i o n s ­
wh ite, p i n k , m auve , l i lac, o r p u r p l e . T h e
p a p e r re m a i n s p h otosensitive fo r s o m e
month s . T h i s m a y seem a m o d est c l a i m c o m ­
pared to t h e k e e p i n g p ro p e rties of m o d e r n
p hotograp h i c p a p e r s , b u t it represented a
h uge i m p rove m e n t over sensitized a l b u m e n
paper, w h i c h lost its sensitivity i n a matter
of d ays.
The paper is exposed t h rough a negati ve
i n fu l l s u n light, and t h e s i lver i m age grad u ­
a l ly fo rms as expos u re cont i n u e s . W h e n the
d e n s ity of t h e i mage is j u dged to b e suf­
fi c ient, t h e paper is removed fro m t h e p r i nt­
i ng fram e a n d passed t h rough t h e t o n i n g
and fi x i ng b at h s . S o m e p rocesses c o m b i n e
to n e r a n d fixer i n a s i ngle b a t h , w h i l e o t h e r
P O P m ate r i a l s , such as t h e se lf-ton i ng
papers, i n co r po rate a toner co m p o u n d into
the e m u l s i o n at the time of m a n u factu re.
Figure 1 02
Gelatin POP print, photographer u n known,
Basilica a t Vezelay, France, ca. 1 900.

Positives on Paper 1 3 1
 Figure 1 0 3
Gelatin POP print, photographer
u n known, Woman with Dogs,
ca. 1 900.
D et e r i o rat i o n and care of P O P p r i n t s
From their fi rst ap pearance o n the m arket,
POP prints were declared to b e " pe rma­
n e n t . " Yet, w h i l e t h ey are i n deed s u bsta n ­
tially m o re s t a b l e than a l b u m e n pri nts, t h e
l evel of stabil ity i s strongly d e p e n d e n t o n
the way t h e p r i nts a r e p rocess e d , h a n d l e d ,
a n d sto re d . W h e n c o l l o d i o n P O Ps were
beco m i ng very p o p u lar aro u n d 1 9 0 0 , the
British Journal of Photography ran a series of
re ports , b oth q uest i o n i n g and defe n d i n g the
stabil ity of POPs. The a m o u n t a n d variety of
state m e nt s - s o m e t i m e s contrad ictory- o n
t h e topic reflected t h e photogra p h e rs ' ongo­
i ng c o n cern regard ing the p rese rvati o n of
1 32 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 1 04
Co llodion POP print, C. Peigne,
Standing Child, ca. 1 9 1 0 . Matte
collodion POP pri nts are characterized
by a matte su rface, a neutral g ray tone
if they have been toned with plati n u m ,
t h e absence o f fading o r staini ng, and
the occurrence of surface abrasions.
their i mages. Nat u ral aging of these P O P
papers fo u n d nowadays i n c o l l e ct i o n s sh ows
that c o l l o d i o n P O Ps are certai n ly m o re s u b ­
j e c t to a b ra s i o n t h a n ge l at i n pri nts a n d can
b e easily scratched a n d worn. S i n ce t h e c o l ­
l o d i o n layer does not expan d a n d contract
with changing relative h u m i d ity as its u n d er­
lying s u pport l ayers d o , it m ay d e l a m i nate o r
may fo rm m i n ute crack s , v i s i b l e o n ly w i t h a
m icrosco p e . There is s o m e concern that the
c e l l u lose n i t rate laye r that constitutes t h e
c o l l o d i o n i m age-carrying l ayer m ay itself
dete r i o rate, but t h i s type of damage has not
been m u c h o bserved i n these p r i n t s .
.. " ""

,/

Figure 1 05
Collodion P O P print, C. Peigne,
Infant, ca. 1 9 1 0 .

Figure 1 0 6
Examination u n d e r t h e
microscope shows a network o f
microsco pic cracks in t h e
c o l l o d i o n layer.

Positives on Paper 1 3 3
 The P O P print 1 860-1 940
Syn o ny m s : a r i stoty p e , c e l l o i d i n , c i t rate p a p e r

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e ct i o n s common

C o m m o n s iz e s a n d fo r m at s
• I mage sizes a r e s i m i l a r to gelat i n s i lver n egative plate fo rmats

silver
gelat i n or collodion -------._
Structure
baryta (gelat i n a n d barium s u l fate) -- §:::::::=:::=#'
paper

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n o f P O P p r i nt s
• C o l l o d i o n P O P pri nts are v u l n e ra b l e to m e c h a n i cal d a m age (scratch e s a n d abras i o n s)
• Sto re i n protective enve lopes

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J C:::J
average gelatin average average average average
C:::J C:::J C:::J
collodion
sens itive

•
• • • •• •• • .. .
. •
.
.�
.
•
'
.. .. . . .
. .

. "
' . ·.

• •• • • . .
•
.
• •
•

. . . .. ·..
.
.• : -� . . . .
..
-. . '
.. . . ' .

.... . .

. . .
'
.... . . '·
. . . .. ·.
• t. . •
.. .
• •
.
··-

Overal l view Magnified view Trans m ission e lectron

m icroscope view

134 POSITIVES
 ----

.,..,,..
- .... , -
- ..,-

Figure 1 07
Collodion POP print, C. Peigne, Child
Standing on a Chair, c a . 1 9 1 0 .

Positives on Paper 1 3 5
 TON ING

Toning is a chemical processing treatment applied to a photo­

graphic print to change its appearance and/or to improve its
stabil ity. It involves the combining of the s i lver of the image
particle with a chemically stable (noble) metal such as gold
or platinum or with other chemical elements such as lead, s e le ­
nium, sulfur, or others . Louis F i zeau first introduced gold
toning for daguerreotypes in 1 8 4 0 , as it was found to improve
both the mechanical characteristics of the image particles
and the appearance of the image . Toning treatments for paper
prints were created in the following years and were general ly
adopted as a means of producing strong and aesthetical ly
pleasing image tone s .
For printing- out process papers ( salted paper, albumen paper,
or POP ) , fixing alone wi l l produce a reddish image tone, which i s
not considered particularly attract ive . These r e d tones c a n b e
altered b y toning, to colors that a r e "richly nuanced and velvety
[and] that can rival the beauti ful tones of an etching . "10 Those
early toning processes using gold chloride produced mos t ly brown
image tones with purple and violet undertone s . Some toning
processes used a combined toning-fixing bath . By the end of the
nineteenth century the many varieties of printing paper commer­
cially available were matched by an equally wide range of toner
formulations . The photographers of the late nineteenth and
early twent ieth centuries known as pictorialists took advantage
of these new possibilitie s : they aimed at achieving in their
photography effects that were similar to those of painting
and printmaking. Some of these effects were obtained by using
a variety of toners . The published toner recipes of the time
inc luded ever more exotic element s , such as uranium and mercury,
some of which, however, turned out to be detrimental to print
stabil ity.
After World War II the practice of toning almost disappeare d .
Only sulfur toning u s e d to imitate t h e sepia tones of o l d photo ­
graphs was s t i l l pract iced . But in the 1950s toning processes
using gold, selenium, and polysulfides started to reappear, with
the specific obj ective of improving the stabi l ity of prints , nega­
tive s , and microforms . Toning was also used in nonsi lver printing
processes . Al fred Stiegl itz (1864-1946 ) , for instance, used gold
and uranium toning on his platinum and pal ladium prints . 11

1 36
Figure 1 08
Gelatin P O P prints, p h otographer
unknown, Sisters, ca. 1 900.
Depend ing o n the binder and the
toning treatment, the i mage color
of P O P prints may be neutral gray,
sepia, brown, or violet. (a) P O P
p r i n t without toning, ( b ) P O P print
treated with a gold toner.

137
 G e l ati n s i lve r d eve l o p i n g- o u t p r i nts
(1880 to p rese nt)
H i story
Pri nting papers designed to h ave t h e i r s i lve r
i m ages developed rath e r than p r i nted out
were i ntrod uced by the ph otogra p h i c i n d us­
try d u r i n g the 1 8 80s. Their obvious adva n ­
tage lay i n t h e s p e e d w i t h w h i c h p r i n ts c o u l d
be made it w a s n o lo nger n ecessary t o w a i t
for a s u nny day t o print or to e x t e n d the
d u ration of exposure while t h e si lver i m age
s l owly fo rmed . S i m i l a r to t h e system that
was a l ready i n use for n egatives, p r i nting by
deve l o p m ent req u i red o n ly a brief expos u re
to l ight fo l l owed by i m mersion i n a deve l ­
o p e r bath that wou l d reveal t h e latent
i m age. Two types of developing paper were
made: gelat i n s i lver b ro m i d e paper (sti l l
man ufactu red a n d used) a n d gelatin silver
chloride paper.
T h e c h l o r i d e paper was also known as
"gaslight paper" because i t was se nsitive
e n o ugh to record a n expos u re made by gas­
l ight o n ly. At the same t i m e , c h l o ri d e paper
could sti l l be p rocessed i n s u b d ued l ight,
w i t h o ut req u i ri n g a darkro o m . T h e fi rst com­
m e rc i a l ly ava i l a b l e gasl ight paper was Ve lox,
released i n 1 893 . P r i n t i ng o n chloride paper
i nvolved two steps: fi rst, the paper was
1 38 P O S I T I V E S
exposed i n the printing fram e i n contact
with the n egative u n t i l a weak i mage was
printed out; then the i m age was made fu l ly
v i s i b l e i n a deve l o p e r. As t i m e went o n , the
format of c a m e ras as well as the p late a n d
fi l m n egatives u s e d i n t h e m b e c a m e stead i ly
small e r. T h i s m i n iatu rization of t h e n egative
made the use of gelat i n s i lver c h loride con­
tact p r i n t i ng paper less p ractical a n d
i n creased i n stead t h e d e m a n d f o r gelat i n
s i lve r b ro m i d e paper, w h i c h was s u itable for
p r i n t i n g by p rojection , i . e . , e n la rg i ng.
Proces s i ng by deve l o p m e nt b rought some
n ew c o m p l ex ities to p h otogra p h i c printing.
I t was n ow n e cessary to have a l ight-sealed
d arkroo m to m ake p r i n t s . Exposure of t h e
p a p e r b e c a m e more d iffi c u l t t o gauge a n d i t
w a s easy t o overexpose, res u lting i n a c o m ­
p l etely b lac kened s h eet once deve l o p e d . By
contrast, p r i n t i ng- out papers c o u l d be fu l ly
p rocessed i n a room that was not light tight,
and t h e p rogress of t h e exposure c o u l d be
easily m o n ito red as t h e i mage s l owly
ap peared o n the s h eet. But p ri n t i ng by
d eve l o p m e n t avo i d ed the req u i re m e n t for
s u n ny skies a n d a l l owed m u c h faster pro-
 Le Papier
Chloro-Bromure
ee
'AMBQIJB "
Tirage instantane des epreuves
Le soir, sous Ia Iampe
Sans laboratoire
d u ction of prints with a m u ch m o re u n ifo r m
i mage q u a l ity. I n d u strial pri nters , w h o sup­
p l i e d m a r kets such as the o n e fo r postcards ,
c o u l d achieve outp uts i n the range o f fo u r to
fi ve h u n d re d prints per h o u r.
I n the 1 970s a plasti c-coated paper base
fo r p r i n t i n g paper- ca l l ed RC (res i n -coated)
paper-was wid ely i ntrod uced . Such papers
were fi rst designed fo r use by the m i l itary
d u ri ng World War I I to faci l itate rap i d pro­
cessi n g of ph otogra p h i c prints. Com pared to
b aryta paper, which can req u i re u p to sixty
m i n utes' was h i n g t i m e to rid its abso rptive
paper fi be rs of potentially harmfu l chem ical
res i d u es , the relatively i m permeable pl astic­
coated paper can b e washed and d ri e d in a
Figure 1 09
Package and advertisement for
"gaslight" contact printing paper
(gelatin s i lver c h l oride and
bromi de), ca. 1 9 0 0 .
fraction of the t i m e . A n u m be r of d esigns
had been tested for p ro d u c i ng a practical
i m permeable paper s u p p o rt , and RC pape r,
in w h i c h the paper base was sandwiched
betwe e n layers of p o lyethy l e n e , e m e rged
s u ccessfu l . On the i m age side of the sh eet
the p o lyethylene i s m ixed with titan i u m
d io x i d e , w h i c h is a white pigment.
S h o rter p ro cess i n g time i s n ot the o n ly
advantage of RC s u p port paper. After pro­
cessing, a n RC print can b e s i m ply d ri e d i n
warm a i r t o produce a glossy a n d even s u r­
face fi n i s h , something t h at would req u i re
special d ry i ng a n d glazing p ro cesses with
baryta paper (see gl ossary, " Ferrotype").
Positives on Paper 1 3 9
 Figure 1 1 0
Solar e n larger. engraving, ca.
1 890. The fi rst optical enlargers
used s u n l ight as a light source to
enlarge carte-de-visite-format
portraits.
Figure 1 1 1
Package of gelatin silver bromide
paper for contact printing or
en largement, ca. 1 91 0 .

What is gelat i n s i lver d eve l o p i ng-out p r i nt?

T h i s is the type of printing paper t h at i s p rocessed in a deve l o p e r s o l ut i o n , i n
contrast to t h e o l d e r pri nting-o u t papers. A brief l ight exposure produces a
latent i m age that is a m p l ifi ed a n d made visible in the d eve l o pe r b at h . These
papers a l l have a ge l ati n i mage -carrying layer o n a baryta o r RC paper s u p p o rt .
T h e i mage tone i s gen e ra l ly n eutral ( b l ac k t o gray ton es) a n d t h e n o n i mage h ig h ­
l ights m ay be b right wh ite o r m ay h ave a warm to n e - cream , ivo ry, o r b e ige. T h e
s u rface gloss ranges fro m low ( matte) to intermed iate (sat i n) o r h ig h , wh i l e t h e
actual s u rface tex t u re m ay be s m ooth o r m ay s h ow d egrees of gran u l arity.

1 40 P O S I T I V E S

Figure 1 1 2
A carte-de-visite portrait and its "crayon"
enlargement, photographer u n known,
Portrait of a Woman, ca. 1 8 8 0 .
Fabri cati o n and use
Two s o l utions of warm gelat i n are m ixed
together; one c o ntai n s a bro m i de a n d/or a
c h l o r i d e a n d t h e other conta i n s si lver n it rate.
T h i s p ro d u ces a w h it i s h s u s p e n s i o n of p h o ­
tosensitive s i l v e r s a l t particles i n l i q u id gela­
t i n . T h i s m ixtu re - i n accu rately called an
e m u l s i o n s i n ce it i s i n deed a s u s p e n s i o n of
solid particles i n a l i q u i d - is applied o n to a
ro l l of baryta paper with a coating m a c h i n e ,
m u c h t h e same way t h at P O P e m u ls i o n is
a p p l i e d . O n ce d ry, t h e paper is cut into stan­
dard for m at sizes. The paper was produced
with various fi n i s h e s - low (matte), i nterm e­
d iate (satin), a n d high gloss - a n d with either
plain w h ite or tinted h igh l ights (ivo ry,
c ream) as well as a vari ety of textures,
0VERHEAIW AT T H E EXHIBITION ON T H E BOUL EVARD D E S ITALIENS:
"Oh my goodness' Is that the photograph of my
little one?"
"I can make it larger, if Madam wishes . "
Figure 1 1 3
Engraving, c a . 1 870. The fi rst
photographic enlargements were
greeted with astonishment .
s m ooth to ro u g h , described by a range of
expressive term s . Deve l o p i ng-out paper can
be processed o n ly u n d e r " safe light" i l l u m i ­
n ation , i . e . , a l ow- intensity o range-red l a m p
t h at w i l l not affect t h e s e b l u e -sens itive
e m u l s i o n s . T h e exposure of the paper is
done either by contact p r i n t i ng o r by p rojec­
tion u s i ng an e n larger. The fi rs t n i n eteenth­
century e n l argers-called s o l a r c a m e ra s ­
were b a s e d o n the design of the m agic
l antern projector a n d used the s u n as a l ight
s o u rce with t h e l ight d i rected through the
device a n d onto the negative by a c o m p lex
set of optical devices . In the twe ntieth cen­
t u ry e l ectric b u l bs replaced the s u n as the
act i n i c l ight s o u rce.
Positives on Paper 1 41
 Figure 1 1 4
Package of
postcard-format
printing paper, ca.
1 9 1 0 . Photographic
paper of the
appropriate size was
preprinted i n ink
with postcard
markings on the
verso. This al lowed
customers to send
postcards showing
i m ages of their own
choice.

Figure 1 1 5
Gelat i n si lver
bromide print,
postcard format '
photographer
unknown,
Grocery Store,
ca. 1 9 1 0 .

1 42

After an exposure of o n l y a few seco n d s
the p a p e r is i m m e rsed i n the deve l o pe r bath
a n d t h e s i lver i m age becomes v i s i b l e . O n ce
fu l ly deve l o p e d , the print is r i n s e d , fi xed i n
a t h i o s u l fate s o l u t i o n , a n d then carefu l ly
washed to rem ove a l l traces of res i d u a l fixer.
T h e n eutral gray tones of the i mage differ
from t h e warm tones seen in printi ng-out
p rocesses . As a conseq u e n c e , t h e to n i ng
orig i n a l ly a p p l i ed in the printing-out p ro-
Figure 1 1 6
Gelatin silver bromide print, postcard
format, photographer unknown, Hair
Dressing Salon, ca. 1 920.
cesses to m a ke the warm tones c o o l e r i s not
n ecessary with deve l o p i n g p rocesses s i n c e
t h e i m age to n e is al ready n e ut ra l . To n i n g
treatments were the refore a p p l i e d o n ly
sporad ically to deve l o p i ng- out pape r, either
to p rod uce warmer tones i n i m itat i o n of
n i n eteenth-ce ntury p h otographs (character­
ized as sepia ton es) o r, later, to i m p rove the
sta b i l ity of t h e s i lver i m age by u s i ng go l d ,
sele n i u m , o r p o lysulfide toners.
Positives on Paper 1 43
 Figure 1 1 7
Gelatin silver bro m i d e print mounted
i n a brooch, photographer unknown
(Lyon), Portrait of a Child, 1 9 1 5 .

Figure 1 1 8
Gelatin silver bro m i d e print,
photographer u n known, Family
Group, ca. 1 9 1 5 . Si lver m i rroring
i s seen i n the shadow areas near
the edges of the i mage. This type
of deterioration is common in
gelati n prints.

D eteri o rat i o n and care of g e l at i n s i lver

d ev e l o p i ng- o u t p r i nts
Deve l o p e d - o u t s i lver prints are i n h erently
m o re stable than those obtained by p r i n t i ng
o u t because of t h e greater s ize of t h e i n d i ­
vid ual deve l o p e d - o u t s i lver particl e s .
N evert h e l ess, these s i lver i m ages m ay b e
oxid ized b y res i d u a l t h i o s u l fate fixer as w e l l
a s b y t h e a c t i o n of oxyge n , m o is t u re , a n d
p o l l utants. This m ay p r o d u c e local ized o r
overall yel l ow i n g.
O n e fre q u ently o bserved dete r i o rati o n i n
gelat i n pri nts s u bj ected to p o o r storage c o n ­
d it i o n s i s t h e ap pearance of a refl ective
m etal l i c s h e e n o n t h e print s u rface, refe rred
to a s s i lver m i rro ring. This d e p o s i t tends to
for m o n the d arkest parts of t h e i mage a n d
p resents a b l u i s h m i rrorl i ke s h e e n , especially
a ro u n d t h e edges of t h e sheet. T h i s is a
deposit of s i lve r that h a s m igrated t h ro ugh
the e m u l s i o n and has acc u m u l ated o n t h e
o u t e r m o s t s u rface of t h e gelat i n .
T h e fi rst gen e ration o f RC p r i n t s s h owed
a n i n creased t e n d e n cy to fo rm c racks and to
d eve l o p t i ny o range spots, espec i a l ly if they
were d i s p l ayed in fram e s fo r exte n d ed peri­
o d s .1 2 T h i s d eterioration seemed to b e asso­
c iated with i mages that were sealed u n d e r
glazing- i n o t h e r word s , i n a m i c ro e n v i ro n ­
ment. T h e p h otogra p h i c paper m a n u fact u r­
e rs learned how to s t a b i l ize t h i s reacti o n ,
a n d m o re recent vers i o n s o f RC paper d o not
show this t e n d e n cy.

1 44 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 119
Gelatin silver bromide print, photographer
u n known, Trocadero Palace, Paris, ca. 1 9 1 0 .
T h e fading a n d greenish yellow staining
i n d icate alterations caused by fixer residues
left in the print.
 The gelatin si lver developing-out print 1 8 80 to p re s e n t
Syn o ny m s : g e l at i n s i l v e r b ro m i d e p r i n t , D O P p ri n t

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e c t i o n s E l very c o m m o n

Co m m o n s i ze s a n d fo r m ats
• Am erican (in.): 3 1/2 x 5 ; 5 x 8 ; 8 x 1 0 ; 1 1 x 1 4 ; 1 6 x 2 0 ; 2 0 x 24 ; 24 x 3 0
· E u ropean (cm): 9 x 1 2 ; 1 3 x 1 8 ; 1 8 x 24 ; 24 x 3 9 ; 3 0 x 40 ; 40 x 5 0 ; 5 0 x 6 0

s i lver
gelatin
St r u c t u re
baryta (gelatin and barium s u l fate) ��======�V
paper

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of g e l at i n s i l v e r d eve l o p i ng- o u t p r i n t s

• Avo i d excessive h e at and h u m i d ity
• Store in protective enve lopes

Light A b rasion P o l l utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t ivity c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J c:::J
average ave rage average average average

Overall view Magnified view Transm ission el ectron

m icroscope view

148 P O S I T I V E S
Fig u re 1 2 1
Gelatin silver bromide print,
photographer u n known,
Soldier, ca. 1915.

Positives on Paper 1 49
 Cya n otypes (1842 to m i d -twe ntieth centu ry)
H istory
The cyan otype i s o n e of the o l d e s t p ro ­
cesses t h at u s e t h e p h otos e n s itivity o f m ate­
rials other than s i l ve r. W h i l e si lver salts are
essential for the speed req u i red in camera
m ate r i a l s , such s e n s itivity i s not a b s o l u te l y
n e cessary f o r pri nting m ate r i a l s , l eaving the
fi e l d o p e n for alternat ive syste m s . I ro n salts,
for i n stance, are used a s the p h otosensitive
system in processes to make pl ati n u m p r i n t s ,
pallad i u m p r i n t s , kall itype s , a n d cyanotypes.
The cya n otype, i nvented by John H erschel i n
1 8 42 , d e pends o n the p h otochemical red uc­
tion of fe rric salts i nto ferro u s salts, lead i ng
to the fo r m ati o n of Prussian b l u e , an iron­
based pigment n In 1 8 43 the botanist Anna
1 50 P O S I T I V E S
Atk i n s (1 799 - 1 8 7 1 ) p u b l i shed British Algae.·
Cyanotype Impressions, w h i c h was beautifu l ly
i l l us t rated with cya n otypes.1 4 These were
made without a camera-as were Tal bo t ' s
p h otoge n i c d rawi ngs - by p l a c i n g the algae
speci m e n s d i rectly on the p h otosensitive
paper (see Figure 75) .
I nexpens ive and s i m p l e to m a ke , cya n o ­
types w e r e used s p o ra d i c a l ly t h ro u g h o u t the
n i neteenth century i n p h otography and
m o re fre q u e n t ly i n t h e twentieth century for
the re production of a rc h itectural p l a n s and
tec h n ical d rawings , aptly referred to a s
" bl u e p rints." The cya n otype process is occa­
s i o n a l ly cal l ed the ferro - p ru ssiate p ro ce s s .15
W hat is a cyanotype?
A cyan otype i s a p h oto­
grap h i c print o n a p i ece of
plain ( u n coated) paper, o n
w h i c h the i mage is c o m ­
p o s e d of a b l u e pigment.
T h e paper is sen sitized with
ferric ( i ron) salts. A yel l ow­
b rown i mage prints out
d u ri n g e x p o s u re to t h e l ight;
d u ring the s u b s e q u e n t
wash i n g a n d d rying, t h e
i m age intensifies a n d is con­
verted to Prussian blue
pigment.

Figure 1 2 2
Cyanotype (blueprint)
reprod uction, map,
ca. 1 890.

Positives on Paper 1 51
 Fab r i cati o n a n d u s e
A s h e e t of p a p e r i s brushed w i t h a s o l ut i o n
contai n i ng a m m o n i u m ferric citrate a n d
potass i u m fe rricya n i d e . When d ry, the s h eet
w i l l have a yel l ow tint. Other c o l o red iron
c o m p o u n d s will fo rm w h e n t h e s h eet i s
exposed to l ight t h rough a n egative or
through a tra n s l u cent o bject. T h e n o nex­
posed salts w i l l d isso lve i n water, and d rying
w i l l transform t h e res i d u e i nto t h e blue p ig­
m e n t fe rric ferrocya n i d e , or Prussian b l u e .
D eteri o rati o n a n d care o f cyanotypes
Cyan otypes generally seem stable and are
p reserved very well if they are stored i n t h e
dark. T h e b l u e pigment may fade if it is
exposed to a n a l k a l i n e p H enviro n m e n t ;
1 52 P O S I T I V E S
t h u s , i t has been reco m m e n d ed t hat o n ly
paper products contai n i n g no a l k a l i n e
reserve be u s e d t o store t h e m , although no
damages due to contact with b u ffered paper
have been d o c u m ented. On the other h a n d ,
damage to cya n otypes d u e t o deteriorati on
of p o o r- q u a l ity original s u p port paper is
often observe d . Cyan otypes were s o q u i c k
a n d e a s y to m ake o n any k i n d of paper t h at
p ract i t i o n e rs did not a lways choose t h e
paper m ost l i kely to age wel l . F ragi l e a n d
fragm enting s u p p o rt pap e rs req u i re t h e
i nterve ntion of a c o n se rvator. I n com p l ete
processing m ay leave s o m e res i d u a l p h oto­
sensitive c o m p o u n d s in t h e print, which may
react with l ight if t h e p r i n t is disp laye d .
Figure 1 2 3
Cyanotype, photographer
u n known, Portrait of a Woman,
ca. 1 890.
 T h e cyan oty p e e t"eth centu ry
Syn o ny m s : b l u e p r i n t , ferro - p ru ss i ate p r i n t

O c c u rre n c e i n c o l l e c t i o n s common

C o m m o n s iz e s a n d fo r m ats
• I mage s i zes c o rrespond to those of the n egatives used to print them

St r u c t u re

paper -_,__

Reco m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of cya n ot y p e s

• Sto re i n protective enve l o p e s , preferably goo d - q ual ity paper with n o alkaline b uffe r
• Protect from pro l o nged exposure to i ntense l ight

Light A b rasion P o l l u tants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
s e n s i tive average average average average

Overall view Mag n ified view

1 54 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 1 24
Cyanotype, photographer
u n known, Group Portrait a t a
Bridge, ca. 1 890.

Positives on Paper 1 5 5
 P l ati n u m a n d pal l ad i u m p r i nts (1873-1930)

H i sto ry16
I n 1 8 40 Robert H u nt briefiy m e nt i o n ed t h e
use of p l at i n u m i n a p h otogra p h i c syste m ,
b ut t h e p l ati n u m p ro cess was fu l ly deve l ­
o p e d a n d pate nted o n ly i n 1 8 7 3 b y W i l l i a m
W i l l i s ( 1 8 41 -1 92 3) i n E nglan d . The p rocess
was p o p u lar u p u nt i l World War I a n d i n the
1 940s was s t i l l c o n s i d e red "one of the m os t
beautifu l p r i n t i ng p ro cesses avai l a b l e to
p h otogra p h e rs . " 1 7 T h e prints h ave a matte
s u rface and co m b i n e desirable c h a racte ris­
tics such a s s u btle gray tones with great
permane nce. T h e o bvious aesthetic q u a l ities
of p l ati n u m prom pted favo rab l e com pari­
sons with etc h i ng ; this was a n i m p o rtant l i n k
a t a t i m e w h e n advocates o f p h otography
were striving to e l evate its status to t hat of a
fi n e art, e q u ivalent to the trad itional pri nt­
m a k i ng m e d i a of the p e r i o d . W i l l i s ' s
P l at i n otype C o m pany went i nto production
i n 1 87 9 , but it was later in t h e n i n eteenth
century a n d d u ring the fi rst decades of the
twe ntieth century that p l ati n u m p r i nting
gained i t s h ighest re nown . Yet, d e s p ite t h e
e n t h u s i a s m expressed for t h e m ed i u m , i t s
expan s i o n w a s l i m ite d . T h i s w a s d u e fi rst to
its cost- p l at i n u m itself was worth fifty-two
t i m e s t h e price of s i lver at t h e t i m e - a n d
s e c o n d to t h e o n set of World W a r I , d u ri ng
which p lati n u m was d eclared a strategic
resou rce a n d s u p p l ies were seve rely l i m ited .
As a conseq u e n ce, p l at i n u m was s u bstit uted
with pal lad i u m , b u t the tonal ities were not
q u ite the s a m e . Pallad i u m and p l at i n u m
printing papers were b oth c o m m e rc i a l ly
avai l a b l e i nto the 1 9 3 0 s . To t h i s d ay, p l ati­
num i s u n paralleled i n its reputat i o n : it was
associated with the n a m e s of t h e greatest
p hotogra p h e r artists of the time and was
also used by the m o st s o p h isticated
a mate u rs .

W h at are p l at i n u m p r i n t s and pal l ad i u m p ri n ts?

P l at i n u m p r i nt s (o r p a l l ad i u m prints) a re p h otogra p h s m ade o n p l a i n (un coated)
paper, in w h i c h the i mage i s constituted of plat i n u m (or pallad i u m ) particles d is­
p e rsed through t h e u p p e r layers of the paper. These pri nts are c h a racterized by a
wide range of m id-tone d e n s ity values, from m u lt i p l e l evels of pale gray to intense
black. Pallad i u m print tones are so m ew h at war m e r t h a n those of p l at i n u m p r i n t s .

Figure 1 2 5
Platinum -palladium print, Mike Ware,
Bridge at Buchanty, ca. 2000.

1 56 P O S I T I V E S
 Figure 1 2 6
Platinum print, Mike Ware,
Poppies a t Woodrising,
1 992.
Fab r i cation a n d use
I n t h i s p ro cess t h e p h otosens itive mate rial is
neither p l ati n u m itself n o r a s i lver salt, but
rather a n i ron c o m p o u n d . By exposure to
l ight, fe rric oxalate is c h e m ically red u ced to
ferro u s oxalate. The l atter i s , in t u rn , oxi­
d i zed by the deve l o pe r a n d causes t h e adja­
cent pl ati n u m c o m p o u n d s to be converted
to p l ati n u m m etal parti c l e s .
T o p re pare t h e pl ati n u m o r p a l l ad i u m
printing paper, a s h eet o f good - q u al ity
paper- sometimes sized with a s o l u t i o n of
arrowroot starch to partially seal its s u rface
- is b r u s h ed with a m ixture of fe rric oxalate,
oxal i c aci d , and potas s i u m tetrac h l oro­
platinate ( l l ) for p lati n u m prints, o r s o d i u m
158 P O S I T I V E S
tetrach l o ro p a l l adate ( l l ) for pallad i u m prints.
W h e n d ry, t h e paper i s contact pri nted with
a negative u n d e r strong light, p refe rably
s u n l ight; this takes at least ten m i n utes , but
t h e d u ration d e p e n d s o n many facto rs, s u ch
as lighting a n d negative d e n sity. Deve l o p ­
m e nt w i t h potass i u m oxalate a m p l ifies t h e
partially printed-out i m age. T h i s is fo l l owed
by a c l earing bath of d i l uted hyd ro c h l oric
acid a n d a t h o rough water wash. In t h e
1 880s G i useppe Pizzigh e l l i and A rt h u r von
H u bl p rovided an i m portant variant of the
p rocess t h at produced a plat i n u m i m age
solely by p r i n t i ng out and without the use
of a developer.
Figure 1 2 7
Plati n u m print,
mounted i n The
Photographic Journal,
1 8 8 6 . Note the "ghost
i m age" prod u ced on the
facing page. T h is is a
common result when
plati n u m prints are left
in contact with poor­
quality paper.
D ete r i o rati o n and care of p l ati n u m and
pal l ad i u m p r i n t s
Plat i n u m i s o n e of the so-called noble m et­
als that are chem i c a l l y sta b l e in t h e i r metal l i c
state; t h i s characte ristic is m a i ntained i n
p l ati n u m prints. An exam inat i o n of the c u r­
rent cond ition of ph otogra p h i c p r i n ts in
col lecti o n s w i l l c o n fi rm this: p l at i n u m i m ages
show no fad i n g , d is c o l o rati o n , or oth e r alter­
atio n . The o n l y poss i b l e deterioration may
be in the paper su p p o rt , which m ay be ye l ­
l owed o r weakened d u e t o p o o r sto rage
c o n d it i o n s or to the p resence of i n h erent
vices. For instance, i n suffi cient wash i ng can
leave res i d ual c o m p o u n d s i n the paper that
produce acidic conditions lead i n g to cel­
l u l o s e (paper fi b e r) d egradat i o n a n d yel l ow­
i ng of the s h eet. In additio n , some m eta l s ,
i n c l u d i ng both p l ati n u m and i ro n , can accel -
e rate ce l l u l ose degradat i o n , p ro d u c i n g a
b rown d iscolorat ion in the paper. This p h e­
n o m e n o n is most o b v i o u s on p o o r- q ua l i ty
paper that has been l eft in co ntact w ith the
p l ati n u m p r i n t for exte n d e d periods, as is
the case i n a book o r a l b u m o r wh ere an
i nterleaving sheet o r sto rage envelope has
been i n the same position fo r a long t i m e .
These m ay show a "ghost" of the p lati n u m
print i mage where t h e cel l u l ose degradat i o n
has been accelerated i n p rox i m ity to p lati­
n u m deposits. This p h e n o m e n o n can be
used to identify plat i n u m prints. I t is i m p o r­
tant to rem e m ber, h owever, that t h i s is not
a n actu al tran sfer of i mage mate r i a l , but
rather a n acce l e rated deteriorati o n of cel­
l u l ose i n the paper that is catalyzed by the
p l ati n u m m etal i n the adjacent p r i n t .
Positives o n Paper 1 59
 T h e p l ati n u m p r i nt an d pal lad i u m pri nt 1 8 7 3 -1 9 3 0
Sy n o ny m s : p l at i n otype a n d p a l l ad i otype

O c c u r re n ce in co l l e ct i o n s rare

C o m m o n s i ze s a n d fo r m at s
• I m age sizes a r e s i m i l a r t o those of the negatives used to p r i n t t h e m

St r u c t u re

paper ---+--•

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of p l ati n u m a n d p a l l ad i u m p ri n t s
• Protect from p r o l o nged e x p o s u re to i ntense l ight

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ
average average average average average

Overall view Magnified view

Figure 128
Plati n u m print, Charles A . H oyle,
Portrait of a Woman, ca. 1 900.

1 60 P O S I T I V E S
1 61
 Figure 1 2 9
C h rysotype, M i k e Ware, Confessional-Sicily, 2003. The early years of
photography saw the i n trod uction of n u m erous processes, not all of which
can be examined i n this book. But the technological record is a sou rce of
i nformation and inspiration for contemporary researchers and artists. For
i nstance, c h rysotype is a process based on photosensitive gold salts that was
outl ined by J o h n H e rschel i n 1 842 and was revisited by the English chem ist­
photographer M i ke Ware in 1 987. The startling purple tone of this i m age is
due to its col loidal gold i m age particles. In 1 9 9 1 , Ware created a new
process using iron and silver salts: the argyrotype. These developments are Figure 1 3 0
part of the larger context of alternative process photography, a movement Argyrotype, photographer
that aims to expand the tools of expression available to photographers u n known, In the Garden,
through the recreation and expansion of " l ost" processes of the ni neteenth ca. 1 900, print by Mike
and twentieth centuries. Ware, 2000.

1 62 P O S I T I V E S
(Y)
\D
QJ
Q_
6".
c
0
 C a r b o n p ri nts (1855-1930)
H i story
C a r b o n p r i n t i n g b e lo ngs to t h e catego ry of
pigment p h otogra p h i c processes. These
p rocesses e l egantly a n swered the p ro b l e m
of l a c k of p e r m a n e n ce i n s i l ve r- based p h o ­
togra p h i c p r i n t s . I n 1 8 52 W i l l i a m H en ry
Fox Tal bot had s h ow n that gelatin t reated
with a d i c h ro mate salt h a rd e n e d a n d
b e c a m e i n s o l u b l e i n water w h e n exposed
to l ight; h e u s e d this p ro p e rty i n h i s p h oto­
glyp h i c e ngrav i n g process. D i c h ro m ated
gelat i n was aga i n used by L o u i s - A l p h o nse
Poitevin18 (1 8 1 9 -1 882) i n 1 8 5 5 to c reate
t h e c a r b o n p r i n t process, in w h i c h the
d i c h ro m ated gelat i n was t i nted with carbon
black pigment. Paper coated with t h is m i x­
t u re is exposed to l ight t h ro ug h a n egat ive;
t h e exposed areas h a rd e n a n d become
i n s o l u b l e i n water. W h e n t h e paper is
i m m ersed in a water bath the n o nexposed
areas d i ssolve, leaving the h a rd e n e d ti nted
gelatin o n the pap er.
1 64 P O S I T I V E S
T h e c a r b o n b l ack p i g m e n t i s s o m et i m es
m i xed w i t h other fi n e l y g ro u n d p i g m e n t s .
T h e i mage t o n e of t h e p r i n t d e p e n d s o n t h e
p i g m e n t c o l o r a n d t h e size o f t h e particles.
C a r b o n prints fre q u e ntly h ave a c h o c o late
b rown t o n e .
I n 1 862 t h e c a r b o n p rocess b rought
Poitev i n t h e D u e d e Luynes Prize, award ed
for t h e i nve n t i o n of a " pe r m a n e n t " p h oto­
g ra p h i c p r i n t i ng p rocess.
Papers that were p recoated with a pig­
m e n ted gelat i n were m a n ufactured s p e ­
cial ly fo r c a r b o n p r i n t i n g a n d b e c a m e
com m e rc i a l l y ava i l a b l e i n t h e 1 8 6 0 s . T h e
i m age t o n e s vary accord i n g to t h e p i g m e n t s
used . T h e v a r i e t i e s of c a r b o n black p i g m e n t
used i n c l u d e ivory b l a c k , l a m p b lack, a n d
v i n e b l a c k . These may b e u s e d a l o n e o r i n
com b i n a t i o n with c o l o red pigments s u c h as
s i e n n a , u m b e r, i n d igo, Prussian b l u e , c a r­
m i n e , a n d many o t h e r s .
 Figure 1 3 2
Carbon p r i n t , double transfer,
photographer u n known, Portrait
of a Man, ca. 1 900. Carbon prints
are chemically stable but are
prone to mechan i cal damage.

W h at is a carbon p r i nt?
I n a carbon p r i n t , t h e p h otograp h i c i m age is c o m posed of fi n ely g ro u n d carbon
black part i c l e s , or other pigments, eve n ly d i s persed in the ge l ati n l ayer covering
the paper s u pport. T h e t h i c k ness of t h e ge lati n l ayer i s p ro p o r t i o n a l to t h e d e nsity
of the i m age. S hadow areas are w h e re t h e pigmented gelat i n layer is thickest,
w h i l e in t h e h ig h l ights t h e gelat i n layer is t h i n , a l lowing t h e color of t h e paper
s u p port to s h ow t h ro u g h . The i m age t o n es are usually red d i s h b rown to dark
b rown . T h e i m age s h ows n o evi d e n ce of c h e m ical d eteriorat i o n . T h e print s u rface
m ay be glazed or glossy; gelatin fi l ms t h at are overloaded with p i g m e nt m ay b e
s o m ewhat d u l l er. U s u a l ly t h e wh ite marg i n s of t h e p r i n t , w h i c h often beco m e
sta i n e d d u ri ng processing, h ave been tri m m e d away.

1 66 P O S I T I V E S
Fab r i cati o n and u s e 1 9
A s h eet of paper i s coated with a sol ution of
warm l i q u i d gelat i n t h at conta i n s potass i u m
d i c h ro m ate a n d a fi n ely gro u n d carbon
b l ack p i g m e n t . After h av i ng d ried i n the
d a r k , t h e s h eet is p l aced in co ntact with
a n egative and exposed to light. I t i s t h e n
p rocessed by was h i n g off the u n exposed
a reas u s i ng warm wate r a n d a soft b rush .
T h i s re m oves t h e gelat i n as well as t h e p ig­
m e n t fro m the n o nexposed ( l ighter) areas ,
a l l ow i n g t h e paper s u p p o rt to show
t h rough . T h e exposed s h adow a reas are
covered with h a rd e n e d , i n s o l u b l e gelatin
t h at rem a i n s o n t h e s u p port along with its
pigme nted t i n ti ng.
T h e fi rst prints made in this way were far
from satisfactory s i n c e the p rocess was n ot
a b l e to capture t h e m i d -tones of t h e i m age.
In t h e areas where t h e m i d -tones s h o u l d
ap pear, t h e ge latin layer d i d n ot harden
t h ro ug h o u t b u t hard e n ed o n ly o n t h e s u r­
face. As a res u l t , t h e d eeper, softer p o rt i o n
d i ssolved away d u ri n g t h e was h - off step,
taking with it t h e t h i n hard e n e d layer on
Figure 1 3 3
Washing off t h e u n hardened
portions of the carbon print
image, engraving, ca. 1 9 00.
-- ---======-
-
· ·-
-::.: :.:. =
·· · ·- - - - �
-· ······ ······
t h e su rface. Two re m e d ies were proposed
to solve t h e issue of re p ro d u c i ng t h e m i d ­
t o n e s . T h e fi rst, c a l l e d t h e d i rect c a r b o n
p r o c e s s , u s e d a textu red paper s u p p o rt to
rei nforce t h e gelat i n layer a n d to i m p rove
its a d h e re n c e to the paper d u r ing the was h ­
off ste p . T h e seco n d a p p roach , i ntroduced
i n the 1 8 60s, was t h e c a r b o n tran sfer. H e re
t h e ge latin l ayer is m o i stened a n d trans­
fe rred facedown to a new s u p p o rt after
expos u re . This a l lows t h e o uter l ayers of
h a rd e n e d gelat i n t h at h ave been exposed
i n t h e m i d -tones to b e d i rectly attac h e d
t o the new paper s u p p ort. O n ly after t h i s
transfe r d o es t h e wash- off s t e p take place.
The carbon p r i nt h a s a rel i ef i mage c o n ­
sisting of pigmented gelatin l ayers of variable
thickness. To m a i ntain t h e prints i n a flat
state, t h ey are often m o unted on card board .
D et e r i o rat i o n and care o f carbon p r i n t s
T h e carbon p ro cess produces pri nts t h at are
extremely sta b l e , a n d t h ey are often fo u n d
i n rem a rkably good c o n d iti o n , showing
n o n e of t h e c h e m ical i m age d eterio rati o n ­
s u c h as fad i n g a n d ye l l owi n g - e n c o u ntered
i n s i lver-based i m ages . The state of c o n se r­
vat i o n of prints made with pigme nts other
than carbon black d e p e n d s o n t h e stab i l ity
of t h e i r particu lar pigment m i xture - n ot a l l
pigments are as l ight stable as carbon
black-and their d i s p lay h i sto ry.
Sometimes the gelatin layer exerts a te n ­
s i o n o nto t h e second ary card b oard s u pport,
causing it to d istort. The backs of prints with­
out a mount m ay show a l ight re lief pattern
co rres p o n d i n g to the shapes of the i m age.
A n etwork of su rface cracks m ay s o m e ­
t i m es b e o bse rved o n the t h i c kest parts of
: ·
-- -·
t h e gelat i n layer, especially i n large p r i n t s .
Positives on Paper 1 67
 T h e carbon p r i n t 1 8 5 5 -1 9 3 0
R e l at e d t e r m ( n ot syn o n y m o u s) : p i g m e n t p r i nt

O c c u r re n c e i n c o l l e c t i o n s rare

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m at s
• I m age sizes a r e s i m i l a r to t h o s e of the n egatives used to p r i n t t h e m

Carbon black parti cles (or other pigments)

St r u c t u re

paper ----+-<�

R e co m m e n d ati o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of c a r b o n p r i n t s
• D o not store i n overly d ry environments

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m id ity Flood

S e n s i t i v ity c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J c::=:J
average average average average average

I .,.JI

Overall view Magnified view

1 68 P O S I T I V E S
 4 .., C !-1 �
, R :i ..., I\;

ti:; ///('/If
·

Figu re 1 3 4
Carbon print, Lefievre Coulon, Portrait of a Young Woman, c a . 1 900. Carbon pri nts were
marketed as "permanent carbon pri nts" to emp hasize the stability of the medium.

Positives o n Paper 1 69
 G u m b i c h ro m ate p ri nts (1894-1 930)
H istory
T h e g u m b i c h ro mate p roces s - a n d gen e r­
a l ly, a l l t h e d i c h ro mated c o l l o i d p rocesse s ­
b e l o ngs t o t h e fam i ly of p i g m e n t p rocesses.
In 1 8 5 5 A l p h o n s e Poitevi n had n oted that ,
a l o n g w i t h gelat i n , oth e r c o l l o i d s s u c h as
a l b u m e n , fi b ri n , a n d gum arabic could b e
h a rd e n e d b y l ight exposu re o n c e th ey were
treated with an a l k a l i n e d ic h ro m ate salt.
( N ote that modern c h e m ical n o m e n clature
n a m e s this c o m p o u n d "d i c h ro m ate , " w h i l e
t h e p ro cess i t s e l f reta i n s t h e n i n eteenth­
c e n t u ry syno n y m o u s fo rm " b i c h ro mate . " )
T h e use of d i c h r o m ated g u m a r a b i c for m a k­
i ng p h otogra p h i c p r i n t s was p o p u larized i n
France b y A . R o u i l l e - Ladeveze a n d espe­
c i a l l y by the prints h e showed at t h e 1 8 9 4
e x h i b i t i o n o f t h e P a r i s Ph oto C l u b . 2 0 The
s u ccess of the p rocess is u n d o u btedly l i n ke d
to t h e tastes of t h e p i c torial ist p h otogra­
p h e r s , whose ideas had germ i n ated i n
E n g l a n d i n t h e p rev i o u s decade a n d sp read
over E u ro p e and the U n ited States, where
Alfred Stieglitz created the Photo-Secessi o n
g ro u p . W h i l e t h e c a r b o n tran sfe r p rocess
resu lted i n precise and accu rate rep rese nta­
t i o n s of the c a m e ra n egative without m u c h
l at i t u d e for m od ify i ng t h e i mage d u ri ng
pri nti ng, t h e g u m b i c h ro m ate p rocess
al l owed fo r a b road i nterpretat i o n i n t h e
1 70 P O S I T I V E S
re n d e r i n g of t h e i m age through h a n dwork
that m o d i fi e d both t h e tonal relat i o n s h i p s
and t h e general a p p e a ra n c e o f t h e p r i n t .
The use of h eavily textured p a p e r s u p p o rts
acce ntuated these effects and a l lowed t h e
p rocess to b e c a r r i e d t h rough without a
trans fe r step (see C a r b o n pri nts). G u m
b i c h r o m ate printing re m a i n e d i n u s e b y art
p h otogra p h e rs - especially the pictorial­
ists - u nt i l a b o u t 1 93 0 . A m o n g t h e b est­
known proponents of t h e p rocess are
Constant Puyo, R o b e rt D e m ac hy, Ed ward
Ste i ch e n , and H e i n rich l<u h n . The g u m
i mage i s worked b y h a n d w i t h a b r u s h
a n d i s s o m et i m es transfo r m ed to s u c h a n
e x t e n t that it does n ot l o o k l ike a p h oto­
graph a n y m o re . Prints made with s o p h isti­
cated m u lt i p l e - p r i n t i ng tec h n i q u e s are
part i c u l arly a p preciated by c o n n o i s s e u r s .
W i t h these techn i q u e s , a fi rst i m p re s s i o n o f
t h e i m age i s l a i d down i n o n e p rocess a n d i s
then re i n fo rced a n d m o d ifi e d by a seco n d ­
s u p e r i m pose d - p r i n t i n g u s i ng a d ifferent
p rocess, and m ight b e fo l l owed by other
printings. E d ward Ste i c h e n ' s 1 9 04 p r i n t
The Pond-M oonlight, a p lati n u m p r i nt re i n ­
forced with a n overlying g u m b i c h ro mate
printing, fetched a record $ 2 . 9 m i l l io n in a
2006 auction.
Figure 1 3 5
Three-color gum bichromate print,
Charles Puyo, Cleo de M erode, ca. 1 900.

Positives on Paper 1 7 1
 Figure 1 3 6
Albumen pri nt, Charles Puyo,

Figure 1 3 7
G u m bichromate print, Charles
Puyo, Fan, ca. 1 900.

W h at i s a g u m b i c h ro m ate p r i nt?
A g u m b i c h ro m ate print is a pos itive ph otogra p h i c print on paper in which the i m age
is fo rmed by pigments u n ifo r m ly d ispersed in t h e b i n d e r layer, which is g u m arabic.
As with carbon prints, the t h i ckness of the b i n d e r laye r is p ro p o rt i o n a l to the d e ns i ty
of t h e i m age. I n the s h adow areas the pigmented g u m l ayer is relative ly t h i c k , w h i l e
i n the h i g h l ight areas it i s extremely t h i n . I m age c o l o r d e p e n d s o n the pigments
used . The "deve l o p m e n t " tec h n i q u e i nvolves brushing off the u n ha rd e n e d areas of
the i m age. T h i s a l l ows great l atitude i n m o d ifying the i m age appearance, making it
re m i n iscent of a n e ngravi ng, a charcoal d rawing, o r a paste l .

1 72 P O S I T I V E S

Fabricat i o n and use
A sheet of paper i s b r u s h ed with a solution
of g u m arabic m ixed with potass i u m
d ic h ro mate and o n e o r m ore fi n e ly gro u n d
pigments-watercolor cakes o r pastes were
often used and i n c l u ded b lacks, b rowns,
red s , yel l ows, a n d b l ue s . When t h e s h eet is
d ry it is p l aced i n contact with a n egative and
exposed to light. O n ce the exposure is com­
p l ete, the s heet i s i m m e rsed in cold water,
w h e re the p igmented gum in the u n exposed
areas s l owly softens a n d d issolves, l eaving
the paper s u p port showing t h rough i n the
high lights. The exposed areas d o n ot soft e n ,
a n d the pigme nted g u m r e m a i n s i n p l ace i n
the s h adow areas. The p rocess of l ifti ng g u m
away o r leavi ng it i n p lace is m e d i ated by
careful b rushwork on the wet p r i n t ; t h e
ren d e r i ng of a g u m print i mage depends,
i n large part, o n t h e brushwork.
Figure 1 3 8
G u m bichromate print, Robert Demachy,
Norman Landscape, ca. 1 900.
I t is p o s s i b l e to repeat the process o n t h e
s a m e s h e e t , s u p e ri m po s i ng a seco n d g u m
i mage laye r o n t h e fi rst, u s i ng either a d i ffer­
ent pigment or a compl etely d iffe rent p ro ­
cess. T h u s , it i s possi b l e t o obtain both
t h ree-color g u m b i c h ro m ate prints a n d
m u lt i p l e - p rocess p r i n t s , s u c h as p l at i n u m ­
g u m b i c h ro m ate and cyan otype-g u m
b i c h ro m ate prints.
Deteri o rati o n and care of g u m
b i c h ro m ate p r i nts
T h e g u m p rocess p r o d u c e s p ri nt s t h at are
ge n e r a l l y stable a n d that h ave s u rvived i n
exc e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n . T h e l ight stab i l ity of
t h e pri nts d e p e n d s on the particu l a r pig­
m e nt o r pigment m i x t u re used , s i n c e
pigments present vary i n g d egrees of l ight
s t a b i l ity.
Positives on Paper 17 3
 T h e g u m b i c h ro m ate p r i n t 1 894-1 9 3 0
Syn o ny m : g u m d i c h ro m ate p r i n t
Re l at e d te r m : p i g m e n t p ri nt

O c c u r re n c e i n co l l e cti o n s r a re

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m ats
• I m age sizes are s i m i l a r to those of the n egatives used to print t h e m

pigment

St r u c t u re g u m arabic -- >======:f'

paper ---+---

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvati o n of g u m b i c h ro m ate p r i n t s
• Avo i d p ro l onged d isp lay u n d e r intense i l l u m i n at i o n ; sensitivity varies d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
l ightfastness of the p igm e n ts e m p l oyed

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m id ity Flood

S e n s i t i v ity CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
sen sitive average average average s e n s itive

Overall view Magnified view

Figure 1 3 9
G u m bichromate pr i nt ,
Charles Puyo, Singer,
ca. 1 900.

