Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
net/publication/331718773
CITATIONS READS
0 6,374
2 authors:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
The acute effects of 3 different doses of caffeine on jumping and throwing performance, strength and muscular endurance View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Jozo Grgic on 02 April 2019.
D
Downloaded from https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3jmg6KbmzDt49SgRcfGu+RWhHU+9CE91sVYQ/Fo3DAM4= on 04/02/2019
TE
1
Department of Health Sciences, Lehman College, Bronx, NY, USA
2
Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
EP
*Corresponding author:
Email: brad@workout911.com
C
Brad Jon Schoenfeld is an Assistant Professor in Exercise Science and director of the Human
C
Jozo Grgic is a PhD student at the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria
A
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Abstract: It has been proposed that training to failure is a necessary strategy to maximize
muscle growth. This paper examines the research behind these claims, and attempts to draw
D
Introduction
TE
muscle mass in humans. The manipulation of program variables is believed to be a key factor in
optimizing muscular gains (1, 14). Variables such as volume, load, and frequency have been well
explored in the literature (28-30). One variable that has not received as much attention is the set
EP
endpoint, operationally defined as the point at which a set of repetitions is terminated (34). The
intensity of effort expended during a set is best estimated by how close an individual comes to
reaching muscular failure, which can be defined as the point where the activated muscles are
incapable of completing another complete repetition without assistance (22, 25). Training to
C
muscular failure has been promoted since the 1940s when Thomas DeLorme, a physician in the
US Army at the time, published a series of papers advocating the use of this method in resistance
C
exercise (15). While training to failure has long been employed in resistance training programs,
particularly by bodybuilders, the number of well-controlled studies that have explored this topic
A
is small. Initially, Rooney et al. (21) indicated a benefit for training to failure (versus not training
to failure) for gains in strength; however, these results were not corroborated by others (8).
Recognizing the equivocal body of evidence, Davies et al. (4) recently conducted a meta-analysis
for strength gains, and concluded that similar increases in strength might be attained with both
muscle failure and non-failure training. However, this meta-analysis (as well as the majority of
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
original studies) only focused on gains in strength; the effects of training to failure on muscle
Some researchers have put forth the claim that training to failure is necessary to
maximize muscle growth (2, 7, 38). This contention is at least in part based on the underlying
D
belief that training to failure elicits full motor unit recruitment, which is considered an essential
component for increases in muscle size (37). However, the applicability of this claim may be
TE
load-specific. High-threshold motor units are recruited almost immediately when lifting very
heavy loads as high levels of force are required from the onset of the exercise (5). This is in
contrast to low-load training, where recruitment of the larger motor units is delayed because a
high level of force is not initially needed to lift the weight; as the set becomes more fatiguing,
EP
higher threshold motor units are then recruited to maintain force output. This physiological
response has been demonstrated in studies showing that fatiguing concentric contractions
(27, 32), but the effect diminishes with the use of progressively heavier loads. It therefore could
C
be hypothesized that the need to train to failure becomes increasingly less relevant when training
It also has been hypothesized that training to failure augments muscular growth by
A
increasing metabolic stress. There is some evidence that the buildup of metabolites – byproducts
from anaerobic energy production – enhances the anabolic response to resistance training (26,
35), although this claim remains speculative (36). Research shows that continuing a set to the
point of volitional fatigue heightens energy demands, thereby resulting in a greater metabolite
accumulation (10). This seemingly supports a beneficial metabolic effect of training to the point
of failure. However, it is not clear whether the additional metabolic stress produced during an
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
‘all-out’ set leads to a meaningfully greater accretion of muscle proteins compared to a set
stopped short of failure. It is conceivable that a threshold exists for metabolic stress beyond
which no further beneficial effects are realized. The purpose of this column is to (1) review the
current literature as to the effects of failure training on hypertrophic adaptations, and; (2) draw
evidence-based conclusions as to how the strategy should be employed in practice, both in terms
D
of integration with other resistance training variables and avoiding burnout, for those seeking
TE
Overview of the Literature
failure. An often-cited study in support of training performed to failure compared muscle growth
EP
in recreationally-trained men performing a multiple set protocol of 10 reps with 60 seconds rest
between sets, whereby one group trained to failure and the other did not (11). Exercises consisted
of the lat pulldown, shoulder press, and leg extension, with 3-5 sets performed per exercise.
