Chapter-2 Basic Concepts PDF

8/11/2019
Fluid Mechanics
Pratik N Sheth, Ph.D.
Dept. of Chemical Engg.
BITS Pilani BITS Pilani – Pilani Campus
Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Chapter 2: Fundamental Concepts
Main Topics
3
 Fluid as a Continuum
 Velocity Field
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
 Timelines, Pathlines, Streaklines, and Streamlines
 Stress Field
 Viscosity
 Newtonian & non-Newtonian Fluid
 Surface Tension
 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions
 Viscous and Inviscid Flows;
 Laminar and Turbulent Flows;
 Compressible and Incompressible;
 Internal and External Flows
pratik@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
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Fluid as Continuum
4
• Fluids (Water & Gas):

• Considered as a continuous media
• Underlying is the molecular nature, if observed
with specialized equipment
• Mass is not continuously distributed in space
• Molecules are separated by relatively large
regions of empty space.
Fluid as Continuum
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Fluid as Continuum
6
What is the minimum volume, δV, that a “point”

C must be, so that we can talk about continuous
fluid properties such as the density at a point?
OR
In other words, under what circumstances can a
fluid be treated as a continuum, for which, by
definition, properties vary smoothly from point to
point?
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Limitation to Fluid as
Continuum 7
• It only breaks down when the mean free path of

the molecules becomes the same order of
magnitude as the smallest significant
characteristic dimension.
Ex. Rarefied gas flow
• In such cases, microscopic and statistical points

of view of the problem applies.
Specific Gravity 8
The specific gravity, SG, of a substance is

expressed as
ρ ρ gas
SG = or SG =
ρ H 2O ρ air
Typically, the maximum density of
water, Density of air at
ρ max,H O = 1000 kg/m 3 at 4oC, NTP, i.e. at
2
= 1.94 slug/ft3 at 39oF 20oC and 1 atm ,
ρair=1.205 kg/m3
For most liquids,
SG ↓ as T↑
Specific Weight
9
It is defined as the weight of a substance per

unit volume and given as
mg
γ = → γ = ρg
V
The specific weight of water is approximately
9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lbf/ft3) @ 15oC.
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Velocity Field
10
• Velocity vector: V = V ( x , y , z ,t )
Eulerian Approach
• In terms of scalar components:
V = uî + vˆj + wk̂

where,
u , v ,&w = f (x , y , z ,t )
• V indicates the velocity field of all particles.
To remind…
11
• Eulerian method of description:

• the properties of a flow field are described as
functions of space coordinates and time
(Assumes fluid as a continuous media).
Steady Flow
12
• If properties at every point in a flow field do not

change with time, the flow is termed steady.
• Mathematically,
∂η
=0 or η = η (x , y , z )
∂t
• In steady flow:
• any property may vary from point to point in the field,
• but all properties remain constant with time at every
point.
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Uniform Flow &

Uniform Flow Field 13
• All fluid satisfying the continuum assumption also

satisfies the no-slip condition, and are thus
inherently, two or three-dimensional.
• Uniform flow: In a flow that is uniform at a given
cross section, the velocity is constant across any
section normal to the flow.
• In uniform flow field, the velocity is constant,
i.e., independent of all space coordinates,
throughout the entire flow field.
One-, Two-, and Three-

Dimensional Flows 14
Examples-1
15
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Example-2
16
17
Timelines, Pathlines,
Streaklines, and Streamlines
Video
18
1:00 – 6:00
8:45 – 10:00
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Timeline
19
• If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow

field are marked at a given instant, they form a
line in the fluid at that instant; this line is called a
timeline.
Timeline
20
Pathline
21
• A pathline is the path or trajectory traced out by

a moving fluid particle.
Ex. The trajectory of a contaminant leaving a
smokestack.
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Streakline
22
• Streaklines are the loci of all the fluid particles

that, at some time, have passed through one
fixed location in space.
Ex. Water jet from a oscillating garden hose pipe
Streamline
23
• Streamlines are lines drawn in

the flow field so that at a given
instant they are tangent to the
direction of flow at every point
in the flow field.
OR
Streamlines are a family of
curves that are instantaneously
tangent to the velocity vector of
the flow.
• There is no flow across a streamline.
Streamline, Stream tube &