1 74 P O S I T I V E S
Positives on Paper 1 7 5
 Woo d b u rytypes (1864-1900)
H istory
A woo d b u rytype is n ot a true p h otograp h
s i n c e i t s fi n a l i m age is n ot produced b y t h e
a c t i o n of l ight o n a ph otose n s itive m ate r i a l .
I n stead the i mage i s p rod u ced i n a p r i n t i n g
p ress a n d it b e l o ngs therefore to the cat­
egory of p h otomechan ical p r i n t i n g p ro ­
cesse s , u s e d t o re p rod uce large n u m bers
of p h otogra p h i c i m ages in a s h o rt a m o u n t
of t i m e . Photo m e c h a n i cal p r i n t i mages are
u s u a l ly ch aracte rized by the fact that they
are h alftone i m ages made u p of a n etwo rk
of p r i n ted dots; the l atter m ay b e m o re or
less fre q u e n t , of varying sizes, b l ac k o r c o l ­
o r e d , a n d a r e d isce r n i b l e , fo r the m ost part,
o n ly u n d e r magnificat i o n . True p h otogra p h i c
i mage s , o n the o t h e r hand , s h o w a cont i n u ­
o u s ly varying i mage d e ns ity that ranges
fro m the d a rkest to the l ightest tones with
n o disce rn i b l e steps betwe e n . B ut two of
the photo m e c h a n i ca l p rocesse s - t h e col­
l otype a n d the woo d b u rytype - m i m ic the
a p pearance of true p h otographs a n d there­
fore d eserve a c l oser look.
Walter B e n t l ey Wo o d b u ry ( 1 8 3 4-1 8 8 5 )
b rought h i s new p h oto m e c h a n i c a l p rocess
to the p r i n t i n g i n d u stry in 1 8 6 4 . I t was
w i d e ly used in E ng l a n d a n d the U n ited
States, where it was k n own as the wood-
1 76 P O S I T I V E S
b u rytype p ro cess , w h i l e i n France i t was
refe rred to as photoglypty. T h e French
l i censees were G o u p i l & C o . (an d late r the
fi r m L e m e rc i e r) i n Paris a n d B ra u n in
Dornach. B etween 1 8 75 a n d 1 9 0 0 t h e
p rocess was used to m a ke h ig h - q u a l ity
reprod u ct i o n s of p a i n t i n gs . M o u nted wood­
b u rytypes were sold i n d i v i d u al ly and t h ey
were a l s o u s e d to i l l u strate art b o o k s a n d
p e r i o d i c a l s . I n P a r i s the p e r i o d i c a l La galerie
contemporaine des illustrations fran<;aises
produced a series of w o o d b u rytype p o r­
traits of c e l e b r ities of t h e t i m e ; these were
m o u nted on card b o a rd a n d had a p ri nted
carto u c h e and capti o n . T h e printer's n a m e
a n d t h e word " wood b u rytype" o r "photo­
glyptie " are ofte n i n c l u d e d in the p r i nted
capt i o n ; this is the s i m p l est a n d s u rest way
of i d e n t i fy i n g t h i s process' Desp ite t h e i r
excepti o n a l l y h igh q u al i ty, wo o d b u rytypes
became o bs o l ete toward the end of t h e
n i n eteenth c e n t u ry d u e to the c o m p lex a n d
c o s t l y s t e p s req u i red to p r o d u c e t h e m a n d
m o u n t t h e m . T h e y were replaced b y p h oto­
m e c h a n ical p rocesses that c o u l d p rov i d e
b oth i m age a n d t e x t o n the s a m e pri nti ng
p l ate a n d that were b etter adapted to mass
p ro d ucti o n .
 Figure 1 40
Woodburytype, Bertall,
Victor Hugo, before 1 876.
Printed i n "Galerie
contemporaine des
illustrations fran�aises "
around 1 8 80.

Figure 141
Detail of a printer's caption
o n the mounting board of a
woodburytype, ca. 1 8 80.

Phc>t'• Goupil & 0'".

What is a w o o d b u rytype?
A woo d b u rytype is a photomechanical print in wh ich t h e i mage - m ade of car­
bon black pigment particles u n ifo r m ly d is pe rsed in a ge l ati n fi l m - has been
transferred to a paper s u p p o rt from a mold. The constituents a n d t h e appear­
ance - i mage structure, t o n e , gloss-of woodbu rytypes are very close to those of
carbon prints; there is n o easy way of d istingu i s h i n g o n e from t h e other based
solely o n a visual exami n at io n .

Positives o n Paper 1 7 7
 .

T H E AT R E L I T T E R AT U R E - M U S I Q U E - B E A U X - A R TS - S P O R T - F I N A N C E
Journal hebdomadaire poroifl�ont l e Somedt

�
lll DA.CTEUR EH CHEF : FELIX JAHYER

ADMINISTRATION ET R�DACTIOH
ts, rue du Cro i s s a nt, tB

X C II

ALI C E REINE
DE LA I>ORTE-SA I N T - W A R T I N

ERTES , mademoiselle De Toulouse, Alice Reine pnrtit

Alice Reine a tout pour Constantinople, oU ellc fit une
ce qu'il faut pour saison au The:ltrc-Frani;ais. Puis
reprCscmer la plus c'est de IQ qu'clle vint a Marseille
puissantc des FCcs oti cllc signa un engagement O\'CC

o u In plus gracieL:se des princesses le Directcur du Casino. A cc mo­

de Ffcric. Jeune, grande ct belle, ment, le futur auteur de la Mas­
elle a In prcst::tncc avec la physio­ cotte, M. Audrand,avaitprCscntC au
nomie ct. de plus, s:i voix mor­ ThCd1rc du Gymnase de cette ville
dantc sait faire valoir rondeaux c1 une opCrette en trois actcs, intitulte
couplets. Mai!, pourmoi, cbez ellc 1 le Grand Mogol. Ayant entcndu
Jn comtdicnnc :i assez de talent pour chanter mademoiselle Reine, il ma·
prCtcndrc � plus haut emploi ct jc nifesta le dCsir de Jui voir crCer sa
voudrnis In voir re\•enir ft l'OpCrctte piece, cc ll. quoi souscrivit volon­
oU cllc n tcnu, dCjll, une place fort tierslc Directcurdu Gymnasc. Alice
distinguCc. Reine comribua done au succ!s du
C 'e"t de Marseille quc nous est Grand Mogol ct c'est de 13., sans
venue mademoiselle Alice Reine, doutc, que Pon a prCsumC qu'cllc
mois clle n'est point Marseillaise Ctait Morscilln ise.
ainsi que tous mes confrCres l'ont AprCs cc brillnnt passage Q Mar­
Ccril it l'envic. Tous se sont trom­ seille, mademoiselle Alice Reine,
pCs ct principalcment ceux qui pour toujours sous le nom de madame
Iaisscr croirc qu'ils ttaient bien in­ Tony-Reine, cut plusieurs engage­
formCs, ont CtC jusqu'3. lui trouver ments pour la saison des bains It
un petit accent marseillais qui , Cautcre1s. Les Parisiens qui ont
ajoutaicnt-ils avcc infinimcnt de l'habitude de frCqucntcr ceuc s1a­
politesse d'o.illcurs, lui sieyait A tion thcrmale se rnppellent l"y avoir
mervcille. chaudement applaudie dans Jes
Non, Alice Reine n'a point vu le premiers rOlcs du repertoire de l'o­
jour aux abords de l a CannebiCre, pCrette.
cllc n'est mCme point nCe sous le De rctour I\ Pnris, ii y a quatre
soufAe du mistral, mais bien en ens 1 l'nimable artiste cntra au
l l o1orl1Pll• GoVPn... Cliche B•:tQu• H CI•
pleinc Seine, sur un bateau A va- thC4trc de la Renaissance sous le
peur qui faisait le p<:trcours de Paris au Havre; ct e'cst dans un pctit nom d'Alicc Reine. Elle y dCbutn dnns le r6lc de Bertrndc, d'Hlftorse el
village de Normandie que l'on dCbarquala mere ct l'enfant, o.ussitOt apres Aheifar:l. Pcnd::int trois ans, nous l"y avons \'U jouer en double 1ous les
l'CvC'ncment accompli. Quclques jours plus tard la fillettc ramcnCe a rdles de mademoiselle Jeanne Granier nvcc unc intelligence ct un tnlcnt
Paris Ctait baptisCe :\ l'Cglise de la Madeleine. Sa vraie patrie, si non qui nous pcrmettnient de bien nugurer de son nvenir dans cet cmploi.
son berceau est done Paris, ct non point la vicille cite! PhocCcnnc ; jc Le dernier ouvrage dans lcqucl ellc parut fut la Belle Lurette, d'Offen­
l'affirme, dussent lcs Marseillais me jctcr la picrre pour !cur ravir une bach, Puis, M. Koning nynnt prl!1C madem1:iisclle Reine 3 son confrCre
si gracieusc payse. de la Portc-Saint-Mnnin pour y crCer Fridolin, dans l'Arbre de NM/,
Fillc d'anis1e1 Alice Reine fut dcstinCe de bonne heurc au thCitre. piece de MM. Leterrier, Vanloo ct Arnold Mortier, la prima donna quina
C'est 3 l'Eldorado oil nous la rencontrons tout d'abord , chantant dans de l'OpCrene pour la FCeric ct y obtint un tel succCs quc M. C!Cves voulut
petites opCrcttcs a''cc son camnradc Tony, chantcur comique, engogC dans SC }'attacher 8 son thCatrc.
le meme Ctablissement. De !curs dcux noms ces dcux artistes formfrcnt Dcpuis le mois de mai 1880, Alice Reine fait done panic de la troupe
nlors cclui de Tony-Reine, sous Jcquel Alice Reine joua pendant long­ de la Pone-Saint-Martin. Sa seconde crCation : Aik::i. de la Biche au boir
temps dans les theatres et Jes concerts non seulcment A Paris, mais a lui valut tous:lcs soirs de chalcurcux applaudissements. Sous le teint bistrC
Lyon, A Marseille, a Bordeaux, 4 Toulouse. d e l a princesse noire, la bc:iutC de la fem:ne n'avait rien perdu de son
Dans ceue dcrni�re ville, au th1!atrc du Capitole, cut lieu son veritable charmc, ct la chanteuse enlevait scs air(aYec une aisance ct une autoriu!
debut dans une operenc de grandc facturc : Fleur-de-Thi, de Charles gCnCralcmcnt inconnucs des comCdicnncs chargc!'cs de rcprCsentcr ccs
Lecocq, rOle de Cesarin�. Les Toulousains n'ont point oubliC le temps sones de pcrsonnnges. Avec cite la Comedienne apparait et ne laissc pas a
qu'clle pnssa nu milieu d'cux, car ilsont cu la primcur de son gracieuxtolent. la Femme le soin de rcmportcr rnut le succes.
 Figure 1 43
Woodbu rytype press,
engraving, ca. 1 880.
Figure 1 42
Woodburytype, Benque and
Co., Alice Reine, 1882, from the
weekly Camees artistiques.
F a b r i cat i o n and u s e 2 1
The production of a wo o d b u rytype begins
with a d i c h ro m ated gelatin re l i ef positive
( l i ke a carbon p r i n t , b u t without any p ig­
m e nt) made from t h e n egative. T h i s slight
i m age re l ief is proportional to t h e i m age
d e n s ity: t h e darkest areas of t h e i m age cor­
res p o n d to the t h ic kest areas of gelat i n , the
l ight areas to t h e t h i n n est. T h i s n o n p ig­
mented gelatin relief is c h e m i cally h a rd e n e d
a n d t h e n p u t i nto a mechanical p r e s s agai nst
a s h eet of l ead . T h e sl ight rel i ef p rofi l e i s
p ressed i nto the l ead s h eet, creating a n
i m age m o l d . The res u l t i n g reve rs e - re l i ef
m o l d is fi l l ed with l i q u i d p igmented gelati n .
A s h eet o f coated paper i s laid aga i n st t h e
m o l d a n d t h e two a r e p u t into a m e c h a n i c a l
press , w h ere the excess gelat i n (from the
h ig h l ight areas) is p ressed o u t toward the
Figure 1 44
Woodburytype, re production of an image of Mozart,
ca. 1 880. This is the stage before trimm ing, a s the
print comes from the press; the excess of pigmented
gelatin is visible on the edges of the image after
having been squeezed out from the central area.
edges, w h i l e the re m a i n i n g gelat i n fro m the
mold is p ressed o n to t h e paper. The pig­
m e nted gelatin relief i m age t h at is created
on the paper s u pport is th icker i n t h e
s hadow areas, t h i n n e r i n t h e m i d -to n e s , a n d
t h i n nest i n t h e h igh l ight areas. As t h e gelat i n
d ries, t h e rel i ef i s atten uated . A series o f
i d e ntical m o l d s c a n b e u s e d i n a m u lt i p l e ­
p late p ress to a l l ow t h o u s a n d s o f copies of
a n i m age to b e p rodu ced i n a s i ng l e run. The
pri nts are t h e n varn i s h e d , t r i m m ed , a n d
m o u nted .
D et e r i o rat i o n a n d care of wo o d b u rytypes
No part i c u l a r co nse rvati o n p ro b l e m s are
associated with woo d b u rytypes - l i ke carbon
prints, t h ey are very stable.
Positives on Paper 1 79
 T h e woo d b u rytype 1 864-1 900
Sy n o ny m : p h otoglypty

O c c u r r e n c e i n co l l e cti o n s rare

C o m m o n s i ze s a n d fo r m ats
• Vari a b l e , fro m 9 x 1 2 cm to 3 0 x 40 c m , b u t u s ua l ly s m a l l e r than 1 8 x 24 cm

C a r b o n b l a c k pigment � . ._.

St r u c t u re

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rv at i o n of wo o d b u ryty p e s
• G e n erally s t a b l e ; t h e seco n d ary s u pport m ay b e c o m e frag i l e

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty c=i c=i c=i c=ic=ic=i c=ic=ic=i c=ic=ic=i c=ic=ic=i
average average average average average

Overa l l view Magnified view

1 80 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 1 4 5
Woodburytype, photographer u n known,
Portrait of a Man, c a. 1 8 80 .

Positives on Paper 1 8 1
 Co l l otypes (1868-1940)
H i story
In 1 8 6 8 Josef A l bert (1 8 2 5 -1 8 8 6 ) took out a
G e r m a n paten t on a new p h otomechan ical
pri nting process, t h e al bertype. T h e p ro ­
cess -a furt h e r i m p rove m e n t o n p revi o u s
contri butions by a n u m be r of o t h e r i nventors
to t h e deve l o p m e n t of p h otomechanical
p rocesses- p ro d uced very fine i m ages. The
c o l l otype grad u a l l y won p red o m i na nce over
the wo o d b u rytype i n the i n d ustrial p ro d u c­
t i o n of fi n e ph otogra p h i c i l l u strations d u e to
the ease of o p e rati o n and t h e p ractical
advantages it offe red . The p rocess cont i n u e d
t o be i m p roved a n d w a s w i d e ly ad o pted
by E u ropean printing houses i n t h e years
between 1 8 8 0 a n d 1 92 0 . G e rmany a l o n e
h a d s o m e t w o h u n d red col l otype workshops
i n 1 9 0 0 . 22 S u c h producers could make as
many as several thousand reproductions of
1 82 P O S I T I V E S
p h otogra p h s , postcard s , art p r i n t s , a n d so
on. Color c o l l otypes c o u l d be made by m u l ­
t i p l e pri ntings from s eparate p l ates, each of
which was ca refu l ly adj u sted and reto u c h ed
by hand to achieve the best poss i b l e c o l o r
re n d ering. Several c o l l otype production
c o m p a n i es re m a i n active i n E u ro p e , i n c l u d ­
i ng t h e A l i n a r i Sta m peria d 'Arte ( F l o re n ce),
the Lichtd ru c k M u s e u m and Workshop
( D resden), a n d the Lichtdruck-l< u n st
( L e i pzig). The c o l l otype p ro cess was also
known by a vari ety of oth e r n a m es i n differ­
ent periods and l o c a l e s . These i n c l u d e " c o l ­
l og ra p h , " " h e l ioty p e , " " p h oto-co l l ograp h , "
" p h ototy p e , " "Lichtdruck" ( i n G e rmany), and
"phototypie " (in Fra n ce). To avo i d confusion
it is best to u s e t h e term " c o l l otype" fo r a l l
variat i o n s .
 a

Figure 146
Collotype, p hotographer
u n known, Lauterbrunnen
and Staubbach Falls,
Switzerland, ca. 1 8 8 0 . This
print (a) appears similar to an
al bumen print but u nder
magnifi cation (b) reveals the
reticu lated pattern i m age
structure characteristic of
the collotype.

W h at is a c o l l otype?
A col l otype i s a photomechan ical repro d uction consisting of a n i n k i m age o n a paper
s u p port; i t is made o n a p r i nting p ress, t h e printing p l ate being a d i c h ro m ate p ro cess
ge l ati n i m age o n glass. The adherence of t h e printing ink to t h e d iffe re n t parts of the
ge l ati n re l ief i mage varies d e p e n d i n g o n the degree of harden i n g of t h e ge l ati n d u r­
i ng exposu re . This i n k is tran sferred to a s h eet of prepared pape r, poss i b ly b aryta
paper. T h e i m age to n e d e p e n d s on t h e c h o i c e of i n k . L i ke the woo d b u rytyp e , the
col lotype i s n ot strictly a photogra p h i n t h at its ulti mate pro d uction stage does not
i nvolve l ight exposure of a ph otose n s itive mate r i a l . Also, under magn i fi cati o n t h e
i m age structure c a n b e s e e n to c o n s i s t of a reticu lated n etwo rk pattern w h e re i n k
is e i t h e r p resent or absent- i n o t h e r words, a h alfto n e i m age .

Positives on Paper 1 8 3
 Fab ri cat i o n a n d u s e
A t h i c k glass p late i s coated with a gelat i n
s u bstrate layer a n d d ri e d . T h e n a d ichro­
mated gelat i n laye r is laid over the s u bstrate
and d ried u n d e r carefu l ly contro l led c o n d i ­
t i o n s a t ap p rox i m ately 5 5 ° C . T h i s p rod uces
an even reticu l at i o n i n the top ge l ati n layer,
c reat i ng a su rface fi l led with tiny i s l a n d s of
gelati n s e parated fro m one a n oth e r. The
reticu lated patte r n se rves as the grai n - o r
i m age structure - fo r t h e i n k i mage that w i l l
eventually b e transferred fro m the plate. T h e
p late i s p l aced i n contact with a n egative
and exposed to l ight; then it is i m m e rsed i n
Figure 1 47
a bath o f cold water (1 0-1 6°C) t o e l i m i n ate Collotype press, engraving, ca. 1 880.
t h e d i c h ro m ate salts. At this p o i nt the p l ate
h o l d s a s u rface made u p of s m a l l gelati n
c l u sters , each of which has been hardened
p ro p o rti o n a l l y to the l ight e x p o s u re it
received .
To m a ke t h e pri nt, the plate is fi rst soaked
i n a s o l ut i o n of glyce r i n and water. The hard ­
ened gelat i n c l u sters take u p water o n ly
spari ngly. When greasy lithogra p h i c i n k i s
s p read o n t h e wetted p late, t h e hydro p h o b i c
n at u re of the i n k w i l l c a u s e it t o stick t o t h e
hardened c l u sters that re m a i n relatively d ry
a n d to be re p e l l ed in areas aro u n d the
u n hard e n e d , water-absorptive c l u sters. (Th i s
is a l s o t h e p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d l i thographic
pri nti ng.) The transfe r of the ink i mage to a
s h eet of paper can t h e n be made u s i ng m o d ­
e rate, even p res s u re .

Figure 1 4 8
D ete r i o rati o n a n d care of col l otypes
Col lotype workshop a t the Alinari
C o l l otypes d o not h ave any partic u l ar c o n ­ Foundation, Florence. C R C D G ,
servat i o n pro b l e m s . Their stabil ity i s m a i n l y late twentieth century.
d e p e n d e n t o n the q u a l ity of t h e paper used
fo r printing

1 84 P O S I T I V E S
l'hul"l \ f•I•' F•-. H1 11\• ll• •
L ',\ R D E \" 1'\ E B E LC E
I 11• 1 •' l n1111 1 Kt l ' a1 1�
\\'te('"
1,

Figure 1 49
Collotype, Weck Brothers,
A rdenne, Belgium,
ca. 1 890.

Positives on Paper 1 8 5
 T h e co l l otype '"'"8· " 40
Syn o ny m s : a l b e rt y p e , c o l l ograp h , h e l ioty p e , p h oto - c o l logra p h , p h ototy p e ,
L ichtdruck, phototypie

O c c u r re n c e i n co l l e c t i o n s common

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m ats
• Vari a b l e , fro m postcards to large-fo r m at prints

ink

coating (opti o n a l ) �
St r u c t u re "'------�

paper --......-

Reco m m e n d at i o n s for c o n s e rvat i o n of c o l l ot y p e s

• T h e s u p p o rt paper m ay b e sens itive to exte n d ed d i s p l ay u n d e r i ntense light s o u rces

Light A b ras i o n Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v ity CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ
average average average average average

Overall view Magnified view

1 86 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 1 5 0
Collotype, photographer
unknown, Musicians, print by
Obernetter, ca. 1 890.

Positives on Paper 1 8 7
 I D ENTIFICATION OF MONOCHROME POS I T IVES ON PAPER

Visual examination

Identifying the photographic process by simply looking at a print with

the naked eye can be difficult . However, with a bit of experience and
with the aid of a low-power magnifier ( about 3 0 x ) it is often possible
to distinguish processes from one another based on-among other
characteristics-the elucidation of their structural layers, their
surface character ( smooth, matte, or high glos s ) , their image tone ,
and the deterioration patterns . This methodology for process identi­
fication was introduced by James Rei l ly in 1986 . 23 Examination of the
layered structure is best done with a binocular magnifier, i f available,
or with a simple magnifying loupe . The print will have one , two, or
three distinct layers .

P r i n t proc e s s e s with one layer

The photographic image is located on and in the fibers of the support

paper. When the surface of the print is examined with a 3 0 x magnifier,
the paper fibers are clearly visible . The surface may be somewhat glossy
depending on the sizing of the paper and on any glazing or coating
treatments applied after printing .

1 88
 Image tone and deterioration patterns can help distinguish the
fol lowing three single-layer print processes :

• I mage to n e : b rown to violet

• Appearance and textu re : m atte
• Deteri oratio n : fad ing, yellowing

• I mage ton e : b l u e
• Appearance a n d textu re: m atte
• D eterioratio n : generally good ; poss i b l e paper
support deterio ration

• I mage tone : n eutral gray

• Appearance and texture : m atte
• D eteriorati o n no fad ing; possi ble "gh ost"
i m age on adjacent sheets

1 89
 Print pro c e s s e s with two layers

The photographic image i s located in a binder layer that adheres to

the surface of the paper suppor t . Under magnification , the surface
shows a transparent layer through which the fibers of the paper
support can be seen.

Magn ified view of su rface (left) and sectio n (righ t) of albumen p n nt

1 90
 Image tone and deterioration patterns can help dist inguish the
fol lowing three two -layer print processes :

• I mage ton e : b rown to violet

• Appearance and textu re: glazed
• Deterioration : fad i ng; ye l lowing i n high l ights;
m i n ute cracks

Albumen print

• I mage ton e : chocolate b rown

• Appearance and texture glazed or h igh gloss
• Deteriorati o n : n o fad ing; n o yel l owing; gen e r­
ally good co n d ition; pigment particle clusters
visible u n der m agnificati o n

• I m age ton e : variab l e

• Appearance and texture : m atte
• Dete rioration : no fad ing; no ye l l owing

191
 Print p ro c e s s e s with three l ayers

The photographic image i s located in a binder layer that adheres to

the top of a coated paper support ; the coating layer contains a white
pigment (usual ly barium sulfate) . The surface may be high glos s , glazed,
or matte .
Under magnification the surface shows no evidence of paper fibers .
Instead, the highlight areas show a smooth, uniform, and white surface .
At the trimmed edges of the print , sections of the baryta coat i ng may be
mis sing, thus revealing the underlying paper support .

1 92
 Image tone and deterioration patterns can help distinguish printing­
out process prints from developed-out print s :

• I mage tone pu rple to violet

• Appearance and texture: s mooth su rface; m ay
be m atte, glazed , or h igh gloss
• Deterioration : yellowing

II TlHUJ.f.

Gelatin P O P

• I m age tone : warm to n es or neutral gray (go l d

ton e d , plati n u m toned)
• Appearance and texture: s m ooth s u rface; may be
matte, glaze d , or h igh gloss
• D eteriorati o n m ay show m i n ute cracks,
scratches, and abrasions; silver i m age is often i n
better condition than gelatin P O P

Collod i o n P O P

• I m age tone: neutral gray (may be toned t o sepia,

•
i n which case n o chem ical d eterioration is visible)
• Appearance and textu re: smooth s u rface; m ay be
m atte, glazed , o r h igh gloss
• Dete riorati o n : silver m i rroring
"'
.,

1 93
 S C IENTI FIC METHODS OF ANALYS IS AND IDENTIFICATION

In the preceding sidebar we saw that the visual

examination of an image with the aid of a magni­
fier can-with a bit of experience-provide a good
deal of information about the process
used to make it . S t i l l , it i s easy to
be misled by the great variety of
processes and a l l their variants . For
instance, modern ink-j et printers can
produce very convincing imitations
of cyanotypes and platinum prints . It
then becomes neces sary to resort to
analytical science to positively
identi fy the nature of some photo­
graphs . Chemical and physical
analysis techniques have been
adapted by scientists to identify
photographic constituents without having to Figure 1 5 1
take samples for test ing, thus al lowing for Examining a pri n t using a
magnifier. The information
nondestruct ive analysi s . Some of these tech­
gathered with the use of a
niques are commonly used in museum research magnifier (approx . 3 0 x) i s
facilities and have been successfu l ly applied essential f o r the identification o f
to photograph process identification . Such anal­ pri nt processes but m a y n o t b e
sufficient to identify ch em ical
yses may be rather complex in practice and the
constituents, which requires
results may be confusing, requiring a specialist spectroscopic methods of
to interpret them . And while it may be possible analysis.
to identify the binder, the support , or the
image-forming material of a photograph in this
way, scientific studies relat ing to the source
and history (provenance ) of individual obj ects
are only in their earl iest stages . Eventually,
though, it is expected that scientific analysi s
will be able to provide much more precise
information with regard to the authentication
of prints .

Analys i s of imag e - f orming mater i a l s

The detection of metals-s i lver, gold, platinum,

pal ladium, iron , selenium-i s carried out by X-ray

1 94
fluore scence (XRF ) analysis .
A new generation of portable
instrument s-made for such
appl ications as the identifica­
tion of heavy metals in the
environment ( so i l , paint ,
etc . ) -facilitate the analysi s
o f photographic print s . The
instrument is brought in
contact with the print surface
and completes a full elemental
analysi s in less than thirty
seconds . The resulting data­
Figure 1 52
processed and displayed by a computer-can help
Analysis of a ph otograph by X-ray
identify the print process : plat inum or palla­ ft u orescence spectroscopy, Bertrand
dium detected along with iron, for instance, Laved rine and D usan Stu l i k , 2002 . A
wide-ranging project to characterize
indicates a platinum or pal ladium print , while
photogr.aphic prints by i n strumental
platinum along with s i lver, on the other hand,
analysis is being led by D r. D usan
indicates a platinum-toned s i lver print . 24 Stulik of the Getty Conservation
I n stitute. This image was made
Analys i s o f binde r s d u ring a seminar on identifi cation
of inorganic constituents in
It may be necessary to carry out instrumental
photograp hi c prints held at the
analysi s to clearly identify the organic Detroit I nstitute of Arts i n 2002.
compounds used on photographs, either as
sizing, binders, or coatings applied as protective finishe s . These
compounds include albumen, gelatin, collodion, casein, gum arabic ,
starch, wax, and varnish . A flexible and efficient analysis technique for
such organic compounds is Fourier Transform Infrared-Attenuated Total
Reflectance ( FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy. The image surface is placed in close
contact with the instrument ' s detector crystal and the absorption spec­
trum in the infrared range i s processed and displayed on a computer. The
spectrum of the analyzed compound is compared to reference spectra in
the computer database and its identification is presented as one or more
best matches to reference compounds . It should be kept in mind that such
a technique analyzes only the outermost layer on the surface of the
photograph, and this can lead to errors or at least uncertain results­
for example, albumen prints may be varnished with collodion, or gelatin
silver prints may be coated with wax .

1 95
 Ana lys i s of paper
The nature of the paper support s used for photographs has
evolved over t ime . Early papers were always made from rag
sources (hemp, l inen, or cotton fibers ) . After 1 9 3 0 , these were
replaced by wood pulps ( spruce and fir) purified by the sulfite
proce s s . Determination of the type of fibers used to make a
particular sheet requires the removal of a tiny fiber sample .
An expert analyst can recognize the various fiber sources by
their shape and size when they are examined under high
magnification .
XRF analysi s can detect the barium component of a baryta
layer as well as strontium, a common contaminant of barium .
The relative proportions of barium and strontium can indicate
the geographic origin or preparation method of the white
pigment . According to some researchers, this may eventually
help establish a means of identifying the manufacturing
origin of baryta papers once sufficient data on known samples
have been collected .
For the more recent plastic- coated paper bases ( RC papers ) ,
the look and the feel of this material are sufficient for iden­
tification . However, FTI R-ATR spectroscopy applied on the
verso (nonimage ) surface will indicate polyethylene , while
XRF analysis of the image side wil l detect titanium. In these
paper s , the white reflective layer no longer includes barium
sulfate as the white pigment , but instead uses titanium
dioxide .
Chemical compounds c a l led optical brighteners started
to appear in the 1 9 5 0 s and were commonly included in paper
supports for photographic prints by the early 1960s . By the
1 9 7 0 s , opt ical brighteners were commonly incorporated into
the baryta layer as well as into the paper. Thes e compounds
absorb the invisible ultraviolet (UV) rays from incident
l ight and transform it into visible rays , a proce s s c a lled
fluorescence . Such papers appear brighter and whiter than
they would otherwise . Optical brighteners are easily
detected by examination under a UV lamp : papers containing
these compounds present a characteristic fluorescenc e .

1 96
 a

Figure 1 5 3
Fluorescence of photographic
prints, 2004. (a) Under normal
i l l u m ination, (b) under u ltraviolet
(UV) il l u m i nation from a Wood's
lamp. The prints on the left were
made in the 1 950s, while the one
on the right dates from the
1 990s . The more recent print
A uoresces strongly under UV
i l l u m i nation, indicating that it
contains optical brighteners .
Many photograph i c papers
manufactured i n the latter part
of the twentieth century contain
optical brighteners .
b

1 97
 Color Positives on Paper
C o l o r p i g m e n t p ri nts (1862 to p re s e n t)

H i story
M o d e r n c o l o r pigment printing p rocesses
are t h e desce n d a nt s of the h e l i o c h ro m e
p rocess described b y Louis D u cos d u
H au ro n . U s e d b y t h e L u m i e re b rothers at t h e
e n d o f t h e n i neteenth century t o make t h e i r
t h ree-color transpare n ci e s o n g l a s s (see
T h re e - c o l o r L u m iere trans pare n c i es), the
i d ea was i m p l e m ented i n m a ny s u bseq u e n t
c o l o r p rocesses, parti cularly t h o s e i nte n d e d
fo r t h e p ro d u c t i o n of a r t prints d u ring t h e
twentieth c e n t u ry. T h ese c o l o r p r i n t s have
exce l l e n t sta b i l ity, especially w h e n com­
pared to t h e rat h e r poor stabil ity of c h ro ­
moge n i c process p r i n t s . T h e Fresson fam i ly
in France, for i n stance, has b e e n p rod u c i n g
c o l o r p i g m e n t pri nts s i n c e 1 9 5 0 ( F resson
p rocess) , and in 1 9 9 0 Charles B e rger's
U ltraStab l e p rocess i nt rod uced significant
i m p rove m e nts to t h e o rigi n a l tech n i q u e . 2 5
Color p i g m e nt pri nts are produced mai nly
for artists a n d coll e ctors.
Fabricat i o n and u s e
T h e preparat i o n of a th ree-co l o r pigment
i m age i s carried o u t i n two phases. T h e fi rst
is the a n alysis step, in w h i c h the o ri g i n a l
c o l o r i m age is c o p i e d t h ree t i m e s o n to
b lack- a n d -wh ite fi l m u s i ng b l u e , gre e n , and
red fi lters. T h e t h re e res u lt i n g s e parat i o n
n egatives a r e u s e d to p r i n t t h re e m o n o ­
c h r o m e p i g m e nted gelatin i mage s - y e l l ow,
m age n t a , cya n -with t h e d i c h ro m ate pro­
cess . (Some processes i n cl u d e a fo u r t h ,
b l a c k , i m age.) I n t h e s e c o n d p h a s e t h e o rig­
i n a l c o l o r i m age i s re con structed by trans­
fer r i n g a n d s u pe r i m p o s i n g t h e m o n o c h ro m e
ge latin l aye rs, i n register, o nto a paper
s u p po rt .

What is a c o l o r p i g m e n t p r i nt?
A c o l o r pigment print is a positive c o l o r ph otograp h o btai n e d by s u p e r i m p o s i ng
three o r fo u r m o n o c h ro m e pigm e n te d l ayers o n a paper s u p p o rt . T h re e - c o l o r
separati o n n egatives m a d e w i t h b l u e , gree n , a n d r e d fi lters a r e used to p rod u ce
t h e ye l l ow, m agenta, a n d cyan pigmen ted l ayers with a version of the d i c h ro ­
mated c o l l o i d proced u re . A fo u rth n e utral i m age layer made with a black p ig­
m e n t m ay also b e i n c l u d e d .

1 98 P O S I T I V E S
 • ••

• • •• • •
Figure 1 54
U ltraStable pigment prints, Charles Berger, ca. 1 9 9 1 . The
interm ediate steps in the constru ction of an U ltraStable pigment
print are shown here, starting with the yellow layer, then with
the black, magenta, and cyan layers added i n sequence.

Deterio rati o n a n d care of co l o r

p i g m e n t p r i nts
Pigment pri nts are relatively stable s i n c e
they contain o n ly t h e gelatin b i n d e r, t h e
n at u ra l o r synthetic pigments c h o s e n , and
the paper s u pport T h ey are generally l ight­
fast, although this w i l l d e p e n d on the char-
acteristics of t h e parti c u l a r pigments used.
The o n ly p ro b l e m s t h at might otherwise
arise are re lated to t h e ten s i o n s i n h e rent in
such m u ltiple- layer structures , which m ay
p ro d u ce d e l a m i nati o n or crac k i ng.

Positives on Paper 1 9 9
 C o l o r p i g m e nt pri nts 1 8 62 to p resent

O c c u rre n ce i n co l l e ct i o n s rare

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m ats
· Variab l e

St r u c t u re

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r co n s e rv at i o n of c o l o r p ig m e nt p r i n t s
• Avo i d excess ively d ry sto rage environ m e nts
• Handle with care

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m i d ity F l ood

S e n s i t i v i ty CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ
average average average average average

Overall view Magnified view

200 P O S I T I V E S
Figure 1 55
Color pigment print,
photographer u n known,
ca. 1 900.

Positives on Paper 2 0 1
 THE HEL IOCHROMES OF LOU IS D u cos DU H AURON

Louis Ducos du Hauron ( 1837-1 9 2 0 ) first presented his work on

indirect three - color photography in 1868 . The proces s he
described was both complex and time- consuming . At the time,
some scientists critici z ed its fundamenta l method, since
the expectation was rather for a means of recording the
colors of nature directly and without intermediate analytic
and reconstructive steps . Ducos du Hauron' s process derived
from the experiments of the English physicist James Clerk
Maxwel l ( 1 8 3 1-187 9 ) , who proposed that all colors could be
reproduced by mixing three colored l ight s : violet , orang e ,
and gree n . His 1 8 6 1 demonstration involved t h e superimposed
proj ect ion of three monochrome images of a tartan ribbon .
Each of the three proj ectors was equipped with a different
filter, violet , orange , and green in color. These same filters
had been used in front of the camera lens to make the
respective monochrome transparenc ies . The image proj ected
onto Clerk Maxwe l l ' s screen was the first image created by
additive color synthesis , a method potent ially capable of
reconstructing all of the colors of nature . The process was
used only by a handful of photographers, notably by Sergei
Mikhai lovich Prokudin-Gorskii, who made documentary images
of Russia in the early years of the twent ieth century. What
photographers want, though, is an image on a substantive
material suppor t . To achieve t h i s , Ducos du Hauron used the
three monochrome camera images , along with the dichromate
proce s s , to produce three pigmented gelatin layers : yel low,
purple (magenta) , and blue - green ( cyan ) . Thes e are tran s ­
ferred in careful registration, one o n top of t h e other,
onto a paper support . The result i s a full- color reproduc­
t ion of the original scene . Many of Ducos du Hauron ' s color
prints are extant and are in excel lent condition, notably
in the col lections of the Nicephore Niepce· Museum in Chalon­
sur-Saone in France . Ducos du Hauron also designed a special
one - shot camera-the chromographoscope-that used an optical
splitting device to simultaneously record the three filtered
separation exposures .

202
Figure 1 56
H e l iochrome, Lo u i s Ducos d u
Hauron, The Outskirts of Agen,
France, 1 87 7.

203
 Dye transfe r p ri nts (1946-1993)
H i story
In 1 8 8 0 , C h a r l e s Cros used gelat i n r e l i e f
i m ages to transfe r d y e s to a re c e i v i n g l ayer
o n a n ew s u p p o rt , a type of c o l o r print he
c a l l e d t h e hyd roty p e . G e n e ra l ly c h a racter­
ized as a dye i m b i b it i o n process, t h i s was
e s s e n t i a l l y the m et h o d used in t h e P i n atype
(1 9 0 5 ) a n d U vaty p e (1 929) processes. T h e
best-kn own a p p l icat i o n of d y e i m b i b i t i o n
w a s i n Tec h n i c o l o r m o t i o n p i c t u re fi l m . I n
1 9 3 5 , E a s t m a n l<o d a k i n tro d u ce d a dye
i m b i b i t i o n p r i n t process c a l l e d Was h - O ff
R e l i ef, w h i c h was re n a m e d l<o d a k Dye
Tra nsfe r i n 1 9 4 6 . T h i s process was used i n
a r t a n d advert i s i n g p h otography u nt i l 1 9 9 3 ,
w h e n i t w a s taken off t h e market. By t h at
t i m e i t s possi b i l it i e s fo r e x t e n sive c o l o r
c o n t r o l a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n over­
t a k e n by e m e rg i n g d igital i m aging tech­
n o l og i e s t h at were l ess e x p e n s ive a n d
e a s i e r to u s e .
Fabricat i o n a n d u s e
T h e s o u rce i m age fo r a d y e t r a n s fe r p r i n t ,
n o r m a l ly a c o l o r t r a n s p a r e n cy, i s c o p i e d a s
t h re e c o l o r s e parat i o n n egat i ve s . T h is i s
204 P O S I T I V E S
d o n e by m a k i n g t h re e co ntact c o p i e s of
t h e o r i g i n a l o n b l ack-a n d - w h i t e p a n c h r o ­
m a t i c fi l m , fi l t e r i n g t h e i m age t h ro ug h
b l u e , g re e n , a n d r e d fi l t e r s . E a c h of t h e s e
s e parat i o n n egatives i s t h e n e n l a rged o nto
a s p e c i a l dye transfer m at r i x fi l m . Each of
the matrices i s t h e same s i z e a s the fi n a l
p r i n t , a n d t h e t h i c k n e s s of each g e l at i n
r e l i e f i m age i s p ro p o rt i o n a l t o t h e d e n s i ty
of t h e c o l o r s e parat i o n i m age. T h e m a t r i ­
ces are i m m e rs e d i n t h e respective d y e
s o l u t i o n s - cyan fo r t h e red -fi l t e re d i m age,
m age nta fo r t h e g re e n , and y e l l o w fo r t h e
b l u e - w h e re t h ey " i m b i be " a n a m o u n t o f
d y e t h a t i s p ro p o r t i o n a l to t h e t h i c k n ess
of the g e l ati n . Each dyed matrix i s t h e n
b ro u g h t i n c o ntact w i t h a s pe c i a l dye
transfer p a p e r - a b a ryta paper s u p po rt
coated with a ge l at i n - re c e i v i n g l ay e r that
c o n ta i n s dye m o r d a n t s - a n d the dye i m age
t ra n sfers by d i ffu s i o n i n to t h e rec e i v i n g
l ayer. T h e t h re e d y e i m ages a re d i s c h a rged ,
i n register, i nto t h e s a m e r e c e i v i n g l ayer,
reco n s t r u c t i ng t h e c o l o rs of the s o u rce
i mage .
 W h at is a dye tran sfer p r i nt?
A dye trans fe r print is a c o l o r
print on baryta p a p e r i n w h i ch
t h e dye i mage m aterial is h e l d i n
a s i ngle gelati n layer. T h e i mage
is obtained by t h e diffu s i o n a n d
transfer of dyes from t h ree gela­
tin matrix fi l ms into the gelat i n ­
receiving l ayer o f t h e p r i n t .
Tech n ically it i s not a t r u e p h o ­
tograph s i n ce its u lt i m ate i m age
production step does n o t
i nvolve t h e acti o n of l ight o n a
p h otosensitive m ateria l . B u t t h e
s u perior p h otogra p h i c q ua l ities
of t h e i mage made it t h e p re ­
ferred c o l o r p r i n t process for b
many artists and coll ectors i n
t h e seco n d half o f t h e twentieth
century. Dye tran sfer prints can
b e recog n i zed by t h e i r exc e l l e nt
c o n d i t i o n ; t h e p u re w h ite c o l o r
of t h e i r baryta p a p e r b o rders;
t h e possi b l e ap pearance of
s l ight c o l o r m is registrat i o n o r
i rregularity a t t h e i mage edges;
and the u n i q ue p ro p erty of t h e
m agenta dye t o fl u oresce u n d e r
U V i l l u m i nati o n .

Figure 1 5 7
Production of a d y e transfer print by Jean-Paul
Gand olfo, CRCDG, 1995. (a) The cyan matrix
" i m b i b i ng" the cyan colorant and (b) being
transferred onto the receiving layer; (c) the
receiving layer with the transferred cyan image;
and (d) the receiving layer after transfer of all
t h ree dye matri ces.
d

205
 Figure 1 5 8
Dye transfer print and
Kodacolor print
(inset), ca. 1 960, as
shown (a) under
normal i l l u m ination
and (b) under UV
illumi nation. In (b) the
dye transfer print
shows fluorescence
from the magenta
dye, which is a
characteristic u nique
to this process that
can be used to
distinguish dye
transfer prints from
other color prints.

D eteri o rat i o n a n d care of dye

transfer p r i n t s
Dye transfer i m ages are extre m ely stab l e i n
d a r k sto rage b ut t h ey may fad e if s u bjected
to extensive d i s pl ay. T h ey are also s ensitive
to excessive m o isture, which m ay cause the
dyes to s p read out. I f a dye tran sfe r print
s h o u l d acc identally get wet, it is essential to
dry it as q u ickly as poss i b l e . U n b uffered
paper sto rage materials are ge n eral ly reco m ­
m e n d e d s i n ce t h e s e pri nts a r e stab i l ized at
an acid p H , in an acetic acid b at h . It i s
t h o u g h t that p a p e r conta i n i ng a n a l k a l i n e
reserve m ight prove i n co m pati b l e , altho ugh
t h is has never been dete r m i ned with
certainty.

206 P O S I T I V E S
T h e dye tra n s fe r p r i n t 946-1 993

O c c u r re n c e i n c o l l e c t i o n s r a re

C o m m o n s iz e s a n d fo rmats
· G e n e rally m e d i u m a n d large fo rmats : 8 x 1 0 i n . ; 1 1 x 1 4 i n . ; 16 x 2 0 i n .

�
gelatin with yellow,
magenta, a n d cyan dyes
Stru c t u re
baryta (gelat i n and barium sulfate) -- E������#'
paper ---'--

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of dye t ra n sfe r p r i n t s

• Avoi d wetti n g
• Avoid h u mi d sto rage enviro n m ents
• Protect from p r o l o nged e x p o s u re to intense l ight

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J
s ens i tive average average c,ensr tive very sensi tive

Photo m i c rograph of a section

Positives on Paper 2 0 7
 C i bac h ro m e o r l lfoc h ro m e C l as s i c p ri nts
(1963 to p rese nt)

H i s to ry
T h e Ci bach ro m e p ro cess b e l o ngs to the cat­
ego ry of s i lver-dye - b l each p rocesses , i n
w h i c h p reformed dyes a r e sel ectively
d estroyed d u ring p rocessing. T h e i d ea of a
dye-destruction i m aging system goes back
to the early twentieth century with the
Utoco l o r process (ci rca 1 9 0 6 ) a n d B e l a
G a s p a r ' s 1 9 3 3 c o l o r motion p i c t u re fi l m
p ro cess c a l l ed G asparco l o r. The m o d ern
p r i n t vers i o n of the pro cess was released by
C I B A - G e igy i n 1 9 6 3 . F i rst c a l l e d C i l chrome
and s u b s e q u e ntly C i bachro m e , it was rebap­
tized as l lfoc h ro m e Classic when C I BA
d ivested itself of the l lford u n i t . T h e adva n ­
tage o f t h i s process i s that it p rod uces color
prints d i rectly from positive color transpar­
e n c i e s . Its l i m it , on t h e oth e r h a n d , is that it
was never p o s s i b l e to design cam e ra m ate­
rial because of the t h e relatively low sensi­
tivity (slow speed) of t h e Ci bachro m e
p rocess .

W h at is a C i bac h rome pri n t?

A C i bach ro m e print is a positive color ph otograph c o m posed of t h re e s u p e r i m posed
gelat i n laye rs , each conta i n ing a n azo dye i m age: one cya n , one m agenta, a n d o n e
yel l ow. T h e i mage i s created b y s el ective destruction o f dyes i n each o f t h e l ayers .
The print m aterial is ava i l a b l e i n two fi n ishes: s e m igloss (" Pear l ") a n d h igh gloss.
l lfoc h ro m e Classic D e l uxe has a po lyester s u pport rat h e r than paper; t h e opacity of
t h e p o lyester i s due to m ic ro b u b bles that are d i s persed thro ug h o u t t h e plastic fi l m .
Ci bach ro m e p r i n t s are ad m i re d for t h e i r h i g h ly satu rated colors a n d t h e h igh-gloss
fi n ish that gives them a n a l m ost meta l l i c a ppeara n c e . The less g lossy vers i o n on
p l astic-coated paper s u p po rt i s called l lfoc h ro m e C l assic RC.

Figure 1 59
l lfochrome Classic print, Jean-Paul Gandolfo,
Nautilus, 1 9 99. The somewhat metallic appearance
characteristic of the l lfochrome Classic material is
evident i n the mother-of-pearl s u rface inside the shell.

208 P O S I T I V E S
Positives on Paper 2 0 9
 Fabricat i o n a n d u s e
T h e s u p p o rt ( R C o r p o lyester) is coated
with t h re e se parate ge lati n s i lver bro­
mide e m u l sion l ayers, each s e n sitized to
a d i ffe rent s pectra l region: red , green , or
b l u e . T h e red - s e n s itive layer conta i n s a
cyan dye, t h e g re e n -s en sitive layer a
m agenta dye, a n d t h e b l u e - s e n s it ive
l ayer a yel low dye. After exposu re , the
s i lver i mages i n t h e t h ree layers - w h ich
are esse ntially color se parat i o n n ega­
tives- are fi rst developed and t h e n
b l e a c h e d . The b l ea c h i n g act i o n i n d uces
t h e destruction of adjacent dye m o l ­ Figure 1 60
C i bachro me microfiche, used for advertising
e c u l e s , c a u s i ng a red uction i n the q u a n ­
C i bachrome Micrographic Film, ca. 1 990.
tity of dye proportional t o t h e a m o u n t of The good permanence characteristics of
s i lver present. The rem a i n i ng dye m o l ­ Cibachrome led to its use i n making
e c u l es constitute a d i re ct positive i mage microfiche for reproduction and long-term
storage of color documents i n l ibraries and
p ro d u ce d from t h e pos itive transpar­
archives .
e n cy. T h e last p rocessi ng steps are fi x i ng
a n d was h i ng .

D ete r i o rat ion a n d care o f

C i bac h r o m e p r i n t s
The u s e of azo dyes i n these pri nts gives
t h e m good stabil ity under both l ight
expos u re a n d dark sto rage c o n d i t i o n s .
H owever, they m ay s u ffer m e c h a n i ca l
d a m age s u c h as abrasions. Wetting can
cause d istorti o n , d e l a m i nati o n , a n d dye
m igrat i o n

Figure 1 61
Close-up view of the corner of a C i bachrome
print damaged by immersion i n water, C R C D G ,
2 0 0 6 . The print s h o w s deformation and
delami nati o n .

210 POSITIVES
T h e C i b ach ro m e o r l l foc h ro m e C l as s i c p r i n t 1 963 to p re s e n t

O c c u r re n ce i n co l l e c t i o n s com m o n

Co m m o n s i ze s a n d fo r m at s
• Var i a b l e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e degree of e n large m e n t

gelatin with yellow azo dye

gelat i n with magenta azo dye

St r u c t u re

polyester with m i crobubbles

o r RC paper

Re c o m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of C i b ac h ro m e or l l foc h ro m e C l a s s i c p r i nts

• Avo i d wetting
• Avo i d h u m id sto rage enviro n ments
• H ig h -gloss prints o n p o lyester s u p port are v u l n e ra b l e to scratc h i ng a n d abrasion

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v ity c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J c::J CJ c::J c::J c::J
average average sensitive average sensitive

Photom icrograph of a section

Positives on Paper 2 1 1
 C h ro m oge n i c p rocess p ri nts (1942 to p resent)
H i s to ry
C o l o r prints m a d e by c h r o m og e n i c p rocess
became ava i l a b l e o n ly several yea rs after
c h ro m oge n i c transpare n c i e s a p p ea red ,
b e c a u s e the accurate ren d e r i n g of a c o l o r
i m age o n paper i n a n egative - positive sys­
tem presented n u m e rous tech n i ca l d iffi c u l ­
t i e s . Agfa released t h e fi rst c o l o r n egative
fi l m in 1 93 9 and Eastman l<odak fo l l owed i n
1 942 with l<odaco l o r n egative fi l m . Positive
p r i n t i n g papers fo r these n egatives were
rel eased c o m m ercial ly, b u t t h e h i g h price of
fi l m process i n g a n d p r i n t i n g m e a n t t h at
a d o p t i o n of c o l o r p h otography by t h e p u b ­
l i c was s l o w i n itial ly. I n t h e 1 970s t h e cost
of c o l o r mate rials b egan to d e c rease a n d
212 P O S I T I V E S
c o l o r p h otography b egan to replace b lack­
a n d -w h ite in the mass m a r ket. By 1 99 0
c o l o r m ate rials acco u nted for 9 0 % of s a l es
(and 97. 5 % in 2 0 0 5 ) . 2 6 Process i n g p roto c o l s
were stand a rd ized so t h at it b e c a m e pos­
sible fo r c o m m e rc i a l p r i n te rs to process all
brands of print m ate rials using t h e same
steps a n d t h e same s o l ut i o n s ( RA - 4 pro­
cessi ng). S everal types of s u p p o rt were
t r i e d : p i g m e n ted c e l l u l os e acetate p l astic
fi l m , b aryta paper, and, eventual ly, R C
paper, w h i c h b e c a m e t h e s t a n d a r d i n t h e
1 970s d u e to i t s capacity to w i t h s t a n d
agg ressive p r o c e s s i n g c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c ially
mac h i n e p ro cess i ng .
Figure 1 6 2
Chromogenic process p r i n t , Agfacolor
o n baryta paper, H einz Berger,
Bouquet of Flowers, ca. 1 9 5 0 .
What is a c h ro m o ge n i c p rocess p r i nt?
A chro m oge n i c p rocess p r i n t is a c o l o r ph otograph whose i m age consists of at
least t h ree separate gelati n layer s , laid o n e on top of the othe r : the top laye r
contains a cyan dye i m age, t h e m i d d l e l ayer a m agenta dye i m age, a n d the b ot­
tom l ayer a yel l ow dye i m age. The dye m o l ec u l e s are synthes ized d u ring pro­
cessing; t h i s i s the specific featu re from w h i ch t h i s process d raws its n a m e
(chroma = c o l o r ; -genie = producing).

Positives on Paper 2 1 3
 Figure 1 63
A set of chromogenic process
prints, photographer
u n known, ca. 1 95 2 . (a)
Kodachro m e , (b) Kodacolor,
and (c) Gevacolor.

Fabricati o n and u s e
T h e R C paper s u p p o r t is coated s u cces­
sively with t h ree laye rs of gelatin s i lver
b ro m i d e e m u l s i o n ; t h e fi rst and l owest
l ayer i s s e n s i tive to b l u e l ig h t , t h e m i d d l e
l ayer to g re e n l ight, a n d t h e l a s t a n d t o p ­
m o s t l ayer to red l ig h t . O rg a n i c c o m p o u n d s
c a l l e d c o l o r c o u p l e r s - d ifferent fo r each
l ayer- a re also i n cl u d e d . C o l o rless i n t h e i r
n ative fo r m , t h e co u p l e rs can b e trans­
fo r m e d d u ri ng p ro c e s s i ng i n to the s p e c i fi c
d y e req u i red i n each l ayer. After expo s u re
t h ro ugh a c o l o r n egative , t h e e m u l s i o n s are
d e v e l o p e d u s i n g a s p e c i a l c h ro m ogen i c
d e ve l o pe r. W h e re s i l ve r fo r m s , t h e oxid ized
deve l o p e r reacts with t h e adj a c e n t m o l ­
e c u l e s o f t h e col o r c o u p l e r t o fo r m a n
azo m et h i n e dye. I n t h e red -s e n s i t i ve l ayer,
cyan dye i s fo rmed , w h i l e m agenta dye is
for m e d in the gree n -s e n s i tive l ayer a n d
ye l l ow d y e i n t h e b l u e - s e n s itive l ayer. The
c o l o rs fo r m e d i n the p o s i t i ve a re the s u b ­
t ractive c o m p l e m e nts to t h e c o l ors i n t h e
n egative. A b l eac h i ng s t e p fo l l owed b y a
fi x i ng step e l i m i n ates t h e s i lver a n d t h e
s i lver c o m p o u n d s . T h u s , t h e fi n a l c o l o r
i m age c o n t a i n s n o s i lver, b u t o n ly o rga n i c
dyes b o u n d i n gelat i n l ayers.