C
Results showed that the group training to failure gained significantly more muscle over the
course of the 12-week study than the group that did not train to muscle failure (+13% vs. +4%).
C
While on the surface these findings may seem intriguing, the caveat here was that one group
performed all sets continuously to failure while the group that did not train to failure took a 30-
A
second break at the mid-point of each set. This protocol does not replicate traditional non-failure
training regimens where sets are stopped at a given number of repetitions from fatigue; thus, it
In a study by Schott et al. (31) one group trained using a low-fatigue training protocol
that included 4 sets of 10 contractions (each contraction lasted 3-seconds followed by 2-seconds
of rest) with 2 minutes of rest between sets while another group trained with high levels of
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
fatigue induced by performing 4 sets of 30-second contractions with 1 minute of between-set
rest. Only the latter group experienced significant increases in muscle size after 14 weeks of
training, adding further support for the importance of fatigue for gains in muscle mass. However,
as in the Goto et al. (11) study, the protocol did not mirror resistance exercise performed in the
practical context as it included only isometric muscle actions. Furthermore, the protocol in the
D
low fatigue group included inter-repetition rest which, again, is not often employed in traditional
resistance exercise.
TE
Sampson and Groellier (22) compared the effects of exercising to muscle failure using a
more traditional resistance training protocol. Twenty-eight untrained young men performed 4
sets of arm curls at 85% one repetition maximum (1RM). Subjects were randomized either to
EP
carry out sets to failure using a 2-second concentric and 2-second eccentric action or to stop
approximately 2 reps short of failure while employing either rapid shortening (explosive
concentric and eccentric components). After 12 weeks, the average gain in biceps muscle cross-
C
sectional area was ~11% for all subjects combined, with no significant differences noted between
groups. A key point to keep in mind here is that subjects trained with heavy loads equating to a
C
6RM. It therefore can be hypothesized that training to failure becomes less important when using
heavy weights, which is consistent with the previously mentioned research on muscle activation.
A
The study did have a potential confounding issue: the non-failure groups actually performed a
single set to failure at the end of each week to determine the load for the subsequent week of
training. Whether this had a significant effect on the results is not clear.
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Martorelli et al. (16) randomly assigned 89 active women to one of three groups: (1) a
group that performed three sets of repetitions to failure at 70% 1RM; (2) a group that performed
four sets of seven repetitions not to failure, but with volume equalized to the failure condition,
and; (3) a group that performed three sets of seven repetitions not to failure. Training consisted
of free-weight biceps curls performed two days per week for ten weeks. The authors observed
D
significant main effects for time and for the interaction between the groups. However, the
authors did not perform further post-hoc analyses to determine where the differences between the
TE
groups occurred. The relative changes substantially favored the group training to muscle failure
(17.5% versus 8.5% in the group not training to failure, with equal volume). The magnitude of
differences between groups raises the possibility of a type II error, whereby statistically
EP
significant differences went undetected. The group that performed repetitions not-to-failure
without matching volume to the two other groups did not significantly increase muscle thickness.
Even if there indeed was an advantage favoring the group that trained to failure in the
Martorelli et al. study, it should be noted that the included participants were young women and
C
therefore, the results cannot be generalized to older adults. Older adults might experience slower
post-exercise recovery and may warrant a different approach to their program design (6). da
C
Silva et al. (3) essentially used the same study design as Martorelli and colleagues (16) while
including older men (66 ± 5 years) as participants. In this study, the group training to failure and
A
the group that did not train to failure with equalized volume experienced similar increases in
quadriceps muscle thickness; no significant pre-to-post changes occurred in the group that did
not train to failure and that performed less volume than the two other training groups. These
results may indicate that age (and the age-related recovery from exercise) is an important factor
to consider when prescribing resistance exercise performed to muscle failure. Furthermore, the
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
study by da Silva et al. (3) indicates that training to muscle failure may not be needed for
increases in muscle size in older adults. Finally, the totality of findings also suggest that volume
load may be an important variable when considering the relevance of training to failure.
Most recently, Nobrega et al. (18) allocated 32 untrained men to perform 3 sets of leg
D
extension exercise at either a high load (80% 1RM) or low load (30% 1RM), twice per week.