Stream surface 24
Solid blue lines and broken grey lines represent the

streamlines. The red arrows show the direction and
magnitude of the flow velocity. These arrows are tangential to
the streamline. The group of streamlines enclose the green
curves (C1 and C2) to form a stream surface.
[Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamlines,_streaklines,_and_pathlines] pratik@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in
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Streamline
25
• The streamlines are parallel to the velocity

vector, we can write (for 2D)
• Note that streamlines are obtained at an instant in
time; if the flow is unsteady, time t is held constant in
Eq.
• Solution of this equation gives the equation y = y(x),
with an undetermined integration constant, the value
of which determines the particular streamline.
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27
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28
Important Points
29
• The streamline is convenient to calculate

mathematically, while the other three are easier
to generate experimentally.
• Note that a streamline and a timeline are
instantaneous lines (snapshot), while the
pathline and the streakline are generated by the
passage of time (full-time history).
• For steady flow, streaklines, streamlines, and
pathlines are identical.
Stress Field
30
• Forces experienced by fluid particles:

• Surface forces (Pressure, Friction)
• Body forces (gravity and electromagnetic)
• Surface forces on a fluid particle lead to stresses.
• Useful for describing how forces acting on the

boundaries of a medium (fluid or solid) are
transmitted throughout the medium.
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Stress Field
31
• Consider a portion, , of the surface at some point C. The

orientation of is given by the unit vector, ,
• The vector is the outwardly drawn unit normal with respect to the
particle.
Stress Field
32
Normal Stress: Shear Stress:
Stress Field
33
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Stress Field
34
Note the double subscript notation to label the stresses.

The first subscript (in this case, x) indicates the plane on
which the stress acts (in this case, a surface perpendicular
to the x axis).
The second subscript indicates the direction in which the
stress acts.
Stress Field
35
Stress Field
36
The stress at a point is

specified by the nine
components:
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Stress Field
37
• In order to designate the plane of

interest, we could use terms like front
and back, top and bottom, or left and
right.
• However, it is more logical to name
the planes in terms of the coordinate
axes. The planes are named and
denoted as positive or negative
according to the direction of the
outwardly drawn normal to the plane.
• Thus the top plane, for example, is a
positive y plane and the back plane is
a negative z plane.
Stress Field
38
sign convention for stress

• A stress component is positive when the direction of the
stress component and the plane on which it acts are both
positive or both negative.
• Thus τyx =10 kPa represents a shear stress on a positive y

plane in the positive x direction or a shear stress on a
negative y plane in the negative x direction.
• In Fig. all stresses have been drawn as positive stresses.
• Stress components are negative when the direction of the

stress component and the plane on which it acts are of
opposite sign.
What it Shows???
39
Viscosity.mp4
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Viscosity & Density

40
Q) Can we say that the fluids having higher density

also has high viscosity and vice-versa.
• To answer this specific question:
• the density of ethanol is 789kg/m3 and it's viscosity is
0.001095 Ns/m2.
• The density of water is 1000kg/m3 and its viscosity is
0.00089 Ns/m2.
• So water is more dense, but less viscous than ethanol
at the same temperature. How
Note: Viscosity: Thickness or thinness about
Density: Space between particles Heavier??
Viscosity
41
Viscosity
42
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Viscosity
43
For the fluid deformation,

δl
tan(δα ) =
δy
For very small angle,
δl
tan(δα ) = δα =  δl = δα .δy
δy
Velocity of upper plate is given as,
δl δα δu
δu =  δl = δu .δt =
δt δt δy
Viscosity
44
Taking the limits of both sides of the equality, we

obtain,
δα δu
lim = lim
δt → 0 δt δy → 0 δy
dα du
 =
dt dy
Thus, the considered fluid element, when

subjected to shear stress τ yx , experiences a
rate of deformation (shear rate) given by du/dy.
Relation between
Shear Stress & Shear Rate 45
Fluids for which:

Shear Stress ∝ Shear Rate
Newtonian Fluids Ex. Water
Shear Stress ∝ Shear Rate

Non-Newtonian Fluids
Ex. Toothpaste (behaves as solid below the
threshold or yield stress)
Can You Walk on Water (Non-Newtonian Fluid Pool).mp4
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Newtonian Fluid
46
• Obeys Newton’s law of viscosity

(Shear Stress ∝ Shear Rate)
• Ex. Water, Air, Gasoline etc.
=>
Where, µ is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity.
Newtonian Fluid
47
Dimensions and Units of Viscosity:

Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity (µ):
Dimensions: SI Units:
µ=
τ yx
=
[F L ] = Ft
2
 N.s/m2 or
du dy [1 / t ]  2
L  kg/(m.s)
Kinematic Viscosity (ν ):
µ
ν = Dimensions: [ L2/t ]
ρ SI Units: m2/s
2.40
48
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2.40
49
y Area vector for upper plate
Stress Field
50
2.40
51
y Area vector for upper plate
x
Area vector for lower plate
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Non-Newtonian Fluids
52
Class-I: Time-independent behavior [η≠ ≠ f(t)]

• Power Law (1-D): Ensures same sign
=>
n- is flow behavior index η – apparent viscosity

k – consistency index
• For n<1: Pseudoplastic (or shear thinning)
η↓ with ↑ shear rate Ex. Polymer soln,
paper pulp in water
• For n>1: Dilatant (or shear thickening)
η↑ with ↑shear rate Ex. Suspension of starch/sand
Viscosity Vs Shear Rate

53
Non-Newtonian Fluid
54
Concept of Yield Stress:

• A “fluid” that behaves as a solid until
a minimum yield stress, τy, is exceeded and
subsequently exhibits a linear relation between
stress and rate of deformation
is referred to as an ideal or Bingham plastic.
Ex. Clay suspension, drilling mud, toothpaste.

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Non-Newtonian Fluid
55
Non-Newtonian Fluid
56
Class-II: Time-dependent
behavior
(Apparent viscosity varies with
time): Or
• Thixotropic fluids: η↑
η↓ with ↑ time
• Rheopectic fluids:
η ↑ with ↑ time
• Viscoelastic fluids:
partially return to their original
shape when the applied stress is
released;
Viscosity Dependence on
Temperature & Pressure 57
• Gas viscosities increases with temperature:

n
µ  T 
= 
µ 0  273 
• n ≅ 0.65 air;
≅ 0.9 for CO2 and simple hydrocarbons
≅ 1.1 for SO2 and steam
• Gas viscosity is independent of pressure under Ideal gas
law, otherwise increases at very high pressures.
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Viscosity Dependence on
Temperature & Pressure 58
• Viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is much

greater than those of gases at same temperature.
• Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in

temperature.
• For temperatures below the normal boiling point

(approx.): B
ln µ = A +
T
What is it about??
59
Cutting a water droplet using a superhydrophobic

knife on superhydrophobic surfaces.mp4
Soap Film Loops.mp4
Appendix A
60
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Appendix A
61
62
Surface Tension
63
• Surface tension is the elastic

tendency of a fluid surface which
makes it acquire the least surface
area possible.
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Surface Tension
64
Water wets glass and Water does not wet waxed

spreads out on it because surfaces because the
the adhesive forces between cohesive forces within the
the liquid and the glass are drops are stronger than the
stronger than the cohesive adhesive forces between
forces within the water. the drops and the wax.
Capillary Action
65
Capillary Action
66
• Capillary action is the rise of a liquid that wets a

tube up the inside of a small diameter tube (i.e.,
a capillary) immersed in the liquid.
• The liquid creeps up the inside of the tube (as a
result of adhesive forces between the liquid and
the inner walls of the tube) until the adhesive
and cohesive forces of the liquid are balanced
by the weight of the liquid.
• The smaller the diameter of the tube, the higher
the liquid rises.
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Capillary Rise
67
Derive an expression for the change in height h in a

circular tube of a liquid with surface tension σ and
contact angle θ.
Force Balance,
σ
Specific
weight
Solving for h gives
Laplace Equation:
68
69
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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Description and Classification of