214 POSITIVES
b
D eteri o rat i o n a n d care of c h ro m o ge n i c
p rocess p r i nts
C h ro m ogenic c o l o r p r i n t i m ages are v u l n e r­
a b l e to fad i ng. T h e dyes lose t h e i r c o l o r
i ntensity n ot o n ly as a res u l t of l ight e x p o ­
s u re b ut a l s o d u ri n g dark sto rage. After
t h i rty years of dark sto rage , p r i n t s are fou n d
with red d i s h o r b l u i s h c o l o r s h ifts d u e t o t h e
acce l erated fad i ng of o n e o r a n o t h e r of t h e
c o m p o n e nt i mage d y e s . Ye l l o w i n g o r stai n ­
i ng o f t h e h igh l ights also occurs, seen most
easily i n the fo r m e r l y w h i te b o rd e rs of the
print. T h e rate of these d eteriorat i o n pro­
cesses varies fro m one p ro d u c t to a n ot h e r ;
general ly, the fad i n g rate sl owed as t h e
d e s i g n of t h ese products changed o v e r t h e
y e a r s . A new gene rati o n o f p a p e r s b rought
o u t at t h e end of t h e 1 9 8 0s - i n c l u d i ng F uj i
C rystal Arch ive a n d l<odak E n d u ra - are
m u ch m o re s t a b l e a n d t h e i r l i fe expectancy
can range u p to o n e h u n d red years a n d
beyon d . D igital i mage process i n g p rogra m s
s u c h as Photosh op® c a n c o l o r correct a
fad ed i mage, p rod u c i ng a d igital copy with a
m u ch i m p roved appearance. I t s h o u l d b e
rem e m b e re d , t h o u g h , t h at s u c h m a n i p u la­
tions re m a i n esse n t i a l ly s u bj ective and that
t h e exact o r i g i n a l c o l o r b a l a n ce is u n l i ke l y to
b e recove rab l e u n l ess standard c o l o ri m etric
targets are i n cl u ded in t h e i m age. A n d of
c o u rse, s u c h d igital c o p i e s c a n n ot re p l ace
t h e origi n a l , w h i c h , u n fortu n ately, w i l l
conti n u e to degrade. T h e best way o f c o n ­
serving these pri nts i s to keep t h e m i n low­
t e m p e ratu re sto rage and to expose t h e m
o n ly sparingly to l ight.
Positives on Paper 2 1 5
 Figure 1 64
The printing department at the Pave lle Color
Laboratory i n New York City produced the
early chromogenic prints called Ansco Printo n .
From Louis Walton S i pley, A Half Century of
Color (New York, 1 95 1 ) .

Figure 1 65
Chromogenic Ansco Printon print,
photographer u n k nown, Landscape, 1 950,
from Louis Walton Sipley, A Half Century of
Color (New York, 1 95 1 ) .

216 POSITIVES
T h e c h ro m oge n i c process p ri n t 1 942 to p re s e n t

O c cu r re n ce i n c o l l e c t i o n s t 'y I I t' I d' rr v e ry c o m m o n I

C o m m o n s izes a n d fo r m ats
· A m e rican ( i n . ) 3 1 h x 5 ; 4 x 6 ; 5 x 7 ; 8 x 1 0 ; 1 1 x 1 4; 1 6 x 2 0 ; 2 0 x 2 4 ; 2 0 x 3 0 ;
24 x 3 0
· E u ropean (cm ) : 9 x 1 3 ; 1 0 x 1 5 ; 1 3 x 1 8 ; 1 8 x 2 4 ; 2 0 x 3 0 ; 3 0 x 45

gelat i n with cyan dye

gelat i n with magenta dye
gelatin with yellow dye
St r u c t u re
p o lyethy lene with tita n i u m d i ox i d e
paper ----t-,..
polyethylene

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of c h ro m oge n i c p rocess p r i nt s

• l<e e p i n a c o o l a n d d ry enviro n m e n t
• C o l d sto rage is reco m m e n d e d

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J
sensitive average average sens itive average

Photo mi crograph of a section

Positives on Paper 2 1 7
 POLAROID INSTANT PRINTS IN B LACl<-AND - W H I TE AND IN COLOR

The Polaroid Corporation was started in 1937 by the physicist Edwin Land
( 1 9 0 9 -1 991) to manufacture polarizing filters and various optical devices .
Ten years later the company introduced the first "instant" black-and­
white photographic film, cal led Polaroid, and a special camera-the Land
Camera-to be used with the new materia l . An instant color materia l ,
Polacolor 1 , appeared in 1 9 6 3 followed by the SX-70 color system i n 1972 .
In the subsequent years , Polaroid released various instant print
systems, and in 1976 Kodak released its own instant product , PR-10 .
However, Kodak withdrew from the instant print market in 1985 as a
result of a patent-infringement suit brought by Polaroid, while Fuj i
entered the instant print market with its own product in the 1 9 90 s . 2 7
Black-and-white instant photography depends on the carefully
controlled diffusion and transfer of s i lver salts through various engi­
neered layers . The film package layers start with a photosensitive s i lver
halide layer. The exposed film package is squeezed between metal rol lers
as it i s drawn out of the camera, breaking open a pod that contains a
viscous alkaline solution that initiates development of the exposed
s i lver halide . A receiving layer i s adjacent to the photosensitive layer
in the film package . In the areas that have been exposed, the silver image
is developed and thereby immobilized in its original location; this
constitutes a usable negative . In the nonexposed areas, the undeveloped
s i lver halides are free to diffuse into the receiving layer over the ten
to twenty seconds of processing time . Once transferred to the receiving
layer, the s i lver halides come into contact with compounds that initiate
a second development, this time result ing in a positive image . The nega­
t ive and the positive sides of the package are separated or peeled apart,
an action that gives these "peel-apart" products their designation . Some
prints require the appl ication of a protective coating .
Color instant print photography involves the diffusion and transfer
of colored compounds from the photosensitive substrate into the image­
receiving layer. The instant color film package incorporate s multiple
photosensitive layers , each of which i s fil led with preformed yel low,
magenta , or cyan dyes . These dyes act as s i lver halide developers when
they are in an alkaline environment . The viscous alkal ine solution
initiates the development process in exposed areas, where the dye­
developer compounds reduce the s i lver halide to s i lver met a l , whi l e the
dye - developer compounds themselves are oxidi zed, which causes them to
be immobil i zed in their original locations . In the nonexposed areas the
dye - developer molecules remain unreacted and are free to di ffuse into

218
the image ­
Table 2 - ;ome i n stant color p rint fi l m formats
receiving layer,
Yea r Print a n d I m age S i zes
where a ful l ­
l ntro d 1 1 ced P r o d u ct N ame ( i n inches, except as noted)
color positive
x x
image is forme d . 28 1963 Polacolor Typ e 3 8 2 1/2 3% ( i m age 2 1/a 27/a)

The entire 196 3 Polacolor Type 4 8 , 1 08 3% x 4% ( i m age 2% x 3%)

process takes 1 963 Polaco l o r Type 58 4 x 5 ( i m age 3% x 41/2)

between fifty and 1 97 1 Polacolor Type 8 8 3% x 3 1/a ( i m age 2 % x 2'l'a)

ninety seconds . 1 972 Polaro i d SX-70 4% x 3 1/, ( i m age 3 1/a x 31/a)

1 976 l<od a k P R-1 0 8.8 x 1 0 .1 cm ( i m age 6.7 x 9.1 cm)

Conserva t i on2 9
1 98 1 Polaro i d 600 H igh Speed 4% x 3 1/, ( i m age 3 1/a x 31/a)
Black- and-white
1 999 F uj i l n stax 8.6 x 1 0 . 8 c m ( i m age 6 . 2 x 9.9 cm)
Polaroid prints
often remain in
good condition . Partial or general yel lowing of the image is occasion­
a l ly observe d . Like all s i lver-based photographs , these are subj ect
to oxidative deterioration and should be protected from exposure to
oxidants . Some of the peel-apart prints have a tendency to curl up on
themselve s . Color Polaroid prints are less stable than black-and-white
Polaroid print s . Time -induced alterations vary from one version of the
material to another and may include yel lowing, cracking, and fading .
Since these are s i ngle , unique images , without a negative , they should
be carefully stored in a cool and dry environment .

Figure 1 66 Figure 1 67
Polaroid instant print (black-and­ Color Polaroid instant print
white), photographer u n known, (SX-70), photographer
ca . 1 97 0. The severe fading and unknown, Basket of Fruit.
discoloration are d u e to poor ca. 1 970.
appl ication of the protective coating.

219
 Paper n egatives (1841-1860)
H istory
N ews of the i nvention of t h e daguerreotype
in 1 8 3 9 spread q u i ckly from Paris and m oved
H e n ry W i l l i a m Fox Tal bot, i n E n g l a n d , to
c o m e forward with h i s own ph otogra p h i c
ac h i evem ents that p redated t h e d aguerreo­
typ e . While Fre n c h c o m m e ntato rs may have
b e e n sym pathetic to Talbot's c l a i m s , they
were u nshaken i n t h e i r bel ief in the s u p e r i o r­
ity of the Fre n c h i nventi o n . The c h e m ist B i ot
wrote: " I re m a i n convinced that , w h i l e these
d rawings o n paper c a n n ot achieve the artis­
tic pe rfection of M . Dagu erre's p i c t u re s ,
t h ey m ay be extre m e l y useful to physicists
o r travelers fo r any n u m b e r of p ractical
a p p l icat i o n s . "
I n fact, Tal bot w a s very close to descr i b ­
i n g t h e m od e l that w o u l d d e fi n e m od e r n
p h otogra phy -the n egative- positive system
- o n e that w o u l d e n t i rely e c l i pse t h e
dague rreotype p rocess . H e h a d a l ready
worked o ut the p h otoge n i c d raw ing proce­
d u re , which w o u l d s e rve as t h e p os itive
p rocess (see P hotoge n i c d rawings, Salted
paper pri nts), a n d h e n ow c o n c e n t rated on
refi n i ng a p roced u re that c o u l d b e used to
m a ke n egatives in t h e cam e ra . By 1 840 he
had his s o l u t i o n , and h e a p p l i e d fo r a patent
i n 1 8 41 for t h e p rocess h e named c alotype ,
after t h e Greek root kalos (beautifu l ) . After a
b rief c a m e ra expos u re , the s e n s itized paper
was treated in a sol ution conta i n i ng ga l l i c
a c i d a n d s i lver n itrate (gal l o - n i t rate o f s i l ­
ver). T h i s acted t o a m p l ify t h e i nv i s i b l e
c hanges that h a d b e e n made i n t h e photo­
sen s itive co m p o u n d s - later called the l atent
i mage - a n d produced a v i s i b l e s i lver i mage
o n the sheet.
2 24 N E G AT I V E S
Adoption of the calotype was slow, par­
t i c u larly when com pared to t h e i m m ed i ate
s uccess of t h e daguerreotype. Tal bot h ad
placed a restrictive paten t on h i s p rocess,
while t h e daguerreotype was free to b e used
by anyo n e (except i n England) a n d thus was
q u ickly ado pted throughout E u ro p e and i n
the U n ited States. T h e advantage of having a
n egative was not i m m e d iately recogn ized; i n
fact, t h e n egative- positive system req u i re d
extra working ste p s . Eventual ly, t h o u g h , the
notion of being able to make m u lt i p l e copies
of t h e same i m age c a m e to be a p p reciate d .
L o u is- D e s i re B l a n q uart- Evra rd , t h e photo­
gra p h i c entrepre n e u r a n d o riginator of t h e
a l b u m e n p r i n t , p u b l is h e d a s i m p l i fi e d vers i o n
of t h e calotype p ro cess i n 1 847, e n c o u raging
its adoption i n Fra n c e . A further develop­
m e nt was G u stave Le G ray' s waxed paper
n egative process, p u b l is h e d i n 1 851 . H e re
the paper used for t h e n egative was treated
with m o lten wax b efore it was sens itize d ,
w h i c h i m p roved i t s tran s l u ce n cy a n d h e l ped
preserve its se nsitivity over several days. The
paper for m a k i ng n egatives c o u l d thus be
prepared i n advance a n d used l ater over
the c o u rse of a ph otogra p h i c outi ng. T h i s
a l l owed e x p e d i t i o n s such as the Mission
heliogra p h i q u e of 1 851 to b e o rganized.1
Many variat i o n s of t h e cal otype a n d waxed
paper p rocess were p u b l i shed by ph otogra­
phers d u ring the 1 8 50s. But by the end of
the decade, n egatives with glass s u p p o rts,
which produced i m ages with higher res o l u ­
t io n , h a d s u p p lanted p a p e r negatives . S t i 1 1 ,
paper was o ccas i o n a l ly used b y ph otogra­
p h e rs u nt i l the turn of the twentieth century

as a trans fe r s u p port for n egatives . I n t h i s
process a c o l l o d i o n o r gelatin i m age-carrying
layer was rem oved from its original glass
p late a n d transfe rred onto a s h eet of p re­
pared paper, w h i c h p rovided a light and
fl ex i b l e s u pport for the i mage .
An u n usual vers i o n of t h e paper n egative
a p peared a ro u n d 1 884/8 5 . G e o rge Eastman
(1 8 5 4-1 9 3 2 ) a n d H e n ry Strong ( 1 8 3 8 -
1 9 1 9) h ad a l ready started t h e Eastman D ry
P l ate C o m pany (later Eastman l<o d a k) i n
Roch ester, N Y. To m a ke p h otography m o re
p o p u l ar, t h e company b rought o u t a c a m e ra
t h at was preloaded with a ro l l of n egative
m ater i a l , the earli est vers i o n of w h i c h was
s u p p o rted on a strip of paper. The p u r-
Figure 1 68
Calotype, Louis Adolphe H u m bert de
Molard, The Bridge a t Meaux, before 1 846.
c h a s e r c o u l d take dozens of i m ages and
then send the w h o l e c a m e ra back to t h e
c o m pany fo r p rocess i n g a n d p r i n t i n g . T h i s
system re l i eved a m ate u r p h otogra p h ers
fro m t h e need to han d l e a n d p rocess the
heavy and frag i l e glass p lates that were n o r­
m a l ly used at t h e t i m e . At t h e processing
plant t h e n egatives were developed a n d the
paper s u p p o rt was made transpare nt by
treat m e n t with castor o i l . T h e i mages were
ro u n d a n d small i n fo r m at , b etwe e n five a n d
ten centim ete rs i n d i am eter. I n 1 8 8 8 t h e
grainy c h aracter o f t h e i m age, d u e t o the
paper s u p p o rt , led to t h e re p l ace m e n t of
paper with transparent fl e x i b l e p l astic fi l m ,
i . e . , ce l l u lose n itrate .
N egatives on Paper 2 2 5
 Figure 1 69
Waxed paper negative (Le G ray
method), Martin Becka, Tree, 2 0 0 3 .

W h at is a p a p e r negative?
The term refers to a n egative i mage made o n a paper s u pport using the process descri bed
by Tal bot (calotype) or L e G ray (waxed paper process) o r t h e p rocess deve l oped su bse­
q u e ntly by t h e Eastman D ry Plate C o m pany. Since it i s not easy to d i sti nguish waxed
calotypes fro m Le G ray waxed n egatives o r from other variants, t h e ge n e ric term " paper
n egative" is often used to refer to a l l of t h e m . T h e i mage tone i s u s u a l ly b row n i s h .

2 2 6 N E G AT I V ES
Figure 1 70
Calotype seen in transmitted l ight,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 8 50.

Negatives on Paper 2 2 7
 Fabricat i o n a n d u s e
The ca/otype
A sheet of paper is fi rst coated with a s o l u ­
t i o n of s i lver n it rate. W h e n d ry, it i s
i m m e rsed fo r a few m i n u tes i n a s o l ut i o n o f
potassi u m i o d i d e , c a u s i ng s i lver i o d ide to
fo rm i n the paper. T h e sensit ivity of the
paper i s i n c reased when it is b ru s h e d with
t h e gal l o - n i t rate of s i lver m ix t u re , which is
g a l l i c aci d , s i lver n it rate, a n d acetic acid in
s o l u t i o n . The sheet is rinsed in wat e r and
t h e n placed - s t i l l m o ist or j u st d ry - i n to t h e
c a m e ra fo r a n expos u re t h a t m ay l a s t a ny­
w h e re from a few seconds to severa l m i n ­
utes. T h e n it is developed i n t h e same
gal l o - n i t rate of s i lver m ix t u re , rinsed, fixed ,
a n d wash ed . Tal bo t ' s fi rst " fi x e r " was a s o l u ­
t i o n o f potass i u m b ro m id e t h at stabilized
t h e i m age b u t d i d n ot e n t i re l y e l i m i n ate its
p h otosensitivity. Sodium t h i o s u l fate was
eventual ly i ntroduced as a n effective fi x i n g
2 2 8 N E G AT I V E S
age n t . T h e paper n egative m ay b e waxed at
this p o i n t to i m p rove its t ra n s l u c e n cy fo r
p r i n t i ng .
The waxed paper process
A sheet of paper is t reated with m o lt e n
w h ite wax, b l otted , a n d d r i e d . I t i s t h e n
i m m e rsed i n a s o l u t i o n of potass i u m i o d i d e
and potass i u m bro m i d e , fo l lowed by s e n siti­
zation i n a s o l u t i o n of s i lver n it rate a n d ace­
tic aci d . The expo s u re req u i red i s l o nger than
i n the case of the cal otype and is fo l l owed
by deve l o p m e n t in a s o l u t i o n of g a l l i c acid
and s i lver n it rate . T h e n egative i s fi xed in
sodi u m th iosu lfate.
Eastman paper negatives
These are paper strips that hold a ge l at i n
s i lve r b ro m id e e m u l s i o n .
Figure 1 7 1
Calotype, photographer u n known,
Chateau de Vizi//e, France, ca. 1 8 50.
Seen (a) in reflected light and (b) in
transmitted l ight.
a

Negatives on Paper 2 2 9
 b
D et e r i o rat i o n a n d care of paper n egatives
Paper n egatives are relatively rare s i n ce t h e
p rocesses were n ot practiced o v e r a l o n g
period and m a ny n egatives d isappeared
t h rough n eglect and l ack of i nterest. The
most fre q u ently o bse rved d a m ages are
m echan ical o n e s , such as tears and creases
caused by m is h a n d l i ng. The wax m ay oxidize
a n d b e c o m e y e l l ow. In landscape i mages ,
230 N E G AT I V E S
Figure 1 7 2
(a) Calotype and ( b ) salted paper print,
Gabriel Tranchand, Excavation at
Khorsabad, ca. 1 8 50.
the sky area was fre q uently painte d with an
opaq u e coating to produce a c l ear sky i n the
print. This paint layer m ay d e l a m i n ate or
crack. I t m ay be d iffi c u lt to dete r m i n e
whether spots a n d weak areas i n t h e i m age
res u l t fro m the original fab ricat i o n and use
or are s u bs e q u e n t alterati ons associated
with a d eteriorati o n p rocess.
Pap e r n egatives , cal oty p e s , waxed paper n e gatives 1 84 1 - 1 860

O c c u r re n ce i n co l l e ct i o n s t- r \1 rare 11 r ' I l () I 11 11

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m ats
• W i d ely vari a b l e , b u t t h e fo l lowing observat i o n s can b e made:
• B ritish ( i n .): paper s o l d for ph otogra p h i c p u rposes was based o n two d iffe re n t fu l l -s h eet
sizes: 1 5112 x 1 9114 ( post) and 1 7112
x 2 2 11 (d e my) ; paper fo r n egatives c o u l d b e cut fro m s u c h
2
sheets, sometimes b y fo l d i ng t h e p a p e r to p ro d u ce two u n ifo r m p i e ce s (fo l i o), fo u r p i eces
(q uarto) , e ight p i e ces (octavo), a n d so o n .
· French (cm) fu l l - s heet size: 45 x 5 8 c m (coq u i l le); also 1 6 . 5 x 2 1 . 6 ; 1 7. 6 x 2 2 . 7 ; 2 0 . 5 x
21 .3; 22 x 37; 2 2 . 5 x 29.5; 36.7 x 45.8

s i l ve r

St r u c t u re

paper (waxed or unwaxed)

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e r v at i o n o f p a p e r n egat i v e s
• Store i n p rotective envelo pes
• l<ee p i n a d ry e nv i r o n m e n t

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJ CJ CJ
sensitive average average sensitive average

N egatives on Paper 2 3 1
l/)
l/)
rd
-

CJ
c
0
 A l b u m e n n egatives (1847-1860)
H i story
G ustave Le G ray m a n aged to p ro d u ce paper
n egatives that were wond erfu l ly tran slucent
a n d evenly text u re d . B ut t h e paper n egatives
of m ost p h otographers pro d u ced gra i ny
positives that lacked the sharpn ess s o
ad m i red i n the dag u e rreotype i mage. Abel
N i e pce d e Saint-Victor put forward a solu­
t i o n to t h i s p ro b l e m i n 1 847 with h i s albu­
m e n o n glass process, which produced
extre m e ly sh arp i mages. The p rocess was
not ve ry sensitive, req u i r i ng exposures of u p
2 3 4 N E G AT I V E S
to fi fteen m i n utes; consequ ently, i t was
e m p l oyed m a i n ly to p hotograph b u i l d i ngs
and l a n dscapes. After 1 85 0 the faster col­
lodion p rocess com peted with a l b u m e n . B ut
the l atter had the advantage of al l o w i ng
several days to elapse between the t i m e of
sensitizat i o n and exposure . Also, a l b u m e n
n egatives h a d greater res o l ution a n d s h arp­
n ess than those made o n c o l l o d i o n , which
p ro l o nged t h e use of the a l b u m e n p rocess
for m a k i ng l antern s l i des to the 1 88 0 s .
 Figu re 1 7 3
Albumen glass plate negative,
Negretti & Zambra, from the
Great Exhi bition at the Crystal
Palace, 1 8 51 .

What is an a l b u m e n n egative?
An a l b u m e n n egative is a n egative on a glass p late, i n which t h e i m age c o n s ists
of s i l ve r particles suspended i n a laye r of a l b u m e n coated o n t h e p l ate. T h e plate
i s prepared by coat i ng i t with a s o l u t i o n of egg a l b u m e n m ixed with water and
salt. I t i s d ri e d and then sensitized by i m m e r s i o n in a si lver n itrate s o l u t i o n . After
exposure, the p late is d eve l o ped and fi x e d . T h e use of var n i s h on a l b u m e n plates
is less fre q u ent than on c o l l o d i o n p late s . T h e i mage tone ranges fro m ocher­
o range to o l ive green d e p e n d i n g on t h e n ature of t h e d eve l o p e r. T h ese charac­
teristics m ake al b u m e n n egatives easy to identify.1

Negatives on Glass 2 3 5
 Figure 1 74
Turntable for coating albumen
plates , engraving, ni neteenth
century.
Fabricat i o n and u s e
T h e ph otogra p h e r coats a glass p late with a
s o l u t i o n of egg a l b u m e n conta i n i n g potas­
s i u m b ro m id e and potass i u m i o d i d e . When
d ry, t h e plate is i m m e rsed i n a s e n s itizing
bath conta i n i ng s i lver n itrate a n d acetic aci d
a n d then it is r i n s e d . The exposure m ay take
up to t h i rty m i n utes. Deve l o p m e n t is d o n e
b y a lternating washes of g a l l i c a c i d and s i lver
n itrate s o l u t i o n s , b u i l d i ng t h e i mage u p to
the d e s i re d d e n sity. The p l ate i s fixed i n a
1 0% solution of thiosu lfate a n d then
washed. A l b u m e n n egatives d i d not appear
to req u i re a p rotective va rnish coati ng, as
was t h e case with c o l l o d i o n p lates .
2 3 6 N E G AT I V E S
Figure 1 7 5
Lieutenant N iepce de Saint-Victor making
portraits of the officers at the Caserne de la
Garde Mun icipale, Faubourg Sai nt-Martin in
1848, engraving, from Louis Figuier, Les
merveilles de la science, ou description populaire
des inventions modernes ( Paris, 1 8 69).
Dete r i o rati o n and care of a l b u m e n
negatives
Few c h aracte ristic deteriorati o n patterns
have been re ported for a l b u m e n n egatives.
The a l b u m en l ayer is genera l ly m o re resistant
to abrasion than c o l l o d i o n . H owever, m i n ute
star-shaped c racks, v i s i b l e with t h e m i cro­
sco pe, are characteristic of the p rocess. 2 Like
a l l ph otographs s u p po rted o n glass, a l b u ­
m e n n egatives are v u l n erable t o b reakage.
Figure 1 76
Dragon camera designed to make m i croimages, engraving,
from Louis Figuier, Les merveilles de la science, ou description
populaire des inventions modernes (Paris, 1 8 69). D u ring the
Prussian siege of Paris i n 1 8 70 this device served to record
i n formation and messages in a form that cou l d be sent by
homing pigeon from Paris to Tours and Bordeaux, where
the French government had decamped. I t is esti mated that
between December 1, 1 8 70, and Jan uary 2 1 , 1 87 1 , two
and a half m i l l i on dispatches were transm itted in this way.
Each d i spatch was recorded i n miniature form by the
Dragon camera onto albumen ized collodion p lates
(Taupenot process). The i m age-carrying layer was then
transferred onto a ftexible film of gelat i n .

LA POSTE
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Figure 1 7 7
Min iaturized d i spatches sent by homing pigeo n , ca. 1 8 70. Measu ring 5 . 6 3 . 2 c m , each
x

record contai n ed three to fo u r thousand messages of twenty words eac h . A single pigeon
cou l d deliver eighteen such records from Paris to Tours i n two hours.

Negatives on Glass 2 3 7
 Co l l o d i o n n e g atives (1851-1885)
H is tory
By 1 8 51 the a l b u m e n used i n the prepara­
t i o n of glass p l ate n egatives had l a rge ly b e e n
re placed b y cel l u lose n itrate. T h i s p o l y m e r
h a d been d i scovered s o m e years p reviously
and it would later have an i m po rtant ro l e in
p hotography as a s u pport m ater i a l . The s o l u ­
t i o n of c e l l u l os e n itrate i n a l c o h o l a n d ether
i s called c o l l od i o n , a n d it is i n this fo rm t h at
it is a p p l i e d to glass p l ates in order to pro­
v i d e a b i n d e r fo r ph otosensitive s i lver
co m p o u n ds. T h e authors h i p of c o l l o d i o n
ph otography is som ewhat d i s puted; G ustave
Le G ray h ad m e ntioned it as early as 1 8 50
b u t w i t h o ut much convicti o n , c o n c l u d i n g
that " t h e futu re of ph otography l i es with
paper."3 This l eft t h e field open for F red e r i c k
Scott Arc h e r (1 8 1 3 -1 857) to p ro m ote h i s
effective and workable method of c o l l o d i o n
p hotography starting i n 1 8 51 . T h e c l ear
advantage of t h e wet c o l l o d i o n p rocess was
its g reat sens itivity, w h i ch a l l owed expo s u re s
to b e cou nted i n seco nds rather than m i n ­
u t e s . L e s s advantageo u s w a s t h e fact that
t h e p l ate had to be developed with i n m i n ­
utes o f t h e expos u re w h i l e t h e c o l l o d i o n was
s t i l l wet with the a l c o h o l and ether s i n c e ,
o n c e d ry, it w o u l d be i m p e r m e a b l e to t h e
p rocessing s o l u t i o n s . This p ro b l e m could be
238 N E G AT I V E S
managed i n a ph otogra p h i c stu d i o b ut was a
m aj o r i m pe d i m en t to ph otograp hy in t h e
o p e n a i r. Those photograp h e rs w h o wished
to use c o l l o d i o n outside t h e stu d i o were
o b l iged to bring t h e i r d arkroom with t h e m
" o n l ocati o n . " Joseph M a r i a E d e r recounts
that in o rd e r to ph otograph t h e s u m m it of
Mont B l a n c i n 1 861 , the B isson b rothers l eft
Paris with twe nty-Jive porters a n d g u i d e s . 4
T h e m aterial n e e d e d t o p rod u ce a n egative
weighed 250 ki l ograms!
W h at was n ee d e d was a n adaptat i o n of
the process so that it w o u l d m a i n t a i n its
s e n s i tivity over a l o nger period. O n e
ap p roach was t o i n co r p o rate " p reserva­
tives , " i . e . , hygrosco p i c m aterials that would
m a i n t a i n t h e c o l l o d i o n layer at a certain
level of m o isture. A m o n g t h e many s u b ­
stances u s e d fo r t h i s p u rpose were s u gar,
h o n ey, t an n i n , tea, glyc e ri n , and dextr i n .
These p l ates were c a l l e d co l lo d i o n " d ry "
pl ates b e ca u s e , altho ugh t reated with s u c h
h u m ectants, t h e y requ ired m u c h less wet
p reparati o n than the wet c o l l o d i o n p lates .
J ean -Marie Tau pe n o t (1 824-1 8 5 6) t o o k the
a pp roach of sealing t h e c o l l o d i o n with a
cove r i ng l ayer of a l b u m e n . F i rst s e e n i n
1 8 56, t h e Tau pe n ot p rocess p lates produced

sharp i m ages a n d c o u l d be kept i n t h e i r
s e n s itized state fo r several w e e k s b e fo re
u s e . B u t t h e d is a p p o i n t i n g aspect of the
Tau pe n ot p lates was their s u bstantially
red u c e d s e n sitivity.
Worthy of n ote i s the c o l l o d i o n d ry
p late m arketed by t h e Liverpool D ry Plate
C o m pany in 1 8 67. I t was not parti c u l arly
successfu l in s a l e s , but it did p o i n t in t h e
d i re c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e p h otogra p h i c i n dus­
try would s o o n evo lve. While p revi o u s c o l -
b
Figure 1 78
Collodion negative, photographer
unknown, Karnak, Egypt, c . 1 860.
(a) Viewed by transmitted l ight,
and (b) viewed by reftected light
on a black backgro u n d .
lodion p l ates were p re pa re d by fi rst coat i ng
t h e glass with c o l l o d i o n a n d t h e n fo r m i ng
t h e p h otose n s itive c o m p o u n d i n a separate
ste p, t h i s i n n ovative product was the fi rst to
u s e a l i q u i d c o l l od i o n e m u ls i o n that a l ready
c o ntai n e d t h e fu lly fo r m e d photosensitive
s i lver c o m p o u n d s .
Wet c o l l o d i o n w a s t h e p re d o m i nant p ro­
cess for m a king cam e ra i mages over a period
of t h i rty years. S o m e ph otogra p h e rs conti n ­
u ed t o u s e it well i nto the 1 880s.
Negatives on Glass 2 3 9
 Figure 1 79
A photographer's trave l i ng darkroom in the 1 8 50s,
engraving, n i neteenth century. The use of wet collodion
called for a full processing darkroom on location .

W h at i s a co l l o d i o n n egative?
A c o l l o d i o n n egative is a glass p l ate coated with a fi l m of c e l l u lose n i t rate
conta i n i n g a d e p o s i t of s i lver grains that for m a n egative p h otogra p h i c
i m age. W h i l e we d istinguish t h e w e t c o l l o d i o n p ro cess fro m t h e " d ry " pro­
cesses and t h e i r d e rivative s - s u c h as the Tau p e n ot p rocess - i n p ractice i t i s
d i ffi c u l t o r i m po ss i b l e to dete r m i n e w h i c h variant w a s used to p ro d u c e a
n egative. The wet c o l l o d i o n p rocess was by fa r t h e most c o m m o n of t h e s e
tech n i q u e s . C o l l o d i o n n egative p lates were fre q u ently made i n large d i m e n ­
sion s - u p t o 24 x 32 i n . -to p ro d u ce large contact p r i n t s . T h e g l ass p l ates
m ay b e t h i c k and s o m et i m e s h ave ro ughly cut edges. T h e i r i mage tones pro­
vide t h e cl earest visual d istinction fro m ge l ati n n egatives. C o l l o d i o n n ega­
tives range fro m cara m e l b rown to dark b rown w h e n o bs e rved in reflected
l ight. This color variat i o n d e p e n d s on a n u m be r of factors , i n c l u d in g t h e
type of deve l o p e r u s e d a n d t h e type o f v a r n i s h a p p l i e d (as a p rotective coat­
ing) as w e l l as t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e latter. C o l l o d i o n was coated onto t h e
p late b y h a n d , w h i c h res u lted i n a n u n ev e n t h i ck n ess of t h e layer, parti c u ­
l a r l y v i s i b l e a t t h e c o r n e rs .

240 N E G A T I V E S
 b

Figure 1 80
Collodion negative, photographer u nknown, Karnak, Egypt, ca. 1 860. (a) Viewed by
transmitted light, and (b) viewed by reflected light on a black background. A network of
cracks, such as those i n the top right q uadrant, are often seen on collodion negatives.

N egatives on Glass 241

 Figure 1 8 1
Coating a glass plate with liquid collodion,
engraving, n i neteenth century.
Fabricat i o n and u s e
A glass p l ate is carefu l ly cleaned a n d pol­
ished. T h e n a solution of c o l l o d i o n conta i n ­
i ng potass i u m b ro m id e is p o u re d over its
s u rface , c reating a t h i n coating. When the
c o l l o d i o n layer b e c o m es j u st firm e n o ugh to
be i nverted, t h e plate is sensitized in a s i lver
n itrate bath . After a n exposure of o n ly a few
seco n d s t h e p l ate is rem oved fro m t h e c a m ­
era a n d d eve l o p e r i s p o u red onto its su rface.
The developer s o l ution contains s i lver n it rate
a n d e i t h e r pyroga l l i c acid or ferro u s a m m o ­
n i u m s u l fate . T h e c ho ice of developer w i l l
i n fl u e n c e t h e i mage t o n e . It is t h e n fi x e d i n a
s o l ution of e i t h e r sod i u m t h i os u l fate or
potass i u m cya n i d e , t h e n was h e d , d ri e d , a n d
var n i s h e d t o p rotect t h e c o l l o d i o n laye r fro m
abrasi o n s . U s u a l ly t h e varn i s h was based o n
n at u ra l resins s u c h as c o p a l , s h e l lac, san­
d arac, o r g u m arab i c ; however, ge lat i n o r
a l b u m e n w a s occas i o n a l l y u s e d .
D ete r i o rati o n a n d care of col l o d i o n glass
p l ate negatives
Many collod i o n n egatives h ave s u rv ived i n
relatively good c o n d i t i o n , t h a n ks t o t h e i r
i m ages b e i ng p rotected p hysically and
c h e m ically by a s o l i d varnish layer. W h e re
t h i s varnish protecti o n is lacki ng-for exa m ­
p l e a t t h e edges a n d corners of t h e p late -
242 N E G A T I V E S
Figure 1 82
Fragments of n i neteenth-century collodion
glass plate negatives, ca . 1 990.
s i lver oxidat i o n a n d abrasions to t h e
c o l l o d i o n s u rface a r e c l early visi b l e .
W h i l e i n p r i n c i p l e c o l l o d i o n is a c h e m i ­
c a l l y u nstable m aterial, s o far it has n ot
s h o w n , on t h i s type of p h otogra p h , t h e
dete rioration patterns s e e n i n cel l u lose
n itrate film s u p po rts (see G e lati n s i lver n ega­
tives on fi l m) . T h i s relative sta b i l ity is cer­
tai n ly d u e to t h e extre m e t h i n n ess of t h e
b i n d e r layer o n a c o l l o d i o n n egative. I t i s
also l i kely that t h e var n i s h has a p rotective
effect by isolating t h e b i n d e r from h u m i d ity
and p o l l uted a i r a n d th e reby slowing d ete­
riorative p rocesses . H owever, the s u rface
of t h e c o l l o d i o n n egative can be easily
scratched o r abrad e d . N etworks of cracks
are s o m et i m e s seen o n t h e peri p h e ry of the
p late a n d these can b e diffi c u l t to p rotect.
Such cracks can l ead to i mage laye r losses,
w h i c h may arise spontaneou sly o r b e caused
by the s l ig htest contact.
Like a l l p h otograp h s s u p po rted on glass,
col l o d i o n n egatives are v u l n e ra b l e to b reak­
age . G lass d eteriorat i o n , a l ready m entioned
i n c o n n ection with t h e cover glass used on
dague rreotypes, has also been n oted o n
glass p l ate n egative s . Deteriorati n g glass
presents a wh itish s u rface h aze a n d/or a n
effl o rescence of v i s c o u s droplets.
G l ass p l ate n egatives (wi t h al b u m e n o r co l l o d i o n b i n d e r)
1 847-1 8 8 5

O c c u r re n ce i n c o l l e ct i o n s 11 rare

C o m m o n s iz e s a n d fo r m at s
· A m erican (in.):5 2 1/2 x 2 1/2 ; 2 1/2 x 4 ; 4 x 5 ; 5 x 7; 8 x 1 0 ; 1 1 x 1 4; 14 x 1 7;
1 6 x 2 0 ; 1 8 x 2 2 ; 2 0 x 24
• E u ropean (cm ) : 6 x 8 ; 8 x 1 1 ; 1 1 x 1 6; 16 x 2 1 ; 2 0 x 2 5 ; 25 x 30

varn ish (usually o n co l l od i o n)

s i lver

Stru c t u re

glass ---+--c"'"

R e c o m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of a l b u m e n a n d o r c o l l o d i o n
g l a s s p l ate n egat ives
• C o l l o d i o n n egatives are v u l n e ra b l e to a b rasi o n and to excessive h u m i d ity
• Store in p rotective e nvelopes placed in custom -size b oxes
• Pos ition vert i c a l ly fo r sto rage o r, if h o rizontal ly, o n ly in s m a l l stacks

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s i t i v i ty CJCJCJ CJCJCJ c::J c::J c:::::J c::J c:::::J c:::::J c::J c:::::J c:::::J
sensitive sensitive average sensitive very s e n s i tive

Negatives on Glass 243

 G e l at i n s i l ve r n egat i ves o n g l ass (1878-1940)
H i story
F i rst used in p h otography by Tal bot as s u p ­
p l e m e ntary sizing o n the p a p e r h e was
u s i ng, gelati n s u bs e q u e ntly played a crucial
ro l e i n t h e tec h n ical advance of photogra­
p hy. Aro u n d 1 8 8 0 it became the most c o m ­
m o n l y used b i n d e r for p h otose ns itive
m ate rials. U nt i l t h e n , a l l ph otogra p h i c p l ates
h ad been made u s i ng a two -step p rocess
fi rst, the b i n d e r (al b u m e n o r c o l l o d ion), c o n ­
tai n i n g a h a l i d e ( i o d i d e , b ro m i d e , o r c h l o ­
ride) , w a s spread o n the p late; seco n d , t h e
coated p l ate w a s i m m e rsed i n a si lver n itrate
bat h , causing t h e p h otose ns itive si l ver h a l i d e
t o form i n s i d e t h e b i n d e r layer. Ri chard
Leach Maddox (1 8 3 7-1 920) proposed i n
1 87 1 t hat this b e d o n e i n a s i ng l e step with a
m ixture conta i n i n g a l l of the necessary
ingre d i e nts: a b i n d e r (gelatin i n t h i s case),
potass i u m bro m i d e , and si lver n it rate. T h i s
m ixture is not a s o l u t i o n i n t h e t r u e s e n s e o f
t h e wo rd b u t , rat h e r, a suspension of par­
ticles in a viscous m e d i u m ; s o l i d s i lver bro­
m i d e particles fo rm i n the l i q u id gelatin as
s o o n as all the c o m p o n e nts are b rought
togeth e r. The suspensio n , which has a m i l ky
appearance, is c a l l e d a gelat i n si lver h a l i d e
e m u l s i o n . Th is became t h e stan dard cam e ra
m aterial after 1 87 8 , when C h arles B e n n ett
(1 840-1927) d i scovered that h eati ng the
s u s p e n s i o n for several h o u r s - a p rocess
244 N E G A T I V E S
known a s r i p e n i ng - l e d to a n extraord i n a ry
i n crease in sen sitivity (speed). T h is a l l owed
normal exposu re t i m e s to go fro m seconds
to fracti o n s of a second a n d h e ra l d e d t h e
start of w h at w a s t h e n c a l l e d " i n stant
photograp hy."
G el atin p l ates also b rought other
i m p rove m e nts. Collodion n egatives had to
b e exposed a n d processed with i n the few
m i n utes that fo l l owed t h e i r coating, w h i l e
t hey were sti l l m o ist a n d before the c o l l o ­
d i o n solvents evaporated. G e l at i n p lates , on
the oth e r han d , were d ry; t h ey retai n ed their
s en s itized state for m o nths before use a n d
c o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d long after exposure . T h e
gelat i n " d ry" p l ate c o u l d t h e refore b e m a n u ­
factu re d i n d ustrial ly, store d , d istri buted
throughout t h e wo rld , a n d p u rchased for
futu re u s e , a l l the w h i l e reta i n i n g its p h oto­
g raphic sen sitivity. Thus e m e rged in t h e
1 880s t h e p h otograp h i c m a n ufactu ri ng
ind ustry, w h i c h w o u l d fl o u rish over t h e s u b ­
seq u ent h u n d red years . C o m p a n i e s such a s
L u m iere ( F ra n ce) , Agfa (G e rm any), Eastman
( U SA), a n d l l fo rd (U I<) deve l oped rap i d ly
d u ring t h e last years of t h e n i n eteenth cen­
tu ry. And the p ractice of ph otography, until
then t h e e xc l u s ive p rov i n c e of p rofessional
p h otogra p h e rs a n d a few dedicated a m a­
teurs, b e c a m e access i b l e to a w i d e p u b l i c .
Figure 1 8 3
Package of gelatin si lver bromide plates
from the Lum iere factory at Monplais i r,
France, ca. 1 900. The i nvention of gelatin
dry plates marked the start of the great
photographic material man ufacturing
i n d ustries, such as the Eastman Dry Plate
Company in Rochester, N Y ( 1 8 8 0), and the
Lum iere Company i n Lyon, France (1 882).

Figure 1 84
Gelatin si lver glass plate
negative, ca. 1 930.

What i s a gelat i n s i l ve r glass p l ate n egative?

A gelati n s i lver glass p l ate n egative is c o m posed of a glass p l ate covered with
a gelatin coating t h at contains s i lver particles m a k i ng u p a n egative photo­
gra p h i c i m age. Its i m age tones range fro m n e utral gray to black. P l ate s izes
were stan d ard ized fo l l ow i ng the 1 89 1 I nternat i o n a l Congress of Photography
held i n B russels.

Negatives on Glass 245


Fabri cat i o n a n d use
A s o l u t i o n of s i lver n it rate i s a d d e d t o a s o l u ­
tion of w a r m gelat i n that a l ready conta i n s
potass i u m b ro m i d e . This m i xture i m m ed i ­
ate ly turns i n to a w h itish s u s p e n s i o n o f si lver
b r o m i d e part i c l e s . This s u s p e n s i o n i s ripened
by heating fo r several h o u rs , d u ri ng w h i c h
the s i lver bro m i d e crystals w i l l d i ssoc iate
and re-fo r m repeated ly, i n creasing their
p h otosensitivity. A s it c o o l s , t h e gelati n
becomes fi r m a n d is cut i nto strands (cal l e d
n oo d l es) that a r e w a s h e d i n cold water t o
rem ove res i d u e s left fro m t h e production
of t h e si lver halide. The noodles are then
m e l te d - a second r i p e n i n g - a n d the liquid is
s p read o n standard-size glass p l ates, d ried i n
the d a r k , a n d t h e n wrapped a n d b oxed for
s h i p p ing.
246 N E G AT I V E S
Figure 1 8 5
Hand-coating a gelatin silver
bromide emu lsion onto a glass
plate, photographer u n known,
ca. 1 900.
The fi rst gelatin plates were sensit ive
o n ly to b l u e and U V wave l e ngth s . I t was
d iscovered that s m a l l q u antities of s p e c i a l
dyes added to the e m u l s i o n s c o u l d exte n d
t h e i r s pectra l sensitivity, fi rst i nto t h e yel l ow
a n d green reg i o n s (ort h o c h ro m at i c s e n s itiv­
ity), a n d eve n t u a l ly as fa r as the red reg i o n
(pan c h ro m atic sensitivity) .
After they h ad been exposed i n the cam­
era, the p l ates were develo ped in a solution
that conta i n e d an o rga n i c red u c i ng agent
such as hyd ro q u i n o n e ; t h i s transfo r m ed the
part i c l es of s i l ve r b r o m i d e t h at had received
light exposure into s i lver m etal particles.
The p lates were fixed with sod i u m t h i os u l ­
fate a n d t h e n washed.
Figure 1 8 6
R ipening vats for t h e preparation o f gelatin
silver bromide emulsions at the Lumiere
factory, ph otogra pher u n known, ca. 1 900.

Figure 1 8 7
Coating machine for t h e preparation of
gelatin silver bromide p lates at the Lumi ere
factory, photographer u n known, ca. 1 900.

Negatives o n Glass 247

 Figure 1 8 8
Delami nation o f t h e gelatin
image-carrying layer from its glass
su pport, photographer unkn own ,
ca. 1 90 0 .

Figure 1 8 9
Si lver m i rroring o f gelatin
silver glass plate negatives,
photographers u n k nown,
ca. 1900.

Deterio rat i o n a n d c a r e of ge l at i n s i l ver

glass p l ate n egatives
G e latin plates are often fo u n d in poor c o n d i ­
t i o n . The m o s t fre q u e ntly obse rved deterio­
rat i o n is physical d a m age, s u c h as b reakage
and cracks in t h e glass as well as d e l a m i na­
tion of the gelatin layer. D e l a m i nation m ay
be d u e to poor p reparati o n of t h e glass s u r­
face at the t i m e of m a n ufactu re , to glass
dete r i o rati o n , o r to expos u re of the plates
to extremes of relative h u m id ity d u ring stor­
age. I n low- h u m id ity conditions t h e gelat i n
contracts and produces stress a t t h e glass­
gelati n i n terface . C o n d itions that repeate d ly
fl u ct u ate betwee n h i g h and low h u m id ity
eventually weaken t h e attac h m e n t , and t h e
gelatin laye r l ifts away, particularly at t h e
plate edges o r i n a reas that a r e al ready d a m ­
aged by scratches o r l o s s e s . S o m e t i m e s s u c h
d e l a m i n at i o n appears i n a pattern of c o n ­
centric rings. D e l a m i nating gelat i n e m u l sions
should b e protected under a p late of glass
bound to t h e original s u p p o rt. B ro k e n or
cracked p l ates are p rotected fro m fu rther
damage by b e i ng sandwiched a n d b o u n d
betwee n s h eets o f glass o f the s a m e size.
A l l gelatin s i lver p h otographs are s u bj ect
to oxidative deteri o ratio n that man ifests
itself as fad ing, ye l lowi ng, and si lver m i rror­
i ng. The l atter is particu larly fre q u e n t in gela-

248 N E G A T I V E S

t i n glass p l ates. S i lver m i rroring occurring o n
a n egative h a s a b l u i s h , m etal l i c appearance
when obse rved by refl ection a n d is s l ightly
yellow when seen by transm itted light. Poor­
q ual ity sto rage condit i o n s are t h e m a i n cause
of this type of d eteriorati o n . Processed glass
p l ate n egatives are often fo u n d stored i n the
same p o o r- q ual ity card board box i n which
t h e sen sitized p l ates were packaged for sale.
I n a box h o l d i ng a stack of negatives, if the
e m u ls i o n of the to p m ost plate faces the box
top and is seen to have si lver m i rroring-or
oth e r signs of oxidative d eterio rati o n - over
the w h o l e s u rface, w h i l e the plates stacked
Figure 1 9 0
Gelatin si lver glass plate negative, photographer
unknown, ca. 1 940. The yellow tint is due to
i ntensification treatment using mercuric iodide.
b e l ow it are d eterio rated only at the edges,
one can c e rtai n ly c o n c l u d e that the da mage
i s caused by the oxidizing gases e m itted by
the box material itself.
E rrors of exposure can res u lt in u n d e rex­
posed, weak n egatives. Ph otogra p h e rs used
various postprocess i n g i n t e n s i fi cati o n treat­
m ents to co rrect these fau lt s . M e rc u ri c
i o d i d e a n d m e rc u r i c c h l o r i d e were both
u s ed fo r this p u rpose; n egatives treated
with the for m e r eve n t u a l l y deve l o p a
l e m o n y e l l ow sta i n , w h i l e t h e latte r treat­
m e n t results in a w h i t e n i n g of the n o r m a l l y
gray- b l a c k i m age t o n e .
Negatives on Glass 249
 Figure 1 9 1
Gelatin s i lver glass plate negative,
photographer u n known, ca. 1900.

2 5 0 N E G AT I V E S
G e l ati n s i l v e r n e gat ives o n glass 1 8 78-1 940

O c c u r re n ce in co l l e c t i o n s very c o m m o n

C o m m o n s i z e s a n d fo r m at s
· A m e rican ( i n . ) : 6 2 112 x 2 112 ; 2 112 x 4; 4 x 5; 5 x 7; 8 x 1 0; 11 x 1 4; 1 4 x 1 7; 1 6 x 20; 18 x 22;
20 x 24
• E u ropean (cm) : 4 . 5 x 6 (sixteenth p l ate); 6 . 5 x 9 (e ighth p l ate) ; 9 x 1 2 (q uarter p l ate);
13 x 1 8 (half p l ate) ; 1 8 x 24 (fu l l p l ate) ; a n d other fo rmats, such as 8 x 1 7; 21 x 27;
24 x 30; 3 0 x 40

silve r

St r u c t u re gelati n -�=======:f'

glass ----+-•

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of g e l at i n g l a s s p l ate n egat ives

• Store i n p rotective envelopes p laced i n custom-size b oxes
• Pos iti o n vert i c a l l y fo r sto rage o r, if h orizontal ly, i n s m a l l stacks

Light Abrasion Poll utants H u m id ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J c::::::J c::::J c::::J
average average average average average

Negatives on Glass 2 51
 G e l at i n s i l ve r n egatives o n fi l m
(1889 to p resent)
H i s t o ry
F l e x i b l e tran sparent s h eets - co m posed of
e i t h e r ge lati n or c e l l u l ose n itrate-were
occasio n a l ly used p r i o r to 1 889, prov i d i ng a
n ew l ightweight base for n egatives . B ut the
real growth i n the use of plastic fi l m s u p port
fo r ph otogra p h i c n egatives h a p p e n e d o n l y
after 1 8 89, w h e n m a n u facturers began to
p ro d uce fi l m stock for motion p i c t u re c a m ­
e ras a n d p rojectors. This t y p e of s t o c k was
adapted for use in sti l l cameras in the fo rm
of rolls a n d s i ng l e sheets. The m aterial ava i l ­
a b l e a t t h e t i m e that w a s best su ited t o t h i s
a p p l icat i o n w a s c e l l u l ose n itrate (pyroxy l i n
o r g u n cotton) - a l ready u s e d i n p h otography
as a b i n d e r (co l l o d i o n) and also used in the
m a n u fact u re of toys, j ewel ry, a n d various
consu m e r goods as well as i n explosives.
C e l l u lose n itrate fi l m was used w i d e ly for
ph otogra p h i c and motion p i c t u re fi l m u nt i l
t h e 1 9 5 0 s , when it w a s b a n n ed d u e t o i t s
fl a m m a b i l ity, a p ro p e rty that h a d resu lted i n
several d i sastro u s fi re s . F r o m 1 94 8 o n , c e l ­
l u lose nitrate w a s syste matically re p l aced by
c e l l u lose acetate as a fi l m base, the latter
b e i ng a m u ch less fl am m a b l e m aterial a n d
therefore b r a n d e d as " safety fi l m . " Si nce t h e
1 95 0 s , p o lyester has also b e e n i n use as a
fi l m base for s o m e sheet a n d ro l l fi l m s .'
2 5 4 N E G AT I V E S
C e l l u l ose n itrate, c e l l u lose acetate,
and p o lyester constitute the m aj o rity of
s u pport m aterials fo r n egatives fo u n d i n
p hotograp h c o l l e c t i o n s . Cu rrently o n ly c e l ­
l u lose t riacetate a n d po lyester a r e used fo r
the m a n ufactu re of fi l m s u pports fo r photo­
gra p h s . These fi l m s u s e a gelatin s i lver
b ro m i d e e m u ls i o n , which is the d i rect tech­
n o l ogical descendant of t h e gel ati n e m u l ­
s i o n used o n glass p lates i n t h e n i n eteenth
centu ry.
We s h o u l d note o n e techn ical o d d ity:
black-and -wh ite n egative fi l m s produced by
chromoge n i c process. I n the 1 980s several
black-and -wh ite n egative fi l m s - s u c h as
Agfapan Vario-XL, l lford XP1 and XP2, J<odak
BW4 0 0 C N , J<on ica VX400 Monoch rom e ­
were d esigned t o be d eveloped u s i ng chro­
m ogenic p rocessing (C-41 process) . These
fi l m s p ro d u ced a m o n ochrome i mage made
u p of dye m o lecules rather than silver par­
ticles. The processed fi l m has an overall
o range tint, s i m ilar to conventional chro ­
m oge n i c negatives. T h e s e n egatives can
be p ri nted eith e r o n chro m ogenic color
paper (to p ro d u ce a m o n oc h ro m e positive)
or on conventional black-and -wh ite
printing paper.
 Figure 1 92
Un used ro l l of gelatin si lver
b ro m i d e negative fi l m , ca. 1 95 0 .

W h at i s a gelat i n
s i lver n egative o n
fi l m?
A gelat i n s i lver n ega-
tive on fi l m i s a
n egative on a plastic
fi l m s u p po rt- e ither
c e l l u lose n it rate,
c e l l u lose acetate , or
p olyester- with a
layer of gelatin h o l d ­
ing silver particles that
for m the i mage. The
sensitized film is m a n ­
ufactured i n standard
cam era fo r m ats,
either as m u l t i p l e ­
i m age rolls o r as
si ngle-i mage sheets.

Figure 1 93
Processed gelatin silver fi l m
negatives cut from a film roll,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 9 50.