The study employed a within-subject design whereby each lower limb was randomized to
TE
execute these conditions either to failure or terminated at the point at which participants
voluntarily interrupted training. After 12 weeks, increases in muscle cross-sectional area were
statistically similar between conditions. It should be noted that the differences in volume load
between failure and non-failure training were rather slight in both the high-load conditions
EP
(training to failure: 26,694 kg; training not to failure: 26,042 kg) and in the low-load conditions
(training to failure: 21,114 kg; training not to failure: 20,643 kg), suggesting that the non-failure
condition performed sets at close to full fatigue (likely only one to two repetitions shy of failure).
These results, therefore, may indicate that training close to muscle failure may be similarly
C
effective for increasing muscle size as training that includes reaching actual muscle failure.
C
Practical Implications
qualifying the alternative endpoint to failure. Specifically, if failure is not the chosen option, then
at what point should a set be terminated? One option may be to use the “repetitions in reserve”
(RIR) scale proposed by Zourdos et al. (39), whereby a RIR of 0 equates to training to failure, a
RIR of 1 equates to stopping one repetition short of failure, a RIR of 2 equates to stopping two
repetitions short of failure, etc. However, as indicated by Hackett et al. (12) individuals may
underestimate the number of repetitions to failure during the earlier sets and the accuracy of
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
prediction may increase with subsequent sets. Other researchers also show that resistance
training experience may increase the ability to accurately predict repetitions to failure (33) and
therefore, when using this scale, a period of familiarization should be incorporated in the study
D
A potential issue with continuous training to failure is that it may increase the potential
for overtraining and psychological burnout (9). This hypothesis was supported by a study from
TE
Izquierdo et al. (13), who randomized members of the Spanish Basque ball team to perform 3
sets of 8 resistance exercises targeting the body’s major muscle groups either to failure or non-
failure using 70-80% of 1RM. Training was carried out twice a week for 16 weeks. Results
showed that training to failure blunted resting levels of anabolic hormones (IGF-1 and
EP
testosterone); an outcome indicative of non-functional overreaching (9). Thus, if failure training
topic, but one strategy would be to limit its use to the last set of an exercise. For example, if
muscle failure is incorporated in the first set of a given exercise, it is likely that the performance
C
(concerning the total number repetitions) would be hindered on subsequent sets (24). By limiting
the use of a muscle failure only on the last set of a given exercise we may ensure that sufficient
C
volume is achieved, although the effects of failure training on volume remain somewhat
equivocal (24). As with all resistance training variables, failure training could also be periodized
A
so that it is used more extensively in a short training block (i.e. the peaking phase of a mass-
Based on the limited available evidence, it would appear that stopping several repetitions
short of failure when training with moderately heavy loads (6-12 RM) does not seem to
compromise hypertrophy, at least when training volume is equated. The paucity of research with
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
light loads makes it difficult to extrapolate a specific recommendation, but a logical case (from a
motor unit recruitment perspective) can be made that RIR values would need to be in the range
from 0 to 2 in order to fully stimulate the highest threshold motor units, and thus maximize
D
Other more advanced methods, such as the assessment of velocity loss also require
attention in this context (23). In one study, Pareja-Blanco et al (19) randomized resistance-
TE
trained men to one of two protocols that differed only in the amount of repetition velocity loss
allowed in each set: 20% vs. 40% of velocity loss. The 40% velocity loss group trained in close
proximity to muscle failure while the 20% velocity loss group performed approximately half of
the maximum number of repetitions. After the 8-week training intervention, greater hypertrophy
EP
in the vastus lateralis and intermedius was observed in the 40% velocity loss group. These
findings suggest that training to failure (or very close to it) might be indeed of importance for
maximizing increases in muscle size. One limitation here is that the groups were not matched for
total volume in terms of the total number of performed repetitions as the 40% velocity loss group
C
also performed more total repetitions. This may be relevant given the linear dose-response
relationship between volume and muscle hypertrophy (28). It would be interesting for future
C
studies to use a similar protocol while adding more sets to the small velocity loss group in order
An important limitation with the current body of literature is that the majority of studies
to date have been carried out in untrained subjects. A case can be made that as a lifter gains more
training experience, there is an increasing need to challenge the neuromuscular system with
higher levels of effort. Support for this hypothesis can be inferred in the results of the study by
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Pareja-Blanco and colleagues (19), but additional research is needed to draw stronger
conclusions.