Fluid Motions

Fluid Motions… 71
d’Alembert’s (dull-un-bear, French) paradox: All

bodies experience no drag as they move through
an incompressible, inviscid fluid—a result not
exactly consistent with any real behavior!
Alternatively: fluid behavior in terms of whether or

not viscous effects and compressibility effects are
present.
Classification
72
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Fluid Motions… 73
Viscous and Inviscid Flow: Ex. A ball flying

through the air experiences:
• Gravity
• Aerodynamic Drag
• Friction (low viscosity air offers less friction, negligible)
• Pressure build-up
• We can estimate whether or not viscous forces,
as opposed to pressure forces:
Reynolds No.,
Reynolds Number
74
Laminar &Turbulent Flows

75
• A laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles

move in smooth layers, or laminas;
• A turbulent flow is one in which the fluid particles
rapidly mix as they move along due to random
three-dimensional velocity fluctuations.
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Laminar &Turbulent Flows

76
• In FM, turbulence is an unwanted but often an

unavoidable phenomenon.
• Unwanted, because it generates more resistance
to flow.
• Wanted: Ex.1. the flow of blood through blood
vessels; Ex. 2. Heat exchanger
• For a 1-D laminar flow, the shear stress is related
to velocity gradient by Newton’s law of viscosity.
• No such universal relation exist for turbulent
flows. Empirical theories and experimental data
are the only choice.
Compressible and
Incompressible Flows 77
• Flows in which variations in density are negligible are
termed incompressible;
Ex. Liquids
• When density variations within a flow are not
negligible, the flow is called compressible.
Ex. Gases.
• For most liquids, density
is only a weak function of
temperature.
Compressible and
• At modest pressures, liquids may be considered

incompressible.
• At high pressure: Bulk Compressibility Modulus
or Modulus of Elasticity:
dp
Ev ≡
(dρ ρ )
• Very pure liquids can sustain large negative
pressures—as much as -60 atmospheres for
distilled water—beyond which the liquid
“ruptures” and vaporization occurs.
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Compressible and
The gases may also be considered incompressible, provided:

• Gas flows with negligible heat transfer,
• The flow speeds are small relative to the speed of sound.
• Mach number, Gas Flow Speed
V
M≡ Local speed of sound in gas
C
• For M < 0.3, the maximum density variation is less than
5 percent (can be treated as incompressible).
• A value of M = 0.3 in air at standard conditions
corresponds to a speed of approximately 100 m/s.
• Speed of sound in air is 343 m/s.
Compressible and
• The speed of sound in an Ideal gas is given by,
c = kRT
where, k = ratio of specific heats (cp/cv),
R = individual gas constant,
T= Absolute temperature.
• For air at STP, k=1.4 & R= 286.9 J/kg.K.
• Compressible flow examples:
• Compressed air systems,
• transmission of gases in pipelines at high pressure, etc.
Internal and External Flows

81
• Flows completely bounded by

solid surfaces are called
internal or duct flows.
• Open channel flow (constant
pressure free surface)
• Flows over bodies immersed
in an unbounded fluid are
termed external flows.
• Both internal and external
flows may be:
• laminar or turbulent,
• compressible or incompressible.
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82
Internal Flow (Flow through a pipe): Reynolds no.

for pipe flow is given by,
ρV D
Re =
µ
where, V is the average flow velocity,
D is the pipe diameter (not the length)
• Flow in a pipe of constant diameter will be
entirely laminar or entirely turbulent, depending
on the value of the velocity V .