Tab l e 3 - C h ro n o l ogy of plastic film s u p p o rts fo r ro l l and s h eet fi l m

A p p rox i mate P e r i o d of U s e Type

1 8 88-1 951 c e l l u lose n i t rate

late 1 920s to pre s e n t c e l l u lose acetates

1 9 5 5 to present polyester

N egatives on Plastic Film 2 55

 Fabri cat i o n and u s e
G el atin si lver n egative fi l m man ufacture is
s i m i la r to that for gelatin silver n egatives on
glass. Various stan dard i m age sizes for roll
a n d sheet film are avai lable.
Deterio ration and care o f ge latin
s i lver n egatives o n fi l m
W i t h the exception of m o n ochro m e n ega­
tives on chro m oge n i c fi l m (whose i m ages
w i l l fade over t i m e) , black-and-white gelatin
silver n egatives o n fi l m show good i m age
sta b i l i ty. 2 The plastic su pport, however, may
be u nstable. The d eterioratio n of plastic
fi l m su pports is the m ost d iffi cult p ro b l e m
i n the co nservation of photographic col­
lections. Cellu lose n itrate fi l m is present
i n many collections and, while in s o m e
cases it r e m a i n s i n exce l l e nt conditi o n , i n
others a n irreversi b l e p rocess o f deteriora­
tion takes place, signaled by a vari ety of
visi b l e alterat i o n s . Many co l l ections have
u n de rtaken a m b itious conservation effo rts
to save these d eteriorati ng ph otographs.3
C e l l u lose nitrate film deteriorati o n begi ns
with physical d istortion of the film and is
fo l lowed by oxidation of the si lver i mage,
which p rod u ces b rown i ng and sta i n i n g of the
i mage. I n a humid enviro n m ent the e m u l si o n
may soften and s t i c k t o i t s storage e nvelope
o r to adjacent fi l m ; i n a d ry environm ent the
film becomes b rittl e. I n both cases, an acri d ,
s h a r p o d o r is d etected d u e to the rel ease o f
n i t r i c and n itrous a c i d s . T h e s e a c i d i c vapors
damage the storage contain e rs and s u rro u n d ­
ing o bjects. I n the fi nal stage o f d eterioratio n
the fi l m fo rms a s o l i d m ass that cannot be
separated or handled safely. At this advanced
stage of d ete rioration the i m ages are l ost a n d
the d eteriorated fi l m mass should b e d is­
carded to avo id conta m i natio n of the rest of
the coll ecti o n . B ecause of the sheer mass
256 N E G A T I V E S
involved a n d the way they are stored i n
sealed contain ers, rolls of cellu l ose n itrate
m otion p icture fi l m r u n a h igher risk of fast
decompositi o n , which in extre m e cases may
lead to self-igniti o n . I n the recent past, this
was the cause of a n u m be r of d isastro u s fi res
in cinemas and motion p icture fi l m archives.
Advances i n chem ical engineering made
poss i b l e the i ntrod uction of cel l u lose triac­
etate as a less fl a m m a b l e su bstitute for cel­
l u lose nitrate , beg i n n ing i n 1 948 . But the
expectation of i m p roved stabil ity that was at
fi rst c l a i m e d for this n ew su pport m aterial
proved to b e excessive. I nstead of life expec­
tancy cou nted in h u n d reds of years, as was
fi rst h o p e d , c e l l u l ose acetate fi l m s are now
thought to be stable for o n l y several d ecad es.
D eteriorat i o n can start as soon as a few
d ozen years after manufactu re if the fi l m is
stored in a hot and/or h u m i d enviro n m ent.
This was the case i n 1 9 5 4 i n a motion picture
fi l m archive in I ndia, where the fi rst of such
deterio rati ons was n oted . D egrad ing c e l l u lose
triacetate releases acetic aci d , which l e n ds its
name to this d eterioratio n p rocess as the
"vi negar syn d ro m e . " This resu lts i n a red u c­
tion in the strength of the po lym e r. The acid
released by the deterio rating fi l m i n itiates and
also accelerates the dete rioration of oth e r
fi l m stored nearby. T h e fi l m base s h r i n ks and
the overlying gelatin e m u l s i o n is p u l l ed up
into fo l d s . S m a l l b u bb l es form i n t h e p l astic
and a b l u e o r p i n k disco l o ration m ay appear
on the back of the fi l m . These changes are
irrevers i b l e and they also accelerate in h u m i d
conditions.
B oth n itrate and acetate film s h o u l d b e
stored i n an enviro n m e nt that is d ry, coo l ,
a n d we l l ventilated . Pockets a n d envelopes
used for storing them should be made of
paper that has an a l k a l i n e reserve.
Figure 1 94
Sheet fi l m box with processed gelatin silver negatives on deteriorating cellu lose nitrate
fi l m su pport, ca. 1 940. The glassine paper envelopes have become brittle and are now
adhered to the negatives.

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., I' ,.� ,,.
;, .,
!\I iJ ·� \>'(
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I
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Figure 1 9 5
Gelatin silver negative on deteriorating cellu lose
acetate sup port, photographer unknown, ca. 1 960.

N egatives on Plastic Film 2 5 7

 Figure 1 9 6
Gelatin silver negative o n
deteriorating cellu lose nitrate
s u ppo rt, Harcourt Studio, ca. 1 940.

2 5 8 N E G AT I V E S
G e l at i n s i lve r n e gat ives o n fi l m 1 88 9 to p resent

O c c u r re n c e i n co l l e c t i o n s v e ry c o m m o n

Co m m o n s izes a n d fo r m at s
R o l l fi l m :
• 1 2 0 fo rmat a n d other ro l l fi l m s with width o f 6 c m :
- n o m inal i m age s izes (cm) : 4 . 5 x 6 ; 6 x 6 ; 6 x 7 ; 6 x 8 ; 6 x 9
- n o m i nal pan o ra m ic sizes (c m ) : 6 x 1 2 ; 6 x 1 7 ; 6 x 24
• 1 3 5 fo rmat (fi l m ro l l is 3 5 mm w i d e)
- most co m m o n i mage size: 24 x 3 6 m m
- other i m age s izes (mm) 1 4 x 2 1 ; 1 8 x 24 ; 2 4 x 24 ; 2 4 x 3 2 ; 2 4 x 3 4
- panoramic i m age s izes ( m m ) : 2 4 x 5 8 ; 2 4 x 6 5
S h eet fi l m (no m i n a l s h e et sizes):
· m ost c o m m o n ( i n . ) : 4 x 5 ; 5 x 7 ; 8 x 1 0
· other: 6 . 5 x 9 c m ; 1 0 x 1 5 c m ; 1 8 x 24 c m ; 1 1 x 1 4 i n . ; 1 6 x 2 0 i n . ; 2 0 x 24 in .
• panoramic ( i n .) : 4 x 1 0 ; 7 x 1 7 ; 8 x 20 ; 1 2 x 2 0

s i lver

Stru c t u re gelatin --�======?'

plastic fi l m (ce l l u lose nitrate, -----+--­

c e l l u lose acetate, or po lyester)

Reco m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e rvat i o n of g e l at i n s i l v e r fi l m n egat i v e s

• Cel l u lose n itrate n egatives a r e fl a m ma b l e
• Reg u l arly m o n itor t h e c o n d i t i o n of a l l n itrate a n d acetate fi l m collections
• U s e paper storage envelopes o r pockets made fro m paper with an alkaline reserve
• Store in a cool and d ry e n v i ro n m ent-frozen sto rage is advisable for cel l u lose n itrate a n d
c e l l u l ose acetate b a s e

L ight Abrasion Poll utants H u m i d ity Flood

S e n s it i v i ty c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::::J c:::::::J c:::::J c:::::J
average average average very sensitive average

Negatives on Plastic F i l m 2 59
 C h ro m oge n i c p rocess n egatives
(1939 to p resent)

H i story
Agfa released the fi rst c h ro m oge n i c n ega­
tive fi l m - Agfaco l o r- i n 1 9 3 9 , b u t Wo r l d
War I I d e l ayed its c o m m e rc i a l expansi o n .
E astman l<od a k m arketed its l<odaco l o r
n egative fi l m i n 1 9 42 . B o t h p r o d u c t s
were m od i fi e d over t h e fo l l ow i n g years
to i m p rove t h e i r i m age q ua l ity, s e n sitiv ity,
and ease and re l i a b i l ity of p rocessi ng.
O r i g i n a l l y the i m age c o n s isted of c o l o rs
that were exactly c o m p l e m entary to those
of t h e s u bj e c t . But, due to t h e i m pe rfect
s pectral c h a racteristics of the dyes used in
these early p r o d u c t s , t h ey produced p o s i ­
tive i m ages with p o o r c o l o r saturat i o n . To
ove rco m e t h i s p ro b l e m , an ove r a l l o range
tint was i ntroduced in 1 9 47 a n d , ever s i n ce,
all c h ro m oge n i c n egative fi l ms h ave t h i s
red - o ra nge m a s k .

What i s a c h ro m o ge n i c p rocess n e gative?

A c h ro m ogenic p ro cess n egative is a c o l o r p h otograph whose i m age consists of
t h ree gelati n i m age l ayers, laid o n e on top of the other and conta i n i ng (from to p
to bottom) yel l ow, m agenta, a n d cyan dye i m ages. ( N ote t h at m o d e r n fi l m s
have a m o re c o m p lex l ayered structure . ) T h e dye m o l e c u l es are synthesized
d u r i n g p ro cessi ng, w h i c h is the c h a racteristic that gives the p ro cess its n a m e :
chroma = c o l o r, a n d -genie = p ro d u ci ng .

Figu re 1 97
Chromogenic process sheet fi l m
negative without red-orange mask,
photographer unknown, ca. 1 940.

2 6 0 N E G AT I V E S
261
 Figure 1 98
35 mm format c h ro m ogenic
process ro l l film negatives, with
red-orange mask, ca. 1 9 9 0 .
Fab ricat i o n a n d use
T h e fi l m s u p port i s coated with t h re e l ayers
of ge latin si lver b ro m id e e m u l s i o n . The fi rst,
c l osest to the film base, i s s e n s itized to
a spe ctral reg i o n that is m a i n ly red; the
m i d d l e o n e i s s e n s itized to t h e gre e n reg i o n ,
a n d t h e topm ost to b l u e l ight. C o m p o u n d s
c a l l e d c o l o r c o u p l ers a r e i nt ro d u ce d i nto
each of these l aye rs. D u ri ng processing t h e
c o u p l ers a r e co nverted f r o m t h e i r i n itial
c o l o r l ess state i nto c o l ored dye s . O n ce
exposed , the fi l m i s p rocessed i n a special
c h ro m oge n i c deve l o p e r. W h e re t h e silver
bromide has been exposed, t h e m etal l i c
s i lver i m age starts to fo rm a n d t h e d eve l ­
o p e r i t s e l f i s o x i d i z e d . T h i s a ltered fo rm o f
t h e deve l o p e r reacts with t h e adjacent c o l o r
c o u p l ers a n d produces dye m o l e c u l e s . I n
t h e b ottom laye r- s e n sitive o n ly to red
l ight- cyan dye i s synthesized; in the m i d ­
d l e , gre e n-sensitive, l ayer, m agenta dye i s
fo r m e d ; a n d i n t h e to p m ost, b l u e - s e nsitive,
l ayer, y e l l ow dye is fo r m e d . A s i lver b l eac h ­
i ng step fol l owed by thiosu lfate fi x i ng a n d
was h i n g e l i m i nates a l l of the si lver and
262 N E G A T I V E S
res i d u a l si lver c o m p o u n d s . The fi n a l i m age is
com posed only of t h e o rganic dyes.
Dete r i o rati o n a n d care of c h ro m o ge n i c
p rocess n e gatives
C h ro m og e n i c n egatives w i l l fad e , even i n
dark sto rage . Several d e cades of sto rage
w i l l p ro d u c e alterat i o n s in the i m age that
are extre m ely d iffi c u lt to eval uate by v i s u a l
i ns p e c t i o n b e cause of t h e co m p l e m e ntary
( n egative) c o l o rs of t h e i m age a n d t h e p res­
e n ce of the o range m a s k . W h i l e it m ay be
poss i b l e to l a rgely reco nstruct t h e m a i n
c o l o r b a l a n c e o f a fad e d i m age u s i ng o p t i ­
c a l o r d igital t o o l s , o n ly c o l d storage w i l l
a l l o w t h e rate o f d eterio rat i o n of t h e o rigi­
n a l to b e s l owed . N ew v e r s i o n s of c h ro ­
m oge n i c fi l m , i ntrod u ce d i n t h e 1 9 80 s ,
s h ow c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p ro v e m e n t i n dye
stab i l ity. N ote that c e l l u l os e n i t rate fi l m
a n d c e l l u l os e acetate fi l m that s u p p o rt
c o l o r n egatives are s u bj e c t to t h e s a m e
dete r i o rati o n patt e r n s as b l ac k-a n d -
white fi l m .
C h ro m oge n i c p rocess n egatives 1 9 3 9 to p re s e n t

O c c u r re n c e i n c o l l ec t i o n s r r r v e ry c o m m o n

Com m o n s iz e s a n d fo r m at s
R o l l fi l m
• 1 2 0 fo rmat a n d othe r ro l l fi l m s w i t h width of 6 c m
- n o m i n a l i mage sizes (cm ) : 4 . 5 x 6 ; 6 x 6 ; 6 x 7 ; 6 x 8 ; 6 x 9
- n o m i n a l panoramic s izes (cm) : 6 x 1 2 ; 6 x 1 7 ; 6 x 24
• 1 3 5 fo rmat (fi l m ro l l is 3 5 mm w i d e)
- m o s t com m o n i m age size: 24 x 3 6 m m
- othe r i m age s izes (mm) : 1 4 x 2 1 ; 1 8 x 24 ; 2 4 x 24 ; 2 4 x 3 2 ; 2 4 x 3 4
- p a n o ram i c ( m m) 2 4 x 5 8 ; 2 4 x 6 5
• 1 1 0 cart ridge fo rmat (intro d uced 1 9 72 ; fi l m ro l l i s 1 6 m m wide)
- most c o m m o n i mage size: 1 3 x 1 7 m m
S h eet fi l m ( n o m i n a l sheet sizes) :
• m ost c o m m o n ( i n . ) : 4 x 5 ; 5 x 7 ; 8 x 1 0
· oth e r: 6 . 5 x 9 c m ; 1 0 x 1 5 c m ; 1 8 x 24 c m ; 1 1 x 1 4 i n . ; 1 6 x 2 0 i n . ; 2 0 x 2 4 i n .
· p a n o ra m ic ( i n . ) : 4 x 1 0 ; 7 x 1 7 ; 8 x 2 0 ; 1 2 x 2 0

gelat i n with yellow dye

Stru c t u re

p lastic film (cel l u lose

acetate o r polyester)

R e co m m e n d at i o n s fo r c o n s e r v at i o n o f c h ro m oge n i c p rocess n egatives

• Regularly m o n itor t h e cond ition of acetate fi l m c o l l ec t i o n s
• Use paper storage envelo pes o r pockets made fro m paper with an a l kal i n e rese rve
• Store in a cool and d ry e nv i ro n m ent-frozen sto rage is advisable

Light A b rasion Poll utants H u m id ity Flood

S e n s i t iv i t y CJ CJ CJ CJCJCJ CJCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
sensitive average average sensitive average

Negatives on Plastic Film 2 6 3

 I D E N T I F ICAT ION OF N EGAT IVES
Negatives on paper
I t i s fairly simple to distinguish
calotypes and waxed paper nega­
t ives from the paper negatives
introduced by Eastman at the end
of the nineteenth century. The
Eastman negative images are
circular ( 6 . 5 cm in diameter) and
are held on a s trip of paper . On
the other hand, dist inguishing a
Le Gray waxed paper process nega­
tive from a calotype that has been
waxed after processing i s much
more difficult and, at least so far,
has not been the topic of spec ific
studies .
F igure 1 9 9
C alotype viewed b y reflected
l ight , photographer u n known ,
ca. 1 85 0 .
264
Negatives o n g l a s s
Image tone is a useful criterion t o
help distinguish t h e various glass
negative processes . Whil e a lbumen
negatives may have an image tone
that ranges from ocher-orange to
olive green, the image tones in
collodion negatives are less red
and tend more toward the l ight
beige to dark brown range .4 Gelatin
negatives generally have neutral
image tones-gray to black-except
when they are affected by oxida­
tive deteriorat ion . Litt le
information i s available on the
visual identification of variant
negative processes such as the
Taupenot proces s , dry col lodion,
and so on . Collodion negatives are
always varnished ( or should have
been) ; the separate varnish layer
as well as the irregular surface
of the hand-poured collodion layer
should be evident on the edges of
the plate and especially at the
corners . Gelatin s i lver bromide
plates were factory-made obj ects
and show evenly cut edges and
standardized thickness and
formats . Albumen and collodion
plate negatives do not have this
degree of regularity in the i r
dimensions . 5
Figure 200
Set of paper negatives assemb l ed by H e rmann
Krone , Paper Negatives, 1852, from the H i storisches
Lehrmuseum fUr Photographie (H istorical Didactic
Museum of Photography), Panel 4, 1 89 5-1 907.

265
 C o l l o d i o n glass p l ate n egative
M issing varnish at the corners
due to uneven hand coating,
Uneven or absent collodion
resulting in oxidative damage
layer at corner(s) resulting in
at these locations
absence of image at these
locations

Warm tones
(creamy white,
light beige,
dark beige)

Edge of the
protective
varnish layer

Figure 201
I rregu lar edges and corners on glass Co l l odion g lass p l ate negative, on a black
plate; g lass is relatively thick background, seen by reflected l ight,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 8 60 .

266
 G e l at i n s i lver glass p l ate n egative

Silver mirroring
o n the periphery

N eutral gray­
black tones

Evenly coated
layers

Relatively thin
glass (less than
2 m m thick) -

Standard sizes;
precisely cut
/ Figure 202
Gelati n silver glass plate negative, seen
by transmitted l ight, photographer
u nknown, ca. 1 900.

267
 Figure 203
Notch codes o n the edge of sheet fi l m
negatives, c a . 1 93 0 . The V-notch i s
typically fo und o n ce l lulose n itrate sheet
film, while the U-notch is often found on
ol der cellulose acetate sheet film. With
appropriate caution , it may be possible
to put some order into a m i xed gro u p
o f negatives b y gathering together
those with s i m i lar notch codes; where
necessary, more complex analysis can be
performed o n a singl e rep resentative
object from each n otch -code gro u p.
Negatives on plastic
Color and black-and-white nega­
t ives on plastic film are c learly
di st inguishable from each other.
Also, the brand and film type are
usually printed on the edge of the
film, which makes things easy. But
here, identi fying the proce s s is
less important than identifying
the support plastic . It is e s sen­
tial for conservation purposes to
distinguish among cel lulose
nitrate, cellulose acetate, and
polyester.6
Markings on the edge of the film
are the first way of identifying the
support : the words "Safety Film"
indicate cellulose acetate ;
Eastman Kodak films on polyester
are marked "Estar . " Even in the
absence of such markings, sheet
film often has visible notch codes :
these are sma l l notches cut into
the nonimage area at the edge of
the sheet . Their number, form, and
position constitute a code that
provides information about when
and where the film was manufac ­
ture d . However, this may not be an
268
f i lm
entirely rel iable way of identi­
fying film supports ; contradictory
results have been reported and, in
any case, the manufacturer ' s codes
are intended for the identification
of emul sions, not film bas e .7
E stabli shing the date of manu­
facture , even in the absence of
any direct visual evidence on the
film, may help narrow down the
possibil ities ( see Table 4 ) . If a l l
else fai l s , instrumental analysis
using I R spectroscopy ( FTIR-ATR;
see Scientific methods of analysi s
and identification) c a n readily
identify the type of plastic . Also,
several chemical tests can be done
in a properly equipped laboratory
to positively identify cellulose
nitrate film . These are destructive
tests that require the removal of
a smal l sample from the obj ect .
Such a sample-usually less than
one square mi l l imeter in s ize-can
sometimes be safely removed from
the edge of a sheet film negative or
from the tail of a roll film.
Ta b l e 4 - l d e n t i fi cat i o n of plastics u s e d as s u p p orts for fi l m negatives

I d e n tifyi ng Characteristic Typ e of Plastic

before late 1 92 0 s c e l l u lose n itrate

d ate of before 1 9 52 c e l l u l os e n itrate or c e l l u l ose acetate

m a n u fa c t u re 1 9 52-1 9 5 5 c e l l u lose acetate

a f t e r 1 95 5 c e l l u lose acetate o r po lyester

d efo rmat i o n , s u p p o r t yellowe d , i m age

type of c e l l u lose n i t rate
severely o x i d i ze d
d et e r i o ration
fo l d s i n the i m age layer, v i n egar o d o r c e l l u lose acetate

safety fi l m c e l l u lose acetate

m a r k i ngs
n i t rate c e l l u lose n itrate

acco r d i n g t o m a n ufacturer's c o d e
notch codes n u m b e r, fo r m , position of notches
l eg e n d

d i p h e nyl a m i n e test: U s i n g a m i cro pi­

pette, place a d rop of 0 . 5 % d i p h e ny l ­
a m i n e s o l u t i o n i n concentrated s u lfuric
acid o n a glass slide (ca u t i o n : this m ate­
rial i s dangerous and s h o u l d b e h a n d l e d
o n ly by q u a l i fi e d tech n icians u s i n g
positive t e s t res u l t i n d i c ates
c h e m ical test a p p ro p riate e q u i p m ent). U s i n g a pair o f
c e l l u lose n i t rate
tweezers, place a s m a l l p i e c e of t h e fi l m
s u p p o r t - l e s s t h a n a s q u a re m i l l i m eter
taken from t h e n o n i m age b o rd e r - o nto
the d ro p . I f c e l l u lose n i t rate is present,
a n i n tense blue c o l o r w i l l a p p e a r i n the
l i q u i d over t h e cou rse of a few seconds.

Figure 204
D i phenylam ine test. (a) The intense blue color ind icates
the presence of cellu lose nitrate; (b) n o color reaction
indicates that the sam p le is not cellu lose n itrate.

2 69
 T h e d i l e m m a fac i ng us with regard to p h o ­
tographs i s that w e w a n t t o study, h a n d l e ,
a n d d i s p lay t h e m , a n d yet t h e s e a r e t h e very
acti o n s that m ay l eave t h e m d a m aged o r
eve n destroye d . W h i l e w e a r e often u n a b l e
to reve rse t h e d a m age that h a s o c c u rred , we
m ay be a b l e to slow down fut u re deteriora­
tion by o bserving s o m e s i m p l e p r i n c i p l es of
s o u n d c o n se rvat i o n p ract i c e . The fo l l owing
advice aims to d raw atte n t i o n to t h e frag i l i ty
of p h otographs a n d to t h e k i n d of care that
w i l l h e l p p reserve t h e m .
Photographs a re p r o n e to d a m age a s a
res u l t of u ns u i ta b l e e n v i ro n m e ntal c o n d i ­
t i o n s -tem perature, h u m i d ity, l ight, air
q u a l ity, storage m ate r i a l s - a n d t h ro ugh
p o o r han d l ing. The deteriorati o n m ay be
c h e m ical i n n at u re (hyd rolysis of paper,
oxidation of s i lver) , p hysical (breakage of
glass, tears in paper) , or b i o l ogical (mold
i n festat i o n , pests). Physical a n d b i o l ogical
d a m age m ay produce sudden a n d o bvious
2 74 C O N S E R V A T I O N
d a m age; a rapid resp o n s e m ight b e req u i red
to l i m it the damage.
C h e m i c a l deteriorat i o n processes a re
generally s l ower, procee d i n g i rreve r s i b l y
a n d c o nt i n u o u s ly b u t , p e rhaps, i m pe rcepti­
b ly. When t h e d a m age b e c o m e s a p parent,
i t is too l ate to act aga i n s t it. L o o k i ng at old
p h otographs we often see them yel lowed
o r fad e d a n d assu m e that such c h anges are
i n h e re n t a n d i n evita b l e ; b u t , i n fac t , s u c h
changes can b e l a rgely, o r e v e n c o m p l ete ly,
avo i d ed by a p p ly i ng p ro p e r c o n s e rvat i o n
measures.
I m age d i sco l o rati o n
Photogra p h s w ith s i lver- based i m ages a re
s u bject to o x i d at i o n , a p ro cess t h at is c h e m ­
i c a l l y r e l ated t o the tarn i s h i ng of s i l ve rware.
T h e d e te r m i n ants of s i l ve r oxidat i o n i n p h o ­
togra p h s are h u m i d ity, p o l l utants, a n d t h e
res i d u e s of p ro cess i n g c h e m icals that m ay
 Figure 205
Gelatin silver prints, Harcourt Studio, ca. 1 940. The photographic
image made with s i lver is vulnerable to deterioration by atm osph eric
poll utants. In addition , residual processing chemicals or off-gassing
from deteriorating cellu lose n itrate film can cause rapid fad ing and
yel lowing. These prints were stored i n contact with a cellu lose
nitrate negative, which caused oxidative damage to the silver
images and em brittlement of the paper supports.

be l eft in the p r i n t . Sta i n s a p p ear, the p r i n t
ye l l ows, a n d the i m age contrast d i m i n i s h e s .
T h i s may b e l i m ited to cert a i n areas o r
take p l ac e u n ifo r m l y t h ro ug h o u t the
p h otogra p h .
C o l o r pri nts m a d e b y c h ro m og e n i c pro­
cess fade rapidly when exposed to intense
light, but keeping them i n t h e dark does not
c o m p l etely p rotect t h e m fro m such changes .
After several d ecades of dark storage s o m e
of the dyes w i l l have faded and t h e i mage
w i l l show a sh ift toward t h e ye l l ow, the red ,
or t h e b l u e . N ote that t h e dyes that fade
most q u ickly in dark storage are n ot n eces­
sarily the same as those most s u bj ect to
fad i n g fro m b e i ng exposed to l ight.

Types of Deterioration and I nfluencing Factors 275

276 C O N S E R V A T I O N
 Figure 207
Color shift i n a chromogenic
process transparency,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 950.

Figure 206
Si lver m i rroring on a gelatin silver print, photographer
u n known, ca. 1 900. The term "silver m i rroring" refers to
the thin layer of colloidal silver particles deposited on the
su rface of affected photographs. The darker parts of the
print image show a metallic or m i rrorlike sheen when
viewed under diffuse light. O n a negative, the affected
areas appear yellow when viewed by transmitted l ight.
The thin colloidal silver deposit i s derived from silver
image particles that have m igrated toward the su rface
under the influence of h u m id ity and oxidizing gases.

Types of Deterioration and I n fl uencing Factors 2 7 7

 D ete r i o rat i o n of p l as t i c
fi l m s u p po rts
Toward the e n d of the n i n eteenth centu ry,
t h e h eavy and fragile glass p l ates used fo r
n egatives were re p l aced with plastic fi l m .
Transparent m aterials pro d u ced b y treating
c e l l u lose with aci d s - s u ch as cel l u l ose
n itrate and c e l l u l ose acetate - are u sed as
s u pport s for ph otogra p h i c and motion pic­
t u re fi l m . Some fi l m s re main i n good c o n d i ­
t i o n today, b u t many have s h o w n s i g n s o f
the i n he rent i nstabil ity that p rod u ces d efor­
m at io n , creases , and b reakage, as wel l as the
rel ease of sticky m aterials and acidic- even
tox ic-gases (see G e lati n s i lver n egatives on
fi l m). Th ese hyd rolysis reacti o n s , leading to
t h e eventual loss of the p h otogra p h i c i mage ,
are accelerated by i n creasi n g t e m pe ratu re
and h u m i d ity. A l l fi l m c o l l e ct i o n s - of both
h istorical and conte m po rary i mages - are
t h reate n e d , i n c l u d i ng those contai n i ng roll
fi l m , sheet fi l m , n egat i ves , o r trans pare n c i e s ,
as l o n g as t h e s e a r e made w i t h c e l l u lose Figure 208
Cellu lose nitrate sheet film
n it rate o r cel l u l ose acetate. O n ly cold stor­
negative i n a deteriorated state,
age can sign i fi cantly slow down the deteri o ­ photographer u n known, ca. 1 9 50
rat i o n of c e l l u lose fi l m base.

Tab l e 5 - Life expectancy of c e l l u l o s e tr iacetate film base as a

fu n c t i o n of storage temperature'

Te m p e rature Life Expectancy of Film at 50% R H

20°C 45 years

!
1 5° C 80 years

1 0 °c 1 60 years

0°C 6 2 5 years

-10°C 2 , 740 years

t
-2 0°C 1 0, 0 0 0 years

278 C O N S E R VAT I O N
Figure 209
Photographic print damaged by mold and by
beco m i ng adhered to its storage envelope,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 9 50 .
M o l d i nfestat i o n
Collections of twentieth-century p h oto­
gra p h s are m ad e u p m a i n l y of o bjects fab r i ­
cated w i t h a gelat i n b i n d er. G e latin i s a n
i d e a l m ed i u m to s u p p o rt m o l d growt h . Mold
i n festat i o n o n a p h otograph is i n d i cated by
the appearance of gray b l isters or s m a l l spots
s u rro u n ded by t h read l i ke netwo r k s - s o m e ­
times c o l o re d - acco m panied b y d i s appear­
ance of the i m age at these locat i o n s . If the
Figure 2 1 0
Photographic print damaged by
m o l d , photographer u n known,
ca. 1 93 0 .
m o l d growth i s active a n d cu rrent, it s h o u l d
b e cause for a l a r m : if it is n o t sto p p e d , it w i l l
p ro pagate over the entire e m u ls i o n s u r face,
leading to c o m p l ete destruction of the
i mage , a n d will contam i n ate the p h oto­
gra p h s stored n earby. Mold growth i s acti­
vated at c o n d itions of h igh relative h u m i d ity
(usually considered to b e 65% R H or over)
a n d is e n c o u raged by p o o r ventilatio n .
Types o f Deterioration and I n fl uencing Factors 2 7 9
 T h e e nv i ro n m e nt
Many d eteriorati o n p rocesses can be sl owed
d ow n , o r even halted, if e n v i ro n m e ntal c o n ­
d i t i o n s a r e adj usted to o pti mal co nservat i o n
levels. W e have m a ny exa m p les of h istorical
ph otographs, made m o re than o n e h u n d red
years ago , t h at have s u rvived i n exce l l e n t
c o n d i t i o n d u e to g o o d storage enviro n ­
m e n t s . O n t h e oth e r hand , we can also fi n d
exa m p l es o f relatively rece nt a n d m o re
i n h erently stable photographs that have
q u ickly and d isastrously deteriorate d , d u e
t o h igh temperature an d/or h igh h u m i d ity.
Te m p erature a n d h u m idity are critical envi­
ron m e ntal factors; specific stand ards for the
sto rage of p h otographs have been estab­
l ished that p rescribe d iffe rent ranges for
t e m pe rature a n d h u m idity d e p e n d i ng on
the type of photograph to be stored (see
Tab l e 8 ) . S i n ce there is no s i ng l e c o m m o n set
of environme ntal c o n d itions t h at i s optimal
for a l l p hotogra p h s , it beco m e s n ecessary to
create conditions specific to each m ed i u m
a n d s u pport category (co l o r, p l astic su p p o rt
n egative, glass p lates, etc . ) . The costs fo r the
establ i s h m e nt , the o perat i o n , a n d the m a i n ­
tenance of c o n d it i o n ed sto rage faci l ities are
c o n s i d e ra b l e . Large c o l lections of artistic or
heritage val u e c a n n ot avo i d the significant
i nvestments req u i red for t h e ethical custod i­
anship of their m ate r i a l . B ut such measures
Tab l e 6 - F i ve levels of relative h u m i d ity
very l ow relative h u m i d ity
l o w relative h u m i d i ty
m o d e rate relative h u m i d ity
h igh re lative h u m i d ity
v e ry h i g h relative h u m i d ity
2 80 C O N S E R VAT I O N
are not rea l istic fo r s m a l l i n stitutions or fo r a
c o l l e ct i o n of fam i ly p h otograph s . The effo rt
in these cases m u st be to fi n d a sto rage l oca­
tion that is cool and d ry. Cool but h u m i d
enviro n m e n t s , such as basements, are t o be
avo i d e d , as are d ry locations that experience
wide t e m pe rature variat i o n s , such as attics.
H u m i d ity
H u m i d ity in the a i r i s m e a s u red as relative
h u m i d ity ( R H ) . This descri bes the p e rc e n t­
age of water vapo r p resent in t h e a i r c o m ­
pared to what it w o u l d c o n t a i n a t the
sat u rati o n p o i nt . W h e n R H is 1 00 % , the
air is satu rated i n water vapor a n d can hold
no m o re. This is the case, fo r i n stance, i n a
bat h r o o m after a shower w h e n s m a l l d rops
of l i q u i d wate r condense o n the cooler s u r­
faces. W h e n R H is 0% - s o m ething that
rarely h a p p e n s in n at u re - the a i r contai n s
no water vapor at a l l .
D ry a i r- below 3 0% R H - l eads t o
e m brittlement o f m a n y kinds o f photo­
graphs. The gelat i n binder layer l oses some
of its m o isture content a n d s h ri n ks , p ro d uc­
ing stresses i n the i nterface below; t h i s leads
to the d e l a m i nat i o n of the gelat i n fro m a
glass s u p p o rt , the c u r l i ng of paper prints, o r
t h e p hysical breakage of t h e b i n d e r a n d /o r
su p p o rt l ayers . H u m i d c o n d i t i o n s - a bove
b el ow 20% v e ry d ry a i r
20-40% d ry a i r
40-60% m o d e rate h u m i d ity
60-80% humid air
a bove 80% very h u m i d air
Figure 2 1 1
Record ing hygrothermograph.
6 5 % R H - accelerate the prev i o u s ly m e n ­
t i o n e d chem ical a n d b i o l ogical dete r i o rati o n
p ro cesse s .
F o r the storage of a m ixed ph otogra p h i c
c o l l e ct i o n , the adage t o fol l ow i s : i n media
stat virtus ( " vi rt u e is fo u n d i n the m i d d l e
g ro u n d " ) . Relative h u m i d i ty between 3 0 a n d
4 0 % is s u itable i n m o s t cases. S u d d e n a n d
large fl u ct u ations i n h u m i d ity s h o u l d b e
avo ided s i n c e these c a n cause defo r m atio n ,
cracking, a n d d e l a m i n at i o n (see Tab l e 7) .
R e l atively i n ex p e nsive d e h u m i d ifi c at i o n u n its
are ava i l a b l e that fu n c t i o n automatically a n d
w i t h m i n i m a l m a i ntenance. B ut before c o m ­
m itting to a n y parti c u l a r e n v i ro n m ental c o n ­
t r o l strategy, c o l l ection custo d i an s s h o u l d
c o n s u l t w i t h an expert i n preventive conser­
vat i o n , w h o w i l l assess the req u i re m ents of
the parti c u l a r situat i o n and propose appro­
p riate s o l utions.
R e l ative h u m i d ity i s m ost often m ea­
s u red with an e l e ct ro n i c hygrom eter. This
i n stru m e n t m u s t be cal i b rated reg u larly
aga i n s t a re l i a b l e stand ard , such as a psy­
c h ro m eter o r s at u rated salt s o l u t i o n s . I t
m ay b e best to have t h i s p e r i o d i c c a l i b ra­
t i o n perfo r m e d by the m a n u factu re r. N ote
that h u m i d ity i n d i cators t h at fu n c t i o n by
changing co l o r give o n ly a very ap p ro x i m ate
m ea s u re of re l ative h u m i d i ty. For m ost
col lections it is best-and m ost conve n i ent­
to perfo rm ongoing m o n itoring a n d record ­
i ng of t e m p e ratu re a n d h u m i d ity c o n d i t i o n s
w i t h a n electro n i c syste m .
Tab l e 7- R i s k o f damage t o p h otogra p h s i n
relat i o n t o fl u ctuati o n s i n h u m idity
F l uctuat i o n L e v e l of R i s k
i
±5% R H no risk
±1 0 % RH minimal
±20% RH m o d e rate
±40% RH high
Types o f Deterioration a n d I nfluencing Factors 2 8 1
 •

\
l
I
Figure 2 1 2
Color photographs stored i n a
cold cham ber at the Museum
of Modern Art, New York,
C R C D G , 2006.

Te m p e ratu re
B lack-and-wh ite p r i nts on paper m ay b e
k e p t a t r o o m t e m peratu re ( 2 1 ° ( ) as long as
sudden and l arge fl u ctuat i o n s are avo ided .
Most color p h otogra p h s ( p ri nts a n d trans­
pare n c i es) as well as m ost n egatives on plas­
t i c fi l m (cel l u l ose n itrate a n d cel l u l ose
acetate) m u st b e kept at low t e m p e ratu re i f
t h e expectat i o n is to keep t h e m f o r a h u n ­
d red years o r m o re . A s a r u l e of t h u m b , l ow­
ering t h e storage tem peratu re by 1 0 ° (
i n creases t h e l i fe expectancy of the most
v u l n e ra b l e p h otogra p h s by a factor of t h re e .
( s e e Tab l e 5) . Large p h otograph a n d fi l m
collections h ave i nvested h eavily i n l ow­
t e m p e ratu re sto rage fac i l ities. S m a l l e r col­
lections a n d th ose with l i m ited fu n d s have
i nsta l l ed o rd i nary frost-free freezers a n d use
strict packag i n g p rotocols to p rotect t h e
material i ns i d e the pac kages fro m d a m age
caused by frost and c o n d e nsati o n . 2
A relatively s i m p l e packag i n g a n d c o n d i ­
t i o n i n g p roced u re fo r d o i ng t h i s has b e e n
p u b l i s h e d . 3 I n t h i s proce d u re , p h otographs
are p l aced in goo d - q u a l ity paper sto rage
enve l o p es a n d t h e n in a card bo a rd b o x . T h e
b ox is s e a l e d i n a p o lyet h y l e n e bag ( Z i p l oc®
type); t h i s fi rst sealed bag is t h e n sealed
i n s i d e a seco n d , s i m i l a r bag a l o n g with a
h u m i d ity i n d i cato r s t r i p as well as a certain
a m o u n t of h u m i d ity- b uffe r i n g m ate r i a l . T h i s
b u ffe r m ay b e h i g h - q u a l ity card b oard t h at
has been d r i e d by b e i n g p l aced briefly i n an

2 8 2 C O N S E R VAT I O N
ove n at 1 00°C; t h e card board w i l l sta b i l iz e
t h e h u m i d ity level i n s i d e t h e b a g by a b s o r b ­
i n g and h o l d i ng any excess water vapo r t h at
fi n d s its way i n fro m t h e exterior w h i l e it i s
i n t h e freezer. T h e h u m i d ity level i n t h e bag
can b e c h e c ked d u ri n g sto rage by m o n itor­
i n g t h e c o l o r of t h e h u m i d ity i n d i cator strip
inside the t rans pare nt o uter bag. This m o n i ­
t o r i n g is faci l itated b y u s e o f an u p right
co m m e rcial freezer u n it with a glass d o o r.
T h e h u m i d ity c o n d i t i o n s i n s i d e t h e b ag
s h o u l d r e m a i n in an acceptab l e range fo r at
l east fi fteen years s i n c e t h e polyethyl e n e
bag i s re l atively i m p e r m e a b l e t o water
vapor at t h e s e low t e m p e ratu re s . W h e n a
p h otograp h i n s i d e t h e package m u st b e
re m oved fo r s o m e reas o n , t h e e nt i re pack­
age i s rem oved fro m the fre ezer and is
a l lowed to e q u i l i b rate with the a m b i e n t
t e m p e rature over a p e r i o d of h o u rs b efo re
it is o p e n e d ; t h i s e l i m i n ates any danger of
c o n d e n sati o n fo r m i n g on t h e s u rface of t h e
p h otogra p h s w h e n t h e package is o p e n e d .

Table 8 - Reco m m e n d ed tempe rature and relative h u m i d ity c o n d i t i o n s for l o ng-term

p rese rvat i o n of p h otographs4

Maxi m u m R e l ative
Type of I m age Su p port Process
Tem p e rature H u m i d ity*

• albumen
glass p l at e • co l l o d i o n 1 8°C 3 0 -40%
• gelatin

• g e l atin s i l v e r
paper 1 8 °C 30-50%
• p ig m e n t
b l ack- a n d - w h i t e
7°C 20-30%
cel l u lose
ge l at i n silver 5°C 20-40%
tri acetate
2°C 20-50%

po lyest e r g e l a t i n s i lver 2 1 °C 20-50%

• C i bachrome
• dye tran s fe r
paper • Polaro i d 1 8 °C 3 0 -50%
• pigment
( F resso n , etc.)

color 2°C 30-40%

j
RC paper chromogenic
-3°C 3 0-50%

2°C 20-30%
c e l l u lose t r i ac-
c h ro m oge n i c -3°C I 20-40%
etate, p o l yester -+
-1 0°C 20-50%

*The r e l a t i v e h u m i d ity m u s t be a t a stable set p o i nt between these v a l u e s , n o t fl u ctuating w i t h i n t h e m .

Ty pes of Deterioration and l n ft u encing Factors 2 8 3

 Pol l utants
Air q u a l ity is a m aj o r concern i n large cities.
Cars a n d i n d u stries produce many a i r p o l l ut­
ants as we l l as d u s t a n d gases (su lfu r d i o x i d e ,
n itrogen oxides, ozo n e , and othe rs) that fi n d
t h e i r way i nto b u i l d i ngs. The d a m ag i ng
effect of such p o l l utants o n ph otographs has
been known s i n ce the 1 85 0 s . H owever,
often forgotten are the p o l l utants gen erated
i ns i d e b u i l d i ngs by constru c t i o n m ateri a l s ,
p a i n t s and var n i s h e s , c l ea n i n g p ro d u cts,
ph otoco p i ers a n d laser printe rs , a n d even
the very m ate rials used to " p rotect " p h oto­
gra p h s , s u ch as wra p p i ngs a n d containers.
O rgan i c acids, ald ehydes, a n d perox ides are
part i c u l arly harmfu l types of c o m p o u n ds
that origi nate i n s i d e b u i l d i ng s . G e n e ra l ly
refe rred to as volat i l e o rgan i c c o m p o u n d s
( V O C s ) , these can c a u s e d eteriorati o n i n
p h otographs a s w e l l as health problems
in h u m a n s . The concentration of VO Cs rises
Figure 2 1 3
in areas that d o not have suffi c i e nt i n put Yellowing o f a gelatin silver print caused by
of fresh a i r. Good ventilation e l i m i n ates the exposure to atmospheric pol l u tants, Roger
acc u m u lation of these c o m p o u n d s i n the a i r. Pie, The Coal Man and His Son (detail),
ca. 1 975.
Fresh paint a p p l ied to w a l l s is a re c u rr i n g
cause of d et e r i o rati o n i n s i lver- based p h o ­
togra p h s . The effects m ay a p p ear i n as b r i ef
a t i m e as the d u ration of a n e x h i b i t i o n of
p h otographs i n sta l l e d i n a n ew l y pai nted
g a l l e ry. S o lvents given off by d ry i n g al kyd
p a i n t s oxid ize the s i lver i m age particles; t h i s
c a u s e s a yel l o w h a z e to deve l o p o v e r t h e
i m age, a p pe a r i n g fi rst i n t h e m i d -tone
areas. Acryl i c a n d v i ny l acetate e m u l s i o n
b a s e pai nts a re l e s s aggressive b u t m ay s t i l l
re lease V O C s w h e n fre s h l y a p p l i e d . B efo re
sto ri n g or d i s p l ay i ng s i l ver- based p h ot o ­
..... - _ ..

graphs i n a fre s h l y pai nted roo m , a d ry i ng

p e r i o d of several weeks with good venti la­ Figure 2 1 4
t i o n s h o u l d be e n s u red ; alternat ively, t h e Photograp hic prints damaged by
adhesive tape, photographer
p h otograph m u s t b e s e a l e d i n s i d e a fram e
unkn own , ca. 1 950.

2 8 4 C O N S E R VAT I O N

Albu men print damaged b y dirt,
photographer u n known, ca. 1 870.
a n d b e h i n d glazing i n s u c h a way t h at
voes can n ot p e n etrat e .
Sto rage
P h otograp h s s h o u l d b e carefu l ly h a n d l e d ,
avo i d ing a l l contact of s k i n a n d fi ngers with
the i m age layer. Pers p i ration a n d body o i l s
can leave traces o n a p hotograp h that w i l l
b e c o m e e v i d e n t o n l y m u c h later. I n m ost
c o l l ecting institutions clean gloves made of
cotton or latex m ust be worn w h e n o n e
h a n d l e s p h otograp h s .
E nv e l o p es a n d b o x e s a r e effective
m ea n s of p rote c t i n g p h otogra p h s from
d u s t and a b ra s i o n w h i l e also l i m it i n g c o n -
Figure 2 1 5
tact with a m b i e nt air t h at m ay be carrying
p o l l utants. H o u s i n g m ate rials such a s
t h e s e s h o u l d b e c h o s e n with great care.
F o r e n v e l o p es a n d s l eeves, paper and
p o lyester a re t h e m aterials of choice.
P a p e r clips a n d e l astic b a n d s m u st b e
avo i d ed - a n d remove d , if fo u n d - s i n c e
t h ey w i l l r u s t a n d oxid ize, c o n t a m i nating
adjacent p h otograp h s . Sev e ra l s p e c i a l ized
c o m p a n ies in N o rth A m erica a n d G reat
B ritain s u p p ly boxes, e nv e l o p e s , s l eeves,
a l b u m s , a n d sto rage fu r n i t u re s p e c i fi c a l ly
d esigned fo r p h otogra p h c o l l e c t i o n s ;
t h e i r cata l o g u e s i l l ustrate m a ny we l l ­
tested p r o d u c t s .
Types of Deterio ration a n d l n fi uencing Factors 2 8 5
 Table 9 - Mater i a l s recom m e n d e d fo r the storage of p h otograp hs and t h o s e to be avo i d e d

Material D o N ot U s e Reco m m e n d e d

c o n se rvat i o n - q u a l ity papers

p a p e r prod u cts paper and cardboard of u n known composition a n d cardboard ( I SO 1 89 0 2 ,
I S O 1 8 9 1 6)

• polyet hylene
terephthalate (often
called po lyester) ( P E T )
• c e l l u lose acetate • polyethylene ( P E )
• c e l l u lose n i trate • polypropy l e n e ( P P)
• polyv i n y l acetate • polystyrene (PS)
plastics • polyvinyl c h l o ride (PVC) • po lytetrafl uoroethy l e n e
• vulcanized rubber (e l a s t i c b a n d s) ( P T F E , Tefl o n")
• plastic p ro d u c t s of u n k n ow n composition • po lymethylm ethacrylate
• polym e rs conta i n i n g c h l o r i n e (PMM A , acry l i c g l a z i ng)
• polycarbo nate ( P C )
• acryl o n it r i l e butad i e n e
styrene (ABS)

'.EQ( 'E I f A N D

Figure 2 1 6
Poor-quality storage envelopes
from the 1 930s. (a) Glassine
paper, (b) acidic paper.

286 C O N S E R V AT I O N
Paper e n ve l o p es
Ph otographs can b e stored i n paper e nve­
l o p e s . The paper m u st b e carefu l ly c h osen
so as not to d a mage t h e s i lve r- based i m ages
of black-a n d -wh ite p h otographs by releas­
i ng harmfu l gases . Such paper is often
refe rred to as acid-free paper, i . e . , paper
that is not acidic a n d that will n ot b e c o m e
a c i d i c as i t age s . Poor-q u a l i ty a c i d i c p a p e r
w i l l itself deterio rate a n d m ay cause d ete­
r i o rati o n of p h otographs i n close co ntact. I t
is oft e n b etter t o c h o o s e a paper with an
a l k a l i n e b u ffer, i . e . , one that has a basic pH
rat h e r than b e i n g n e u t ra l or a c i d i c . T h e
i n c o r p o rated a l k a l i n e m ateri a l - u s u a l l y c a l ­
c i u m carbo nate - acts t o prese rve b o t h t h e
paper e n cl o s u re a n d t h e p h otogra p h s
h o u se d w i t h i n it. B u t p H is n ot t h e o n ly
m ea s u re of s u i t a b i l ity. The s u it a b i l ity of
paper fo r stori ng p h otograp h s is g uaranteed
i f t h e n o rm s l i sted i n two d o c u m ents fro m
t h e I nternat i o n a l Standards O rgan izat i o n ­
I S O 1 89 02 a n d I S O 1 89 1 6 - a re respected .
T h e latte r standard i n corporates t h e
Photogra p h i c Activity Test ( PAT), a very
s p e cific pass/fa i l test that e n s u re s t h at t h e
sto rage m aterial w i l l n o t i t s e l f h a rm t h e
p h otogra p h . T o b e a b l e to s e l l products as
s u it a b l e fo r sto r i ng p h otogra p h s , m a n u fac­
t u re rs m us t guarantee co nfo rm ity to these
standards. This explains why s u c h p rod u ct s
m ay b e relatively e x p e n s ive.
S u itable paper is c h e m i c a l ly stab l e ; it is
made with cotton fi bers o r b l eached wood
p u l p ; a n d i t m u st have a n a l p ha-ce l l u l ose
content of at least 87%. I t m u st n ot contai n
any l i gn i n , dyes, waxes , metal l i c parti c l e s ,
o r any m aterials t h at a re l i kely to d a m age
t h e p h otograph by d iffu s i o n or t h rough
d e c o m posit i o n . I t m u st not c o n t a i n any
c h e m ic a l i m p u rities such as free s u lfu r o r
p e rox i d e s . A n d i t s s i z i n g m us t b e e i t h e r
n eutral o r re n d e red b a s i c b y the i n c l u s i o n
of a n a l k a l i n e rese rve .
W h e n s u c h papers a re n ot avai l a b l e , it
i s a l so p o s s i b l e to u s e a n u m b e r of very
h i g h - q u a l ity p a p e rs m a d e fo r paper c o n s e r­
vat i o n a n d fo r t h e g r a p h i c arts, w h i c h h ave
c o n s t i t u e n t s s i m i la r to t h o s e of p h otogra p h
sto rage p a p e r s . S u c h p a p e rs c a n b e c u t
a n d fo l d e d t o create c u s t o m h o u s i ngs a n d
i nterleav i n g s h e et s .
A parti c u l a rly u s e f u l m ate rial i s D u p o n t ' s
Tyv e k®. I t i s a s p u n b o n d ( n o n woven) po ly­
ethy l e n e fi be r m ate rial that res e m b l e s
p a p e r b u t that h a s t re m e n d o u s t e a r resis­
tance, which explains its c o m m o n a p p l ica­
tion in postal m a i l i ng e nv e l o p e s . T h i s
m ate rial i s a p o s s i b l e a l t e r n ative fo r e n ve­
l o pes fo r t h e sto rage of glass p lates or
paper p r i n t s .
G l ass i n e paper h a s b e e n u s e d fo r
decades by p h otograp h e rs to sto re t h e i r
n egatives. T h i s i s a s e m i t ra n s pa re n t , heav i l y
c a l e n d ared paper made fro m a h ig h ly pro­
cessed p u l p . Old envelopes a n d sl e eves
made fro m glassine a re often ye l l ow a n d
brittle. W h i l e th ey h ave provi d e d a great
deal of p rotection over m a ny years of u s e ,
t h ey h ave also caused s o m e d a m age . O n e
p ro b l e m is that the glass i n e p a p e r s t i c k s
stu b b o rn ly to gelat i n e m u l s i o n s i f t h e pack­
age gets wet. N ew types of glass i n e paper
are now avai l a b l e t h at i n c l u d e an a l k a l i n e
reserve, b u t these a re n o t particularly rec­
o m m e n d e d fo r sto rage of p h otograp h s .
Polyester a n d papers m eeting the I S O stan­
d ards for p h otogra p h c o n s e rvat i o n a re
al ways t h e best poss i b l e c h o i ce .
Types o f Deterioration a n d I nfluencing Factors 2 8 7
 / I

'

L7

Figure 2 1 7
Various designs for paper storage
envelopes and sleeves.

2 8 8 C O N S E R VA T I O N
 Figure 2 1 8
Polyester storage sleeve.
Polyester allows for excellent
protection and visibil ity of the
image without having to remove
the object from its housing.
Plastic envelopes and s l eeves
I t i s essential to carefu l ly choose p l astic
envelopes o r s l eeves fo r negatives a n d tra n s ­
pare n cies as well as p l a s t i c sto rage pages for
a l b u m s . S h eets made fro m p lasticized poly­
vi nyl c h lo ride (PVC), fo r i nstance, s h o u l d n ot
be used for sto r i ng p h otogra p h s . This mate­
rial yel l ows and m ay re lease hyd roc h l oric
acid as well as p lasticize rs (phthalates) that
can d a m age p h otograp h s .
T h e p l astics most h ig h ly recom m e nded
are p olyester a n d p o lyethylene. Po lyester­
and especially p o lyethyl ene tere p h th a l ate
( P E T) - has proven u sefu l over t i m e i n a vari­
ety of conservat i o n a p p l i cati o n s . P E T is
ava i l a b l e u n der a vari ety of trade n ames
i n c l u d i n g Myl ar®, M e l i n ex® ( D u p o nt), and
Te rphane® ( R h o n e - Po u le nc) I t is physically
a n d c h e m ically sta b l e . Its o n ly d isadvantage
seems to b e its tendency to acc u m u l ate an
electrostatic charge.
Polyethylene ( P E ) i s a cheaper a lternative
to p olyester. W h i l e it is less transparent, less
rigid, and l ess d u rable than p o lyester, its
cost is a fraction of that of p o lyester. I t is
often used for sto rage of large v o l u m e s of
m ate ria l .
W h i c h e n v e l o p e s t o c h o ose?
The material and the fo rm of the ideal stor­
age envelope depend on t h e part i c u l a r
a p p l icatio n . Po lyester has t h e advantage o f
a l l owing t h e d o c u m e n t o r i mage to b e s e e n
w i t h o u t removing it fro m its e n c l o s u re ; it is
probably the best c h o i ce for p hotograp h s
that are fre q u e ntly accessed. O t h e r w i s e , t h e
p referred material is paper s i n ce it does not
seal the p h otograph h e r m etically b u t i n stead
b u ffers h u m i d ity and also a l l ows for a grad­
ual e q u i l i b rati o n of the m o isture co ntent of
the photograph with the a m b i ent R H . I n t h e
specific i n stance o f nitrate n egatives, p a p e r
sleeves avo i d t h e accu m u l at i o n of d a m aging
gases i ns i d e a sealed a i rspace , as may hap­
p e n with plastic sleeves. S o m e sto rage
e n c l o s u res are designed to c o m b i n e t h e
b u ffe ring q u a l ities of paper with t h e advan­
tages of plastic. For i nstance, a print e n c l o ­
s u re m ay consist of a p l a s t i c s l eeve w i t h a
s heet of goo d - q u al ity paper or card board
i n s i d e ; t h e print i m age re m a i n s v i s i b l e i ns i d e
the e n c l o s u re b u t b e n efits fro m d i rect con­
tact with t h e paper.
Various fo rmats are ava i l a b l e : envelopes
(open o n one side o n ly) ; sleeves (o p e n o n
Types of Deterioration a n d l nA u en ci ng Factors 2 8 9
 two sides); or fo ld ers (o p e n o n t h re e sid es),
with o r without fl a p s . The p refe rred option
will d e pe n d o n t h e size and condition of t h e
p h otograp h s . E n v e l o p e s have o n e o r m o re
seams that r u n along an edge or down t h e
m i d d l e of o n e of t h e s u rfaces. I n the latt e r
case, it i s i m portant to e n s u re that the p h o ­
tograph is p l aced i n t h e e n v e l o p e w i t h its
i mage- carrying layer fac ing away fro m the
seam to p revent d a m age by t h e a d h e s ive or
by a i r contact i n t h e s h a l l ow s pace created
by the seam .