Ultimately, training to failure also needs to be considered in the context of the whole
resistance training program (see Figure 1). One variable that is likely important to take into
D
account here is training frequency. In a recent study, training to failure in each set using a 3 x 10
TE
protocol) slowed down the recovery up to 24-48 h post-exercise (17). This attenuated post-
exercise recovery will not likely be of practical importance if the training program is performed
with a low weekly training frequency per muscle group (e.g., training each muscle group once
per week). However, when training with a higher training frequency (e.g., training a muscle
EP
group +4 times week), training to failure should likely be used sparingly to allow a better
neuromuscular condition before the subsequent training session. Slower rates of recovery may be
more pronounced when exercising with a higher number of repetitions, which is another
particularly those performed using free weights and of a structural nature, are substantially more
taxing on the neuromuscular system than single-joint exercises. It therefore seems pragmatic to
A
limit the use of training to failure in exercises such as squats, deadlifts, presses, and rows.
Alternatively, failure can be employed more liberally when performing single-joint exercises as
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Figure 1: Key aspects to consider when incorporating training to muscle failure in
resistance exercise.
References
1. American College of Sports Medicine. American College of Sports Medicine position stand.
D
Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 41: 687-708,
2009.
TE
2. Burd, NA, West, DW, Moore, DR, Atherton, PJ, Staples, AW, Prior, T, Tang, JE, Rennie, MJ,
Baker, SK, and Phillips, SM. Enhanced amino acid sensitivity of myofibrillar protein synthesis
persists for up to 24 h after resistance exercise in young men. J. Nutr. 141: 568-573, 2011.
EP
3. da Silva, LXN, Teodoro, JL, Menger, E, Lopez, P, Grazioli, R, Farinha, J, Moraes, K, Bottaro,
M, Pinto, RS, Izquierdo, M, and Cadore, EL. Repetitions to failure versus not to failure during
concurrent training in healthy elderly men: A randomized clinical trial. Exp. Gerontol. 108: 18-
C
27, 2018.
C
4. Davies, T, Orr, R, Halaki, M, and Hackett, D. Effect of Training Leading to Repetition Failure
on Muscular Strength: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 46: 487-502, 2016.
A
5. Duchateau, J, Semmler, JG, and Enoka, RM. Training adaptations in the behavior of human
6. Fell, J, and Williams, D. The effect of aging on skeletal-muscle recovery from exercise:
possible implications for aging athletes. J. Aging Phys. Act. 16: 97-115, 2008.
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
7. Fisher, J, Steele, J, and Smith, D. Evidence-based resistance training recommendations for
8. Folland, JP, Irish, CS, Roberts, JC, Tarr, JE, and Jones, DA. Fatigue is not a necessary
stimulus for strength gains during resistance training. Br. J. Sports Med. 36: 370-373, 2002.
D
9. Fry, AC, and Kraemer, WJ. Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching.
TE
10. Gorostiaga, EM, Navarro-Amezqueta, I, Calbet, JA, Sanchez-Medina, L, Cusso, R, Guerrero,
markers of muscle metabolites during leg press exercise. J. Strength Cond Res. 28: 2775-2785,
EP
2014.
11. Goto, K, Ishii, N, Kizuka, T, and Takamatsu, K. The impact of metabolic stress on hormonal
responses and muscular adaptations. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37: 955-963, 2005.
C
12. Hackett, DA, Johnson, NA, Halaki, M, and Chow, CM. A novel scale to assess resistance-
C
13. Izquierdo, M, Ibanez, J, Gonzalez-Badillo, JJ, Hakkinen, K, Ratamess, NA, Kraemer, WJ,
A
French, DN, Eslava, J, Altadill, A, Asiain, X, and Gorostiaga, EM. Differential effects of
strength training leading to failure versus not to failure on hormonal responses, strength, and
14. Kraemer, WJ, and Ratamess, NA. Fundamentals of resistance training: progression and
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
15. Kraemer, WJ, Ratamess, NA, Flanagan, SD, Shurley, JP, Todd, JS, and Todd, TC.
Understanding the Science of Resistance Training: An Evolutionary Perspective. Sports Med. 47:
2415-2435, 2017.
16. Martorelli, S, Cadore, EL, Izquierdo, M, Celes, R, Martorelli, A, Cleto, VA, Alvarenga, JG,
D
and Bottaro, M. Strength Training with Repetitions to Failure does not Provide Additional
Strength and Muscle Hypertrophy Gains in Young Women. Eur. J. Transl. Myol 27: 6339, 2017.