83
• For flow in a pipe of diameter D, experimental

observations show that for "fully developed" flow,
• Laminar flow occurs when ReD <= 2300, and
• Turbulent flow occurs when ReD > 4000.
• In the interval between 2300 and 4000, laminar and
turbulent flows are possible and are called "transition"
flows,
• depending on other factors, such as pipe
roughness and flow uniformity.

84
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85
External Flow (Flow over a flat plate):

• A boundary-layer Reynolds number:
ρU ∞ x
Re x =
µ
where, U ∞ = characteristic velocity immediately outside
the boundary layer, and
x = characteristic length, i.e. the distance
along the plate.
• Boundary condition:
• At leading edge, L=0: => Rex=0
• At the end of the plate, L=L: => Re x = ρU ∞ L
µ

86
Boundary layer flow:
Re x ≤ 5 × 10 5
• A boundary layer will start out laminar, and if
the plate is long enough the boundary layer will
transition to become turbulent.

87
• Internal or External: Compressible or

Incompressible.
Supersonic flows (M>1)
• Compressible flows
Subsonic flows (M<1)
Often, assumed Incompressible
• For subsonic flow: Pexit = Pambient
• For supersonic flow: Pexit >, <, or = Pambient
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Supersonic Vs Subsonic
Flows 88
• In the case of a fluid striking an object.

• In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation
pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to
rest.
• In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance
can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of
the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the
object is there and is avoiding it.
• However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance
cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally does
strike the object, it is forced to change its properties –
temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number - in an
extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock
wave.
89
// Thank You //
Next class: Fluid Statics
30

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8/11/2019

Chapter 2: Fundamental Concepts

• Fluids (Water & Gas):

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

What is the minimum volume, δV, that a “point”

• It only breaks down when the mean free path of

• In such cases, microscopic and statistical points

The specific gravity, SG, of a substance is

It is defined as the weight of a substance per

V = uî + vˆj + wk̂

• V indicates the velocity field of all particles.

• Eulerian method of description:

• If properties at every point in a flow field do not

Uniform Flow &

• All fluid satisfying the continuum assumption also

One-, Two-, and Three-

• If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow

• A pathline is the path or trajectory traced out by

• Streaklines are the loci of all the fluid particles

• Streamlines are lines drawn in

Streamline, Stream tube &

Solid blue lines and broken grey lines represent the

• The streamlines are parallel to the velocity

• The streamline is convenient to calculate

• Forces experienced by fluid particles:

• Surface forces on a fluid particle lead to stresses.

• Useful for describing how forces acting on the

• Consider a portion, , of the surface at some point C. The

Normal Stress: Shear Stress:

Note the double subscript notation to label the stresses.

The stress at a point is

• In order to designate the plane of

sign convention for stress

• Thus τyx =10 kPa represents a shear stress on a positive y

• In Fig. all stresses have been drawn as positive stresses.

• Stress components are negative when the direction of the

Viscosity & Density

Q) Can we say that the fluids having higher density

For the fluid deformation,

Taking the limits of both sides of the equality, we

Thus, the considered fluid element, when

Fluids for which:

Shear Stress ∝ Shear Rate

• Obeys Newton’s law of viscosity

Where, µ is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity.

Dimensions and Units of Viscosity:

y Area vector for upper plate

y Area vector for upper plate

Class-I: Time-independent behavior [η≠ ≠ f(t)]

n- is flow behavior index η – apparent viscosity

Viscosity Vs Shear Rate

Concept of Yield Stress:

Ex. Clay suspension, drilling mud, toothpaste.

• Gas viscosities increases with temperature:

• Viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is much

• Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in

• For temperatures below the normal boiling point

Cutting a water droplet using a superhydrophobic

Soap Film Loops.mp4

• Surface tension is the elastic

Water wets glass and Water does not wet waxed

• Capillary action is the rise of a liquid that wets a

Derive an expression for the change in height h in a