Table 1 0 - P a p e r a n d polyester: advantages a n d d i sadvantages

Material Advantages D i sadvantages

• h u m i d ity- b u ffe ring effect • opaque

• a l l ows v e n t i l a t i o n of a ny d a m ag i n g • c a n tear
paper
g a s e s gen erated by t h e o bject • permeable to external
• n e u t r a l i zes s o m e p o l l u ta n ts p o l l utants

• transparent • e l e ctrostatic
• strong, resists tearing • may stick to gelatin if wetted
polyester ( P E T)
• i n er t a n d stable • seals o bjects i n along w i t h
• p rotects from external p o l l u t a n t s any g a s e s t h ey gen erate

Table 1 1 - N am e s a n d acro n y m s of p l astics u s e d i n conservat i o n

Acronyms Name

ABS acryl o n itrile b u t a d i e n e styre ne

PE p o lyethy l e n e

PEN o r P E N P po lyethyl e n e n a p h t h alate

PET or PETP po lyethylene t e re p h t h alate (often called polyester)

PMMA p o l y m ethylmet hacrylate (ac r y l i c g l a z i ng)

pp po lypropylene

PS po lystyrene

PTFE po lytetrafl u o roethylene (Te fl o n")

290 C O N S E RVAT I O N
Albums
Most c o m m e rc i a l ly ava i l a b l e a l b u m s are not over the e n t i re verso s u rface of the p r i n t - i s
approp riate i n terms of conservat i o n . Poor­ not a s i m p l e m atter. I f t h i s t y p e of m o u n t i ng
q u a l ity paper a n d p l astics, self-ad h e ri ng is n ecessary, it s h o u l d be d o n e by a conser­
cove r s h eets (" m agn etic" a l b u m pages) , a n d vator o r, at least, with the advice of s u c h a
oth e r s u c h e l e m ents d o n o t p rovide a stor­ p rofess i o n a l . Of the many types of c o m m e r­
age e n v i ro n ment c o m pati b l e with l o n g-term cial ad hesives, very few p rovide the req u i red
p rese rvat i o n . But a few approp riate a n d characte ristics (reve rsi b i l ity, compat i b i l ity,
s i m p l e a l b u m syste m s a r e ava i l a b l e . These i n e rtn ess) fo r m o u nt i ng p h otogra p h s . S o m e
use polyester o r p o lyethylene pages t h at water- based a d h esives - s u c h as starch paste
i n corporate sleeves of various standard sizes; o r m ethyl ce l l u l ose - p rovide the n e cessary
the p h otograp h s s l i d e i n to t h e s l eeves and sta b i l ity, but t h e i r a p p l icat i o n may alter t h e
the pages are fixed i nto ring b i n d e rs . The s u rface of glossy prints o r p r o d u c e d isto r­
b i n d e rs are then p l aced i n custom b oxes t h at t i o n s . I n a d d it i o n , s u c h adhesives are i n ef­
keep t h e p h otogra p h s p rotected fro m a i r, fective on t h e plastic- coated s u rface of
d u st, a n d p o l l u tant i n fi ltrati o n . p h otograp h i c p r i nts made o n RC paper
I f a trad itional paper a l b u m i s req u i red , s u pport. These req u i re synthetic adh esives
t h e paper m ust conform to t h e s a m e stan­ s u c h as Acry l o i d B -72® a n d l< l u cel G ® , o r a
d ard s as n oted p rev i o u s l y fo r sto rage e nve­ d o u b l e-sided p ressu re-s e n s it ive tape s u c h
l o p e s . The p r i nts are m o u nted as 3M N o . 41 5 ® .
reve rs i b ly - i . e . , the m o u n t can be
rem oved easily without l eaving a
trace a n d with o u t risk for the
pri nt-with small p h oto corners
made of p o lyester, p o lyethy l e n e ,
o r conse rvati o n - q u a l ity paper.
With p h oto co rners, n o adhesive
will come i n d i rect contact with
the p h otograph .
F u l l a d hesive m o u nting of p h o ­
togra p h s - i . e . , a n overal l m o u nt­
i n g in w h i c h adhesive is a p p l i ed

Figure 2 1 9
Storage binder with box.

Types of Deterioration and l nftuencing Factors 2 9 1

 �
\
\
I

Figure 220
Designs for various types
of photo corners.

2 9 2 C O N S E R VA T I O N
 Figure 2 2 1
Collection of glass p l ate negatives housed in original plate boxes. G lass plate
negatives are often found stored in the original boxes in which the unexposed plates
were del ivered. These boxes are made of poor-qual ity material and should be
replaced but may have to be kept for their inscriptions or for their historical value.

B oxes
The boxes i n which p hotogra p h i c paper is
sold are made of p o o r- q u a l ity card board
a n d s h o u l d n ot be used to store fi n ished
ph otogra p h s . S h oe b oxes are a n even
worse c h o ice.
B oxes that are designed for sto r i ng p h o ­
tographs m ust b e m a d e fro m m ate rials that
w i l l n ot d a m age t h e i r contents . Acceptable
construction materials are conservat i o n ­
q ual ity card board ; m etal coated w i t h heat­
c u red fi n is h e s ; and rigid plastics s u c h as
polypro pyl e n e , p o lystyre n e , o r A B S . Plastics
are n ot always easy to identify but t h e i r
acronym m ay b e pri nted o r stamped o n the
box (see Tab l e 1 1 ) .

Types of Deterioration and I n fl uencing Factors 2 9 3

 Figure 2 2 2
(a) Storage vault for graph i c
a n d ph otograp hic collections;
(b) drawer fitted for storage of
daguerreotypes.

S t o rage fu r n i t u re
Wood sto rage c a b i nets-whet h e r they a re
made of s o l i d wood , plywo o d , or an engi­
n e e red wood p ro d u ct- s h o u l d b e avo i d ed
if possi b l e . T h ey a l l e m it varying d egrees of
volat i l e o rgan i c c o m p o u n d s (VO Cs) that
m ay d a m age p h otogra p h s . Metal s h e l v i ng
a n d c a b i n ets a re t h e p refe rred opti o n .
Plated stee l , a n o d ized a l u m i n u m , a n d steel
coated with a h eat- c u red fi n ish o r with
c u red ep oxy paint a re all good m ateri a l s fo r
metal storage fu r n i t u re . C u red e poxy fi n -
ishes are particu larly res istant a n d e m i t no
solvents. Most metal offi ce fu r n i t u re c u r­
re ntly ava i l a b l e is fi n i s h e d with h eat- cu red
fi n i s h es that m eet the req u i re m e nts fo r
conservat i o n of p h otogra p h s .
I f wood sto rage u n its a re t h e o n ly
c h o i c e , p h otogra p h s s h o u l d be c arefu l l y
e n c l o se d i n e n v e l o p e s a n d boxes b efore
b e i n g p l aced in d rawers or on s h elves a n d
s h o u l d n e v e r be i n d i rect contact with a
wood s u rface .

2 9 4 C O N S E R VAT I O N
Marking
I f i d e nt i fi c at i o n m a rkings m u st b e made on
the verso s u rface of a p r i nt, a m e d i u m - h a rd
( H B) graph ite p e n c i l that w i l l n ot sc ratch
the p a p e r s h o u l d b e used . A b a l l p o i n t pen
s h o u l d n ever b e used s i n ce c o m p o n e nts of
the ink m ay d iffu se t h rough the paper sup­
p o r t a n d reach the i mage layer. P i g m e nted
ink ( I n d i a ink o r C h i n ese black i n k) m ay b e
a n acce pta b l e a l t e r n at ive b ut req u i res m u ch
m o re care in a p p l icat i o n . F o r RC p a p e r
base, fi n e fe lt-t i p p e n s m u s t b e u s e d ; sev­
e ra l fe lt-t i p pens have been tested fo r t h i s
p u rpose a n d a re avai l a b l e from archival
m aterial s u p p l i e r s . N ote t h at " Pe r m a n e n t "
fe lt-t i p p e n s u s e i n k t h at i s i n s ol u b l e i n
water; t h i s d o e s not n e cessarily mean that
the pen has been shown to be safe fo r use
o n ph otogra p h s .

No rm e
Internatio n ale
ISO 1 8934:
2006
Mai 2006

Figure 2 2 3
�';;:��l� !erla/s . Multiple media
archives. S!orage
Cover page of an international
standard on storage conditions
for photographs. �

Tab l e 1 2 - l nternat i o n a l stan dards relat i n g to t h e c o n s e rvation of p h otogra p h s

Reference C o d e Title of D o c u m ent

I m aging m at e r i a l s - Processed i maging materia l s - A l b u m s , fra m ing a n d

ISO 1 8 902
sto rage materials

ISO 1 89 1 1 I m aging m at e ria l s - Processed safety p h otogra p h i c fi l m s - Storage p ractices

I maging materials- Processed i m aging materials - Photogra p h i c activity test

I S O 1 891 6
for e nc l o s u re m aterials

ISO 1 891 8 I maging m at e r i a l s - Processed p h otog r a p h i c p l ates- Storage p ractices

I m aging m at e r i a l s - Processed ph otogra p h i c refl e ction p ri n t s -Sto rage

I S O 1 8920
p ractices

I m aging m aterials -Wet-processed si lver-gelat i n type b lack-a n d -wh ite

I S O 1 89 2 9
ph otogra p h i c refl ection p ri n t s -Specifications for dark storage

I S O 1 8 93 4 I maging m aterials - M u l t i p l e m e d i a archives- Storage e nv i r o n m e n t

Types of Deterioration and Influencing Factors 2 9 5

 E x h i b it i o n
Lighting
Light exposure can damage s o m e ph oto­
graphs, espec i a l ly p h otoge n i c d rawings,
a l b u m e n prints, p l ati n u m p r i n t s , cya n o ­
types, a n d even s o m e dag u e rreotypes.
G e latin s i lver p r i n ts are ge n e ra l ly much m o re
res istant to l ight- i n d u ced d a m age, although
p o o r p rocessing treatment m ay leave them
v u l n e ra b l e to light, a n d the optical b righte n ­
e r s i n corporated i nto recent gelat i n silver
papers m ay be "extingu ished " by l a rge light
doses. C h ro m oge n i c p rocess pri nts are con­
s i d e red q u ite l ight fugitive, even t h o ugh
s i n ce 1 9 9 0 the l ight stab i l ity of s o m e papers
has greatly i m p rove d . " D igital output" i n k­
jet pri nts were generally prone to rapid l ight
fad ing i n the fi rst years of the new tec h n o l ­
o g y (late twe ntieth century) , b u t the n ew
ge nerati ons of i n k sets and s u b strates are
b e l i eved to e q u a l c u rre n t c h ro m oge n ic
p rocess papers fo r light stab i l ity.
P h otographs s h o u l d never b e h u ng facing
a window; rather, they should b e pl aced i n
darker l o cati o n s a n d l i t with wel l - contro l led
artificial l ight s o u rces. I f repeated use o r
exte n d ed exposure r i s k s d a m aging a print,
copies o r facs i m i l es s h o u l d be su bstituted
fo r the orig i n a l . Such copies c a n n ot enti rely
replace the experience of viewing an original
b u t , w h e n they are carefu l ly a n d accu rately
m a d e , they w i l l satisfy most of the need for
access and d is p l ay. S u c h copies m ay be made
with the original p rocess, by conventional
copying o n c o ntem p o rary si l ve r- based mate­
rials, by d igital i maging, o r else u s i ng a c o m ­
b i n ation of tec h n i q u e s .
I nstitutions that h o l d i m po rtant ph oto­
graph col lections have adopted s o m e r u l es
2 9 6 C O N S E R VA T I O N
for the exhi bition of ph otographs that may
be u sefu l i n d i cators for anyo n e in possession
of cherished ph otogra p h s . F i rst, only l ow­
i ntensity i l l u m i n at i o n s h o u l d b e used on
ph otographs 50 - 3 0 0 lux (5 -2 8 foot­
candles) - as meas u red by an a p p ro p ri ate
i l l u m i n an ce m eter ( l u x m eter) -with very low
U V content. U V rays are i n v i s i b l e - a n d t h u s
d o n ot contri b ute to o u r perce pti o n of t h e
i mage - b ut they can sti l l c a u s e d a m age. T h e
U V content of nat u ral light i s part i c u l arly
high, b ut it is also e l evated i n some artificial
l ight. N atural l ight s o u rces are i n h e re ntly
d iffi c u l t to control and s h o u l d b e avo ided in
favor of contro l l e d artificial sou rces with UV
fi lters . The UV content of tungste n , halogen ,
or fi u o rescent l a m ps s h o u l d be fi ltered o ut
to a level b e l ow 75 m i c rowatts per l u m e n .
Even with low-intensity fi ltered i l l u m i nati o n ,
photographs c a n n ot b e d i splayed i n defi n itely
s i n ce the d a m aging effects of l ight are
c u m u l ative. P h otographs that are particu­
l arly light fugitive can be d i s played fo r o n ly
short periods of t i m e before b e i ng retu rned
to dark sto rage. Such treatment m akes it
poss i b l e for futu re generat i o n s to view them
i n something approach i ng their original
con d itio n .
T h e best way o f q u a n tifying t h e l ight
expos u re received by a p h otogra ph d u ri ng a
d i s p lay p e r i o d is to c a l c u l ate the acc u m u ­
l ated l ight d ose. T h i s i s d o n e b y m u l t i p lying
the i l l u m i n a n ce ( l ux) by the e x h i b i t i o n d u ra­
tion ( h o u rs) the res u l t i s the l ight dose i n
l ux- h o u rs . S everal c o n se rvat i o n p u b l ica­
tions have recom m e n d e d specific l ight d ose
l i m its fo r partic u l a r types of o bj e c t s . These
m ust n e cessarily be u n d e rstood as o rd e r­
of- m agn it u d e ap p roxi mations s i n c e every
p h otogr a p h has its own h isto ry a n d i n h e r­
e n t c h a racte ristics t h at w i l l r e n d e r it m o re
or l e ss v u l n e ra b l e (see Ta b l e 1 3) .
P h otogra p h s t h o ught to be s t a b l e h ave
s o m et i m e s s h ow n signs of rap i d deterio ra­
t i o n w h e n exposed to l ight, w h i l e o t h e rs
h ave exceeded t h e expos u re t h re s h o l d
w i t h o u t t h e sl ightest s i g n o f fad i ng. T h i s
p ro b l e m , w h i c h arises fro m t h e d i vers ity of
o bj e cts a n d t h e u n certain nature of t h e i r
l ig h t s e n s itiv ity, i s n ot l i m ited t o p h otogra­
p hy. Research is cu rrently b e i n g c o n d u cted
to deve l o p a m et h o d fo r eva l u at i n g t h e
s e n sitivity of s p e c i fi c o bj e ct s . T h i s i n volves
s u bj e c t i n g a m i n ute portion of the o bj e c t to
a m i cro b e a m of very i nt e n s e l ight u n t i l a
m ea s u r a b l e c h a nge is o bs e rve d . T h i s
" m i crofad e o m eter" t e s t p rovides q u a ntita­
tive d ata o n the l ight s e n s iti vity of s p e c i fi c
o bj e c t s . 5

Figure 224
Measuring
light levels
with a
l uxmeter.

Tab l e 1 3 - Reco m m e n dat i o n s for a n n ual l ight dose l i m its for p h otograph d i s p l ay6

S e n s i t i vity Level Processes Max i m u m Light Dose

• n i n e te e n t h - c e n t u ry p h otogra p h s
• c h ro m oge n i c p rocess p r i n t s
h igh 1 2 , 0 0 0 l u x- h o u rs p e r year
• i n stant process color p r i n t s
• dye transfer p r i n t s

• C i b ac h ro m e p ri n t s
medium 4 2 , 0 0 0 l u x- h o u rs p e r year
• g e l a t i n s i lver p r i nts o n RC paper s u p po r t

• gelat i n s i lver prints o n baryta paper

low 8 4 , 0 00 l u x - h o u rs p e r year
• p ig m e n t p rocess prints ( m o n o c h r o m e o r co l o r)

Types of Deterioration and l n ft uencing Factors 2 9 7

 F ra m i ng
Mats
Putting a p h otograp h i nto a m at before
fra m i n g p rovides it with the best p rotection
d u ri ng e x h i b i t i o n , h a n d l i ng, a n d sto rage a n d
also has t h e advantage o f b e i ng c o m p l etely
reversi b l e . U s i ng standard-size m ats a l l ows
p h otogra p h i c p r i n ts of various sizes to be
safely p u t into stan d ard-size storage boxes
a n d fra m e s .
A m at is made of t w o s h eets of m at
board - of t h e s a m e size a n d t h i c kness-that
are j o i n ed togeth e r with a paper- or l i n e n ­
t a p e h i nge p laced a l o n g o n e of t h e long
edges . T h e top board has a bevel- edge win­
dow cut to a size a p p roxi m ating t hat of the
298 C O N S E R V AT I O N
ph otograp h i mage - it m ay be s l ightly l a rger
o r sl ightly s m a l l e r. The mat often i m p roves
the appearance of the i mage and also p re­
vents t h e print fro m contacting t h e g l a z i ng
(after it is framed) o r fro m contacti ng, and
b e i ng a b raded by, other m atted p r i n ts when
t hey are stacked i n storage. The print is
attach e d to the backb oard with plastic or
paper p h oto corners t hat h ave b e e n
designed t o be suffi c i ently large a n d strong
to h o l d the p r i nt i n the mat w h i l e i n a verti­
cal positio n .
Conservat i o n - q u a l ity m at board con­
forms to t h e same stand ards as other
Figure 2 2 5
Custom win dow overmat with backboard a n d
protective polyester cover. Using custom mats for
photographic prints help protect them i n storage
and makes it easier to mount them for exh ibition.

conservat i o n - q u a l ity paper products. Its
c o l o r i s u s ually white, c rea m , o r gray. I f col­
o red board is used, it m ust be fo r m u l ated s o
that its c o l o rants d o n ot s t a i n o r m igrate.
Frames
Frames fo r p h otograp h s are made of a l u m i ­
n u m , lacquered metal, o r varn ished wood.
The glazing m ay be glass, which p rotects the
work from exposure to d ust a n d p o l l utants;
h owever, g lass m ay cause p ro b l e m s due to
its frag i l ity a n d weight. Acry l i c sheet m ate­
rial with an i n corporated U V fi lter is fre-
Figure 226
Storage of large framed photographs at the
Musee d'art moderne de Saint- E tienne.
q u e ntly su bstituted for glass, prov id i ng a n
additional p rotection fro m d am aging U V
e n ergy. U nfo rtu nately, U V-fi ltering acry l i c
s h eet m aterial is m o re expen sive than glass;
it can deve l o p a n d hold a n e l ectrostatic
charge; and it can b e scratched easi ly.
Fra m i n g s h o u l d be carried out in a d ry,
d u st-free workroom wh e re h u m i d ity a n d
d ust w i l l n ot be trapped i ns i d e the fram e
package. T h i s wo u l d b e especially risky
s i n ce , u n d e r certain c o n d i t i o n s , trapped
m oisture m ight condense on the i n n e r s u r­
face of t h e glazing a n d cause deteriorat i o n .
Types of Deterioration and l nftue ncing Factors 2 9 9
 T h e con s e rvato r
I n t h e past t h i rty years t h e s p e c i al ty fi e l d of
p h otograph conse rvat i o n has evolved rap­
i d ly, m ost s i g n ifican tly i n the trai n i ng of
p rofessional c o n s e rvators. P h otograph c o n ­
servat i o n is now t a u g h t as a s p e c ialty w i t h i n
t h e fram ewo rk o f a n u m be r of u n iversity
grad u ate trai n i ng p rograms in c o n s e rvat i o n .
I n t h e s e c o u rses, students a r e taught h o w
t o e xa m i n e w o r k s , d iagnose d et e r i o rat i o n ,
a p p l y p r i n c i p l e s of p reventive c o n s e rvat i o n ,
a n d ca rry out treat m e n t i n terve n t i o n s
w h e re req u i re d .1 P h otograph c o n s e rvat i o n is
based o n t h e s a m e fu n d a m e ntal p r i n c i p l e s
of conse rvat i o n t h at apply to oth e r m e d i a :
m i n i m a l i nterve nti o n , respect fo r t h e i nteg­
rity of t h e o bject, d o c u m e ntati o n , and c o m ­
pati b i l ity a n d reve rs i b i l ity of a l l m ate rials
used i n i nterve nt i o n s . Any action taken by
a conse rvato r m ust be g u i d e d by an u n d e r­
sta n d i n g a n d respect fo r t h e c u l t u ra l val u e s ,
t h e m aterial h i sto ry, a n d t h e a u t h enticity
of the o bject. Any actions taken m u st be
acco m pa n ied by a p propriate d o c u m e n ­
tati o n .
Conservators d o n ot h ave m i racu lous
treatments that reverse t h e action of time
a n d restore p hotographs to their original
condition. Misg u i d e d effo rts to d o so can
c o m p ro m ise t h e evidence of t h e age o r t h e
pattern of use of a n o bject. Many c h e m i cal
restorat i o n treatments of t h e past t h at were
i ntended to restore a n d " revive" i m ages-
302 C O N S E RVAT I O N
such as b l each-an d - redeve l o p m e nt o r c h e m ­
i c a l i ntensifi cati o n - are not accepted today
as co nservat i o n treatments in m u s e u m col­
lecti o n s since t h ey carry serious risks a n d d o
n o t respect t h e i ntegrity of t h e original p h o ­
tograp h . O n c e s u c h cosmetic treat m ents t o
i m p rove t h e appearance of an o bj e ct are
d o n e , t h ey cannot b e u n d o n e .
A n y i nterve n t i o n s h o u l d be d o n e c a u ­
t i o u s l y a n d req u i res t h e advice o r t h e s k i l l s
of a p h otograph conse rvator. N o "standard "
treat m ents e x i s t t hat c a n b e reco m m e n d ed
g l o b a l ly a n d a p p l i e d i n d iscri m i nately. Each
photograph presents a u n i q u e c o m b i n ation
of c haracteristics d erived fro m t h e nature of
the p rocess, the d etai ls of its factu re , a n d
the h i story of i t s sto rage a n d u s e . B efore
any intervention is u n d e rtake n , t h e p h oto­
g ra p h i c p ro cess m u st be identified a n d
u n d e rstood a n d t h e o r i g i n and extent of any
dete r i o ration m ust b e assesse d . S i m pl e
i nterve n t i o n s c a n h ave s e r i o u s a n d u n ex­
pected c o n s e q u e n c e s . For i n stance,
a l t h o ug h p h otogra p h s are u s u a l l y washed i n
water a t t h e t i m e t h ey are made, p u t t i n g an
old p h otograph i nto water may cause the
i m age l ayer to detach fro m its s u pport or
may cause overal l i mage fad ing. Even s i m p l e
d u st i n g req u i res t h o ught a n d care: d u st
s h o u l d b e rem oved with a gentle stream of
a i r or with a soft b r u s h in o rd e r to avo i d
s cratc h i ng t h e p h otogra p h i c su rface.
Figure 2 2 7
Photograph conservators
exa m i n i ng a group of
photographs. Conservators
receive specialized training at the
graduate u n iversity degree level.
D igital tec h n i q ues fo r
i m age reco n stru cti o n
W h i l e c h e m ic a l t reatm e nts t o resto re a n d
revive p h otograp h s are n ot reco m m e n d e d ,
o t h e r m e a n s of i m age re constructi o n are
avai l a b l e . Trad i t i o n a l optical tec h n i q u es
based on p h otogra p h i c d u p l ication have
today b e e n su p p l e m e nted - a n d l argely
replaced - by d igital i m age p rocess i n g tech­
n i q u es . D igital i mage processing i s a power­
fu l t o o l th at can p ro d u ce re c o n s t r u c t i o n s of
fad ed a n d d a m aged i m ages with re l ative
ease a n d s i m p l i c ity. T h ese reconstructions
can c o m e p retty c l o s e to t h e original
a p p earance of t h e d a m aged o bject. S u c h
p roced u res a re i n c o rrectly refe rred to a s
" resto rat i o n , " l ead i n g to s o m e c o n fu s i o n ­
t h e t e r m " restorat i o n " s h o u l d u s e d fo r
i nterve n t i o n s carried o u t d i rectly on the
o ri g i n a l o bject, n ot fo r t h e c reat i o n of
d e r i vatives. W i t h o u t any c o l o r i m e t r i c or
d e n s it o m etric references, s u c h rec o n s t r u c­
t i o n is s u bjective a n d based o n ly on a best
g u e ss as to the a p p earance of the o riginal
o bject. 2 T h i s proce d u re i s J U S t i fi e d , fo r
i n stance, w h e n a p r i s t i n e vers i o n of t h e
i m age i s n e cessary fo r d o c u m entati o n p u r­
poses; h owever, it is i m p o rtant to re m e m ­
b e r that reco nstructi o n s h ows n e i t h e r a l l
t h e characteristics of t h e o r i g i n a l p h oto­
graph, nor t h e tech n i q u es used by t h e p h o ­
tograp h e r, n o r a l l t h e traces of the o bj e c t ' s
h i sto ry. I n o t h e r w o r d s , th e re is s o m e l o s s
of a u t h e n t i city. D igital rec o n structi o n
req u i res t h at t h e o p e rator h ave a fam i l i arity
with t h e re n d e r i ng c h a racteristics of h i s ­
t o r i c a l p h otogra p h i c p rocesses; a n ethical
fra m ewo rk to determ i n e w h e re reconstruc­
t i o n stops a n d fab r i cati o n begi n s ; a n d a
m astery of t h e d igital i m aging c h a i n from
scan n e r to screen to p ro c e s s i ng software to
p r i nter. T h e a i m of d igital reconstru cti o n i s
to create the b e s t poss i b l e i mage fro m t h e
o rigi n a l , b u t t h i s s h o u l d b e d o n e with i n a
fra m ewo rk t h at res pects the ph otograp h e r,
t h e vi ewer, a n d a l s o the o bj e c t a n d its h is ­
to ry. T h e rec o n s t r u c t i o n p rocess a n d i t s
c o m p o n e n t e l e m e nts s h o u l d b e d o c u ­
m e nted i n s u c h a way t h at fut u re u s e rs can
u n d erstand t h e n at u re a n d extent of the
m a n i p u l at i o n s that have b e e n a p p l i e d .
Conservation Treatment 3 0 3
c
0
· -

1d
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L
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l./)
c
0
u
-0
c
rd
 D igitizat i o n of p h otogra p h co l l ecti o n s
D igitization has beco m e a fo r m i d a b l e tool
fo r catalogu i ng a n d access ing the i m ages
h e l d in p h otogra p h col lecti o n s . B u t w h i l e
d igital reso u rces a l l o w rapid access to
i mages and red uce h a n d l i ng, a digitizati o n
p rogram s h o u l d n ot b e t h o ught to co nstitute
conservati on of t h e original p h otogra p h s .
D igitization o n its own is n ot a way o f " s av­
i ng " p h otograp h c o l l ectio n s . The o n l i n e
avai l a b i l ity of i m ages of heritage o bjects,
espec i a l ly photograp h s , has greatly i n creased
i n the past few years. N atio n a l i n stituti o n s ,
a r t m us e u m s , arch ives o f l o c a l h istory, p h i l ­
anthropic orga n izat i o n s , a n d a l s o i n d ividuals
have a l l contrib uted to the ever-growing
q u antity of visual res o u rces ava i l a b l e on the
I nternet. Co l l ections that would h ave n ever
been seen otherwise- many collections of
n egatives, for instance-are now acces s i b l e .
S u c h a n effo rt is a d m i ra b l e ; but if these
collections are to b e p roperly conse rved , t h is
mass d igitizat i o n m ust be d o n e i n a carefu l
a n d o rgan ized fas h i o n . The effo rt extends
not o n l y to the p reparatory work of i n dexing
a n d catal ogu i ng , b u t also to t h e hand l i ng
306 C O N S E R VAT I O N
and t h e p hysi cal p reparat i o n of the original
p hotogra p h s themselves. Spend i ng m o n ey
on digitization and digital i nfo rmat i o n stor­
age fac i l ities s h o u l d n ot be considered a n
alternative to conse rvati o n o f the orig i n al
mate r i a l . G iven t h e wide range of poss i b i l i ­
ties offe red b y cu rre n t d igital i m aging a n d
del ivery syste m s a n d o u r l a c k of l o ng-ter m
experience w i t h s u c h p rojects, some serious
t h o ught should b e given to esta b l i s h i n g
some g ro u n d rules fo r d igitizing i m ages o f
c u l t u ra l h e r itage.
A p h otograph has a m ateri a l , p hysical
man ifestat i o n that its digital copy lacks.
Materials a n d methods for m a k i ng p h oto­
graphs have varied fro m one p h otograp h e r
t o a n o t h e r a n d have ch anged rad ically over
the h istory of the m e d i u m . Neglecting t h e
original p hotograp h o n ce it is d igitized i s
com para b l e t o d e c i d i n g that a painting c a n
b e l eft t o deteriorate o n ce a good reprod uc­
t i o n exists. T h e reprod uction lacks many of
the q u a l ities of the original and can not fu lly
rep lace it i n its h istorical a n d m aterial s i g n i fi ­
cance - t h is m u st b e recog n i zed w h e n o n e is
designing d igitizat i o n p rojects. W h e n o rigi­
n a l p h otographs are fo u n d in i m p roper or
p o o r state - po o r e n c l o s u res, i n s uffi c ient
sto rage space, a n d so o n -t h e i r c o n d itions
should be rectified i n t h e course of the digi­
tizati o n p roject. In 2 0 0 0 , an internatio nal
g ro u p of specialists consu lted i n t h e course
of a E u ropean C o m m issio n-fu n d ed p roject
(th e S E P I A p roject: Safeguard i n g E u ropean
P h otograp h i c I m ages fo r Access) created a
l ist of rec o m m e n dat i o n s for d igitizati o n p roj ­
ects (see S E P I A rec o m m e n dat i o n s on d igiti­
zat i o n of p h otograph col lections). T h e m a i n
i ntent of these g u i d e l i n es is recog n i z i n g that
a d igitizat i o n project req u ires t h e same level
of care a n d forethought as t h e conservat i o n
of original p hotogra p h s . D igitizat i o n p roce­
d u res s h o u l d b e i ntegrated into coll ection
conservat i o n strategies a n d s h o u l d i n corpo­
rate p rovisions for safe hand l i ng of o riginals
a n d for their future safekeeping.
Many poss i b i l ities fo r i mage m od i fi cati o n
o p e n u p o n ce a p h otograph has b e e n refor-
m atted in d igital fo r m : re n d e ri ng , contrast,
brightness, s h arpness, a n d color balance, as
wel l as l osses i n the i m age-carrying l ayer and
other types of d eter i o rati o n can a l l b e
adj u sted o r c o m p e nsated fo r i n the d igital
vers i o n . The o n ly tech n ical l i m its to s u c h
m o d i fi cat i o n s a r e determ i n ed b y the t i m e
a n d fi n ancial reso u rces ava i l a b l e for s u c h
w o r k . B u t it i s t h e o r i g i n a l p r i nt t h at s h o u l d
g u i d e t h e extent t o w h i c h d igital copies are
" i m proved . " Latitude fo r interpretat i o n is, of
c o u rse, much wider w h e n t h e original i m age
i s a n egative. At the very least, an u n m o d i ­
fi e d vers i o n of t h e digital i mage s h o u l d b e
k e p t as a reference a l o n g w i t h t h e m odified
vers i o n . Modifi c ations to t h e i m age ac h i eved
by d igital i m age processing s h o u l d fo l l ow t h e
same e t h i c a l g u i d e l i n e s that a p p l y to t h e
restorat i o n of o r i g i n a l o bjects: i nterve n t i o n s
s h o u l d b e k e p t to a m i n i m u m ; they s h o u l d
b e a i m e d a t i m p roving t h e read a b i l ity of t h e
i mage; a n d any m o d i fi cati o n s s h o u l d b e
c l early d o c u me nted .
Digital I maging and Conservation 3 07
 S E P I A RECOMMENDAT IONS O N D I G IT IZAT ION
OF PHOTOGRAPH CO L LECT IONS1

1 . Photographs are an essential part of our cultural

heritage . They are to be treasured for what they tell
us about our past , for their documentary and artistic
value, and as a record of the h i story of photographic
processes .
2 . Digiti zation of photographic collections should be
encouraged to fac i litate acces s for a large audienc e .
Digitiz ing photographs i s a l l the more urgent because
some common types of photographs are quickly deterio ­
rat ing . Damage caused by handling of fragile originals
can be l imited by the use of digital copie s .
3 . Digiti zation is a tool , not an end in itse l f . Selection
of photographic materials for digitization should be
based on a thorough understanding of the nature and
potential use of the collect ion .
4 . A digital proj ect starts wel l before the scanning of
the first picture . Investments made in careful planning
to define the aims , prioritie s , technical requirement s ,
procedures , and future u s e are e s s ent ial for a n e f fi­
c ient workflow and a result that meets expectations .
5 . Digiti zation of photographic col lections fundamen­
tally differs from digitization of text or l ine art .
The creation of a digital image requires photographic
expertise with ethical j udgment . Even with the best
equipment , capturing the e s sence of photographs in
a digital format i s a sophisticated activity and
can never be a rout ine j ob l ike the production of
photocopie s .
6. Digital images o f photographs const itute active
collect ions that require regular maintenanc e .
Provisions t o upgrade digital col lections to keep
pace with the changing computer infrastructure
should be made at the start of a proj ect . This is
necessary to avoid digital collections created at
considerable cost becoming inacce s s ible over time .

308
 7. Digiti zation of photographs should not be the sole
responsibility of one department . A good digitization
proj ect i s conceived as teamwork, combining exper­
tise on imaging, collect ion management , information
technology, conservation, descriptive methods and
pre servation strategies .
8 In every proj ect for digit izat ion of photographs the
input of specialists in photographic preservation is
essentia l . The ir advice is required for the best
selection of materials . They should be consulted on
how to integrate preservation measures into the work­
flow, on how to handle fragile material s , and on the
equipment used to avoid damage to the original s .
9 . Preservation specialists should be trained to advi se
on strategies for management of digital assets that
are in l ine with the overall preservation policy of
the inst itution .
10 . Museums, archive s , and l ibraries have a strong
interest in the development of international stan­
dards on which a strategy for the preservation of
digital collections has to be built . Their active
involvement is essent ial to ensure that the long-term
view of heritage institutions i s represented in
groups working on standards .

309
 Pres e rvat i o n of d igital fi l es
To c o n s e rve a d o c u m e nt i s t o e n s u re that
it re m a i ns access i b l e ; this means that it
re m a i n s pote n t i a l ly read a b l e o r k n owab l e
fro m d i rect o bservat i o n i n a l l of its m e a n i ngs
a n d q u a l ities. F o r co nventi o n a l ph otograp h s ,
t h i s req u i res kee p i ng the o r i g i n a l o bject i n a
way that w i l l p ro d u ce the least possible
change over t i m e so that future o bservers
w i l l be able to see the same evid e n ce that
we see today. Conserving a d igital i m age­
o r, m o re precisely, a d igital i m age fi l e - has
the same goal b ut req u i res rad i c a l ly diffe re nt
strategies and types of conse rvat i o n inte r­
ve ntion than those used for trad itio nal i mag­
i ng m e d i a . The details of how to d o this are
not always clear.
O n e com m o n strategy is to make a " hard "
copy in the fo rm of an i n k-jet or a conve n ­
t i o n a l p h otogra p h i c pri nt. T h i s m a kes s o m e
s e n s e , given the p a i n f u l experience of those
w h o have seen their d igital fi les d i sappear or
beco m e u n read a b l e . B ut such rad ical trans­
fo rmation of the nature of the original can­
n ot really be seen as a way of conserving a
d igital " o bject." I t is also n ot s uffi c i e nt to
keep a d i s kette, CD, o r DVD h o l d i n g the
d igital fi l e . After only a few years, disk for­
m ats w i l l have change d ; d is kettes and tapes
will b e obsolete; a n d c o m p uter software
needed to read the stored data w i l l have
d isappeared or w i l l have evolved into ve r­
s i o n s that are n ot c o m pat i b l e with p revious
versi o n s .
The remarkably rapid deve l o p m e nt o f
c o m p uter tec h n o l ogy h a s made t h i s a c ritical
problem that affects n ot o n ly d igital i m age
fi les col lections but d igital archives of a l l
k i n d s . W i l l p e o p l e , 1 50 years fro m n ow,
have access to the i nfo rmat i o n contained on
3 1 0 C O N S E R V AT I O N
a C D made i n the 1 980s, as we can now
look at d ag u e rreotypes o r l i sten to wax cyl­
i n der a u d i o record i ngs? T h is q u estion has
come to p reocc u py i nfo rmation scientists
a n d the heritage preservation c o m m u n ity
aro u n d the worl d .
Several conse rvat i o n strategies have been
p roposed. One ap proach is to copy i nfo rma­
tion fro m one s u p p o rt to another before the
fi rst becomes o b s o l ete: fro m d is kettes to
C D s , fro m C D s to D V D s , and s o o n . T h i s may
be acco m pa n i ed by validation of the acc u ­
racy-of the d ata a n d c o rrecti o n p roce d u res
as well as confi rm at i o n that the data fo rmat
rem a i n s read a b l e . These i nterve n t i o n s are
known as " refres h i n g " (checking and co py­
i ng) a n d " m igrat i o n , " in which data is con­
verted so that it can be read and processed by
a su bseq uent generation of computer software
and hardware. This ap proach d e m a n d s c o n ­
siderable tec h n ical a n d o rganizat i o n a l s k i l l s
and e q u i p m e nt. Accu rate m etadata that
describe the c haracte ristics a n d h istory
of the data m u st be carried forward u s i ng
a standard c o m m o n p roto c o l . Another
approach i s k n ow n as " e m u latio n , " i n
w h i c h a new c o m p uter system is capable
of running obsolete software a n d can open
oth erwise u n reada b l e fi les. C o l l e ct i o n m a n ­
agement b u dgets a n d staff m ust b e adapted
to a l l ow fo r ongo i ng refreshing and m igra­
tion of d igital fi l e s . The fi n ancial conse­
q u ences fo r such c o m m itments h ave yet to
be fu lly u n d e rsto o d , b ut their annual cost
may re p resent 1 0-20% of the o riginal cost
of d igitizatio n . Special ist centers fo r d igital
arc h i v i ng are need e d , but it is l i kely that
secure o n l i n e arch iving of d igital i nfor m ation
w i l l b e d eveloped i n the near fut u re .
Figure 2 2 8
Gelatin silver print, Arthur Gerbault,
Portrait, ca. 1 990.

Figure 2 2 9
Tektron i c 4051 , 1 976. O n e o f the problems
posed by digital information storage is the
rapid obsolescence cycle of com puter
systems, of both hardware and software.

Digital Imaging and Conservation 3 1 1

 F i re , flood , a n d m o l d i n festation are serious
th reats to the conservation of collections. I n
the worst cases, o n e type o f d isaster i s c o m ­
p o u n ded b y a s u bse q u e nt o n e , s u c h as w h e n
the wate r u s e d t o p u t out a fi re perm eates
a collection and l eads to m o l d growth. Pre­
ventive conservation m eas u res a re essential
to m itigate the effects of fi re a n d flood. In a
h o m e , p h otographs have to be stored in a
p lace were risks of water d a m age are lower
(far fro m water p i pes, d u cts, potential roof
leaks, and so o n ) . I n a n instituti o n , rules are
set to m i n i m ize risks fi re detection and s u p ­
p ression systems m u st be b roken down by
zones rather than b e i ng designed as a s i ngle
b u i l d i ng-wi de syste m ; storage a reas s h o u l d
b e isolated fro m fl oo d - pro n e areas o f the
b u i l d ing a n d from b u i l d ing pipes conta i n i n g
s u p ply o r waste water. Col lecting i nstitu ­
tions s h o u l d have u p-to -date d i saster
response p l a n s , clearly d e fi n i n g the proce­
d u res to b e fol l owed. All i nterested parties
m ust b e wel l aware of their specific role in
the response to any d isaster.
Damage to p h otograp h s
caused by d i saste rs
O n ce a p hotograph i s wetted , the paper a n d
t h e gelat i n begin to absorb wate r a n d swel l ,
beco m i ng m o re frag i l e a n d prone to d a m ­
age. I n ks a n d dyes start to m ig rate. T h e
extent o f the d a m age i n c u rred d e p e n d s o n
the c o n d itions b rought about b y the d i sas­
ter a n d by the prior condition of the photo­
g rap h , b ut in all cases the gelati n w i l l
eventually weaken a n d d i ssolve. S o m e c o l o r
p rocesse s - autochro m es , d y e trans fe r
p r i n t s , C i bac h ro m e / l lfoch ro m e p r i n t s - w i l l
s u ffer i m age dye m ig rati o n , d e l a m i nat i o n of
i mage b i n d e r layers, and d istortion in the
3 1 4 C O N S E R VA T I O N
s u p ports. Wetting m ay destroy p h otographs
o n ce l l u lose n itrate o r c e l l u lose acetate fi l m
that h ave a l ready s u ffered s o m e c h e m ical
d eterioration . Wetting m ay also destroy
c o l l o d i o n glass plate p h otogra p h s , w h i c h
s h o u l d b e g i v e n p r i o rity f o r attention s i n ce
i n t h e i r case the l ength of i m m e r s i o n t i m e is
c riti c a l . O n c e ph otographs have been
removed fro m the wet e n v i ro n m e n t , i t i s
e s s e n t i a l t o dry t h e m as q u ickly as poss i b l e
to p reve nt m o l d growth a n d to avo i d having
the p h otographs stick to each other o r to
their sto rage enve l o p e s . N ot h i ng s h o u l d
ever b e l eft t o d ry i n a stac k .
I m m e d i ate ai r d ry i n g
I n case of fl o o d i n g , the most v u l n e ra b l e
photographs take p r i o rity a n d s h o u l d b e
i m m e d iately a i r d ried . They m ust b e h a n d l ed
carefu l l y w h i l e wet s i n ce both the gelati n
layers a n d the paper s u pports are soft a n d
wea k e n e d . When the flood i ng water i s d i rty
or contam i nate d , the p hotographs s h o u l d b e
r i n s e d i n clean co l d water before a i r d rying.
Prints are laid face u p o n a sh eet of absor­
bent paper to d ry. I t m ay b e possi b l e to
rem ove excess water o n the top s u rface by
the gentle a p p l ication of c l ea n c loths o r
b lotte rs . T h e r o o m w h e re d r y i n g t a k e s p l ace
s h o u l d b e well venti lated and free from d u st .
N egatives o n p lastic s u ppo rts a r e rem oved
from their storage envelopes and h u n g to air
d ry. S p o o l s of fi l m , s u c h as m icrofi l m ro l l s ,
c a n b e r i n sed i n c o l d wate r a n d h u n g to d ry.
F reez i n g
I m m e d iate a i r d rying i s strongly reco m ­
m e n d e d for the most v u l n e rable ph oto­
graphs and those that are m ost val u e d . B ut

Tab l e 1 4 -V u l n e ra b i l ity of p h otogra p h s after acc i d e ntal wetti n g
S e n s itivity W h e n Wet
r a p i d deterioration
greatest resistance
Figure 2 3 0
After a flood, Katerina
Supova, 2002.
P rocesses Act i o n
• autochrome
• dye tran s fe r p r i n t
• c o l l o d i o n negatives, a m broty p e s , t i ntypes
• C i b ac h ro m e/ l lfoc h r o m e i m m e d iate a i r d rying
• deterio rated p h otogra p h s ( g e l a t i n a l ready
com p r o m i sed by m o l d , d eteriorating plastic
s u p po r t s , etc.)
• gelatin glass p l ates
• pigment process p r i n t s
• twe nt i e t h - c e n t u ry p r i n t s
a i r d ry i ng o r fre e z i n g
• c h ro m ogenic p r o c e s s p r i n t s
• gelatin s i lver p r i n t s o n R C or b a ryta p a p e r
• n egatives o n p l as t i c s u p p o rt s
Disasters 3 1 5
 a i r d rying req u i res l a rge clean e m pty spaces
and suffi cient perso n n e l , and both m ay b e in
s h o rt s u p p ly i m m e d iately after a d i saster. As
a res u lt , i m m e d iate d rying m ay not b e pos­
s i b l e fo r t h e e n t i re col lectio n . The portions
of a p h otograph c o l l ection t h at are wet and
t h at w i l l n ot b e a i r d ried w i t h i n forty- eight
h o u rs s h o u l d b e frozen i m m ed iately. Stacks
of m aterial a re d ra i n e d and p l aced i n poly­
ethy l e n e bags (freezer bags, garbage bags) ,
seal e d , t h e n i m m e d iately put into a freezer
o r given to a co m m e rcial freezer sto rage
c o m pany. Later, as res o u rces a n d t i m e p e r­
m it, t h e stacks can be removed fro m t h e
freezer, thawed a t ro o m te m p e rature, s e pa­
rated into i n d i v i d u a l items, a n d t h e n ri nsed
a n d a i r d ried . Vacu u m -freeze d rying, or lyo­
p h i l izati o n - i n which t h e frozen m aterial is
p laced i n a cold c h a m b e r u n d er vac u u m
c a u s i ng t h e frozen water t o s u b l i m ate with­
o u t passing t h rough t h e l i q u i d stage - i s n ot
reco m m e n d e d for p h otogra p h s s i n c e it m ay
l e ave a w h itish h aze on p h otogra p h i c p r i n t s .
H owever, it m ay be t h e o n ly alternative i n
s o m e c i rc u mstances, as for e xa m p l e w h e n
t h e vo l u m e of wetted material is very large
a n d access to perso n n e l a n d workspace fo r
a i r d ry i ng is l i m it e d . N o m atte r w h at d ry i ng
m e t h o d is a p p l i e d , t h o u g h , paper prints w i l l
e m e rge with m o re o r less s e r i o u s p l a n a r
d i storti o n s a n d w i l l h ave to b e t reated b y a
special ist conse rvato r to bring t h e m back to
t h e i r original fi at conformatio n .
Mold an d p est i nfestati o n
M o l d s p o res are a l ways a n d every w h e re
h e l d i n s u s p e n s i o n i n t h e a i r a n d m ay settle
on the s u rface of exposed p h otograp h s .
W h e n relative h u m i d ity r i s e s t o h igh lev-
3 1 6 C O N S E R V AT I O N
e l s - u s u a l l y a b ove 6 5 % - t h e s p o res b eg i n
to ge r m i n ate. T h e d ev e l o p i n g m i c ro o rgan­
isms fe ed o n gelat i n a n d sometimes o n
paper. W h e n s u c h a n i nfestat i o n i s d i scov­
e red it i s e s s e n t ia l to act q u i c k ly, removing
t h e affected p h otogra p h to a d ry a n d well­
venti l ated area to l ower its m o i s t u re c o n ­
tent a n d a rrest t h e m o l d prol ife ratio n . I f
t h i s h ap p e n s i n a sto rage area , t h e o t h e r
o bj e cts stored i n t h e roo m s h o u l d b e
c h ecked a n d t h e s o u rce of t h e e l evated
h u m i d ity (water i n fi ltrat i o n , c o n d e n s at i o n ,
etc .) s h o u l d b e i d e n t i fi e d a n d ad d ress e d . A
p h otograp h conse rvator m ay be a b l e to
treat the o bj e c t to re d u c e o r e l i m i n ate m o l d
resi d u es b y b ru s h i n g o r vac u u m i n g o n c e t h e
active growth has sto p p e d . I n ad d it i o n , i t
m ay b e d e s i r a b l e to k i l l t h e existing m o l d
a n d s p o res o n t h e affected o bj e c t s . H ow­
ever, even a fu n g i c i d a l treatm e n t i s not a
d e fi n itive p reventive c o n s e rvat i o n treat­
m e nt s i n c e m o l d w i l l reestab l i s h itself if t h e
o bj e ct i s aga i n s u bj e cted to h ig h h u m i d ity.
Of t h e m a n y fu m igat i o n t re at m e nts pro­
posed fo r l a rge c o l l e c t i o n s , t h e o n ly effec­
t ive o n e t h at d oe s not p ro d u c e d a maging
s i d e effects o n p h otogra p h s is e x p o s u re to
ethy l e n e oxide. In this mass treat m e nt­
carried o u t only at s p e c i al ized faci l i t i e s - t h e
m aterial i s p l aced i n b o x e s a n d processed i n
a h e r m et i c a l l y sealed treat m e n t c h a m b e r
w i t h a m ixtu re o f g a s e s . S u c h treat m e n t i s
p ro h i bited i n many c o u ntries fo r a variety
of reas o n s . Ethyl e n e o x i d e i s a p owe rfu l
fu n g i c i d e , bacte r i c i d e , a n d i n sect i c i d e , but
it is q u ite d a nge r o u s to h u m a n s (it i s a car­
c i nogen a n d also fi a m m a b l e) , a n d its u s e is
s u bj e ct to stringent regu lati o n . S uffi c i e n t
off-gass i n g t i m e is a l l owed afte r treat m e nt
fo r any res i d u e s re m a i n i ng i n t h e p h oto-
 Figure 2 3 1
Transfer o f flood-damaged material to freezers, Katerina Su pova,
2002. In 2002 a sudden flood devastated n u mero us l i b raries and
photographic archives i n Prague. The wet materials were rapidly
frozen and, since then, a team led by Katerina Su pova has been
carrying out an exem plary recovery progra m .

graphs to be evacuate d . Cu rrent p ractice
favors p revent i o n of m o l d i nfestat i o n by
carefu l c o ntrol of e n v i ro n m ental c o n d it i o n s
a n d regu l a r m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e c o n d i t i o n of
c o l l e c t i o n s . T h i s i s a l s o true of pest m a n ­
age m e n t strateg i e s .
I nsect i n festat i o n is detected b y obse rva­
t i o n of damage on c o l l e ction o bjects, by t h e
d i scovery of dead i n sects and i n sect drop­
p i ngs, o r by the d iscovery of l iv i ng speci­
mens. Some i n sects d e rive n o u ri s h m e nt
fro m t h e o rganic m aterials t hat make u p
p h otograp h i c i mages (ge lat i n , starc h , c e l ­
l u lose, e t c . ) . H ig h h u m i dity a n d darkn ess
b oth promote prolife rat i o n . An effective
d etection tech n i q u e invo lves p l a c i ng sticky
t raps on t h e floor along t h e wal l s .
Two effective a n d safe tech n i q ues for
k i l l ing pests are n ow ava i l a b l e : freezing a n d
a n o x i a . L o w temperatures a r e fatal to i nsects.
The o bj ects m u st fi rst b e sealed i n polyethyl­
e n e bags to prevent water fro m c o n d e n s i ng
on their s u rfaces when they are rem oved
from the freezer. The o bj ects m u st be h e l d at
-30°C for at least two days. Anox i a - o r oxy­
gen deprivati o n -w h i c h cons ists of asphyxi­
ati ng i nsects i n an oxyge n-free enviro n m e n t ,
is another effi cient tec h n i q u e but req u i res
m o re experience and special ized too l s . The
stacks of ph otograp hs are p l aced i n ai rtight
polyv i nyl idene chloride or polyc h l orofl u o ro ­
ethylene bags. T h e oxygen level is l owered
u s i ng an adsorbent (such as Age less®, by
Mits u b i s h i Gas C h e m ical Co. , or Atco®, m a n ­
ufactured b y Standa l nd ustrie) and/o r a n
i nert g a s (argon , h e l i u m , o r nitrogen).
I n tegrated pest m a n age m e n t ( I PM) i s a
c o m p reh e n sive approach i ntroduced to the
fi e l d of c u l t u ra l h e ritage i n the 1 980s for
solving pest problems in large collection
fac i l it i e s . I t encom passes not o n ly p reventive
acti o n s , m o n itoring, a n d cont ro l m et h o d s ,
but also a strategy to avoid o r red u ce t h e
u s e of c h e m i c a l s .