TE
17. Moran-Navarro, R, Perez, CE, Mora-Rodriguez, R, de la Cruz-Sanchez, E, Gonzalez-Badillo,
JJ, Sanchez-Medina, L, and Pallares, JG. Time course of recovery following resistance training
Resistance Training to Muscle Failure vs. Volitional Interruption at High- and Low-Intensities
on Muscle Mass and Strength. J. Strength Cond Res. 32: 162-169, 2018.
C
Gonzalez-Badillo, JJ. Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance,
strength gains and muscle adaptations. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 27: 724-735, 2017.
A
of Recovery From Resistance Exercise With Different Set Configurations. J. Strength Cond Res.
, 2018.
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
21. Rooney, KJ, Herbert, RD, and Balnave, RJ. Fatigue contributes to the strength training
22. Sampson, JA, and Groeller, H. Is repetition failure critical for the development of muscle
D
23. Sanchez-Medina, L, and Gonzalez-Badillo, JJ. Velocity loss as an indicator of neuromuscular
fatigue during resistance training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 43: 1725-1734, 2011.
TE
24. Santos, WDND, Vieira, CA, Bottaro, M, Nunes, VA, Ramirez-Campillo, R, Steele, J, Fisher,
JP, and Gentil, P. Resistance Training Performed to Failure or Not to Failure Results in Similar
Total Volume, but With Different Fatigue and Discomfort Levels. J. Strength Cond Res. , 2019.
EP
25. Schoenfeld, BJ. The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance
26. Schoenfeld, BJ. Potential mechanisms for a role of metabolic stress in hypertrophic
27. Schoenfeld, BJ, Contreras, B, Willardson, JM, Fontana, F, and Tiryaki-Sonmez, G. Muscle
activation during low- versus high-load resistance training in well-trained men. Eur. J. Appl.
A
28. Schoenfeld, BJ, Ogborn, D, and Krieger, JW. Dose-response relationship between weekly
resistance training volume and increases in muscle mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
29. Schoenfeld, BJ, Grgic, J, Ogborn, D, and Krieger, JW. Strength and Hypertrophy
Adaptations Between Low- vs. High-Load Resistance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-
30. Schoenfeld, BJ, Grgic, J, and Krieger, J. How many times per week should a muscle be
D
trained to maximize muscle hypertrophy? A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies
examining the effects of resistance training frequency. J. Sports Sci. : 1-10, 2018.
TE
31. Schott, J, McCully, K, and Rutherford, OM. The role of metabolites in strength training. II.
Short versus long isometric contractions. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 71: 337-341,
1995.
EP
32. Spiering, BA, Kraemer, WJ, Anderson, JM, Armstrong, LE, Nindl, BC, Volek, JS, and
variables determines the responses of cellular and molecular signalling pathways. Sports Med.
C
33. Steele, J, Endres, A, Fisher, J, Gentil, P, and Giessing, J. Ability to predict repetitions to
C
momentary failure is not perfectly accurate, though improves with resistance training experience.
34. Steele, J, Fisher, J, Giessing, J, and Gentil, P. Clarity in reporting terminology and definitions
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
can increase muscle mass and strength proportionally to enhanced metabolic stress under
36. Wackerhage, H, Schoenfeld, BJ, Hamilton, DL, Lehti, M, and Hulmi, JJ. Stimuli and sensors
that initiate skeletal muscle hypertrophy following resistance exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985)
D
126: 30-43, 2019.
37. Wernbom, M, Augustsson, J, and Thomee, R. The influence of frequency, intensity, volume
TE
and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans. Sports Med. 37:
225-264, 2007.
38. Willardson, JM, Norton, L, and Wilson, G. Training to failure and beyond in mainstream
EP
resistance exercise programs. Strength Cond J 32: 21-29, 2010.
39. Zourdos, MC, Klemp, A, Dolan, C, Quiles, JM, Schau, KA, Jo, E, Helms, E, Esgro, B,
Perceived Exertion Scale Measuring Repetitions in Reserve. J. Strength Cond Res. 30: 267-275,
2016.
C
A
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
D
TE
EP
C
C
A
Copyright Ó 2019 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.