Disasters 3 1 7
 Ten S i m p l e D o s a n d D o n 'ts

"

D o n 't to uch or rub

fP :
Wear gloves to handle o bjects

Don't write with a pen Use a graph ite pencil to write

D o n ' t glue Use photo corners

Don 't expose to strong l ight Store in appropriate

envelopes and boxes

D o n ' t wet l<eep i n cool and dry

cond itions

3 1 8 C O N S E RVATI O N
 G lossar y
A c i d : A c h aracte ristic of a s o l u t i o n or a material
with a pH l ower than 7. 0 . Some types of paper
and cardboard m ay b e c o m e acidic as t h ey age.
This acid ity is partially due to a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l ut­
ants but m ay also d e rive from the c h e m ical c o m ­
p o s i t i o n of t h e p a p e r i t s e l f.
A c i d free: A term of c o m m e rce used to d escribe
archival materials with p H e q u a l to or greater
than 7.0. N ote t h at t h i s d oes not guarantee t h at
t h e m aterials are s u i t a b l e for p h otograph
conservat i o n .
Act i n i c : Refers to certain types of rad iation with
m arked p h otoc h e m ical a c t i o n . An exam p l e of this
i s the fo rmation of a l at e n t i m age c e n te r i n a silver
halide crystal i n a p h otograp h i c sys t e m . I n con­
t r a s t , t h e red safety l ig h t i n a d a rkroom is non ac­
t i n i c to p h otogr a p h i c p a p e r.
A d d it i ve c o l o r m i x i n g : T h e c o l o r m o d e l a p p l i ­
c a b l e to t h e m i x i n g of c o l ored l ig h t . C o m b i n i n g
t h e a d d it i ve pri m ary l ights (re d , green , a n d b l u e)
in e q u a l p ro po r t i o n s r e s u l t s in w h i t e ( n e u t ral)
l i g h t ; m i x t u res with various proportions of the
primaries will give all of t h e o t h e r c o l o rs o f the
gamut. W h i l e the m o s t fam i l i a r a p p l i c at i o n s of
a d d itive c o l o r m i x i n g are i n computer m o n itors
a n d televis ions, autochromes and t h e other
screen t r a n s parency p ro cesses are e x a m p l e s of
c o l o r p h otogra p h i c syste m s t h at u s e the a d d i t i v e
p r i n c i p l e . Compare with " S u btractive c o l o r
m i xing."
A l bertype: S e e " Co l l otype."
A l b u m e n : A prote i n t h at may be derived from
a n i mal o r vegeta b l e s o u rc e s . In p h otograp hy,
a l b u m e n is m o s t often d e rived from egg w h ites.
F i rst u s e d as a binder for s i lv e r salts by N i e pce d e
S a i nt-Vi ctor f o r m a k i n g a l b u m e n glass p l ate nega­
tives, it was i n tro d u ce d by B l a n q uart- Evrard in
1 8 50 as a b i n d e r i n a l b u m e n p r i n t i n g p a p e r.
A l b u m e n p r i n t : A p h otogra p h i c p r i n t m a d e
with a process t h at was fi rst d e scribed by
B l a n q u a rt- Evrard in 1 8 5 0 . In t h i s process, a
s h e et of p a p e r is coated with l i q u i d a l b u m e n
m ixed w i t h a salt . After t h e a l b u m e n layer
d r i e s , i t is s e n s itized by b e i n g fl o ated on a s o l u ­
t i o n of s i lver n i t rate, w h i c h causes p h oto s e n s i ­
t i v e s i l v e r salts to form i n t h e a l b u m e n layer.
The s e n s itized p a p e r is d r i e d and used i m m e d i ­
ately t o p r i n t o u t a p o s i tive i m age from a nega­
t iv e . A gold t o n i n g step is genera l ly i n c l u d e d .
T h e t o n e d p r i n t is t h e n fi x e d a n d w a s h e d .
A l kal i n e reserve: An a l k a l i n e c o m p o u n d a d d e d t o
paper p u l p d u ri n g man ufac t u re or i n t h e c o u rs e of
a c o n s e rvat i o n treat m e n t , i n t e n d e d to n e u t ra l ize
the acid c o m p o u n ds t h at may b e prod u ce d in
aging p a per.
A l kal i n ity: Prope rty of certain c o m p o u n d s to
prod u ce a basic p H .
319
 A m b rotype: A p h otograph m a d e with a process
i n tro d u c e d in 1 8 52 and i n tro d u c e d i n t h e U n ited
States u n d e r this name by James A m brose C u t t i n g
i n 1 8 5 4 . T h e a m brotype uses a v a r i a t i o n of t h e
w e t c o l l o d i o n process t o pro d u c e a n egative
i m age o n glass with creamy white i m age tones
(rat h e r than t h e n o r m a l brown or b l ack tones).
L a i d o n a b l ack backgro u n d , i t a p p ears as a posi­
t i v e . Also known a s the collodion posit ive process.
A m p h itype: An o b s o l e te term referring to the
k i n d s of p h otog r a p h s t h at can b e made to appear
as either posi tive o r n egative. T h e a m brotype i s a n
exam p l e .
A n a l og: Refers t o a way of re presenting i n forma­
t i o n by using a signal of conti n u o u s a m p l i t u d e .
U s e d i n d i s t i n c t i o n to " d ig i t a l . "
A N S I : A m e r i c a n N at i o n a l Standards I n s t i t u te .
A nt i c u r l layer: A layer of gelatin d e posited o n t h e
b a c k su rface of a fi l m s u b s t rate d u r i n g m a n u fac­
t u re . It l i m i t s the c u r l i ng caused by the gelat i n
e m u l s i o n o n t h e fro n t .
A n t i h alation layer: A c o l o red coat i n g d e p osited
o n t h e back su rface of p h otograp h i c film a n d
p l ates d u ri n g m a n ufact u re . B y a bs o r b i n g i n c i d e n t
l ight d u r i n g e x p o s u r e , t h i s layer preve n t s i nternal
reft e c t i o n s through t h e film b a s e , w h i c h may
c a u s e c i rc u l a r " h a l o s " to form in the i m age.
A P S , o r Advanced P h otograp h i c System®: A
p h otogra p h i c format stan d ard i n tro d u c e d in 1 99 6
a n d d e v e l o p e d j o i n t l y b y C a n o n , l<o d a k , F uj i ,
M i n o l t a , a n d N i ko n . I t i n c l u d e s a conventional
c h ro m og e n i c negative film component a s well as
m ag n e t i c record i n g tracks o n w h i c h are e n coded
d at a re l evant to t h e expos u re a n d p r i n t i n g of each
n egative.
A r i stotype: Brand name of t h e first e m u l s i o n
papers r e l e a s e d i n 1 8 8 4 b y t h e Li e s egang
C o m pany, D O s s e l d orf. T h e name was s u bse­
q u e n t ly e m p loyed to d escribe gelatin s i lv e r c h l o ­
r i d e p r i n t i ng-out p a p e rs ( P O P or citrate pape rs)
a n d c o l l o d i o n s i lver c h l o r i d e p r i n t i ng - o u t p a p e rs
(o r c e l l o i d i n pap ers); t h e t e r m is sti l l used i n
E u ro p e t o d escribe t h e s e mater i a l s . See " PO P. "
320
ASA: I n p h otography, t h e acronym stood for t h e
s e n s i t i v ity (speed) o f p h otogra p h i c m at e r i a l a s
m eas u re d b y standard m e t h o d o l ogy a n d a s
d escribed by t h e A m e rican Stand ards Association
(now A N S I ) . Today t h e acronym is r e p l ac e d by t h e
e q u i v a l e n t I S O ( I nternational S t a n d a rds
O rgan ization)
Autoc h ro m e : A d i rect positive p hotogra p h i c
transparency m ad e w i t h t h e c o l o r process i n tro­
d u ced c o m m e rci a l l y i n 1 907 by the L u m i e re
brot h e r s . T h e glass autochrome p l ate is fi rs t
coated w i t h a layer of potato starc h g r a i n s , vari­
o u s ly dyed v i o l e t , orange, o r gre e n . This colored
matrix, or scree n , i s coated over with a black-and­
w h ite e m u l s i o n layer. T h e exposed a n d processed
e m u l s i o n will block t r a n s m i s s i o n of l ig h t t h ro ugh
some of the c o l o red starch g r a i n s ; those t h at are
not b l ocked will re produce the original view when
the p l ate is o b s e rved by transm itted light. T h i s
reco n s t r u c t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l col ors i s a n e x a m p l e
of addi tive c o l o r m i x i n g .
Autoty pe: B ra n d n a m e of m aterial used to make
carbon p r i n t s ; patented i n E n gland by Joseph W.
Swan i n 1 8 6 5 .
B a r i u m s u l fate: A white p i g m e n t re presented b y
t h e c h e m i c a l notat i o n B a S O. , used i n t h e m a n u ­
facture of p a p e r s u p ports for p h otograp h i c p r i n t s .
Baryta p a p e r : P h otogra p h i c p r i n ti ng p a p e r with
an i n te rlaye r of bari u m s u l fate i n gelat i n l ocated
u n d e rn eath t h e p hotogra p h i c e m u l s i o n . F i rst
e m p l oyed i n t h e n i n eteenth ce n t u ry, baryta coat­
i n g i s i n t e n d e d to produce s u p e r i o r s u rface c h ar­
acteris t i c s in paper s u p p o r t s . After 1 9 50, optical
brighteners were also i n co r p orated i nto the
baryta layer.
B a s i c , o r al kal i n e : A c haracte r i s t i c of a s o l u t i o n or
a material with a p H a bove 7.0.
Becquerel effect: A tec h n i q u e by which t h e i m age
of an exposed d ag u e r reotype p l ate may b e m a d e
v i s i b l e - w i t h o u t t h e u s e of m e rc u ry vapor d evel­
o p m e n t- by a n ove rall reex p o s u re of t h e p l ate to
yellow a n d red l ig h t , which are wave l e n g t h s that
would have n o effect o n t h e s e n s itized b u t u n ex­
posed p l ate.
B i nder: The component of a photograph that holds
the photosensitive salts or silver i m age particles
together in the i m age layer. Gelatin is the b i nder
used i n modern photogra p h s .
B i t : Contraction of t h e fi rst t w o letters of " b i n a ry "
a n d t h e l a s t letter of " d i g i t . " T h e b i t is t h e e l e m e n ­
t a r y u n it of d igital i n fo r m at i o n ; its va l u e m ay b e
o n e or z e r o , respectively correspo n d i ng to " o n "
a n d "off."
B l eac h i n g : In ph otogra p h i c processing, t h i s
descri bes a c h e m ical treat m e n t i ntended t o
c o n v e r t s i lver or d y e i mage material to a co lor­
less state.
C a l otype: A p h otograp h i c negative on paper
m ad e with t h e process d e s c r i bed by W. H . F.
Ta l b ot i n 1 8 41 a n d used c o m monly into t h e
1 85 0 s . After a brief cam era e x p o s u r e , the i m age is
m a d e visible by deve l o p m e n t . I t s name d e rives
from t h e G reek root kalos (beautifu l ) . T h e calo­
type i s t h e precursor of m odern negatives.
C a m e ra o b s c u ra: I f a small hole i s m ad e t h rough
t h e wall of a darkened room (a camera obscura i n
L a t i n ) , t h e l a n d s ca p e o u t s i d e the roo m i s pro­
jected a s an inverted i m age onto t h e o p pos ite
wall of t h e room . T h i s p r i n c i p l e , carried out on a
s m a l l s c a l e , is that of t h e m o dern ph otogra p h i c
c a m e ra . A s ancient i n s tru m e nts b a s e d on an even
o l d e r optical p r i n c i p l e , several types of s m a l l
c a m e ra s o b s c u r a were ava i l a b l e t o artists as draw­
i ng tools at least from the sixteenth century.
Candela, or cd: The base u n i t of l u m i n o u s i n ten­
sity i n t h e SI (Syste m e i n ternatio n a l d ' u n ites)
system of m e a s u re m ent.
Carbon print: A p h otogra p h i c p r i n t made with t h e
process i n tro d u ced b y Poitevin i n 1 8 5 5 . T h e car­
bon process uses gelatin treated with d i c h ro m ate
s a l t s and t h e n m ixed with pigments . Carbon
p r i n t s are among t h e m ost chemically s t a b l e p h o ­
togra p h i c p r i n t s .
Carte - d e- v i s i te , or C DV: A p h otogra p h i c p rint
format for po rtra its p o p u l a rized by A n d re Adol p h e
D i sd e r i begi n n i ng i n 1 8 54. T h e p h otogra p h e r
g e n e r a l l y m a kes fo u r to eight po rtrait i m ages o n a
s i ng l e p h otogra p h i c p l ate. These are pri nted on
a l b u m e n paper a n d t r i m m e d i n d iv i d u a l ly ; the
small p ri nt s are then a d h ered to card board
m o u n t s (2 '12 i n . wide a n d 4 to 41/, i n . h igh).
Casein: A protein extracted from m i l k a n d used i n
t h e preparation of a d h es i ve s a n d a l so a s a s u b s t i ­
t u t e f o r g e l a t i n o r a l b u m e n in t h e preparat i o n of
s o m e early p h otogra p h i c papers.
C e l l o i d i n paper: O rigi n a l ly a G e rman brand n a m e ,
t h e term later c a m e t o m ore generally d e s ignate a
c o l l o d i o n s i l ve r pri nting-out pap er, or c o l l o d i o n
a r i s totype pap er.
C e l l u l o s e acetates : A set of synthetic polym ers
d e rived from c e l l u l ose. These p l a stics h ave been
used a s s u bstrates for p h otogra p h i c a n d motion
p i c t u re film s i n c e the 1 92 0 s , fi rst as c e l l u lose
d iacetate, fo l l owed by cel l u l ose acetopropio nate
and cel l u lose acetobu tyrate, and fi n a l l y - i n t h e
l a t e 1 9 4 0 s - c e l l u lose triacetate. Cel l u l ose acetate
fi l m base may show signs of deterioration after as
little a s forty years of aging.
C e l l u l ose n i t rate: A synthet i c polymer d e rived
from c e l l u lose that can be used to p ro d u ce a
fl ex i b l e transparent plastic fi l m . C e l l u l ose n itrate
fi l m rep l aced glass plates as a s u pport for nega­
tives starting i n 1 8 8 8 . C e l l u lose n itrate fi l m s u p ­
po rts f o r p h otogra p h i c a n d c i n e fi l m were
c o m pl etely d i s c o n t i n u e d by 1 9 51 due to t h e i r
i n stab i l ity a n d fl a m m a b i l ity.
C E N : Com ite e u ropeen de n o r m a l isation
( E u ropean C o m m i ttee for Standardization).
C h ro m o g e n i c process: A color p h otograp h i c
process b a s e d o n t h e fo rmation of dyes from
colorless dye precursors (t h u s " c h ro m a " a n d
"ge n i e , " o r c o l o r fo rming). O rg a n i c dyes of t h e
th ree s u btractive p r i m ary colors (cyan, magen ta ,
y e l l ow) are fo rmed in separate gelatin s i lver e m u l ­
s i o n layers t h ro ugh t h e i n teracti o n s o f t h e dye
precu rsors (color c o u p l ers) and t h e oxid ized
developer. This became the pred o m i n a n t tech n o l ­
ogy f o r m a k i n g c o l o r p h otogra p h s - positives a n d
negatives, p r i nts and transpare n c i es - i n t h e
twentieth century.
C i bac h r o m e p r i n t : A c o l o r p h otograp h i c p ri n t
m ade with a process based on t h e selective
Glossary 321
 d e s t r u c t i o n of dyes: t h e s i lver-dye - b l e a c h
p r o c e s s , fi rst d ev e l o p e d i n t h e 1 9 30s b y t h e
H u ngarian c h e m i s t B e l a G a s p a r ( G a s p arcol o r
process) . T h i s p r i n t p r o d u c t w a s fi rst m a r­
keted u n d e r t h e n a m e C i l c h ro m e ( 1 9 6 3 ) , t h e n
C i b ac hrom e, a n d fi n a l l y l l foc h r o m e C l assic
( 1 9 9 1 ) . D es p i te the name change, t h e term
" C i b a c h r o m e " c o n t i n u e d to b e u s e d , e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e a r t market, t h a n ks to i t s a s s o c i a t i o n
with good k e e p i n g q u a l it i e s . Azo d y e s (ye llow,
m ag e n t a , a n d cyan) are i n c l u d e d , fully fo r m e d ,
i n t h e p h otosens it ive layers. T h e d y e s are s e l ec­
t i ve ly d e s t royed ( b l e a c h e d ) i n a n i m age-wise
fa s h i o n d u r i n g process i n g . u s i n g t h e d ev e l o p e d
s i l ver i mage partic les to catalyze t h e b l each­
i n g act i o n .
C i t rate paper: A gelat i n p r i n t i ng - o u t p a p e r
conta i n i ng silve r c i t rate a m ong its c o m p o n e n t s ;
i ntroduced i n France b y t h e L u m i e re C o m p a n y
i n t h e 1 8 8 0s.
C o l l o d i o n : A s o l u t i o n of c e l l u l o s e n i t rate d i ssolved
i n a m i x t u re of ether and a l c o h o l . I t was used in
p h otography, from 1 8 50 onward, a s a b i n d e r for
p h otosens itive s i lver h a l i d e salts a p p l i e d to glass
a n d , later, to p a p e r. A l so used
a s a protective coating.
C o l l o d i o n p o s itive: See "Am b roty p e . "
C o l l o i d a l s i lver: D e s c r i b e s a m i c rosco p i c m o r p h o l ­
o g y of m et a l l i c s i lver i n very s m a l l s p h erical p a r­
t i c l e s . S u s p e n d e d in a p h otog r a p h i c e m u l s i o n ,
c o l l o i d a l si lver particles prod u c e a warm tonal ity,
even a n orange c o l o r, d u e to the scattering of
w h i t e light.
C o l l otype: A kind of p h oto m e c h a n i c a l p r i n t . T h i s
i s o n e of t h e processes t h at e m p l oy t h e p h otose n ­
s i tive properties of d i c h ro mated gelat i n . N ot t o b e
co nfused w i t h " ca l o t y p e , " t h e c o l lotype process is
t h e g e n e r i c term for a variety of closely related
a n teced e n t processes such as t h e a l b e rtype,
t h e h e l i otype, t h e p h oto-collogra p h , a n d the
p h ototyp e .
C o l o r c o u p l e r : O rg a n i c c o m p o u n d present i n
c h ro m o g e n i c p h otogra p h i c e m u l s i o n s t h at- i n
c o m b i n at i o n w i t h oxid ized developer-produces
dye molecules i n situ.
322
C o l o r p ig m e n t p r i n t : C o l o r p r i n t s m a d e w i t h any
of several processes based o n t h e rec o n struction
of a n o r i g i n a l scene o r color i m age by s u p e r i m pos­
i n g t r a n s l u c e n t re pro d u c t i o n s of three m o n o ­
c h ro m e c o l o r se paration i m ages (see " T h re e - co l o r
s e paratio n " ) , e a c h p r i n t e d i n t h e c o l o r c o m p l e ­
m e ntary to t h e s e parat i o n fi l t e r color. I n a l l o f
t h e s e p rocesses, t h e c o l o re d repro d u c t i o n s are
p ro d u c e d using t h e d i c h ro m ated c o l l o i d p h oto­
sensit i ve syste m . The color p i g m e n t prints i n c l u d e
t h e h e l i o c h ro m e s of Ducos d u H a u ro n , t h re e ­
c o l o r g u m b i c h romate p r i n t s . Fresson p r i n t s , a n d
U l traStable p r i n t s . Recen tly, t h e t e r m " p i g m e n t
p r i n t " h a s b e e n a p p l i e d to c e r t a i n t y p e s of
i n k-jet p r i n t s .
C o l o r r e n d e r i ng: The c o l o r balance i n a p h otograph
that determines the fi d e l i ty of the reproduction of
the original scene.
Color screen transparency: A unique positive color
transparency made by o n e of a number of processes
that reconstruct a color scene by mixing the t h ree
additive p r i m a ry c o l o rs (red , g re e n , b l ue). In these
processes a l i n ea r o r reg u l a r m osaic screen is
located i n a layer i n contact with t h e silver p hoto­
grap h i c e m u l s i o n . The screen acts as a t h re e - c o l o r
fi lter d u r i ng t h e exposure of t h e s i l ve r e m u ls i o n i n
t h e c a m era a n d a l s o a s a t h ree-color a n alyzer
a l l ow i n g for t h e reco n s t r u c t i o n of the fu l l - c o l o r
i m age i n t r a n s m i tted l ig h t .
C o l o r s h i ft : A d eteriorat i o n i n color p h otographs
due to a loss or a n excess of o n e o r m o re of the
t h r e e i m age dyes that make up t h e c o l o r i m age.
T h e res u l t is a s h ift away from t h e original c o l o r
b a l a n c e a n d a d i stort i o n of t h e i m age c o l o r s .
C o m p act D i s c , o r C D : Digital i n formation storage
m e d i u m and format. These discs (twelve cm i n
diameter) were developed i n t h e 1970s a n d 1 980s
by Sony and P h i l i ps Best known in its a u d i o form,
the CD has been widely developed for m u ltimedia
appl ications, as a p u b l is h i ng medium, a n d for com­
puter data ( C D - ROM, C D - R) . The term " Co m pact
Disc" is a registered trademark.
Compression: A set of p rocesses used to reduce
t h e size of d igital files. T h e aim of t h e s e processes
is to m i n i m ize file size w h i l e also m i n i m izing i n for­
m at i o n loss.
Conse rvat i o n : A l l of t h e actions a i m e d at p ro l o ng­
ing the l ifet i m e of a c u l t u ral prope rty ( i n t h i s
context, a p h otograph) a n d e n s u r i n g o ngoing
present a n d fu t u re acces s . Co n servation e n c o m ­
p a s s e s preventive c o n s e rvat i o n . c o n servati o n
treatm e n t , and restorat i o n . A l l s u c h m e a s u res a n d
acti o n s m u s t respect t h e m eani ngs and t h e physi­
cal p ro p e r t i e s of t h e c u l t u ral prop erty.'
C o n s e rvat i o n treat m e nt: A n action aimed at
s t a b i l i z i n g the c o n d i t i o n of an o bj e c t of c u l tural
property ( i n this context, a p h otograph). U s ually a
d i re c t i nterve n t i o n , t h i s ty pe of action is carried
out when the p h otogra p h is i n such frag i l e con d i ­
t i o n , o r is d eteriorating s o q u ickly, that i t c o u l d b e
lost i n a relatively s h o r t p e r i o d if n o measu res are
take n . Conservat i o n treat m e n t o n ly rarely m o d i fi e s
t h e appearance of a p h otogra p h , a n d i n d e e d i t
is n ot m ea n t to. Compare with " C o n servat i o n , ''
" P reventive conservati o n , '' and " Restorati o n . "
Contact p ri nt: A p h otographic print obtained by
placing a negative in d i rect contact with a p h otosen­
sitive printing paper and exposing them to l ight. A
contact print image is i nvariably the same size as t h e
negative i m age from which it w a s m a d e . I n t h e
n i neteenth century most pri nts were made by
contact, req u i r i ng large-format negatives. Today
contact printing is used most often to preview
images from negatives for the p u rpose of making a
selection for enlarging and also for docum entation
of archived fi l m s .
Contact sh eet: A contact p r i n t of a gro u p of
i m ages d rawn from a small- or m e d i u m - format
fi l m s t ri p .
Conti n u o u s tone i m age: A ph otograp h i c i m age i n
w h i c h t h e trans i t i o n f r o m t h e l ightest to t h e d a r k­
est t o n e is rendered by a conti n u o u s i n crease i n
t o n a l d e n s i ty. Compare with " H a l ft o n e i m age "
Contrast: I n p h otography, contrast is d e fi n e d a s
t h e d i ffe r e n ce between t h e d a r k e s t a n d t h e l ight­
est i m age - d e nsity val u e s .
Crayon e n large m e nt: Refers to e a r l y e n l arge m e n t s
o n gelat i n si lver b ro m i d e d ev e l o p i n g - o u t paper.
T h e e n l a rg i n g p rocess p r o d u ced an i m age that was
rat h e r fai n t and had low reso l u t i o n . S u c h p r i n t s
w e r e i n t e n d e d to be " worked u p , '' o r h a n d col­
o r e d , with a variety of m o n o c h ro m e o r c o l o r
m e d i a s u c h a s c h arco a l , pastel crayo n s , i n k , or
waterc o l o r s . T h ey fi rst ap peared i n t h e 1 8 80s
a l o ng w i t h t h e i n tro d u c t i o n of d evelo p i ng - o u t
pap ers a n d c o n t i n u e d to b e p r o d u ce d we l l i nto
the twe n t i e t h c e n t u ry.
Cyanoty p e : A p h otogra p h i c p r i n t made with a
process based on t h e p h otose n s i tivity of certain
i ro n c o m p o u n d s . The r e s u l t i n g i m age is blue (or
cyan). T h i s i n ex p e nsive process - q u ite easy a n d
q u i ck-was also often u s e d to reproduce arch itec­
tural and e ng i n eering d raw i n g s . Synonym:
blueprint.
Daguerreotype: A ph otograp h made with a p r o ­
c e s s introduced i n 1 8 3 9 b y Lo u i s J ac q u e s M a n d e
Dague rre and u s e d extensively t h rough t h e 1 85 0 s .
T h e u n i q u e d i re c t p o s i t i v e i m age has a c o p p e r
p l ate s u p port covered with a layer of s i l ver.
Deacid i fi cat i o n : A conservati o n treat m e n t i n ­
t e n d e d to n e utralize acidity i n paper. T h i s treat­
m e n t is not s u i t a b l e for a p p l ication d i rectly to
p h otogra p h i c p r i n t s .
D e n s ity: I n p h otography t h i s i m p l i e s o ptical d e n ­
s i ty. I t m e a s u res t h e a b s o r p t i o n of light by a mate­
rial or a s u rface a n d i s d e fi n ed as t h e loga r i t h m of
opacity. O pt i c a l d e n s i ty i s m e a s u red by a d ev i c e
c a l l e d a d e n s i t o m e ter. Dark a r e a s h a v e h i g h d e n ­
s i ty v a l u e s a n d l ig h t areas have l o w v a l u e s .
Deve l o p e r : A chemical s o l u t i o n u s e d to develop
p h otographs. See " Development."
Deve l o p i ng-out paper, o r DOP: Photogra p h i c
p a p e r d esigned to re ceive o n l y a b ri e f l ig h t e x p o ­
s u re t h a t p r o d u ces a latent i m age; t h e p a p e r i s
t h e n processed i n a d ev e l o p er. Compare with
" PO P. "
Deve l o p m ent: T h e chem ical process that trans­
forms a latent i m age into a visible i mage i n a photo­
graphic syste m . Two types of development exist:
physical development, where t h e si lver that forms
t h e image is d e rived partly from t h e red u ction of a
soluble s i lver salt contained in t h e developer solu­
t i o n ; and c h em i cal deve l o p m e n t , where t h e silver
Glossary 323
 i m age particles formed d e rive solely from the p h o ­
tographic material itself.
Dew p o i nt: Temperature at which the moisture
contained as a vapor i n a m bient air begins to con­
dense; the dew point varies depending on the q u a n ­
t i t y of water vapor held in the a i r . Thus, dew point is
related to relative h u m id ity.
Dext r i n : A modified starch used as an adhesive. It
d ries more rapidly and its viscosity is lower than that
of starch.
D i c h r o i c fog: I ridescent, bronze-colored deposit
that forms d u ring processing on t h e surface of a
p h otograph if it conti n u es to develop in the fi xing
bat h . A stop bath prevents this from occurring.
D i c h ro m ated co l l o i d p rocesses: T h e p h otogra p h i c
processes t h a t m a k e u s e o f t h e p h otosensitivity o f
certain c o l l o i d s ( g u m arabic, gelati n , e t c . ) treated
with potass i u m d i c h ro m ate or a n o t h e r a l k a l i n e
d i c h ro m ate s o l u t i o n . These d i c h ro mated b i n d ers
absorb m o re water and soften m o re read ily in
i nverse proportion to the l ight e x p o s u re they
receive. T h i s type of p h otose n s i t i ve syste m , w h i c h
does not i nvolve si lver, is e m p l oyed i n m a ny of t h e
p h o t o m e c h a n i cal processes as well as i n processes
such as carbon p r i n t i n g , gum b i c h ro mate, pig­
m e n t , and others. A l te rnatively, d i c h r o m ate can
act a s a b l each o n s i l ver i m ages, prod u c i n g hard­
e n i n g of a gelat i n b i n d e r i n proportion to its s i lver
content. This i s the basis for the ozobrome, bro­
m o i l , a n d carbro processes.
D iffuse reflecti o n : Light reflection from a su rface
t h at s p reads the light i n m u l t i p l e d i rections.
Compare with " S p e c u l a r reflec t i o n . "
D i gital: Refers to a way of representing i n forma­
t i o n by using a series of d i screte n u m b e rs rat h e r
t h a n a signal of conti n u o u s a m p l i t u d e . Compare
with " A n a l og."
Digital O ptical Disc, o r D O D : A n i nformation
sto rage p latform h o l d i ng i nfo rmation i n b i n ary code.
It is read by an optical reader using a laser beam.
D igital Versat i l e D i s c , o r DVD: A d igital optical
d i s c format with a storage capacity of several
gigabytes.
324
D i gitizati o n : An informatio n - recording process that
transforms a conti n u o u s (analog) signal into a d i s­
continuous d igital signal using a sampling algorithm.
D i rect d u p l icate: A p h otographic d e rivative t h at
has t h e s a m e tonal scale (negative or posi tive) as
t h e o r i g i n a l a n d is o bt a i n e d d i rectly from t h e
original i n a s i n g l e p h otogra p h i c o p e rat i o n .
D i rect p o s itive process: A n y p h otogra p h i c pro­
cess that p r o d u ces a u n i q u e positive i m age
d i rectly i n t h e c a m era w i t h o u t t h e i n t e r m e d i ate
step of p r o d u c i n g a negative. Among such pro­
cesses are the daguerreotype, the Bayard process,
the a m brotype, t h e tintype, a n d m o d e r n i nstant
print processes such a s Polaro i d .
Dots p e r i n c h , or d p i : A m ea s u re of i m age reso l u ­
t i o n i n l i t h ographic p r i n t i n g systems a n d i n d igital
output print d evices. In t h e m etric syste m , res o l u ­
t i o n i s d es c r i b e d i n l i n e s p e r m i l l i m et e r.
D u p l icate, or d u pe: A p h otogr a p h i c repro d u ction
of a p h otograph t h at i s s i m i l a r to t h e o r i g i n a l i n its
t o n a l scale ( n egative or positive), tonal v a l u e s ,
v i e w i n g m o d e (transmission o r r e fl e c t i o n ) , a n d
d i m e n s i o n s . Compare with " Facsi m i l e . "
D u p l icat i o n : Reproduction o f p h otogra p h i c i m ages
(negatives or positives) for p u rposes of prese rvatio n ,
restorat i o n , or access.
Dye: A s o l u b l e colorant. Sy n t h e t i c dyes corre­
sponding to t h e t h re e s u btractive pri m aries (cya n ,
m agenta, y e l l ow) a r e often u s e d as t h e i m age
m aterial in c o l o r p hotogra p h s . Compare with
" Pi g m e n t . "
Dye transfer pri nt: A c o l o r p r i n t made by t h e
E a s t m a n l<odak process i n t ro d u ce d i n 1 946.
G en e rally c l a s s e d as a dye i m b i bition process, i n
w h i c h dyes contained i n t h re e c o l o re d matrices
are s e q u e n t i a l ly i m b i b e d (o r absorbed) i nto a
single i mage -receiving layer. T h i s tec h n i q u e h a s
n i ne t e e n t h - c e n t u ry antecedents i n t h e c o l o r p r i n t
process of C h arles Cros. Closely related to t h e
c o l o r p i g m e n t processes. See " T h re e - co l o r
separat i o n . "
E m u l s i o n : I n p h otography t h i s i s actually a s u s ­
p e n s i o n - n ot, technical ly, a n e m u l s i o n - of s i lver
h a l i d e particles i n gelatin that, w h en a p p l i e d to a
su bstrate, forms a p h otose n s itive layer. T h e
a d v e n t of t h e e m u l s i o n p rocesses r e i n forced t h e
d o m i n a n c e of i n d u st r i a l m a n u fa c t u re of p h oto­
g r a p h i c materia l s . Previ o u s ly, a l b u m e n i zed papers
a n d c o l l o d i o n negatives were prepared i n two
s t e p s : fi rst the s u b s t rate was covered with t h e
b i n d e r c o n t a i n i n g a h a l i d e s o u rce a n d t h e n a s i lver
h a l i d e s a l t was precip itated inside t h e b i n d e r
layer. I n t h e man ufacture of e m u l s i o n - process
papers, the s u bstrate i s coated d i rectly with a
m i x t u re of gelatin a n d t h e prefo r m e d s i lver h a l i d e
parti c l e s .
E n capsu lat i o n : A cons ervation treat m e n t i n w h i c h
a frag i l e o bject i s s e a l e d between two s h e e t s of
p o lyester.
E n l argem e n t : Prod u c t i o n of p h otograp h i c repro­
d u c t i o n s , made l arger than t h e original i m age,
with the aid of a n e n l arger. T h e term also refers
to the actual re p ro d u c t i o n itself. Compare with
" Co ntact p r i n t "
E n larger: O ptical d ev i ce u s e d i n t h e p h otograp h i c
d ar k ro o m . U s u a l ly, its f u n c t i o n is to m a k e e n ­
l arged positive p r i n t s on p a p e r by proj e c t i o n of
t h e n egative i m age, b u t it may a l s o be u s e d to
p r i n t l a rge negatives i n a smaller size.
E t h y l e n e oxide (also oxirane or d i m e t h y l e n e
oxide): A h ig h ly toxic gas used i n s o m e c o u n t r i e s
to f u m igate c o l l e c t i o n s .
Facs i m i l e : A n accu rate repro d u ct i o n of a d o c u ­
m e n t . A fac s i m i l e m a y b e produced u s i n g t h e
s a m e p r o c e s s as fo r t h e o r i g i n a l o r any other p r o ­
cess c a p a b l e of s i m u l at i n g t h e a p p ea r a n ce of t h e
o r igi n a l . Compare with " D u p l icate "
Fad i n g : A c h e m i c a l d et e r i o ration in a p h otogra p h
l ea d i n g to a d ecrease i n o ptical d e n s i ty i n t h e
i m age a r e a , e i t h e r ove r a l l o r i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e
i m age. F a d i n g is c a u s e d b y i n a p p ro p r iate process­
ing, p o o r storage c o n d i t i o n s , or overexpo s u re
to l ig h t .
Fe rrotype: See "Ti ntyp e . " Also, a p h otogra p h i c
processi ng treat m e n t a p p l i ed t o gelatin p r i n t s that
results i n a h igh s u r face gloss.
Fixing: A p h otogr a p h i c p rocessing treat m e n t
i n t e n d e d to e l i m i n ate resi d u a l p h otosensitive
s a l t s . After t h e fixing b at h , t h e i m age is l ig h t stable
a n d may b e v i ewed w i t h o u t u n d ergo i n g furth e r
d arkeni ng.
F o r m a l d e h y d e : A c o l o r l e s s , toxic gas fo r m e rly
used i n a n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n to harden gelati n .
Foxing: A type o f alterat i o n i n t h e form of s m a l l
red d i s h o r brown s p o t s t h at a p p ear o n o l d p a p e r
a n d cardboard. T h e c a u s e of t h i s p h e n o m e n o n is
n o t d e fi n itively k n own b u t may i nvolve both mold
effloresc e n c e a n d t h e p re s e n c e of t i n y m e t a l l i c
particle conta m i n ants d e rived f r o m t h e p a p e r
man ufac t u r i n g process.
F u m igat i o n : See " Pest a n d mold contro l . "
F u n g i c i d e : A c o m p o u n d i n t e n d e d t o k i l l o r i n acti­
vate m o l d a n d i t s spores.
G a l l o - n itrate of s i lver: T h e n i neteen t h - c e n t u ry
c h e m i c a l n a m e for t h e s o l u t i o n of gal l i c acid a n d
s i l v e r n itrate u s e d b y Tal b o t f o r b o t h s e n s i tization
and d ev e l o p m e n t of calotypes.
Gasl ight paper: A p h otogra p h i c p a p e r for p r i n t i n g
n egatives by co ntact t h at was i ntroduced a r o u n d
1 8 90. T h i s s i lver c h l o r i d e p a p e r i s sufficiently
s e n sitive to b e exposed by low artifi cial l ight
(often o n ly a gas-burning s o u rce, h e n ce t h e n a m e)
a n d t h e n d e v e l o p e d . Ve lox brand p a p e r was a
very p o p u l a r gaslight p a p e r u s e d a ro u n d t h e t u r n
of t h e t w e n t i e t h centu ry.
G e lati n : A protein extracted from a n i m a l matter
(bone, s k i n , etc.). I t is the most c o m m o n l y used
b i n d e r i n twentieth -ce n t u ry p h otogra p h s . S i l v e r
h a l i d e particles are s u s p e n d e d i n t h e l i q u i d gelat i n
d u ring m a n u facture a n d t h e d ry gelat i n fi l m acts
as a binder for t h e developed silver i m age p a r­
t i c l e s . G e l a t i n i t s e l f may a l s o be photosensitized,
w i t h o u t a ny s i lv e r content, by treat m e n t with an
a l k a l i n e d i c h rom ate s o l u t i o n . See " D i c h ro m ated
c o l l o i d processes . "
G e l at i n s i lver b ro m i d e : A s u s p e n s i o n of s i l v e r
b r o m i d e i n gelati n , tra d i t i o n a l l y c a l l e d a n
emulsion.
G e n erati o n al i m age l o s s : T h e loss of i m age i n for­
mation c a u s e d by repeated p h otogra p h i c copying.
Glossary 325
 G i g abyte, o r G B : I n d igital i n fo r m at i o n t e c h n o l ­
ogy, a u n i t of i n fo rmation storage c a pacity of
a p p ro x i m ately o n e b i l l i o n bytes or 1 , 000 mega­
bytes (MB).
Gum b i c h ro m ate p r i nt: A p h otogra p h i c print
m a d e with a process i n tro d u c e d i n t h e late n i n e ­
teenth c e n t u ry. T h e process is based o n t h e p r i n ­
c i p l e t h at d i c h ro m at e d g u m a r a b i c becomes
i n s o l u b l e i n water w h e n exposed to l i g h t . See
" D i c h rom ated c o l l o i d process e s . "
H alfto n e i mage: A p h o t o m e c h a n i c a l p r i n t i m age
in w h i c h there are o n ly two i m age d e n s ity v a l u e s
- b la c k a n d w h i t e - a n d where i m age f o r m a n d
t o n e a r e re prese nted by t h e spatial d i stribution o f
d o t s o r l i n es of varying s i z e a n d s h a p e . Compare
with " C o n t i n u o u s t o n e i m age . "
H al o ge n : T h e class o f c h e m i c a l e l e m e nt s that
i n c l u d e s i o d i n e , bro m i n e , and c h l o r i n e . These
h alogens react with s i lver to form p h otosensitive
s i l ver h a l i d e salts (silver i o d i d e , silver brom i d e ,
s i l ver c h l oride). See a l s o " S i lver."
H ard e n i n g : A c h e m ical treat m e n t , a p p l i e d to
gelatin e m u ls i o n s d u ri n g man ufac t u r i n g o r pro­
cessing, which d e creases their a b i l ity to absorb
water. H a rd e n i n g i m p roves t h e m e c h a n ical stab i l ­
i t y of gelatin e m u l s i o n s by l i m iting t h e d egree t o
w h i c h t h e e m u l s i o n w i l l swe l l o r softe n d u r i ng
i m m e rs i o n i n wate r- based s o l u t i o n s . F o r m a l ­
d e hyd e , potassi u m c h r o m i u m s u l fate, potas s i u m
a l u m i n u m su lfate (co m m o n a l u m ) , a n d a m m o n i u m
a l u m i n u m s u l fate a r e a l l h ar d e n i n g agen t s .
H e l i o c h r o m e : An e a r l y t e r m f o r a c o l o r photo­
grap h . In t h e n i n et e e n t h c e n t u ry the term was
used to d esignate t h e d i rect c o l o r p h otogra p h i c
m e t h o d s of B e c q u erel a n d N i e p c e d e S a i n t-Victor
as w e l l as t h e i n d i re c t t h re e - c o l o r separation
process of D u cos d u H a u r o n .
H e l i o g r a p h : A p h otograph made with t h e early
process i ntroduced by N i cephore N i e p c e . A metal
p late i s coated w i t h a m ixture of a s p h a ltu m - a
k i n d of natural pitch - a n d lave n d e r (o r s p i ke) o i l .
T h i s coated p l at e i s exposed i n a cam era o b s c u r a .
N i epce succeeded i n m a k i n g a camera i mage with
t h i s process i n 1 8 27. While t h e p rocess was far
326
too s l o w - i . e . , n ot s e n s i t i ve e n o ugh -to b e s u c­
cessfu l l y d ev e l o p ed for ph otography, it d i d fi n d a
use after 1 8 5 8 in h e l i ograv ure, w h i c h is a p h oto­
m e c h a n i c a l p rocess.
H e l i otype: See " Co l l otyp e . "
H i g h contrast: Describes a p h otograp h i c material
d esigned to produce a n i mage cont a i n i ng o n l y t h e
extremes of t h e tonal s c a l e , i . e . , black a n d w h i te.
H i l lotype: A c o l o r p h otograp h made with a
process derived from t h e d a g u e rreotype a n d
d escribed b y L e v i H i l l i n 1 8 50. T h e v a l i d ity of t h e
process was t h e s u bj e c t of d ispute f o r y e a r s fo l ­
lowi ng its a n n o u n c e m e n t .
H ya l otype: A positive transpare ncy o n g l a s s m a d e
u s i n g N ie p c e d e S a i n t-Victor's a l b u m e n o n glass.
T h i s was a process patented i n t h e 1 8 50s for t h e
prod u c t i o n of lantern s l i d e s f o r proj e c t i o n .
Hyd ro p h i l ic: A c h e m i c a l prope rty a s c r i b e d to a
c o m p o u n d t h at has an affi n i ty for water.
Hyd ro p h o b i c : A c h e m i c a l prope rty ascribed
to a compound that d oes n ot have a n affi n ity
for water.
Hypo, o r h y p o s u l fite: These are terms used by
p h otogr a p h e rs for s o d i u m th iosu lfate, a fi x i ng
age n t . Hyposul fite was t h e n i netee n t h - ce n t u ry
n a m e for t h i s s u bstance. See " F i x i n g . "
Hypo e l i m i n ator: A s o l u t i o n used d u ring p h oto­
g ra p h i c processing prior to w a s h i ng. It is an aque­
ous s o l u t i o n of hydrogen p e roxide a n d a m m o n i a
t h at transforms t h i o s u lfate i n to t h e m o re easily
soluble s u l fate. T h i s treat m e n t is n o l o nger
reco m m e n d e d .
l lfoc h ro m e C l assic p r i n t : See " C ibachrome p r i n t . "
I ma g e reso l u t i o n : Resol ution. or resolving power.
refers to the a b i l ity of an imaging system (photo­
graphic e m u l s i o n , i m age sensor, digital output
printer, etc.) to distinguish a n d record t h e details of
a n i m age. I t is expressed i n dots per inch (d pi), l i n e
p a i r s per m i l l imeter (LP/m m), or d o t s per m i l l imeter
(d pm). N ote that the resolution of camera i m ages is
affected by the q ua l ity of the camera optics, not just
by the characteristics of the recording mate rial.
I n stant p rint process: See " Polaro i d . "
I ntensi ficat i o n : A chem ical treatment intended t o
in crease t h e overall d ensity and contrast of a photo­
graph. U n d e rexposed negatives are sometimes
treated by t h e p h otographer i n this way. S i m ilar
methods have been tried for restoring faded silver­
based p hotograp h s . Caution is req u i re d , however,
since such treatments are irreve rsible and may
change the nature of the s i l ver particles that consti­
tute the i m age. I n add ition, the short- and long-term
results of such treatments are u n certain.
I n ternat i o n a l Stan d ards O rgan izat i o n , o r I S O :
I n ternational standards are developed b y experts
named to technical comm ittees - re p resenting s o m e
ten countries-which a d o p t specifications b y major­
ity vote. These I S O standards are often based on
those of A N S I (American National Standards
I n stitute). Therefore, ISO also refers to t h e standard­
ized measurement system for film sensitivity
(speed). See "ASA . "
I o n : An ato m , o r a gro u p o f atoms, that holds an
e l ectrical charge.
l vorytype: A term that refers to several photo­
graphic processes, the fi rst of which was introduced
by John Mayal l in 1 85 5 . These processes are
intended to i m itate t h e appearance of a painted
portrait m i niature o n ivory (t he painted m i n iature
po rtrait was a m o d e l for early p h otogra p h i c p o r­
trait formats).
K a l l itype: A p h otogra p h i c process p e rfected in
1 8 8 9 that c o m b i n e d the p h otosensitivity of an
i ro n salt (fe rric oxalate) and the i m age-fo r m i n g
capacity of s i l ver s a l t s . T h i s is a contact p r i n ting
process, a n d t h e exposed p r i nts are d eveloped i n
s o d i u m citrate. T h e process i s s i m i l a r to t h a t o f
vandyke p r i n t i ng. N o t t o b e confused w i t h t h e
calotype.
Lantern s l i d e : A positive transpare n cy o n glass
i n t e n d e d for proj e c t i o n i n a magic lantern d ev i c e .
Stereogra p h i c lantern s l i d e s w e r e v i ewed b y t r a n s ­
m itted l ig h t i n a stereosco p e .
Latent i m age: I nvisible to t h e eye, this " i m age" i s
formed o n t h e ato m i c s c a l e w h e n a p h otosensitive
material is briefly exposed to light. I t is then re n­
dered visible by devel opment.
L i fe expectancy, or L E : T h e l e n g t h ohime t h at
i n formation is p re d i cted to be retrievable in a
system u n d e r extended -term sto rage c o n d i t i o n s
(from I SO 1 89 1 3 . 2 003 standard).
Light: T h e portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
perceived by t h e h u man eye, with wavelengths
between 400 and 780 nano meters.
L i p p m a n n p rocess: The color p h otographic process
based o n t h e physical phenomenon of inte rference
of light waves. The process was created by the physi­
cist Gabriel Lippmann in 1 89 1 .
L u x : An SI (Sy s t e m e i n ter nati o n a l d ' u n i tes) u n i t of
i l l u m inance. C h aracterizes t h e l u m inous fl u x (or
power) received per u n i t of s u r face area.
Magic lantern: The precursor of the modern slide
projector. Even before the advent of p h otography,
magic lanterns were used to project enl arged i m ages
of scenes painted with translucent media
on glass plates.
Mat: A paper or cardboard fol d e r used for t h e h o us­
ing and d isp lay of grap hic and p h otographic docu­
m e nt s . In t h e U n ited l< ingd o m , this is called
a mount.
Matte a l b u m e n paper: An early-tw e n t i e t h - ce n t u ry
p h otographic printing paper that revived t h e use of
a l b u m e n . H ere t h e albumen was mixed with starch
to give the i m age layer a low su rface gloss, consid­
ered aesthetically desirable at t h e time.
M i crocl i m ate: The cli mate conditions (temperature,
h u m i d ity) prevai ling in a small space; t h ese d i ffer
from the ambient con ditions.
M i cro e n v i r o n m e n t : The atmosph eric conditions
(temperature, h u m i d ity, air qual ity) i n a small enclo­
s u re where docum ents are kept.
Mi crofo r m : Any p h otographic m ed i u m contai ning
mi croimages.
M i c ro i m age: An image of red u ced size that must be
e n l arged to be seen.
Glossary 327
 Microorga n i s m s : Microscopic biological entities
that are capab le of m u ltiplying u n der favorable
conditions. They are classified into two fam i l i es:
fungi and bacteria.
M i c ro p h otogra p h : A m i n iature (size) photogra p h .
Compare with " Ph otomacrography" a n d " Photo­
m icrography."
M igration (in relat i o n to the m an ag e m e n t of
d igital i n formation): Changing a d igital file so that it
w i l l be accessible in a new computing environ ment.
Compare with " Refreshing."
N egative: A n i m age whose tonal scale is the reverse
of that of the s u bject p h otographed .
N e utral: Describes a material that is neither acidic
nor alkaline, i . e . , having a p H of 7.0. See " p H . "
N e utrality in a material is neither a necessary n o r a
sufficient condition for its use in p h otographic
conservation.
N itroce l l u l os e : See " Ce l l u l ose n i t rate . "
O pacity: T h e ratio between i n c i d e n t l u m i n o u s
fi u x and t h e fi u x t r a n s m itted o r refiected b y a
p h otograp h .
O ptical brightener: A fi u o rescent c o m p o u n d t h at
absorbs UV rad iat i o n a n d ree m its it as v i s i b l e
radiati o n . T h e s e c o m p o u n d s a r e used to i ncrease
the w h it e n ess of p h otograp h i c paper bases.
O ri g i n a l n egative: T h e p h otograp h i c e l e m e n t
m a d e d u ring a cam era exposure of t h e original
s u bj e c t .
O rthoch romat i c : De s c ri be s t h e s p ec t ral s e n s i t i v ity
of a p h otosensitive m aterial t h at i s affected o n ly
by green or b l u e l ig h t . See " S pectral sen s i tizat i o n . "
Ozobrome: A p h otogra p h i c p r i n t m a d e b y a
process i ntroduced in 1 90 5 . T h i s is o n e of t h e
p r o c e s s e s that u s e t h e b l e ac h i n g action of d i c h ro ­
mate o n a s i l v e r i m age to harden t h e gelatin
b i n d e r layer i n a n i m age-wise fas h i o n .
Painted p h otogra p h : A p h otograph t h a t may b e
p r o d u c e d b y a variety of tech n i q u es i n w h i c h
o p a q u e or tra n s l u cent c o l o rants a re a p p l i ed t o a
fully processed m o n o c h ro m e positive.
328
Pall a d i u m p r i n t , or pal l ad i otype: A p h otogra p h i c
p ri n t m a d e with a process u s i n g p h otose n s itive
salts of i ro n a n d res u l t i n g i n a n i m age consisting of
pallad i u m m etal part i c l e s . Palladium was i ntro­
d u ced a s a s u bstitute for p l ati n u m .
Panchro m atic: D escribes t h e s p ectral s e n s it i v i ty
of a p h otose n s i t i ve m aterial t h at is affected by
t h e e n t i re v i s i b l e spect r u m . See " S p e ctral
s e n sitizat i o n . "
Permane nce: T h e capac i ty to r e m a i n c h e m i c a l ly
and physically stable for l o ng p e r i o d s of t i m e
(from I S O 9706 1 9 94 standard ) .
Permanent paper: P a p e r t h a t , w h e n stored f o r a
long p e r i o d of t i m e in a protected e n v i r o n m e n t ,
w i l l u n d ergo l i t t l e or n o c h ange i n t h e c h aracteris­
t i c s t h at affect its u s e (from ISO 9706 1 9 94
standard).
Pest and mold contro l : A range of cons ervat i o n
treat m e n t s t h a t k i l l , c o n trol, o r tem p o rarily e l i m i ­
nate p e s t s o r i n activate m o l d s p o res i n contami­
nated mate r i a l s . Processes range from f u m igation
i n p o i s o n o u s o r anoxic e n v i r o n m e n t s to freezing
treatm e n t s o r i rrad iat i o n . Alternatively, the treat­
m e n t may be o r i e n te d toward s h i ft i n g the e n v i ­
r o n m e n t a l c o n d itions t h at attract o r s u p p o r t t h e
contami nating organ i s m s , as i s d o n e , for i n s t a n c e ,
with t h e use of i n sect p h e r o m o n e s .
p H : A m ea s u re of t h e activity of hydrogen i o n s , o r
t h e i r e q u i val e n t , i n s o l u t i o n s . I t d e fi n e s t h e a l ka­
l i n e o r a c i d i c nature of s o l u t i o n s . A pH below 7.0
i s characteristic of a c i d i c s o l u t i o n s ; a p H greater
than 7.0 is c h aracte ristic of a l k a l i n e s o l u t i o n s ; a
p H of 7.0 is c h aracte r i s t i c of a n e utral s o l u t i o n .
The p H s c a l e is a reverse logar i t h m i c s c a l e t h at
m e a s u re s t h e concentration of hydrogen i o n s
(prot o n s ; H ') i n a s o l u t i o n . T h i s m e a n s , for
i n stance, t h at when the pH i n creases by one u n it ,
t h e a l k a l i n ity o f t h e s o l u t i o n is m u l t i p l i e d b y t e n .
The scale r a n g e i s 0-1 4 .
Photoch ro m , o r Photo c h r o m e : A p h o t o l i t h o ­
grap h i c p r i n t i n g process t h a t w a s i nt r o d u ced
toward the end of the 1 8 8 0 s . The res u l t i n g color
l i t h ographs had the ap pearance of true c o l o r
p h otogra p h s .
P h otogram: A u n i q u e p h otographic print obtained
without t h e use of a negative; instead, an opaq u e or
sem itransparent object (colored glass, plant mate­
rial, etc.) is placed o n the p h otosensitive paper and
exposed to I ight.
P h otogra p h : A visible and permanent i mage ob­
tained by the action of e l ectromagnetic radiation
on a photosensitive material.
P h otogra p h i c paper: A photosensitive paper in­
tended for printing from negatives. Also, t h e paper
substrate designed to be used i n t h e preparation of
such mate rial.
P h otogravure: A p h oto m echanical p r i n t i n g pro­
cess d eveloped i n the n i n e teenth c e n t u ry. The
term also refers to the p r i nts made by this process.
P h otolytic s i lver: A d e p o s i t of m etal l i c s i lver
caused by t h e d i re c t act i o n of l ig h t o n a s i lver
h a l i d e . Such d e p o s i t s are produced i n the course
of latent i m age fo rmation or i n the p r i n t i n g-out
processes. The particles pro d u ce d i n this way are
relatively s m a l l com pared to t h e s i lv e r particles
p ro d u c e d by deve l o p m e nt .
P h otomacrography: T h e p h otograp h i c re cord i ng
of s m a l l o bj e c t s , often at a mag n i fi ed s c a l e .
Compare with " M i c ro p h otograp h " a n d
" P h o t o m i c rography."
P h otomechanical: Refers to p r i n t i n g p rocesses
for p h otogra p h i c i m ages i n which t h e fi n al steps
i nvolve an i n ked p late p ri nted i n a m ec h a n ical
p ri n t i n g press. T h e ink i m pressi o n s produ ced are
made w i t h o u t the i n tervention of l i g h t . P h oto­
m ec h a n i c a l prints usually have ha lfto n e i m age s .
P h o t o m i crography: Ph otography t h ro ug h t h e
m i c roscope Compare with " M i c r o ph otogra p h "
a n d " P h ot o m acrography "
P h o to - p l astography: A h i s torical term used to
d es c r i b e p h otomechanical repro d u c t i o n processes
t h at u s e a d e fo r m a b l e (o r plastic) opaque sub­
s t a n ce t h at cha nges its form due to the action
of l ig h t . The wo o d b u rytype is an exa m p l e of
s u c h a process.
P h ototype: See " Co l l otype "
P i ctorial i s m : An aesthetic style current from 1 8 80
to 1 92 0 . Pictorialist p h otogra p h e rs often u s e d t h e
p ig m e n t p r o c e s s e s t h a t c o u l d be w o r k e d b y h a n d
to pro d u ce i m ages re m i n iscent of d rawing a n d
traditional p r i n t m a k i n g tech n i q u es .
P igment: An i nsoluble particulate colorant. Natural
(or earth) pigments, such as carbon black and a
variety of brown pigments, are commonly used as
t h e image-fo r m i ng material in t h e most stable of the
monochrome photogra p h i c processes. Pigments
corresponding to the t h ree subtractive primaries
(cyan, magenta, yell ow) are used i n the color pig­
ment processes. Compare with " Dye "
P ig m e n t p rocesses: T h e p h otogra p h i c processes
i n w h i c h t h e i m age material consists of one or
m o re p i g m e n t s bound i n a d i c h romated c o l l o i d .
P i g m e n t processes h a v e g o o d p e r m a n e n c e c h arac­
teristics and a l l ow the o r i g i n a l p h otograp h i c
i m age t o b e i n terpreted freely b y t h e p r i n ter. I n
vogue i n t h e late n i n eteenth c e n t u ry, t h e p i g m e n t
processes w e r e often used by p i ctorialist p h otog­
rap h e rs. E x a m p l e s are the c a r b o n , gum b i c h ro ­
mate, b ro m o i l , carbro, a n d ozobrome p r i n t
p rocess e s .
P ix e l : A c o n t rac t i o n of t h e fi r s t t h ree l etters o f
" p icture" ( p l u r a l , " p ix " ) a n d t h e fi rst t w o l etters of
" e l e m e n t . " A p ixel is t h e fu n d a m e ntal i n fo rmat i o n
e l e m e n t o f a d igital i m age and t h e s m a l l e s t h o m o ­
g e n e o u s i m age u n i t .
P l asticizer: A su bstance a d d e d to s o m e p o l y m e r
fi l m b a s e s (c e l l u l ose acetat e , c e l l u l ose n itrate) t o
m a ke t h e m m o re flexi b l e .
P l at i n u m p r i n t , o r p l at i n otype: A ph otograp h i c
p r i n t m a d e w i t h a process u s i n g p h otose n s i t ive
salts of i ro n , which produces an i m age consisting
of plat i n u m m etal part i c l e s . P l at i n u m prints have
exce l l e n t p e r m a n e n ce characteristics. T h ey typi­
c a l ly s h o w a subtle and attractive gam u t of gray
tones.
P o l a r o i d : T h e brand n a m e of an i n stant p h oto­
gra p h i c print p rocess i nt r o d u ce d by Edwin Land in
t h e late 1 9 4 0 s . T h e p o s i t i ve i m age is produ ced in
a matter of seconds after t h e exposure. T h e i m age
is fo rmed by a d ev e l o p m e n t process d e s c r i b e d as
d iffu s i o n -transfer. Polaroid p r i n t s were i n it i a l l y
Glossary 329
 m o n o c h ro m e ; c o l o r Polaroids were i n troduced i n P r i nting-out p rocess: T h e t e r m a p p l i e s to a variety
t h e 1 9 60s. of p h otograp h i c processes i n w h i c h the i m age i s
fo r m e d d i rectly by t h e a c t i o n of l ight w i t h o u t
Polyester: In p h otography, this refers to either of
t h e u s e of a d ev e l o p e r. Most of the n i netee n t h ­
two polymers: polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or
c e n t u ry c o ntact p r i n t i n g processes w e r e of t h i s
polyethylene naphthalate ( P E N ) . P E T is used as a
k i n d . T h e n egative a n d t h e s e n sit ized p r i n ting
plastic fi l m base and also as an archival su pport
paper are pressed toge t h e r i n a p r i n t i n g frame a n d
material for preserving documents. It i s known by
t h e p a p e r is ex posed to s u n l ig h t t h rough t h e nega­
various brand names: Mylar" ( D u Pont), Estar"
tive. The i m age p r i nts out gradually and progres­
(Eastman l<odak), Terphane" ( R h o ne-Poule nc), a n d
sively over the course of t h e exposure; t h i s may
others. P E N w a s i ntroduced more recently w i t h t h e
take o n l y m i n utes or may req u i re several h o u r s .
A P S format films and has the property of flatten i ng
W h e n t h e d es i re d i m age i n t e n s i ty is reac h e d , the
easily after being rol l e d .
print is r e m oved from t h e p r i n t i n g fra m e a n d fi x e d .
P O P, o r p ri nt i n g- o ut paper: The acronym was fi rst
RC ( r e s i n -coated) p a p e r : A s u p p ort m a t e r i a l for
used as a brand name for a paper man ufactured by
p h otogra p h i c p r i nts that consists of a paper c o re
t h e l l ford Company in 1 891 . Since t h e n , the term
s a n d w i c h e d between layers of p o lyethy l e n e . F i rst
" PO P " has been used to designate gelatin silver
i n tro d u c e d in t h e 1 970s as a re place m e n t for
chloride paper and other s i lver chloride pri nti ng-out
baryta p a p e r.
papers common i n the period from 1 890 to 1 940. I n
E u ro p e , t h i s material i s called aristotype paper. Reconstruction ( i n t h e c o n text of c o l o r reprod uc­
t i o n ) : A g e n eral term referring to the repro d u c t i o n
Positive: An i m age whose tonal scal e - dark to
of an o r i g i n a l scene (o r of an e x i s t i n g c o l o r p h oto­
l ight- is t h e sa m e as that of the s u bject
graph) t h ro ug h a process of color m i x i ng. The two
photographed .
m ost c o m m o n color- m ixing m o d e l s used in p h o ­
Preventive c o n s e rvat i o n : A set of actions a i m e d at tography a r e t h e addit ive a n d t h e su btractive
avo i d i ng or m i n i m izing future d eterioration or l oss syste m s .
of c u l t u ral prope rty (in this context, a p h oto­
Reconstructive i mage p ro c e s s i n g treat m e n t : A
graph). These actions may not b e d i rect i n terve n ­
tec h n i q u e a i m e d at recreating a deteriorated
t i o n s made on t h e object(s) t h e m selves b u t rat h e r
i mage t h rough re pro d u c t i o n and reass e m b l y of
m a y b e generally a p p l i e d to t h e s u r ro u n d i ngs or to
fragm e n te d , altere d , o r m i ssing e l e m e nts of t h e
t h e pattern of u s e of t h e p h otogra p h s , i r respective
o r igi n a l . W h e n this proce d u re is p e rfor m e d u s i n g
of their c u rrent c o n d i t i o n . The ap pearance of a
an analog system it is c a l l e d " o ptical restorat i o n ,"
p h otogra p h is a l m ost n ev e r m o d i fi e d as a result of
w h i l e t h e term "d igital restorat i o n " a p p l i e s w h e n
a preve n t i ve c o n s e rvation acti o n . Compare with
d igital i m age process i n g software is used o n a
" Co n s e rvatio n , " " Co n s e rvation treatm e n t , " a n d
d igital (or d igitized) i mage . With these tech n i q u e s
" Restorat i o n . "
t h e o r i g i n a l p h otograph remains u nt o u c h e d a n d i t s
P r i n t : A positive p h otograph o n p a p e r. As a v e r b , physical c o n d i t i o n is u n cha nged .
t h e t e r m a l s o refers to t h e process of p ro d u c i ng a
R e d u c t i o n : A c he m i ca l treat m e n t used i n p h oto­
positive i mage from a n egat ive.
gra p h i c processing to reduce t h e optical d e nsity of
Printing frame: A glazed wooden fra m e used to an overex posed or overdeveloped p h otograp h i c
press toget her and maintain contact between t h e i m age.
n egative a n d t h e sensitized p r i n t i n g p a p e r d u ri n g
Reformatt i n g : A copying process i n which t h e
c o n t a c t p r i n t i n g . Used with a l l t h e p r i n t i ng-out
i n formati o n c o n t e n t of a p h otograph is c o p i e d t o a
processes, t h e fra m e is e q u i p p e d with a s p l i t
new s u p port of a d i ffe r e n t type or fo rmat.
back to a l l ow t h e darke n i ng of t h e i m age t o b e
i nspected with o u t d i s p l a c i ng t h e reg istration o f Refre s h i ng: Copying a d igital tile from o n e sto rage
t h e n egative a n d t h e p r i n t . m e d i u m to another in order to prevent loss of

330
access d u e to d eteri orat i o n of t h e storage m e d i u m .
An exa m p l e o f refre s h i n g i s copy i n g a group of fi l e s
f r o m C D - ROMs to D V D s . Compare with
"M igrat i o n . "
R e l ative h u m i d ity, o r R H : Designates t h e q uantity
of m o i s t u re held i n t h e air; described as t h e ratio
of t h e actual mass of water vapor contained i n a
v o l u m e of a i r to t h e mass of water that w o u l d b e
contai n e d i n t h e same a i r v o l u m e a t sat u rat i o n .
T h e val u e i s expressed as a p e rc e n tage .
Restorat i o n : An action carried o u t o n an o bj e c t of
c u l t u ral property ( i n t h i s conte x t , a p h otograph)
with the aim of faci l itat i n g t h e a p p reciat i o n ,
u n derstandi ng, a n d u s e of t h e o bj e c t . W h e n a
p h otogra p h is to u n d e rgo restorat i o n , i t s c o n d i t i o n
i s s t a b l e b u t i t has l ost a l l or p a r t of its m ea n i n g
t h ro ug h d eteriorat i o n . Restorat i o n invariably a l ters
t h e o bj e c t ' s appearance. S u c h a treatm e n t s h o u l d
respect a l l of t h e t y p e s of m e a n i n g associated w i t h
a p h otogra p h : its h i story, its aest h e t i c q u a l i t i e s , i t s
age , a n d t h e e v i d e n c e of its n o r m a l u s e . Compare
with " Co n s e rvati o n , " " C o n servat i o n treat m e n t , "
a n d " P revent ive conservat i o n . "
Retouc h i ng : A s e t of tech n iq ues used b y t h e pho­
tograp h e r or printer with t h e aim of i m proving the
aesthetic q ualities of a negative or positive i mage by
masking defects such as scratches or anomalous
specks. The tech n iq u es may include hand-applied
media or also digital processing, depend ing on t h e
nature of t h e image req u iring correction. Synonyms:
spotting; spot toning.
Reversal process: A p h otographic processing proce­
d u re that res u lt s in a d i re c t positive c a m e ra
i m age - g e n e rally on fi l m - i n stead of t h e u s u a l
negative i m age p ro d u c e d f r o m t h e c a m e ra . The
procedure i nvolves t h e use of two development
steps, along with an i nterven i ng bleach step. This
procedure is the basis for many slide fi l m processing
sequen ces.
Revival : A term used to d e s ignate various m et h o d s
of c h e m ical restorati o n of d eteriorated p h oto­
gra p h s . Both t h e t e r m a n d t h e m et h o d s i t refers to
are obsolete.
Safety fi l m : Designates the transparent cellu lose
triacetate and polyester film bases introduced since
1 947 to re place the u n stable and fl a m m ab l e cel­
l u l ose nitrate base. The term is defi n ed in the sta n ­
d a r d I S O 1 8906 2000.
Salted paper p r i n t : A p h otograp h i c print made with
a process that was common between 1 83 9 and
1 860. This pri nting-out process was virtually iden­
tical to Tal bot's p h otoge n i c drawing process.
Eventually t h e process i n corporated a toning step
u s i n g gold c h l o r i d e or o t h e r c o m p o u n d s .
S e lf-to n i n g p a p e r : A gro u p of developing-out
papers of t h e early twe nt i e t h century that incorpo­
rated i n their e m u lsions t h e c h e m i cals necessary for
t h e i r own toni ng. These were generally salts of gold
and/or plat i n u m .
S e n sitivity: 1 ) S pectral s e n s i t iv i ty, i . e . , t h e reg i o n
of t h e e l ectromagnetic s p e c t r u m that produces
a c t i n i c reac t i o n s i n a p h otosensit ive mate r i a l ;
2) t h e d e g r e e of reactivity, o r s p e e d , of a p h ot o ­
gra p h i c m a t e r i a l when exposed to a given d ose o f
l ig h t , as m easure d b y t h e I S O rati n g ; 3) i n c o n s e r­
vat i o n , t h e level of v u l n e ra b i l ity of an o bj e c t to
various e n v i ro n m e n tal c h a l l e ng e s , such as l ig h t ,
heat, p o l l utants, e t c .
S e n s itom etry: T h e q u a n titative d et e r m i nation o f
t h e s e n s i t i v i t y ( s p e e d ) of p h otosensitive materials.
S i lver: I n p h otography, a m etal used to create
p h otosensitive materials. C o m b i n e d w i t h a h a l o ­
gen i o n (c h l o r i d e , b ro m i d e , or i o d i de) as a s i l ver
h a l i d e salt, it can b e reduced to m eta l l i c s i lv e r
by s o m e wavelengths of t h e e l e c tromag n e t i c sp ec­
t r u m , i n c l u d i ng blue l i g h t , UV wave l e n g t h s , X- rays,
etc. S i l v e r i s represented by the c h e m ical notation
"Ag."
S i lver b ro m i d e : T h e silver halide salt c u rre ntly
used i n p h otogra p h i c mate r i a l s . It is c o m m o n ly
used in gelatin e m u l sions a n d p ro d u ces an
extrem e ly s e n s i tive p h otogra p h i c materia l .
S i lver c h l o r i d e : T h e s i lv e r h a l i d e salt c o m m o n ly
used in t h e n i neteenth c e n t u ry to prepare p h ot o ­
s e n sitive papers, such as s a l t e d paper, a l b u m e n
p a p e r, PO P, gaslight p a p e r s , a n d others. S i l v e r
c h l o r i d e i s l e ss s e n s i tive to l ig h t t h an s i lv e r bro­
m i d e ; t h e two salts were sometimes mixed
toge t h e r for t h e man ufacture of c h loro-
bro m i d e papers.
Glossary 3 3 1
 S i lver- dye-b leach process: See " C i bachrome
print."
S i lver m i rroring: A d et e r i o rato n o b se rved on s o m e
gelat i n s i lver p h otogra p h s (negatives a n d posi tives)
i n which a s i lvery m et a l l i c haze appears over t h e
d a r k areas of t h e i mage . T h i s k i n d of b l o o m is
c o m posed of a superficial d e p o s i t of s i l v e r metal
d e rived from t h e u n d erlying i m age layer.
Sizi ng: A treat m e n t a p p l i e d to paper a i m e d at
l i m i t i n g its water absorpti o n . S i z i n g may be d o n e
at t h e t i m e o f m a n u factu re; i n t h e p a s t , i t m a y a l s o
have been a meas u re t a k e n b y a p h otogra p h e r t o
p r o d u c e particu lar working cha racte ristics i n t h e
s u p p o r t p a p e r u s e d to prepare n egat ives or p r i n t s .
T h e c h o i c e of s i z e p l ays an i m portant ro l e i n cer­
tain processes, such as salted paper or p l ati n u m .
F o r i n stance, i n salted paper pre parat i o n , s u p p l e ­
m e ntary s i z i n g m a y b e req u i re d to p r e v e n t t h e
d i s p e rs a l of t h e s a l t a n d s i lver s o l u t i o n s t o o d e eply
i n to t h e pap er.
S pectral s e n s i tizat i o n : Treat m e n t a i m e d at
exte n d i ng the e m u l s i o n ' s act i n i c range, u s u a l l y by
ad d i ng certain orga n i c dyes to a s i lver h a l i d e p h o ­
togra p h i c e m u l s i o n . S p ec t ral s e n sitizat i o n m a y b e
a p p l i e d f o r d i fferent p u rposes: 1 ) a s o r t h o c h ro ­
matic s e n s i tizat i o n , i . e . , t o extend t h e native spec­
tral s e n s i t i v i t i e s of s i lver h a l i d e s - w h i c h are
sen s i tive o n ly i n the UV, v i o l e t , and b l u e reg i o n s ­
to t h e g r e e n reg i o n ; 2) as p a n c h ro m at i c sens i t iza­
t i o n , i . e . , to extend the s e n s i t i v ity of the e m u l s i o n
to t h e e n t i r e v i s i b l e reg i o n ; and 3) to e x t e n d t h e
s e n s it i v ity o f t h e e m u l s i o n beyo n d t h e v i s i b l e
region a n d i nto t h e i n frared reg i o n .
S p e c u lar reflect i o n : L i g h t refl e c t i o n by a s m ooth
s u rface producing a c o h e re n t a n d d i rected reflec­
t i o n . In this m i r ro r l i k e refl ect i o n , the i n c i d e n t
a n g l e of t h e l ig h t ray is eq ual to its a n g l e of refl ec­
t i o n . Compare with " D i ffu se reflec t i o n . "
Starc h : A polysacc h a r i d e derived from p l a n t
s o u rc e s . U sed i n e a r l y p h otography a s a s i z e for
paper s u bs t rates for salted paper p r i n t s . It was
also w i d e l y used to prep are paste ad h e s ive.
Stereogra p h : A set of two p h otogra p h i c i m ages of
t h e same s u bj e c t , taken s i m u lt a n e o u s l y with a
stereo cam era from s l ightly d i fferent angles; t h ey
332
are m o u nted on a standard-size cardbo ard s u pport
a n d v i ewed i n a n optical device -a stereosco p e ­
m a d e f o r t h e p u rpose. T h e s e i m ages g i v e a p e rcep­
tion of t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n al ity.
Stop bat h : Acetic acid s o l u t i o n used to stop t h e
action of a d ev e l o p e r by l owering t h e p H .
S u b b i n g layer: A n i n te r l ayer u s e d t o i m p rove
a d h e s i o n between a p h oto s e n s i t ive layer a n d
its s u p p o r t .
S u btractive color m i x i n g : T h e c o l o r m o d e l a p p l i ­
c a b l e to t h e m i x i ng of col ored s u bs t a n c e s .
C o m b i n i n g t h e subtractive pri mary colors
(mage nta, cya n , a n d y e l l ow) i n equal proportions
w i l l result i n n e u t ral black; m i x t u res with v a r i o u s
proportions of t h e p r i m a r i e s w i l l give a l l t h e o t h e r
colors of t h e g a m u t . Most c o l o r ph otogra p h i c
p r i n t p rocesses reco n s t r u c t t h e colors of nature by
s u btractive c o l o r m i x i ng ; t h ey are e s s e n t i a l l y m i x­
t u res of colored substances (dye s , p i g m e nts)
v i ewed by reflected l ig h t . Compare with "Ad d itive
color m i x i ng . "
Talbotype: A h i storical synonym f o r t h e calotype.
T h ree - c o l o r s e parat i o n : A m et h o d of re cord i n g an
o riginal s c e n e (or re p ro d u c i n g a c o l o r p h otograph)
by making t h re e m o n o c h ro m e i m ages of the s u b ­
ject t h rough c o l o red fi lters, o n e red , o n e b l u e , a n d
o n e gree n . T h e original c o l o rs of t h e s u bj e c t c a n
be reco n s t r u c te d b y s u p e r i m p o s i n g tra n s l u c e n t
repro d u c t i o n s of t h e t h re e m o n o c h ro m e i m age s ,
each printed i n t h e c o l o r c o m p l e m e n tary to t h e
se parat i o n fi l t e r c o l o r. See " C o l o r p i g m e n t p r i n t . "
Ti ntype: A p h otogra p h i c p r o c e s s u s i n g a variat i o n
of t h e w e t c o l l o d i o n process t o pro d u c e a p o s itive
i mage o n a sheet of lacq u ered i ro n . T h e process is
s i m i l a r to t h e am brotyp e . Synonym: ferroty p e .
Titan i u m d i o x i d e : A white m i n e ral p i g m e n t u s e d i n
a light-reflecting layer i n res i n - coated ( R C ) paper
base. It acts i n t h e same way as t h e bari u m su lfate
used in baryta papers.
To n e : Refers to areas of u n iform density between
t h e darkest ( D - m ax) and lightest ( D - m i n) areas in a
m o nochro m e photographic i mage. Also designates
the hue (color) of a m o n ochro m e photographic
i m age.
Ton i n g : A p h otographic processing treatment
i n tended to alter t h e h u e , or to ne, of a m o nochrome
i m age and/or to i m prove the stabil ity of the silver
i mage. In ton i ng, silver particles are chem ically com­
bined with other e l e m ents such as gold , plati n u m ,
selen i u m , s u lfur, etc.
Tran sparency: A p h otograph with a positive i m age
d es i g n e d to be o b served by tra n s m i tted light. For
exam p l e , l antern slides a n d 3 5 m m s l i d es are
transparencies.
U l t ravi o l et ( U V ) rad i at i o n : A p o r t i o n of t h e e l ec­
tromagnetic s p e c t r u m i n v i s i b l e to the eye, located
beyond t h e violet end of t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t ru m , i . e . ,
w i t h wavelengths s h o rter t h a n fo u r h u n d re d n a n o ­
m et e r s . T h i s b a n d of radiation i s v e r y a c t i n i c (reac­
t i ve) with all photosensiti ve sys t e m s and w i l l also
act o n m any of t h e o rgan i c compounds u s e d in
p h otography, i n c l u d i ng a l b u m e n , dyes, etc.
U n cropped: T h i s word may a p p ear a s a n i n s truc­
tion to a pri nter, i n d icating that the s o u rce i m age
i s n o t to h ave its b o rd e rs altere d .
U n i o n case: A type o f case for h o l d i ng a n d d i s p lay­
ing d ag u e rreotype plates, produced i n t h e U n ited
States starting aro u n d 1 8 4 5 . Their d et a i l e d deco­
rated su rfaces were m a d e by a m o l d - ca s t i n g pro­
cess u s i n g a n early t h e r m o p l a stic m at e r i a l .
Vandyke p r i n t i n g : A p h otographic pri nting process
based o n p h otosensitive iron salts and closely related
to the kall itype and brownprint processes. A sheet of
paper is treated with a solution contai n ing ferric
citrate, tartaric acid, and s i lver nitrate. This paper is
printed out in contact with a negative, rinsed , fixed,
and washed again The resulting silver i m age has a
rich brown tone.
Ves i c u lar i m age: A p h otogra p h i c i mage consisting
of m i cro b u b bles (vesicles) formed i n a carrier s h eet.
The process is used to produce m icrofo r m s .
V i ntage p r i n t : A print m a d e b y the artist (or
u n d e r the artist's d i rect s u p e rvision) soon after
the original n egative was made. An i n terval of a few
years is consid ered co m patible with the " v i ntage"
d esignati o n .
Vo lat i l e orga n i c compo u n d , o r VOC: An o rg a n i c
c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d e m itted by a s o l i d m at e r i a l
as a g a s .
W a s h a i d : I n p h otogra p h i c p r o c e s s i n g , a s a l t s o l u ­
t i o n (10% s o d i u m s u l fi t e , f o r exam p l e) u s e d to
i n crease t h e effi c i e ncy of t h e w a s h i n g step.
Was h i n g: The last step i n photograp h i c processing,
intended to e l i m i nate resid ual c h emicals from the
photogra p h . I n s u ffi cient wash i ng leaves resid ues that
may break down and cause the si lver i m age to dete­
riorate over t i m e .
Waxed p a p e r n egative: A p h otographic negative
o n paper made by a process descri bed by G ustave
Le G ray i n 1 8 51 . In this process-otherwise s i m i l a r
to that f o r calotype negatives-the p a p e r w a s waxed
prior to the salting and sensitizing steps.
Wet co l l o d i o n p rocess: A p h otogra p h i c process
u s e d to m ake i m ages i n the c a m e ra o n glass or
m et a l p l ates (co l l o d i o n negatives, am broty p e s , a n d
t i ntypes). T h e p h otos e n s i t i ve s i lver salts are h e l d
o n t h e p l ate by a c o l l o d i o n b i n d e r ; t h e e x p o s u r e
a n d processi n g m u s t take p lace b e fore t h e p l ate
d r i e s . If the solvents are a l l owed to evapo rate, t h e
c o l l o d i o n s i lv e r h a l i d e layer w i l l l ose m o s t o f its
p h otos e n s i t i v i ty a n d will b e c o m e i m p e r m e a b l e .
T h i s w i l l prevent t h e processing s o l u t i o n s from
acting o n the s i l v e r h a l i d e s .
Woo d b u rytype: A p h o t o m e c h a n i cal p r i n t m a d e
with t h e process i n tro d u c e d by Wa lter B .
Woo d b u ry i n 1 8 6 4 . T h e i m age consists of a m i x­
t u re of carbon b l a c k - o r s o m e other p i g m e n t- i n
g e l a t i n . T h e p i g m e n ted gelat i n i s cast i nto a l ead
mold and then transfe r re d to a paper s u b s t rate
u s i n g p re s s u re . The wo o d b u rytype process i s
u n i q u e a m o n g t h e p h oto m e c h a n i c a l processes i n
p r o d u c i n g a c o n t i n u o u s t o n e i m age.
G lossary 333
 Endnotes
I n tro d u ction
1 " N o m i n a s i nescis perit cog n i t i o rerum" from
L i n n ae u s , Critica Botanica , 1 7 37. Translated by
S t e p h e n Freer, Philosophia botanica, 2 0 0 3 .
2 B e r t ra n d Lave d r i n e , La conservation des
photographies ( P a r i s , 1 9 90)
3 Bertrand Lave d r i n e , J e a n - P a u l G a n d o lfo,
Syb i l l e M o n o d , A Guide to the Preventive
Conservation of Pho tograph Collections (Los
A n ge l e s , 2003).
4 G ael De G u ic h e n , u n p u b l i s h e d closing
remarks, I COM C o m m ittee for C o n servat i o n ,
1 3 t h Tri e n n ial Meeting, R i o d e J a n e i ro, 2 2-2 7
Septem ber, 2 0 02 .
Chapter 1
1 L o u i s -Jacq u e s - M a n d e Dague rre , Historique et
description des procedes du daguerreotype et du
Diorama (Paris, A l p h o n s e G i ro u x et C i e ,
1 8 3 9) , 3 9 .
2 J . L . M a rig n i e r, L'inven tion d e la photographie
( Pa r i s , 1 9 99), 5 0 2 .
3 For furt h e r i nfo r m at i o n o n t h i s t o p i c , see
i b i d . , 243- 57.
4 J . L . M a rig n i e r, " P hoto c h e m i s t ry of A s p h a l t e n e
F i l m s : A S t u d y of t h e Wor l d ' s F i rs t
P h otogra p h i c Process a n d i t s I n vention b y
N . N i epce a ro u n d 1 82 4 , " i n Journal of
Imaging Science and Technology, Vol. 4 0 ,
n o . 2 (1 9 9 6 ) , 1 2 3 - 3 3 .
5 L . F i g u i e r, L e s merveilles d e la science, a u
description populaire des inventions modernes
( Pa r i s , 1 8 69), Vo l . 3, 1 9-20. The translations
of a l l citations are by John M c E l h o n e u n l e s s
o t h e r w i s e noted .
334
6 R. D e re k Woo d , " Dague rre a n d h i s D i o ra m a
i n t h e 1 8 3 0 s : s o m e fi n a n c i a l a n n o u n c e m e n t s , "
h t t p : //www. m i d l ey. co. u k/d iorama/D i o r a m a
_Wo o d _ 2 . h t m (co n s u lt e d i n J u n e 2 0 0 6 ) .
7 M . B o n n e t , J . L . Marigni er, Niepce correspon­
dance et papiers (St. Lo u p - d e-Vare n n e s ,
2 0 0 3 ) , 1 49 5 -99.
8 L . F i g u i e r, Les merveil/es de la science, o u
description populaire des inventions modernes
( P a r i s , 1 8 69), Vol. 3 , 44.
9 Ibid , 47.
10 J os e f Maria E d e r, History of Pho tography,
trans l ated by E d ward E p stean ( N e w Yo r k ,
1 978), 2 8 7.
11 J o h n H . G ear, q u oted in G ra n t B. R o m er,
" So m e N otes o n t h e Past, Present a n d F u t u re
of P h otogra p h ic Preservat i o n , " in Image, Vol.
27, n o . 4 (1 984) , 2 2 .
12 I rving P o b b o ravsky, " Dague rreotype
Prese rvat i o n a n d Pro b l e m s of Ta r n i s h
Remova l , " i n Technology and Conservation
(S u m m e r 1 978), 4 0 - 4 5 .
13 E d m o n d d e Val i c o u r t , Nouveau manuel com­
p/et de photographie sur metal, sur papier et
verre ( L e o n c e Laget, P a r i s , 1 9 7 7 ) , r e p r i n t of
the 1 851 edition, 1 1 1 .
1 4 Tra n s l at i o n of text i n s i d e i m age:
T h e T i n type h a s a bad reputat i o n - o n e t h at i t
p a r t l y d es e rves. I t fares w o r s t at F a i rs a n d
o t h e r p u b l i c spectacles. T h e re , t h e c l i e n t i s
ro u g h l y d rawn - p u s h e d , i n fact- i nto t h e
lean -to of a n i n expert o p e rator a n d rec e i ves
(al b e i t at the cost of a p i t tance) a l ittle proof
a d u l l , c l o u d e d t h i n g, l it t l e rese m b l i ng the
portra i t p ro m i s e d by the m oc k i n g sign o ut-
 s i d e . After a l l of t h e fra u d s he has been sub­
jected t o - t h e Exotic Eastern Beauties and
t h e I n v i n ci b l e Wrestlers - o u r u n fo r t u n ate
c l i e n t is fi na l ly defeated by d i s a p p o i n t m e n t .
H e swears h e w i l l never have a n o t h e r portrait
made - at least n o t until the next Fair-and
l ittle by l i ttle t h e Tintype fa l l s i n to d i srepute.
Ah, but d o n ' t condemn t h e fa l l e n process'
Even t h o ugh piti less street organs may insist
o n grinding o u t a t u n e w i t h o u t re m o rse, t h e
m u sical i n s p i ration m a y yet s h i n e with u n d i ­
m i n is h e d charm . S o it is with t h e Ti ntype t h e
d a m ages i n fl i cted b y m a l adroit b o h e m ians
w h o a b u s e t h e p rocess o b s c u res i t s true
renown; b u t i n t h e h a n d s of an artist, it is a
marvel. Read t h i s book*, try t h e resu l t , a n d
tell m e if I ' m w r o n g ' " W i l ly "
* H en r i G a u t h i e r-Vi l i ars, Manuel d e Ferrotypie.
1 8 m o , w i t h figu res i n the text; 1 89 1 ( Paris:
G a u t h i e r-Vi l lars a n d S o n s - Price: 1 franc).
15 F o r further i nfo rmation on this t o p i c , see
R. N a m i a s , Chimie photographique ( Pa r i s ,
1 902), 1 42 .
1 6 M a r k Os term an, " I ntrod u c t i o n t o
P hotogra p h i c E q u i p m e n t , Processes a n d
D e fi n i t i o n s of t h e 1 9 'h Century," i n Focal
Encyclopedia of Photography, 4" edition, edited
by M i c h ael R . Peres (Am sterda m , 2007),
3 6 -1 2 3 .
17 M . l<ere u n , Mythes e t realites autour de la
fixation des couleurs heliographiques. recherches
menees a partir des travaux de M essieurs
Edmond Becquerel et Abel Niepce de Saint­
Victor, t h esis for a D i p l 6 m e d ' etudes a p p ro ­
fo n d i e s , Conservatoire national d e s arts et
metiers, 1 999.
18 J os e p h B o u d reau , " C o l o r Dague rreotypes:
H i l l otypes Recreate d , " i n Pioneers of Photog­
raphy: Their Achievements in Science and
Technology, e d i ted by E ugene O stroff
( S p r i n g fi e l d , 1 9 87), 1 8 9-99.
19 N at ional M u s e u m of Am erican H i story, " T h e
S m i t h s o n i a n ' s N at i o n a l M u se u m of A m e rican
H i story, The G etty Conservat i o n I n s t it u te,
a n d The Getty F o u n dation Collabo rate to
U n ravel Photograp h y ' s Most Controversial
Mystery," h t t p : //am e r i c a n h i story.si .ed u/
news/pressrelease . c fm?key=29&newskey=61 4
20 Cori n n e D u n e , " T h e H i l l otypes," h t t p : //www
. arp -geh . o rg/ Fi I e U pl oad_ d e m o / H i 11 otypes
. pd f (consulted i n August 2006).
Chapter 2
1 E d m o n d de Val i co u rt , Nouveau manuel com­
p/et de photographie sur metal, sur papier et sur
verre ( Leonce Laget, Paris, 1 977), re p r i n t of
the 1 8 51 e d i t i o n , 1 79.
2 Leon V i d a l , Cours de reproductions industrielles
( Pa r i s , 1 8 79), 279.
3 Bern ard C h ardere, Le roman des Lumiere
(Paris, 1 9 95), 3 2 5 .
4 L u m iere, F re n c h p a t e n t N o . 2459 4 8 , 2 2
March 1 8 9 5 , " P rocede p h otogra p h i q u e aux
m u ci lages b i c h romates d o n n a n t sans trans­
fe rt des i m ages avec leur d e m i -teintes, et
! 'a p p l ication d e ce procede a l a p h otograp h i e
des c o u l e u r s . "
C h apter 4
1 E d m o n d de Va l i court, Nouveau manuel com­
p/et de photographie sur metal, sur papier et et
sur verre ( L e o n ce Laget, Paris, 1 9 7 7 ) , rep r i n t
of t h e 1 8 51 e d i t i o n , 1 84 - 8 5 .
C h apter 5
1 H u m p h ry Davy, "An Acco u n t of a Method of
Copying P a i n t i ngs u p o n G lass a n d of M a k i n g
Profi l e s , b y t h e Age n cy of Light u p o n N i trate
of Silver. I nvented by T. Wedgwood, E s q .
With obse rvations b y H . Davy," Journal of the
Royal Institution of London, Vol. 1 , no. 9 (22
J u n e 1 8 02), 1 70-74.
2 Larry J. Sc haaf, " I nvention and D iscovery:
First I m ages , " i n Beauty of Another Order:
Photography in Science, e x h i b i t i o n catalogue
(Ottawa: N at i o n a l Gallery of Canada, 1 9 97),
26-59.
3 Lo u i s-A l p honse Dava n n e , J u les G i rard , " N ote
sur les causes q u i a m e n e n t ! ' a lterati o n des
ep reuves p h otogra p h i q ues positives, et sur u n
moye n de l e s revivifi er," i n Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des seances de / 'Academie des
sciences, Vo l . 41 , n o . 1 7 (1 8 5 5 ) , 6 6 6 - 69 .
4 J a m es M . Rei l ly, The Albumen and Salted Paper
Book ( Ro chester, 1 9 80), 3 4 .
End notes 3 3 5
 5 A n n e de M o d e n ard, Mission he/iographique.·
cinq pho tographes parcourent la France en 1 851
(Paris, 2 0 02 ) .
6 R o b e rt . A . W e i n s te i n , Larry Boot h , Collection,
Use, and Care of Historical Photographs
( N a s h v i l l e , 1 97 7 ) , 209.
7 B a l i nt F l e s c h , " S a m p l e r of E u ropean Card
P h otogra p h Sty l e s , " http://www. c i ty-ga l l e ry
. com /I e a r n i ng/types/e u r o p e a n _ c a r d s . p h p
(consu lted i n August 2 0 0 6 ) .
8 B. F is fe , " S u rvey of C u rators' Points of View
o n D i sass e m bly of P h otogra p h A l b u m s , "
l ecture a bstracts from 51h b i a n n u a l W i n t e r
Meeting o f t h e P h otogra p h i c Materials
G ro u p - A m e ri c a n I n stitute for Conservat i o n ,
P h i l a d e l p h ia ( 1 -2 F e b ruary 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 -7; a n d
S e c t i o n fra n �aise d e l ' l l C , L 'album photo-
graphique. actes d u colloque ( Pa r i s , 2 6 - 2 7
N ov e m b e r 1 99 8 ) , 7-1 27.
9 Pau M aynes To l o s a , "Jean Lau re n t et le p a p i e r
l e ptogra p h i q u e : traitement d ' oeu vres d e la
Societe fra n�ai se d e p h otogra p h i e et de
I ' E c o l e nationale d e s ponts et c h aussees,"
d i p l o m a t h e s i s , l n stitut d e fo rmation des
restau rate urs d 'ce u vres d 'art, 2 0 0 0 , 7-41 .
10 E d m o n d d e V a l i c o u r t , Nouveau manuel com-
plet de photographie sur metal, sur papier et
sur verre ( L e o n ce Lage!, Paris, 1 97 7 ) , Vo l . 2 ,
re p r i n t o f t h e 1 8 5 1 e d i t i o n , 204.
11 C . McCabe, L . D . G l i n s m a n , " U n d e rs t a n d i n g
A l fred Stieg l itz' Plati n u m a n d Pal lad i u m
P r i n t s : E x a m i n at i o n by X- Ray F l u orescence
S p e c trometry," in Studies in the History of Art,
Vo l . 51 ( 1 9 9 5) , 7 1 -8 5 .
12 T. F. Pars o n s , G . G . G ray, l . H . Crawford,
"To RC or Not to R C , " i n Journal of Applied
Photographic Engineering, Vol. 5, no. 2 (1 979),
1 1 0 - 1 7 ; J a m e s M . R e i l ly, "Arc h ival A s p e c t s o f
R e s i n Coated Paper, " i n Photo Educator
International ( Ro c h e s ter, 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 0 -3 1 .
13 J o h n F.W. H e rs c h e l , " O n t h e A c t i o n of t h e
Rays of t h e S o l a r S p e c t r u m o n Vegetable
C o l o u rs and on some N e w P h otogra p h i c
Processe s , " i n Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society (1 842), 2 0 2 .
1 4 A n n a At k i n s , British Algae: Cyanotype
Impressions (1 8 43 - 1 8 53). L i ke Tal b o t ' s earl i e r
p u b l i c at i o n , British A lgae w a s p ro d u ced over
m any years and released i n i n s t a l l m e n t s to
336
prepaid s u bscribers. T h e reason for t h i s is that
i t takes a long time to produce m u lt i p l e cop-
i e s of c o n t a c t p r i n ts - o n ly o n e at a t i m e can
b e made and each one can take h o u r s to be
c o m p l e t e d , d e p e n d i ng on t h e weath e r.
15 " T h e N e w Cyanotype Process," h t t p : //www
. m i keware . d e m o n . c o . u k/cya n o . h t m l (co n -
s u i ted in J u ly 2 0 0 6 )
16 For further i nfo rmation o n t h i s t o p i c , s e e
J o s e p h Pizzighel l i , A . H u b l , La platinotypie
( P a r i s , 1 8 8 3 ) , 1 - 6 ; G i u s e p p e Pizzig h e l l i ,
A . H u b l , Pla tinotype, translated b y J . F. l s e l i n
a n d e d i t e d b y W. d e W. A b n ey ( L o n d o n ,
1 8 8 6 ) ; M i k e J . Ware, "An I n vestigat i o n of
P l at i n u m a n d Pallad i u m P r i n t i n g , " i n The
Journal of Photographic Science, Vo l . 3 4
(1 9 8 6 ) , 1 3 - 2 5 .
17 A . H . C u i s i n ier, Le�ons d e photographie,
theoriques et pratiques (Paris, 1 947), 445.
18 G . - A . L i e b e r t , L a photographie a u charbon par
transfert et ses applications ( Paris 1 9 08), 5.
19 F o r f u r t h e r i n fo r m at i o n o n this t o p i c , s e e
ibid 2 9-1 2 5 .
'
20 F. D i l l ay e , La theorie, l a pratique et /'art
en pho tographie: le tirage des epreuves en
photographie ( P a r i s , 1 903), 3 6 7.
21 F o r fu r t h e r i nfo rmation o n t h i s topic, see
Walter E . Wood b u ry, " Wo o d b u rytype , "
i n The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Pho tography
( N ew Yo r k , 1 979), r e p r i n t of t h e 1 89 8
edition, 526-32.
22 L i c h t d ruck-l<unst Le i pzig e V , h t t p : //
l i c h t d r u c k . de/ (co n s u lted i n F e b ru a ry 2008)
2 3 J a m es M . R e i l ly, Care and Iden tification of
1 9 t h - Cen tury Photographic Prints (Roch ester,
1 9 8 6 ) , 52-72.
24 C . M c C a b e , L . D . G l i n s m a n , · u n d e rs t a n d i n g
A l fred Stieglitz' P l at i n u m a n d Pa l l a d i u m
P r i n t s : E x a m i n at i o n by X- Ray F l u orescence
S p ectrom etry," i n Studies in the History of Art,
Vo l . 51 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , 7 1 -8 5 .
25 Ate l i e r F re s s o n , h t t p : //www.at e l i e r-fresson
. c o m / i n d e x . him (co n s u lted i n March 2 0 0 8) .
26 H e n ry W i l h e l m , " T h e P e r m a n e n c e a n d C a re of
C o l o r P h otographs: Trad i t i o n a l a n d D igital
C o l o r P r i n t s , C o l o r N egatives, S l i d e s , a n d
Motion Picture s , " http://www. w i l h e l m
-researc h . com/pdf/ H W_ B ook_ 0 1 _of_20
_ H i Res_v 1 a . p d f (co n s u l te d i n J u ly 2 0 0 6 ) .
27 " T h e L a n d List- F i l m I n d e x , " http ://www
. rw h i r l e d . c o m / l a n d l ist/lan d fi l m . ht m #T O P
(co n s u lted i n M a r c h 2008). F uj i fi l m G l o ba l ,
http://www. fuj i fi I m . co m/prod ucts/i nstant
_ p hoto/fi l ms/i n d e x . h t m l (consu lted i n March
2008).
28 S p ri n ge r L i n k , http://www . s p r i nge r l i n k . co m /
conte n t/u 1 3 p 0 8 7 5 0 n g 1 0348/fu 1 1 text. pdf
(co n s u lted in J u ly 2 0 0 6 ) . (This is a link to a
s e c u re d rep r i n t of t h e arti c l e : " Po laroid O n e ­
Step P h otograp hy , " i n Naturwissenschaften ,
V o l . 6 4 , n o . 1 [J a n u a ry 1 97 7 ] , 1 -7.)
29 For further i nfo rmation on t h i s t o p i c , see
A n n i e W i l ke r, " T h e Tec h n o l ogy a n d Structu re
of Records Mate rial s , " http://www.gslis
. ute xa s. e d u /-coch i n ea/p dfs/a -w i Ike r-04
-i nstantfi l m . p d f#searc h = p o l a ro i d % 2 0 dye%20
d i ffusio n%20transfer%20kodak (consu lted in
M a rc h 2008). Polaroid Corporat i o n , Storing,
Handling and Preserving Polaroid Photographs.
A Guide (Bosto n , 1 9 8 3 ) , 22-3 5 .
C h apter 6
1 A n n e de M o n d e nard, M ission heliographique.·
cinq photographes parcourent la France en 1 8 5 1
( Pa r i s , 2002)
C hapter 7
1 R o m a i n G u e dj , La plaque de verre albuminee,
une identite perdue.· reproduction et identifica ­
tion du premier nega tif photographique sur
verre, premices a l'his toire d'une technique,
t h e s i s for a D i p l 6 m e d 'etudes a p p rofo n d i e s ,
Centre d ' h i st o i re d e s tech n i q u e s , M us e e
n at i o n a l d e s A rt s et M e t i e r s , 2004, 9 3 -9 4 .
2 Ibid.
3 G u stave L e G ray, Traite pratique d e photogra­
phie sur papier et sur verre ( Pa r i s , B a i l l iere,
1 8 50), 1 .
4 J os e f Maria E d e r, History of Photography,
tra n s l ated by Edward E pstean ( N e w Yo r k ,
1 978), 3 5 8 .
5 Walter E . Woo d b u ry, " G lass p l ate s , " i n The
Encyclopedia of Photography ( N e w Yo rk, 1 979),
facs i m i l e of 1 8 9 8 e d i t i o n , 2 24 .
6 I bi d .
C h apter 8
1 Peter Z. A d e l s te i n , " From Metal to Polyester:
H istory of P i c t u re-Ta k i n g S u p ports , " in
Pioneers of Pho tography: Their Achievements in
Science and Technology, e d ited by E ugene
Ostroff (Spri ngfi e l d , 1 9 8 7 ) , 30-36.
2 C h a r l e s Date m a , "Math e m atical m o d e l i ng of
black-and-wh ite c h ro m oge n i c i m age s ta b i l ­
ity, " h t t p : //h d l . h a n d l e . n et/1 8 50/1 1 0 5 (co n ­
s u l te d i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 6 ) .
3 F . P l o y e , " Le s negatifs p h otogra p h i q u es e n
n i t rate d e c e l l u lose: l e p l a n n i trate d e l a V i l l e
d e P a r i s , " i n Support Trace, Vo l . 5 (2005),
2 2-3 6 .
4 R o m a i n G u e dj , La plaque d e verre albuminee,
une identite perdue: reproduction et identifica­
tion du premier negatif photographique sur
verre, premices a l 'histoire d'une technique,
t h e s i s for a D i p l 6 m e d 'e t u d e s ap profo n d i e s ,
Centre d ' h i s t o i re d e s te c h n i q u e s , M u s e e
n a t i o n a l d e s A r t s et M e t i e r s , 2004, 1 -1 24 .
5 C . M c C a b e , " P reservation of t h e 1 9 t h ­
C e n t u ry N egatives i n the N at i o n a l Archives"
in Journal of t h e A merican Institute for
Conservation, Vol . 3 0 , n o . 1 ( 1 9 9 1 ), 41 -7 3 ,
h t t p : //a i c . s tan fo rd . e d u/ja ic/arti c l es/ja i c 3 0
-01 - 0 0 5_ 4 . h t m l (co n su lted in August 2 0 0 6 ) .
6 " C o n s e rve 0 G ra m , " h t t p : //www. n p s . gov/
h istoryIm u s e u m/p u b I i cation s/co nse rveogra ml
1 4 - 0 9 . p d f (co n su lted in August 2 0 0 6 ) .
7 C e n t e r of S o uthwest Stu d i e s , " P hotonegatives
I d e nt i fi cation Tips," http://swcenter. fo rtlewis
. e d u/to o l s/ N egsl D . htm#reso u rces (co n s u lted
in A u g u s t 2006).
Chapter 9
1 I mage P e r m a n e n c e I n s titute - P re s ervation
C a l c u l ator, http://www i m ag e p e r m a n e n c e
i n stitute. o rg/s h t m 1 _ s u b/d l _ p resca l e . a s p
(co n s u lted i n A u g u s t 2 0 0 8 ) .
2 H e n ry W i l h e l m e t a l . , " S u b-Zero Cold Storage
for the Permanent Prese rvati o n of
Photogra p h s , Motion P i c t u re F i l m s , B o o k s ,
N ewspapers, Manu scri pt s , a n d H istorical
Artifac t s , " http://wi I h e l m - re s earch .com/
s u bzero . h t m l (co n s u lted i n August 2006).
3 Mark M c C o r m i c k- G o o d h art, "On t h e Cold
Storage of P h otograp h i c Materials i n a
E n d n otes 337
 Conventional Freezer U s i n g t h e C r i t i cal
M o i s t u re I n d icator (CM I ) Packag i n g Method , "
http://wi I h e l m - research . com/su bze ro.htm I
(co n s u l ted in August 2 0 0 6 ) .
4 M o d i fi e d f r o m B e rtrand Laved r i n e , J e a n - Pa u l
G a n d o l fo , S i by l l e M o n a d , A Guide to t h e
Preventive Conservation of Pho tograph
Collections ( Lo s A n g e l e s , 2 0 0 3 ) , 8 9 .
5 M i crofad etesteruser, h t t p : //
m i c rofa d ete s te ruse r. web exo n e . com I
(co n s u l te d in J u n e 2008) .
6 M o d i fi e d from B e rtrand Laved r i n e , J e a n - P a u l
G a n d o l fo , S i b y l l e M o n a d , A Guide t o the
Preventive Conservation of Pho tograph
Collections ( Los Angeles, 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 6 3 .
journees internationales d'etudes de l'ARSAG
( P a r i s , 1 6 -20 May 1 994), 1 8 9-1 9 3 .
Chapter 1 1
1 l< N AW - S E P I A Proj e c t , http ://www . k n aw . n l /
e c pa/s e p i a/ I i n k s a n d I i te r a t u re/e x p e r t 2 e ng
. ht m l # c o n c l u s i o n (co n s u lted i n August 2 0 0 6 ) .
G l ossary
1 This d e fi n i t i o n a n d a l s o t h o s e for " c o n s e rva­
t i o n treatm e n t , " " p reventive c o n s e rvat i o n "
a n d " restorat i o n " a r e b a s e d o n t h e d raft reso­
l u t i o n s u b m itted to the I COM-CC m e m b e r­
s h i p at t h e 2 5t h t r i e n n i a l confe r e n c e , N ew
D e l h i , 2 0 0 8/09/ 2 2 - 2 6 .

C h apte r 1 0
S . B e rgeo n , " La fo r m ation d e s restau rate u r s :
n i veaux, i nt e rd i s c i p l i narite, et re c h e r c h e s e n
conservat i o n -restau rat i o n , " p re s e ntation
given at Parra r i a n o , 3 0 Septe m b e r 1 9 94.
2 G. B r u n e l , " Re s t i t u t i o n : l e s d angers d ' u n e
notion o b s c u re , " i n Environnement et conserva­
tion de /'ecrit, de / 'image et du son. Actes des

338
Further Reading
and Information
C o n s ervati o n
Lave d r i n e , Bertrand, J ea n - P a u l G a n d o lfo,
and S i by l l e M o n a d . A Guide to the
Preventive Conservation of Photograph
Collections. Los Angeles, 2003 .
R e i l ly, J am es M . Care and Identification of
19th- Century Photographic Prints.
Roch ester, 1 98 6 .
Ritzenthaler, Mary Lyn n , and D i a n e Vogt­
O ' C o n n o r. Photographs: Archival Care and
M anagement. Ch icago, 2 0 0 6 .
H i story of p h otogra p h y
Frizot, Michel, e d . A New History of
Photography. Cologne, 1 9 9 8 .
G e r ns h e i m , H e l m ut . A Concise History of
Photography. N ew Yo rk, 1 98 6 .
N ewhal l , B eau m o n t . The History of
Photography. N ew Yo rk, 1 98 2 .
N ewhal l , B eau m o n t . Latent Image: The
Discovery of Photography A l b u q u e r q u e ,
1 98 3 .
Rose n b l u m , N ao m i . A World History of
Photography. N e w Yo rk, 1 98 4 .
P h otograp h i c p rocesses
Baldwi n , G o rd o n . Looking at Photographs:
A Guide to Technical Terms. Los Ange l e s ,
1 99 1 .
H a n n avy, J o h n , ed . Encyclopedia of
Nineteenth- Century Photography.
N ew Yo r k , 2 007.
N ad e a u , L u i s . Encyclopedia of Printing,
Photographic, and Photomechanical
Processes. Frederi cto n , 1 989.
Peres, Michael R . , e d . Focal Encyclopedia of
Photography, 4th e d i t i o n . Amsterd a m ,
2 007.
R e i l ly, J a m es M. Care and Identification of
19th- Century Photographic Prin ts.
Roch ester, 1 9 8 6 .
A r c h ival s u p p l y ret a i l e r s (t h i s i s not an
exhaust ive l i st)
Alvin & C o m pa ny http ://www. a l v i n c o . c o m /
A rc h ival P ro d u cts: http://www. archival
.com/
Conse rvat i o n By Design: htt p : //www
.conservat i o n - by-design .co. u k/
G ayl o rd B rothers: http://www.gay l o rd m art
. co m!
Light I m p ressions http://www. l ight
i m p ress i o n s d i rect . c o m /
Prese rvat i o n E q u i p m e n t L t d : http://www
. p rese rvati o n e q u i p m e nt . co m /
U n ivers ity Pro d u ct s : http://www. u n ivers ity
pro d u ct s . c o m /
339
 1 llustration Credits
© Arch ives ph otogra p h i q u es du m i n iste re d e
l a C u l t u re et d e l a Co m m u n icat i o n :
Figures 1 70 , 1 7 1 , 1 78 , 1 8 0, 1 96 , 1 99, 2 0 5
© Martin B e c k a : Fig u re 1 69
© Charles B e rger Figure 1 54
© H e i n s Berger: F igure 1 62
© B i b l io t h e q u e centrale d u M N H N , Paris:
Fig u res 32, 3 3 , 35
© Centre des rec h e rches sur la conservat i o n
des d o c u m ents graphiq ues (CRCDG), n ow
re n a m ed Centre de rec h e rc h e s u r la c o n ­
servat i o n des col lections ( C R C C ) : Figures
1 -6 , 1 2-24 , 2 7-3 0 , 3 8 - 4 3 , 45-51 , 5 8 ,
63-7 3 , 76, 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 1 -1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 0-2 2 ,
1 2 7, 1 2 8 , 1 32 , 1 33 , 1 3 6-3 8 , 1 40 , 1 41 ,
1 43-51 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 7, 1 61 , 1 64-66, 1 74-77,
1 79, 1 8 1 -8 5 , 1 88 -9 5 , 1 97, 1 98 , 2 0 1 - 4 ,
2 07-1 2 , 2 1 4-27, 2 2 9, a n d i l l ustration
o n p. 3 1 8
© C i b a G eigy: Figure 1 60
© College de France, F o n d s P i l let:
F ig u re 1 72
© C R C D G /G C I (G etty Conservat i o n
I nstitute) Figure 1 52
© Martine Fran�ois: Fig u re 1 1 7
© F ragny- Com m e nge: Figure 3 7
© J ean - Pa u l G a n d o lfo : Figu res 7, 3 6 , 44,
52-55, 57, 6 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 9, 1 2 3 , 1 24 , 1 3 4 ,
1 42 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 , 1 59, 1 6 3 , 2 3 2
340
© Arth u r G erbault: Figure 2 2 8
© The J . P a u l Getty Trust: Figures 74, 7 5
The J . Pau l G etty M u se u m , L o s Ange l e s .
2 007. 26.1 67. Part ial gift from the Wi lson
Center for Photography: Figure 90
Research L i b rary, The G etty Research
I nstitute, Los Angeles, Califo rn i a
(8 8 . R 1 3) F igure 1 7 3
© P h i l i p p e a n d Marion J a c q u i e r F i g u res
59-61
© H er m a n n l< rone Col lect i o n , I A PP, TU
D resd e n : Figure 200
© L u m i e re l nstitute/ L u m i e re Fam i ly: Fig u res
1 8 6 , 1 87
© M u s ee des Arts et Metiers- C N A M , Paris:
Figures 3 1 , 56
© N arod n f techni cke m uz e u m : Figures
230, 231
© Roger Pie: Figure 2 1 3
© Polaro i d : Figure 1 67
© A n n i e T h o m asset: Figure 206
© Vi l l e d e C h a l o n - s u r-Sa6 n e , Musee
N i c e p h o re N i e pce: Figures 8 -1 1 , 25, 26,
34, 7 7, 80, 1 3 5 , 1 3 9, 1 5 6 , 1 68
© M i ke Ware: Figures 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 9, 1 3 0
 Index

N ote: Page n u m bers in italics i n d icate i l l ustratio n s ; identification of, 55, 55

page n u m bers followed by n refer to n o t e s , with note pan notypes a n d , 93
n u m ber. t i ntypes and, 3 4
a m m o n i u m ferric citrate, i n cyanotype
A fabrication, 1 5 2
acce l e rators, for d aguerreotypes, 28 a m p h i positives. See ambrotypes
acet i c acid a m p h itypes. See am brotypes
i n a l b u m e n negative fabri cati o n , 2 3 6 a n alysis, scientific methods of, 194, 1 94-96, 195-97
from cellu lose triacetate, 2 5 6 anoxia, for pest i n festat i o n , 3 1 7
i n w a x e d p a p e r process, 2 2 8 Ansco Printon, 2 1 6
acid -free paper, 2 8 7 Arago, Frani;:o i s , 2 5
a c i d i c vapor, from gelatin s i l ver negatives on fi l m , 2 5 6 Archer, Frederick Scott, 2 3 8
acidified t h i o u rea, f o r dague rreotype restorat i o n , 3 0 archiving of d igital i mage fi l e s , 3 1 0
acrylic g l a z i n g , 299 Ardenne, Belgium (Weck Brothers), 185
Acryloid B -7 2", 291 argyrotype, 163
a d d i t ive color synthesis, 202 Aristotype, 1 26-27
ad hes ive m ou n ting of p h otographs, 291 asphaltum, i n heliograph structure , 20, 2 1
Ageless", 3 1 7 Atco®, 3 1 7
Agfa, 244 Atk i n s , A n n a
Agfacolor, 83, 2 1 2 , 2 13, 260 and A n n e D i x o n , Equisetum sylvaticum, 1 0 0
Agfaco lor N e u e , 86 British A lgae: Cyanotype Impressions, 1 5 0, 3 3 6 n 1 4
air d rying, after wetting, 3 1 4-1 5 , 315 autochromes, 46, 4 7, 76-77, 7 7, 79-81
Albert, J osef, 1 82 azomet h i n e dyes, 2 1 0 , 2 1 4
albertype. See coll otypes
albumen negatives on glass, 2 3 4-36, 235-37, 264 B
albumen on glass process, for transpare ncies, 59, 61 backgro u n d , in ambrotypes, 5 2 , 52, 5 3
albumen prints, 1 1 2- 1 9 , 1 13-23 b a l l point p e n , 2 9 5
deterioration of, 285 baryta
identification of, 190, 1 9 1 i n dye transfer prints, 204, 2 0 5
p e r i o d used, 12 i n gelatin s i l ver develop i ng-out p r i n t s , 1 41
a l b u m s , 1 24, 125, 2 9 1 , 291 identification of, 192, 1 9 6
A lice Reine (Benque a n d Co.), 1 78 i n printi ng-out papers , 1 2 6 , 1 2 9
A l i nari Stamperia d 'Arte, 1 82 , 184 washing of, 1 3 9
a l k a l i n e reserve pap er, 1 52 , 287 Basilica a t Wzelay, France (unk nown), 131
alkaline solution, i n i nstant print develo pment, 2 1 8 Basket of Fruit (unknown), 2 1 9
alternative process p h otography, 162, 163 Bayard, H i ppolyte, 2 2
A l ticolor, 83 Becka, Mart i n , Tree, 226
am brotypes, 50-54, 51-57 Becquere l , Edmond
classification of, 5 Birds, 45
hand-col ored, 53 on dague rreotype development, 2 7

I n dex 341
 d i rect helioch ro m es of, 40-43, 4 2 , 4 3 , 45 cellulose acetate
Reproduction of Colored Engravings, 42 i n ch romogen i c fi l m transparencies, 87
Solar spectrum, 4 3 deteriorat i o n of, 278
Bennett, Charles, 244 as fi l m base, 254
Benque and C o . , Alice Reine, 1 78 i n gelatin si lver negatives on film, 255, 2 5 7
Berger, Charles, 1 9 8 , 199 identification of, 268, 268, 269
B e rger, H einz, Bouquet of Flowers, 2 1 3 water damage to, 3 1 4
B e rget, A l p honse, Gabriel Lippmann i n H i s Labora tory cellu lose nit rate
at the Sorbonne, 66 i n col l o d i o n , 2 3 8
B e rtal l , Victor Hugo, 1 7 7 deteri orat ion o f , 1 3 2, 256, 2 5 7, 2 5 8 , 278, 2 78
Berthault, F . , Portrait of Bishop Freppel, 123 as fi l m base, 254
bind er. See also under albumen; gelatin fi re risk with, 256
analysis of, 1 9 5 in gelatin silver negatives o n film, 2 5 5 , 2 5 7, 2 58
defi n ition of, 6 identification of, 268, 268, 269
in pri nting-out papers, 1 2 8, 1 2 9 storage of, 289
salted paper prints and, 1 07 water damage to, 3 1 4
b i n d e rs (al b ums), 2 9 1 , 2 9 7 cellulose triacetate
b i ological deteriorat i o n , 2 74 deteriorat i o n of, 88
Biol, Jean- Baptiste, 224 in gelatin si lver negatives o n fi l m , 2 5 6
Birds ( B ecquerel), 45 Centre de recherche et restau ration des Musees de
Blanq uart- Evrad, Louis- Desire , 50, 1 1 2 , 224 France (C2RMF), 2 7
b l each -and-redevelopment, 302 Chateau de Vizille, France ( u n k n own), 2 2 9
b l ueprints, 150, 151 c h e m i c a l deteriorati o n , 274
Bouquet of Flowers (Berger), 213 chemical restorati o n , 3 02
Bouquet of Flowers (Fal igot), 6 7 C h evalier, Charles, 2 2
Bouquet of Flowers (Veyre), 7 2 Child Standing on a Chair ( Peigne), 135
boxes, f o r storage, 2 9 3 , 293 chlorine
Bridge a t Buchanty (Ware), 1 5 7 as dague rreotype accelerator, 28
The Bridge a t Meaux ( H u m bert d e Molard), 2 2 5 i n h i l l otype fabricat i o n , 46
B ristol board m o u n ts , f o r albumen prints, 1 1 9 chromod iascope, 77
British A lgae: Cya notype Impressions (Atkins), chromoge n i c process negatives, 260-62, 261-63
1 50, 3 3 6 n 1 4 fi l m s for, 8 3 , 2 54
bro m i d e , i n ti ntype fabricatio n , 3 6 mono chrome, 254
b ro m i n e , as dague rreotype accelerator, 28 period used , 12
brushwo r k , o n gum bich romate prints, 1 7 3 chromogenic process prints, 2 1 2- 1 5 , 2 13-1 7
fad i n g of, 275
c l ight- i n d uced damage to, 296
cabinet card albumen prints, 1 1 4 , 123 period used , 7 2
calotype positives. S e e salted paper p rints c h romoge n i c process transparencies, 86-88, 87,
calotypes, 224-30, 2 2 5, 2 2 7, 2 2 9, 230 89, 2 7 7
identification of, 264, 264 ch romographoscope, 71 , 202
period used , 1 2 C I BA - G e igy, 208
for salted paper p rints, 1 04 C i bachrome M i crographic F i l m , 2 1 0
carbon p r i n ts, 1 64-67, 165- 69, 1 7 7, 1 9 7 C i bachrome ( l l fochrome C l assic) prints, 208-1 0,
carbon tran sfer, 1 6 7 209- 1 1
Cardinal d 'Amboise ( N i epce), 1 8 , 20, 2 1 C i lchrome. See Cibachrome prints
carte-de-visite format citric ac i d , i n printing-out paper, 1 3 0
for albumen prints, 1 1 4 , 7 2 7 Cleo de Merode ( P uyo), 7 7 1
albums for, 1 2 5 The Coal M a n and His Son ( P i e), 284
e n l argement of, 1 4 1 cold storage, 282, 282
cases of c e l l u l o i d films, 278
for ambrotypes, 51, 52, 53, 5 7 packagi n g for, 282-83
for daguerreotypes, 26, 26, 3 1 collections, d i g i tization of, 3 06-9
for pannotypes, 93 collodion. See also wet collodion process
castor o i l , in p ri n t i ng-out paper, 1 3 0 in ambrotype fabr icat i o n , 53
cello i d i n POP, 1 2 8 i n ambrotype structure, 50
cellulose, deteri oration of, 2-3 , 1 59 i n collodion negative fabricati o n , 242

342
 in pann otype fa bricat i o n , 93
i n t i n type structure , 36, 3 7
i n transparencies on glass, 5 9
co l l o d i o n d ry plates, 2 3 8-39
co l l o d i o n negatives on glass, 2 3 8 -42, 239-43
i n a m b rotype structure, 52
c l assification of, 5
i d e ntification of, 264, 265
period used , 7 2
co l l o d i o n P O P, 1 2 8 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 , 135, 193
c o l l o d i o n pos itive. See am brotypes
c o l l o d i o n s i l ver chloride paper, 1 26-27
col lograph. See col lotypes
colloidal si lver, i n printing out, 1 1 0
c o l l otypes (phototypes), 5 , 1 82-84, 183-87
color a m b rotypes , 53
color collotypes, 1 82
color correction, of fading, 2 1 5
color coupl ers
i n chromagenic negative s , 262
i n chromagenic prints, 2 1 4
i n chromoge n i c process transparencies, 8 8
crac king
of a l b u m e n negatives on glass, 2 3 6
of albumen prints. 118, 118
o f carbon prints, 1 6 7
o f co l l o d i o n negatives on g l ass , 241, 242
of collodion POPs, 1 3 2 , 133
of color i nstant pri nts, 2 1 9
o f gelatin silve r deve l o p i ng- o u t prints, 1 4 4
o f paper negatives, 2 3 0
Cros, C harles, 204
cupric chloride, i n d i rect h e l i o c h rome fabricat i o n , 43
c u red epoxy fi n ished fu rnitu re , 2 9 4
C u t t i n g , J a mes Am brose, 5 0
cyan ide
i n a m b rotype fi x i ng , 53
i n collodion negative fixing, 242
for daguerreotype restorat i o n , 3 0
i n tintype fixing, 3 6
cyanotype, 7 00, 1 5 0-52, 757, 1 53-55, 189
cyanotype-gum bichromate p r i n t s , 1 7 3
D

color p h otography Daguerre, Louis-Jacques Mande, 24-25

cold storage of, 282, 282 Perspective of a Gothic Church Nave, 24, 2 5
mass adoption of, 2 1 2 Daguerreian measles, 3 0
color p igment prints, 1 9 8-2 01 , 199-201 daguerreotype, 24-3 1 , 26-29, 3 1 -33
color posit ives o n glass, 64-81 classification of, 5
autochromes, 76-77, 7 7, 79-81 colore d , 3 0 -3 1 , 3 1 , 4 6
L i p p m a n n process, 64-68, 65-69 identification o f , 5 5 , 5 5
th ree- color L u m i e re transparencies, 70, 70-72, p e r i o d used, 72
72-75, 3 3 5 n 4 Tal bot and, 2 24
c o l o r pos itives o n metal, 4 0 - 4 3 , 4 1 - 45 toning, 1 3 6
color positives on paper, 1 9 8-2 1 9 Dahlzwist, Georg , 2 8
ch romogen ic p rocess prints, 2 1 2-1 5 , 2 13-17 da rkroom
C i bachrome ( J l fochrome C l assic) prints, 208-1 0, for co l l o d i o n process, 2 3 8 , 240
209-1 1 for deve l o pment, 1 3 8
color pigment prints, 1 98-201 , 199-20 1 Daum i e r, H o nore, A New Process Used t o Achieve
d y e transfe r p r i n t s , 2 0 4 - 6 , 205-7 Graceful Poses, 2 7
Polaro i d i nstant prints, 2 1 8-19, 2 7 9 Davanne, L o u i s Alphonse, 2 9 , 1 07
Color Reflections o n a Soap Bubble (un known), 6 5 delami nation
color screen processes, 7 6 , 82, 83 of autochromes, 79
color separat i o n negatives of C i bachrome prints, 2 1 0 , 2 1 0
for Cibachrome p rints, 2 1 0 of collodion P O Ps , 1 32
for color pigment prints, 1 98 , 799 of color screen fi l m s , 8 3 , 83
for dye transfer p rints, 204 of daguerreotypes, 2 9
color transparen c i es o n plastic fi l m , 86-88, 8 7, 89 from dry a i r, 280
computer techno logy, obsol escence of, 3 1 0 , 3 1 1 of gelatin silver glass negatives, 248, 248
Confessional-Sicily (Ware), 762 of paper negatives, 230
conse rvati o n . See ph otograph conservation of t h ree-color L u m i e re trans parencies, 7 1
copies, exhib ition of, 2 9 6 of transparencies o n glass, 6 1
copper from wetting, 3 1 4
i n daguerreotype struct u re , 26 Demachy, Robert, 1 70
i n d i rect h e l iochrome structure , 42 Norman Landscape, 1 73
copy negative, 1 0 Primavera, 7
copy prints, 1 0 deteriorati o n . See also cracking; fad i ng ; h u m i d ity;
couplers. See color couplers oxidat i o n ; water damage; yellowing
Coulon, Lefievre, Portrait of a Young Woman, 169 of cellu lose t r iacetate, 88

I n dex 343
 environmental cond itions i n , 280-85
of g l ass plate, 242
i m age d iscoloration from , 274-7 5 , 2 75 - 7 7
from m o l d infestation, 2 7 9, 2 79, 3 1 4 , 3 1 6-1 7
o f mon ochrome posi tives o n paper, 189, 1 89-93 ,
190-93
of plastic fi l m , 2 5 6 , 2 5 7, 258, 2 7 8 , 2 78
types of, 274-99
deve l o ping-out paper. See gelat i n silver developi ng­
out prints
development
of gelat i n silver developing-out print, 1 43
of g u m b i c h ro m ate prints, 1 7 2
of platinum prints, 1 5 8
vs. pri nting out, 1 1 0, 1 3 8-39
dextrin, i n d i rect h e l i oc h ro m e stabilization, 43
d i ascope, 77
dich romated gelatin
i n carbon prints, 1 64
in col lotypes, 1 8 3 , 1 8 4
dye synthesis, i n chromoge n i c process i ng , 2 1 2 ,
260, 262
dye transfe r matrix fi l m , 204, 2 0 5
E astman, George, 2 2 5
E a s t m a n Dry Plate Company, 244
Eastman l<odak. See under l<od a k
Eastman p a p e r negatives, 2 2 5-30, 2 6 4
E d er, J o s e p h M a r i a , 2 3 8
egg. See under albumen
E k tachrome fi l m , 86
electrolysis, i n d i rect heliochrome fa brication, 43
electrolytic cleaning, of d ag u e rreotypes, 30
e m u lation software, 3 1 O
e n larging, 1 3 8 , 1 40, 1 4 1 , 141
envelopes. S e e paper storage envelopes; plastic
storage products
environmental conditions, i n d e terioration, 280-85.
S e e also h u m id i ty; temperature

i n color p igment prints, 1 9 8 Equisetum sylva ticum (Atkins a n d D ixon), 7 00

in t h ree-color L u m i e re transparencies , 7 1 Estar fi l m , 268

i n wood burytypes, 1 79 ethylene oxide treatment, 3 1 6-1 7
d i c h romated g u m arabic, 1 70 Exca vation at Khorsabad (Tranchand), 230
d igital fi l e preservati o n , 3 1 0 , 3 1 1 exhibition, 2 96-97, 2 9 7
digital i m age reco nstruction, 2 1 5 , 303
F
digital photogra p h , 6
d ig i tization of collections, 306-9 fabricatio n , vs. reconstruction, 3 02
Diopt i c h rome, 8 3 fading
d i orama, of Daguerre, 24, 2 5 of a l b u m e n prints, 1 1 8 , 118
diphenylamine test, 269 of c h ro m ogenic negatives, 262
of c h ro m ogenic process prints, 8 8 , 2 1 5, 275
d i rect c a r b o n process, 1 6 7
d i rect heliochromes, 40-43 , 41-45 of color i nstant prints, 2 1 9
d i sasters, 3 1 4- 1 8 o f gelatin si lver prints, 2 75
of salted paper prints, 1 07
Disderi, A n d re Adolphe, 1 1 2
Portrait of a Man, 1 14
Fading Committee (Ph otograp h i c Society of
d i stortion London), 1 0 7
Faligot, P. , Bouquet of Flowers, 6 7
i n C i bachro m e p rints, 2 1 0
Family C roup (u n k nown), 144
from wetting, 3 1 4
Family Portraits ( u n known), 47
D i xo n , Anne, a n d Anna Atkins, Equisetum
F a n ( Puyo), 1 72
sylvaticum, 100
Farm, Maine-et- Loire, France (unknown), 128
Doll on a Stand ( N iepce d e Saint-Victor) , 41
Fashion Photograph (unknown), 79
D O P p rint. See gelatin silve r develo ping-out prints
Dragon camera, 2 3 7 fe lt-tip pens, 2 9 5
Draper, J o h n , 3 0 ferric oxalate, i n plati n u m p r i n t fabricat i o n , 1 58
D resdner A l b u m i nfab r i k G m b H , 1 1 2 ferro-prussiate process. See cyanotype
D u e d e Luynes Prize, 1 6 4 ferrotypes. See t i n types
D ucos d u Hauron, Louis, 6 4 , 70, 1 98 , 202 ferrous a m m o n i u m s u l fate, i n collodion negative
The O utskirts of Agen, France, 203
development, 242
Dufaycolor, 83 ferrous s u l fate
d u s t i ng , 302 in a m b rotype development, 53
dye - d estruction i m aging, 208, 2 1 0 i n t i ntype development, 3 6
dye i m b i bation process, 2 0 4 , 2 0 5 fi ber, a nalysis of, 1 9 6, 7 9 7
d y e migration Figui er, Louis
The Inventor, 23
i n C i bachrome prints, 2 1 0
L e s merveilles d e l a science ou description populaire
i n dye transfe r prints, 206
from wetting, 3 1 4 des inventions modernes, 3, 23, 2 7, 236, 2 3 7

3 44
 The Photographer and His Assistant, 3 glassine paper a n d , 286, 287
F i l m co lor, 82, 8 3 , 83 i n Lippmann p l ates, 6 6 , 68
F i n lay Thams, 83 in monochrome transparencies on plastic fi l m , 86
fire d amage, 3 1 4 i n plastic fi l m , 2 5 4
fi r e risk , with cellulose n i t rate, 2 5 6 i n transparencies o n g l a s s , 59, 6 0 , 6 1
F i sc her, Rudolph, 86 use o f , 2 4 4
Fizeau, H i ppolyte - Louis, 2 8 , 1 3 6 g e l a t i n s i lver b r o m i d e prints, 1 3 8 , 140, 142-45,
fl oo d damage, 3 1 4 , 3 1 5, 3 1 7 7 46-47, 149
F l orence, H e rc u l e , 2 2 deteriorat ion of, 284, 284
fl u orescence, 1 9 6 , 2 0 5 , 206 image discoloration of, 2 75, 2 76
fol ders, 290 l ight- i n d u ced damage to, 2 9 6
Fourier Transform I nfrared -Atte n u ated Total g e l a t i n s i lver chloride p r i n t s , 1 3 8 , 139
Refl ectance ( F T I R-ATR) spectroscopy, 1 9 5 , gelatin s i lver developing-out prints, 13, 1 3 8- 4 4 ,
1 96 , 2 6 8 139-49
fram i n g , 298, 298-99, 2 9 9 ide ntification of, 193
freezing period used, 12
after wetting, 3 1 4-1 5 , 3 1 5, 3 1 7 gelatin silver negatives o n fi l m , 12, 254-56, 255,
for pest i n festat i o n , 3 1 7 2 5 7-59
Fresson process, 1 9 8 gelatin silver negatives on glass, 244-49, 245-50,
Fuji C h rystal Archive paper, 2 1 5 2 5 1 , 251
Fuj i i n stant prints, 2 1 8 identification of, 264, 2 6 7
fu migation treatment, 3 1 6 - 1 7 i n L i p p m a n n p h otogra p h , 64
fu rniture for storage, 2 9 4 , 294 period used, 1 2
Gerbault, A r t h u r, Portrait, 3 1 1
G Gernshei m , H e l m u t , 1 8
Gabriel Lippmann in His Labora tory at the Sorbonne Gevacolor prints, 2 1 5
( B e rget), 66 g i l d i n g , of dague rreotypes, 2 8
La galerie contemporaine des illustrations franr;aises, g l ass g l a z i n g , 2 9 9
1 76 , 1 7 7 g l ass plate. See also c o l o r positives o n g l ass;
G a l l a s , R . , Portrait of a M a n i n M ilitary Uniform, 121 mon ochrome positives o n g l ass; negatives
Gallery of the Trianon (u n k n own), 1 1 6 on glass
gallo-n itrate o f silver i n a m b rotype structure, 50, 53
i n a l b u me n negative development, 2 3 6 deteriorati o n of, 242
i n cal otype development, 2 2 4 , 2 2 8 monochrome transparencies on, 58-61 , 59-63
i n cal otype fabricati o n , 2 2 8 i n three-color L u m i ere transparency structure , 71
i n waxed paper negative devel opment, 2 2 8 i n transparency structure , 61
G a n d o l fo , J e a n - Pa u l , Nautilus, 209 glassine paper, 286, 287
gaslight paper, 1 3 8 , 139 glazine, 299
Gaspar, Bela, 208 glycerin
Gasparcolor, 208 i n col l o type fa bricat i o n , 1 8 4
G a u th ier-Vi l l ars, H e n r i , 3 3 4 - 3 5 n 1 4 i n printing-out paper, 1 3 0
gelatin G o d owsky, Leopo l d , 8 6
i n carbon prints, 1 66 , 1 6 7 g o l d toning, 1 3 6
m o l d growth i n , 279 o f dague rreotypes, 2 8 , 1 3 6
i n wood b u rytypes, 1 79 , 1 79 of salted paper print toning, 1 0 6
gelatin P O P, 1 2 8 , 131, 132 gra p h i te pen c i l , 2 9 5
identification of. 193 Greenhouse (Veyre), 73
toning of, 137 Grocery Store (unknown), 142
gelatin s i lver bro m i d e emulsion Group Portrait (un known), 746-47
i n autoch rome p l ates, 78 Group Portrait a t a Bridge (unk nown), 1 55
i n ch romagenic negatives, 262 G u i l l e m i not Papier Citrate, 1 2 8
i n ch romagen i c prints, 2 1 4 g u m arabic
i n c h romogen i c process transparencies, 86-88 i n g u m bich romate print fa brication, 1 72 , 1 7 3
i n C i bachrome prints, 2 1 0 in pannotype fabricati o n , 93
i n Eastman paper negatives, 2 2 8 g u m bichromate prints, 7, 1 70-7 3 , 1 7 1 -75, 1 9 1

I ndex 3 4 5
 H image modificat i o n . of digitized photographs, 3 0 7
Hair Dressing Salon (unknown), 143 i m a g e reco nstructio n , d igita l , 303
A Half Century of Color (Sipley), 2 1 6 image tone
h a l ftone i m ages, 1 76 , 1 8 3 of monochrome positives on paper, 189, 1 89-93,
hand coloring, of a l b u m e n prints, 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 190-93
h a n d l i ng , 285 of negatives o n glass, 264
hard copies, of d igital i m age files, 3 1 0 In the Garden (unk nown), 1 6 3
h e l i o c h romes, 64, 1 98 , 202, 203 inert gas, 3 1 7
h e l i oc h romes, d i rect, 40-43 , 41-45 Infant (Peigne), 133
h e l iogra phs, of N iepce, 1 8-2 1 , 19-2 1 i n k , i n col lotypes, 1 8 3 , 1 8 4
heliotype. See co l l otypes i n kjet prints, l ight- i n d uced damage t o , 2 9 6
H ersc h e l , J o h n instant fi l m s , 2 1 8-1 9, 2 1 9
cyanotype i nvented by, 1 50 instant photography, 244
on daguerreotype stabil izati o n , 28 institutions, d isaster mitigation planning for, 3 1 4
i nvention of p h otography and, 22 i ntegrated pest management (I PM), 3 1 7
on negative and positive, 98 i n tensification treatments, 249, 249, 3 02
H i l l , Lev i , 4 6 i n terference of waves, 64, 66
h i l lotypes, 46, 46 I nternational Standards Organization ( I S O), 287, 295
Hoyle, C h arles A., Portrait of a Woman, 161 i ntervention , 3 02
H u b l , Arthur von, 1 5 8 The Inventor (Figuier), 2 3
H u m be rt d e Molard, L o u i s Ado l p h e i o d i d e , i n tintype fab r icatio n , 3 6
The Bridge at Meaux, 225 i o d i n e monochloride, i n h i l lotype fab ricatio n , 4 6
Louis Dadier with a Wheelbarrow, Argentelle, 105 I P M ( i ntegrated p e s t management), 3 1 7
h u m i d ity, deterioration from , 280, 280- 8 1 , 281, i ron
282- 8 3 , 283 in platinum print fa bricatio n , 1 5 8
of albumen prints, 1 1 5 in tintype structure , 3 4 , 3 6
o f autochromes, 79, 79 i ron salts, i n cyanotypes, 1 50 , 1 51
of gelatin silver g l ass plate negatives, 248
i m age d iscoloration, 2 74
m o l d growth a n d , 279, 3 1 6 Jardin des Plantes ( u n k n own), 82
of p h otoge n i c d rawings, 1 0 1 J o ly, J o h n , 76
of P O P p r i n ts, 1 1 5
K
o f t i ntypes, 3 7
H u nt, Robert, 1 5 6 Karnak, Egypt (unknown), 239
H uygens, C h ristian, 5 8 Karnak, Egypt (unknown), 241
hyalotypes, 5 8 l< l u cel G", 291
hyd rochloric acid, i n d i rect hel iochrome l<odachrome fi l m , 86, 8 8
fa brication, 43 l<odach rome prints, 2 1 4
hydrogen p l asma cleaning , of dague rreotypes, 30 l<odaco l o r negative fi l m , 2 1 2 , 2 6 0
hydrogen sulfide, i n fading, 1 07 Kodaco l o r p r i n t s , 2 1 5
hyd rolys i s reactions, in p lastic fi l m deteriorati o n , 278 Kodak D y e Transfer, 2 0 4
hyd ro q u i n o n e , i n gelatin s i lver glass negative Kodak E n d ura paper, 2 1 5
development, 246 Kodak P R 1 0 , 2 1 8
-

hydrotype, 204 Kodak Studio Proof, 1 28

hygrometer, 28 1 , 2 8 1 Krone, H ermann, Paper Negatives, 1852, 265
hyposulfite, for daguerreotype sta b i l izat i o n , 2 8 K u h n , H e i n rich, 1 70

ident ificat i o n , 188, 1 8 8-93 , 189-93 lacquer, in ti ntype structure, 3 6

scientific methods of, 194, 1 94-96, 195-97 Land, Edwin, 2 1 8
Landscape (unk nown), 2 1 6
l l fochrome Classic D e l uxe prints, 208
l l fochrome Classic prints. See C i bachrome p r i nts Lange nheim brothers, 5 8
l l fochrome Classic RC prints, 208 lantern slides, 58-61 , 59, 61-63, 2 3 4
l l ford, 1 2 7, 244 Lassaigne, Jean-Louis, 2 2
i l l u m i nance meter, 296, 297 later prints. See m o d e r n p rints
i m age d iscolorati o n , 274-75, 2 76, 2 7 7 Laurent, J ea n , 1 26
image material, d e fi n ition of, 6

346
L a u terbrunnen and Staubbach Falls, Switzerland mercury
(u n k n own), 1 8 3 in dague rreotype development, 2 7
lave n d e r o i l , in hel iograph devel o p m e n t , 2 1 i n h i l lotype fabricat i o n , 4 6
layers, 188, 1 8 8-9 3 , 189-93 i n Lippmann process, 6 4 , 66
Le G ray, G u stave, 2 24 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 8 Les merveilles de la science ou description populaire
Le G ray process. See waxed paper negatives des inventions modernes (Figui er), 3, 23, 2 7,
lead c h l o r i d e , i n d i rect heliochro m e stabil izat i o n , 43 236, 2 3 7
Leaves (CRCDG), 1 03 metadata, i n d igital fi l e conse rvation , 3 1 0
Leaves of Orchidea (Talbot), 99 metal. See color posit ives o n metal; m o n oc h rome
l e ptographic paper, 1 2 6 positives o n metal
Lichtdruck- Kunst, 1 8 2 metal storage furniture, 2 9 4
Lichtdruck Museum a n d Wo rkshop, 1 8 2 metals, X-ray R u o rescence o f , 1 94-95, 7 9 5
L i esega ng, 1 2 6 methyl cellu lose, 2 9 1
l i fetime prints. See modern pri nts m i crofad eom eter, 297
l ight m i crofiche, 2 1 0
nature of, 64-65 migration of data fi l es, 3 1 0
in printing out, 1 1 0 M ilitary Officer (un known), 7 7
l ight damage, 296-97, 2 9 7 m i rror stan d s , 7 7
to a l b u m e n prints, 1 1 5 Mission h e l iograp h i q u e , 2 24
to d i rect heliochromes, 43 modern prints, 1 0, 1 1
to L u m i e re transpare ncies, 7 1 modi ficati o n , of digitized photographs, 3 0 7
to photoge nic d rawi ngs, 1 0 1 m o l d , on a l b u m e n prints, 1 1 9
t o t i ntypes, 3 7 m o l d infestatio n , 2 79, 2 79, 3 1 4 , 3 1 6-1 7
l ight dose, 296-97 Monckhove n , Desire van, Portrait of a Young Girl, 165
l ighting, for exhibition, 2 96-97, 297 monochrome pigmented gelatin prints, 1 98 , 199
L i p p m a n n , Gabrie l , 6 4 monochrome posit ives o n gla ss, 50-63
Lippmann process, 64-68, 65-69 a m b rotypes, 50-54, 5 1 - 5 7
l ithographs, 1 84 lantern slides, 58-61 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 63
Liverpool Dry Plate Com pany, 2 3 8 stereograph s l i des, 5 8-61 , 60-63
Louis Dadier with a Wheelbarrow, A rgen tel/e ( H umbert monochro m e positives on metal, 1 8 -39
d e M o l ard), 7 0 5 dag u erreotype, 24-3 1 , 26-29, 3 1-33
L u m i co l o r, 8 3 heliographs of N i epce, 1 8 -2 1 , 19-2 1
L u m iere, Louis a n d A u g u s t e , 70, 76 ti ntypes, 3 4- 3 7, 35-39
Lum i e re Company, 24 4 , 247 m o nochrome posit ives on paper, 98-197
L u m i e re transparencies, t h ree-color, 70, 70-72, albumen prints, 1 1 2-1 9, 1 13-23
72-75, 198, 3 3 5 n 4 carbon prints, 1 64-67, 165-69
l u x meter, 2 9 6 , 2 9 7 col lotypes, 1 82-84, 183-87
lyo p h i l izatio n , 3 1 6 cyanotype, 1 5 0-52, 151, 153-55
deterioration of, 189, 1 89-93 , 1 90-93
M gelatin si lver develop i ng-out p r i n ts , 1 3 8- 4 4 ,
Maddox, R i chard Leach, 244 139-49
magic lantern, 58, 61 gum b i c h romate print, 1 70-73, 1 71-75
mag n i ficat i o n , i n ident ificat i o n , 1 8 8 , 188, 1 9 0 , 1 9 0, identification of, 1 8 8-93
1 92 , 192, 1 9 4 , 194 photoge nic d rawings, 98-1 0 1 , 99-102
Mannes, Leopo l d , 86 plat i n u m and pallad i u m prints, 1 56-59, 1 5 7- 6 1
Manuel d e Ferrotypie (Gauth i e r-Vil lars), 3 3 4-3 5 n 1 4 Polaroid i n stant prints, 2 1 8-19, 2 1 9
Marig n i e r, J e a n - L o u i s , 2 1 printi ng-out paper ( PO P) prints, 1 2 6-3 2 , 1 2 7-35
Martin, Adolphe Alexandre, 3 4 salted paper prints, 1 04-7, 1 05-9
Marti nez-Sanchez, J ose, 1 2 6 tone of, 189, 1 8 9-93, 1 90-93
mats, 298, 2 98-99 woo d b u rytypes, 1 76-79, 1 7 7-81
Maxwe l l , James C l e r k , 202 monochrome posi tives o n texti l e , 92, 92-9 3 , 93-95
McDonough, James, 76 monochrome transparencies o n g lass, 58-61 , 59-63
melai notype. See t i n types monochrome transpare ncies o n plastic fi l m , 86
mel anograph. See tintypes motion picture fi l m sto c k , 254, 2 5 6
mercuric chloride i n tensificat i o n , 249 mounts, f o r a l b u m e n prints, 1 1 9, 720, 1 2 1
mercuric iodide i ntensi fication, 249, 249 m u l t i p l e expos u re c a m e r a , f o r ti ntypes, 3 4
M usicians ( u n known), 1 8 7

I ndex 347
 N The O utskirts of Agen, France (D ucos du H a u ron), 202
naming, 1 oxidation
Nautilus (Gand olfo), 209 of a m b rotypes, 54, 54
negative-to- positive process of collodion negatives on glass, 242
color p r i nts fro m , 2 1 2 of dague rreotypes, 29, 2 9-30, 31
with ph otogenic d rawings, 9 8 of gelat i n silver developi ng-out prints, 1 44
Talbot a n d , 2 24 of gelat i n silver negatives on fi l m , 256
negatives. See also negatives on g l ass; negatives on of gelatin silver negatives o n glass , 248, 248-49
paper; negatives o n p l astic fi l m of gelatin silve r prints, 2 74-75, 2 75
appreciation of, 8 of monochrome instant prints, 2 1 9
d e fi n ition of, 8, 9 o f paper negatives, 2 3 0
identification of, 264, 264-68, 265-69 o f t i n types, 3 7, 37
i m portance of, x
transfer support of, 2 24-25 p

types of, 4 Paget Color, 83

negatives on glass, 1 1, 2 3 2-51 paint, voes fro m , 284
collodion negatives, 2 3 8-42, 239-43 palladiotype. See p lati n u m a n d pal lad i u m prints
gelatin s i lver negatives o n glass, 244-49, 245-50, palla d i u m prints. See plati n u m a n d pallad i u m prints
251 , 2 51 panchromatic sensitivity, 246
identification of, 264 pan notypes, 9� 92-9 3 , 93-95
storage of, 293 paper. See a lso color positives o n paper; mon ochrome
transferred to paper, 2 24-25 positives o n paper; negatives on paper
for transparencies o n glass, 61 albumen prints o n , 1 1 9
negatives on paper, 224-3 1 , 225-27, 2 2 9-31 analysis of, 1 96 , 197
i d e n t ification of, 264, 265 cellulose deteriorat i o n in, 1 59
negatives o n plastic film, 249-63 paper albums, 2 9 1
air d rying after wetting, 3 1 4 , 3 1 5 paper negatives, 224-3 1 , 225-2 7, 229-31
chro m ogenic process negatives , 260-62, 261-63 Paper Negatives, 1852 (l<rone), 265
cold sto rage of, 282 paper storage envelopes, 2 8 5 , 286, 287, 288,
gelatin s i lver negatives o n film, 2 54-56, 2 55, 289-90 , 290
2 5 7-59 paraffin oils, i n heliograph development, 21
identification of, 268, 268 A Park in Grenoble (u n k n own), 81
A New Process Used to Achieve Graceful Poses Part of Queen's College, Oxford (Talbot), 1 0 7
(Daum ier), 2 7 passepartou t , 26
N i epce, N icephore PAT ( Ph otogra p h i c Activity Test), 287
Cardinal d 'A mboise, 1 8 , 20, 2 1 Pavelle Color Laboratory, 2 7 6
Dague rre a n d , 24 peel-apart instant prints, 2 1 8
h e l i ographs of, 1 8-2 1 , 19-2 1 Peigne, C .
View from the Window at Le Gras, 1 8 , 1 9 Child Standing on a Chair, 135
N iepce d e S a i nt-Victor, Abel, 234, 236 Infa nt, 133
d i rect hel ioch romes of, 40-43, 4 1 Standing Child, 132
Doll o n a Stand, 41 The Pencil of Nature (Talbot), 1 04, 707
n i tric acid Perspective of a Gothic Church Nave (Daguerre), 24, 25
in a m b rotype development, 53 pest i n festatio n , 3 1 6-1 7
from gelatin silver negatives o n film, 256 P E T (polyethyl ene terephth alate), 289, 290
i n t i n type development, 3 6 pewter, h e l iographs o n , 18, 79, 20, 2 1
n i trous a c i d , from gelatin silver negatives o n fi l m , 2 5 6 p h oto-col logra p h . See co l l otypes
Norman Landscape (Demachy), 1 73 photo corners , 2 9 1 , 292
notch codes, on plastic fi l m , 268, 268 Photo-Secession group, 1 70
p h otocalque, 5
0 p h otoch ro m oscope, 7 1
Obern etter, 1 2 6 p h otoco p i e , 5
obsolescence, of digital tech nology, 3 1 0, 3 1 1 photogenic draw i n gs , 98-1 0 1 , 99-702, 1 04
O m n icolore , 8 3 photoge n i c negatives, 9 8
optical brighteners, 1 9 6 , 2 9 6 photoge nic positives, 9 8
orthoch romatic sensit ivity, 246 photoglyphic engravi ng, 1 6 4

348
p h otoglypty. See woodbu rytypes
photogra p h , 6
details i n , x
first, 1 8 , 1 9
neglect of, x-xi
structure of, 6, 6
ph otograph a l b u m s , 1 24 , 1 2 5
ph otograph collections, d igitizati o n of, 3 06-9
ph otograph conservat i o n
development of fi e l d , 1
of d igital files, 3 1 0, 3 1 1
d igital i m age reconstruction a n d , 303
d ig i t ization of co l l ections a n d , 3 0 6-9
d os and don'ts of, 3 1 8
e n v i ro n m e n tal factors, 280, 280-85, 2 8 1 - 8 5
fra m i ng , 2 9 8 , 2 98-99, 299
light exposure , 296-97, 2 9 7
preve n tive, 3 , 3 0 , 314, 3 1 6- 1 7
professiona l , 3 0 2 , 303
storage, 285-95, 286, 288-95
photograph conservators, 3 02 , 303
The Photographer and His Assistant ( Figu i e r), 3
Photographer's Darkroom (u n known), 93
Ph otogra p h i c Activity Test (PAT), 2 8 7
photogra p h i c manufacturing i n dustry, 244
photographic processes
classification of, 2, 2
i d entification of, 2 , 2
periods of use of, 1 2
terms, 4, 5 -1 0
p hotography, invention of, 2 2 , 23
photomechanical p rints, 1 76 . See a lso col lotypes;
wood bu rytypes
photose nsitivity, of d i rect hel iochromes, 43
phototype. See c o l l otypes
phototypie. See col lotypes
physautotype, 24
physical deteriorat i o n , 2 74
Pie, Roger, The Coal M a n and His Son, 284
pictorialists, 1 3 6 , 1 70
pigment processes, 1 64 , 1 70. See also carbon prints;
color pigment prints; gum bichro m ate prints
pigm ented ink markings, 2 9 5
Pinatype, 204
Pizzighel l i , G i u seppe, 1 5 8
plastic fi l m . See a lso negatives on plastic fi l m ;
positives o n plastic fi l m
c o l o r transparencies o n , 86-88, 8 7, 8 9
deterioration of, 2-3 , 2 5 6 , 2 5 7, 2 7 8 , 2 78
i d e ntification of, 2 6 8 , 268, 269
m o n oc h rome transparencies o n , 86
plastic storage boxes, 290, 293
plastic storage products, 286, 289, 289-90, 2 9 0
plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 289
platinotype. See platinum a n d pallad i u m p ri nts
Platin otype Com pany, 1 56
plati n u m a n d p a l l a d i u m prints, 1 5 6-59, 1 5 7- 6 1
identification o f , 189, 1 9 5
ton i ng, 1 3 6
p l at i n u m -g u m b i c h romate prints, 1 7 3
Poe, Edgar A l l a n , daguerreotype of, 3 0
Poitevi n , L o u is-Alphonse, 1 6 4 , 1 70
PolaChrome, 8 3 , 83
Polaco l o r 1 , 2 1 8
Polaro i d i n stant prints, 2 1 8 -1 9, 2 1 9
poll utants, 284, 284-85, 285
dague rreotypes exposed to, 29-30
i n fad i n g , 1 07
i mage d i scolo ration fro m , 2 74 , 2 75
polyester
in ch romogen i c film transparencies, 87
as film base, 2 5 4
i n gelat i n s i lver negatives o n fi l m , 2 5 5
identification of, 268, 269
in l l foc h ro m e C l a ssic Deluxe p r i nts, 208
po lyester storage envelo pes and s l eeves, 2 8 5 , 289,
289, 2 9 0 , 2 9 1
po lyethylene (PE)
for a l b u m pages, 2 9 1
i n RC paper, 1 3 9
for storage envelopes a n d sl eeves , 289
po lyethylene terephtha late ( P ET), 289, 2 9 0
po lysu l fi d e t o n i ng , 1 3 6
The Pond-Moonlight (Steichen), 1 70
P O P. See printing- o ut paper prints
Poppies a t Woodrising (Ware), 1 5 8
Portrait (Gerbau lt), 3 1 1
Portrait of Bishop Freppel ( B e rt h a u l t) , 123
Portrait of a Child (unknown), 144
Portrait of a M a n ( D i sderi), 1 1 4
Portrait of a M a n (un known), 39
Portrait of a M a n (un known), 1 1 9
Portrait of a M a n (un known), 1 66
Portrait of a M a n (un known), 1 8 1
Portrait of a M a n i n M ilitary Uniform (G al las), 1 2 1
Portrait of a Woman ( H oyle) , 1 6 1
Portrait of a Woman (unknown), 1 4 1
Portrait of a Woman (unk nown), 1 5 3
Portrait of a Young Girl (Monckhoven), 165
Portrait of a Young Woman (Coulon), 169
positives
defi n i t i o n of, 1 0 , 1 1
types of, 4
positives on g l ass. See color positives on glass;
m o n oc h rome posit ives o n glass
positives o n metal . S e e color posi tives o n metal;
monochro m e posit ives o n metal
positives o n paper. See color positives o n paper;
monochrome positives o n paper
positives o n plastic film, 86-89
color transparencies o n plastic fi l m , 86-88, 8 7, 89
m o n ochro m e tra nsparencies o n plastic fi l m , 86
I ndex 3 49
 positives o n texti l e , 92, 92-9 3 , 93-95 relative h u m i d ity ( R H ) , 280-8 1 , 3 1 6
280,
postcard -format p ri nting paper, 142 Reproduction of Colored Engravings ( B ecquerel), 42
posthumous prints, 1 0 restorati o n , vs. recon struction, 3 02
potassi um b romide reverse processing, 86
i n albumen negative fabricati o n , 236 ripen ing, 244, 246, 2 4 7
i n calotype fixing, 2 2 8 Rose Carden a t the Pare d e Bagatelle (unknown), 8 2
i n collodion negative fabricati o n , 242 Rauen (unknown), 1 1 3
in gelat i n si lver glass negatives, 246 R o u i l l e - Ladeveze, A . , 1 70
potassium chloride, i n ph otoge n i c d rawing rust. See oxidation
stabil ization, 1 0 1
potass i u m cyanide. See cya n i d e s
potass i u m dichro m ate, i n carbon p r i n t safety fi l m , 2 5 4 , 268
fabricati o n , 1 6 7 salt. See sod i u m chloride
potass i u m ferricyanide, in cyanotype fa bricatio n , 1 52 salted paper prints, 1 04-7, 1 05-9, 2 3 0
potass i u m iodide identification of, 188, 1 8 9
i n albumen negative fa bricat i o n , 236 period used, 12
i n calotype fa bricati o n , 228 selenium toni ng, 1 3 6
potassi um tetrac h l oroplatinate(l I), 1 58 Self- Portrait in M exico (Veyre), 75

potato starch g ra n u l es , in autochromes, 77, 78 sensitizer

preventive conservat i o n , 3 for a m b rotypes, 53
of daguerreotypes , 3 0 for Lippmann plates, 68
f o r d i saster mitigat i o n , 3 1 4 for salted paper prints, 1 0 6
for m o l d , 3 1 6-1 7 separation negatives
Primavera ( Demachy), 7 for Cibachro m e prints, 2 1 0
printing out, 1 1 0, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 for color pigment prints, 1 9 8 , 1 9 9
printing-out paper ( P O P) prints, 1 26-32, 1 2 7-35 for dye transfer prints, 204
period used , 12 S E P I A (Safeguarding E u ropean P h otogra p h i c I m ages
toning, 1 3 6, 1 3 7 for Access), 307-9
Printing Press (un kn own), 59 s i lver, colloidal, in printing out, 1 1 0
printmaking, from h e l iograph, 2 1 s i lver b ro m i d e . See gelatin silver bromide emu lsion
prism , i n Lippmann plate, 66, 68 si lver c h l o r i d e
processing chemical res i d u e , i n i mage d i scoloratio n , in color reprod u c t i o n , 40
274-75, 2 75 in d i rect h e l i ochro mes, 4 2 , 43
Prokud i n - Gorski i , Serge i Mikhailovic h , 202 i n P O P fa bricat i o n , 1 3 0
Prussian blue, i n cya notypes, 1 5 0-52 in salted paper prints, 1 0 6
Puyo, Charles silhou ettes recorded with, 2 2
Cleo de M erode, 1 11 silver-dye bleach process, 208
Fan, 1 72 silver halide, i n m onochro m e i n stant prints, 2 1 8
Singer, 1 75 s i lver i o d i d e
Puyo, Constant, 1 70 i n cal otype fabrication, 228
pyroga l l i c acid, in collodion negative i n d ag u e rreotype structure, 2 7
development, 242 in h e l i og ra p h s , 2 1
si lver m i rroring, 2 76
R of gelatin silve r developing-out prints, 1 4 4 , 1 4 4
R A - 4 processing, 2 1 2 of g e l a t i n sil ver glass negatives, 248, 248-49
RC (res i n - coated) paper s i lver nitrate
ad hesive mou nting of, 291 acidified, in a m brotype fa brication, 53
i n chromagenic prints, 2 1 4 in a l b u m e n negative fa bricat i o n , 2 3 5 , 2 3 6
a s color photography standard, 2 1 2 in a l b u m e n p r i n t fa bricat i o n , 1 1 5
i d e nt i fi cation of, 1 9 6 i n a m brotype deve l o pment, 5 3
i n l l fochrome C l assic p rints, 2 0 8 , 2 1 0 i n calotype fab ricat i o n , 2 24 , 2 2 8
introduction of. 1 3 9 in collod io n negative deve l op m ent, 242
markings o n , 2 9 5 i n gelatin silver deve l o p i ng-out paper, 1 41
red - o range m a s k , i n c h romogen i c process negatives, in gelatin silver glass negatives, 246
260, 262 i n p h otoge n i c d rawi ng fabrication, 99, 1 0 1
refres hing of data fi les, 3 1 0 i n printing-out paper, 1 3 0
registration, o f dye transfer prints, 2 0 4 , 2 0 5 in salted paper print fa bricatio n , 1 04 , 1 0 6

350
 silhouettes recorded with . 98 (See also p hotogenic paper envelopes for. 286. 287, 288, 289-90, 290
d rawings) for pest treatment, 3 1 7
in tintype fa bricati o n , 3 6 plastic envelopes and sl eeves for, 289, 289,
i n waxed paper process, 228 289-90, 290
si lver s u l fi d e , i n fad i n g , 1 07 Strong, H e n ry, 225
silvered plates, for d ag u erreotypes, 27, 2 7 sulfu r toning, 1 3 6
Singer (Puyo), 1 75 su pport
S i p l ey, Louis Walton, 2 1 6 of a l b u m e n p r i n ts, 1 1 9
Sisters (unk nown) , 1 3 7 ana lysis of, 1 9 6 , 1 9 7
s l eeves of carbon prints, 167
in a l b u m s , 291 of cyanotypes, 1 52
for storage, 285 defi n ition of, 6
Societe fra ni;aise d e p h otogra p h i e , 1 07 of platinum p ri n ts, 1 59
sod i u m ch loride
i n albumen print fab ricati o n , 1 1 5 T

for dague rreotype stabilization , 2 8 Talbot, W i l l i a m Henry Fox

i n d i rect h e l iochrome fabricat i o n , 43
i n ph otogenic d rawing fabricati o n , 99, 1 0 1
i n p h otogenic d rawi n g stabi l ization, 9 9 , 1 0 1
i n salted paper print fabrication, 1 04 , 1 0 6
sodium hyposulfite, i n autoch rome development, 7 8
sod i u m tetrach loropallad ate(l 1 ) , 1 58
sod i u m th iosulfate
in albumen negative fi x i ng , 236
i n calotype fixing, 228
i n collodion negative fixing, 242
for dague rreotype stabil ization, 28
i n gelat i n silver developi ng-out print fixi ng,
1 43 , 1 4 4
i n gelat i n silver glass negative fixi ng, 246
i n salted paper print fi x i ng , 1 0 6
i n ti ntype fi x i n g , 3 6
i n waxed paper negative fi xing, 2 2 8
software e m ulati o n , 3 1 0
solar cameras, 1 4 0, 1 41
Solar spectrum (Becquerel), 43
solarizati o n , of dague rreotypes, 3 1
Soldier (u nknown), 149
spike oil, i n h e l iograph structure, 21
staining, of c h romogenic p rocess prints, 2 1 5
Standing Child (Peigne), 132
starch paste, 291
Steich e n , Edward, 1 70
The Pond-Moonlight, 1 70
stereograph slides, 58-61 , 60-63
stereograph transpare ncies, Lumiere, 70, 73
stereogra phs, 47
stereoscopic camera, 61
Stieg l itz, A l fred, 1 3 6 , 1 70
storage, 285-95, 295
albums for, 291 , 2 9 1
boxes for, 293 , 293
after flood i ng, 3 1 6 , 3 1 7
folders for, 290
formats of. 289-90
furniture for, 294, 294
markings and, 295
calotype negatives of, 1 0 4
daguerreotypes a n d , 224
gelatin used by, 244
invention of p hotography a n d , 22
Leaves of Orchidea, 99
monochrome positives o n paper of. 98
Part of Queen's College, Oxford, 1 0 7
The Pencil of Nature, 1 04 , 1 0 7
photoglyphic engravings of. 1 6 4
t a r n i s h . See oxidation
Tau penot, Jean-Marie, 2 3 8
Tech n icolor fi l m , 204
tem perature, 280, 282, 282-8 1 , 283
textile, monochrome positives on, 92, 92-9 3 , 93-95
t h ree-color gum bichro m ate p ri n ts, 1 7 1, 1 7 3
t h ree-color L u m i ere tra nsparencies, 70, 70-72,
72-75, 198, 3 3 5 n 4
3 M No. 41 5", 2 9 1
t i ntypes, 3 4 - 3 7, 35-39, 3 3 4 - 3 5 n 1 4
toning, 136, 137
of albumen p r i n t s , 1 1 4
o f daguerreotypes, 2 8 , 1 3 6
o f gelatin si lver developing-out print, 1 43
of P O P prints, 1 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 6 , 137
of salted paper p r i nts. 1 0 6
Tran ch a n d , Gabriel, Excavation a t Khorsabad, 230
transpa rencies. See monochrome transparencies on
glass; three-color L u m iere transparencies
Tree ( B ecka), 226
Trocadero Palace, Paris (unknown), 1 4 5
Tyvek'", 287
u
U ltraSta ble pigment print, 1 9 8 , 1 9 9
u l traviolet (UV) content o f l ight, 296
u l t raviolet fi ltering glazing, 299
u l t raviolet i l l u m ination, 1 96
u ra n i u m toning, 1 3 6
Utocolor process, 208
Uvatype, 204

Index 3 5 1
 v waxed paper negatives, 224-30, 226, 264
vac u u m -freeze d rying, after wetti ng, 3 1 6 Weck B rothers, Ardenne, Belgium, 1 8 5
Va l l o u d e V i l leneuve, J u l i e n , Woman Holding a Wedgwo o d , Thomas, 9 8
Broom, 1 0 9 w e t collodion process
varn ish albumen process vs . , 2 3 4
o n ambrotypes, 5 3 , 5 4 , 54 for collodion negatives on glass, 240
on autochromes, 78 develo pment of, 2 3 8
on collodion negatives on glass, 242, 264 for pannotypes, 92-93, 93
o n tintypes, 3 6 , 3 7 for tintypes, 3 4
ventilat i o n , 2 8 4 Willis, William, 156
Veyre, Gabriel Woma n Holding a Broom ( Vallou d e V i l l e n euve) , 1 07
Bouquet of Flowers, 7 2 Woma n with Dogs (unk nown), 132
G reenhouse Veyre, 73 wood storage furn iture , 2 9 4
Self- Portrait in M exico, 75 Woodbury, Wa lter Bentley, 1 76
Victor Hugo (Bertall), 1 77 woo d b u rytypes, 1 76-79, 1 7 7-81, 1 9 1
Vidal , Leon, 64
View from the Window at Le Gras ( N i epce), 1 8 , 19 x

v i n egar syndrome, 256 X-ray fl u o rescence ( X R F ) analysis, 1 94-95, 195, 196

v i n tage prints, 1 0 , 1 1
y
volat i l e organic compounds (VOCs) , 284-85, 2 9 4
yellowing
w of albumen prints, 1 1 5
Ware, M i ke of c h ro m oge n i c process prints, 2 1 5
Bridge at Buchanty, 1 5 7 o f color i nstant prints, 2 1 9
Confessional-Sicily, 162 o f gelat i n s i l ve r develo p i ng-out prints, 1 44 , 145
Poppies at Woodrising, 158 of gelatin s i l ve r prints, 2 75
Wash- Off Reli ef, 204 of monochrome i n stant prints, 2 1 9
water damage, 314, 3 1 5, 3 1 7 o f paper negatives, 2 3 0
t o C i bachrome prints, 2 1 0 o f p l at i n u m print supports, 1 59
t o dye transfer prints, 206 Young Photographer (u nknown), 13
from i nterve n t i o n , 3 02

3 52