Types of Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction – mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of gametes or sex cells.

Sexual Reproduction – mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or sex cells

Types of Asexual Reproduction ( F – F – B – S )

 Fission – Involves the division of the individual in two or more equal parts. Ex. Paramecium.

 Fragmentation – Where the body breaks into two or more parts w/ each fragment capable of
becoming complete individuals usually followed by the regeneration of the missing parts.

 Budding – Type of asexual reproduction wherein a new individual arise as an outgrowth (bud)
from its parents, develops organs like there of the parent, then detaches.

 Sporulation – Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual is formed from an

aggregation of cells surrounded by a resistant capsule which later germinates.

Types of Sexual Reproduction

 Isogamy – Fusion of similar gametes which are usually motile. Ex. Fishes, Sea Urchin

Heterogamy – Fusion of dissimilar gametes. In Oogamy a large immotile gamete (egg) is

fertilized by a small motile gamete (Sperm).

 Bisexual Reproduction – Involves the union of gametes from two genetically different parents.

 Hermaphrodite – An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues. In animals, self-
fertilization is not common.

Compare and Contrast the Development in Animals and Plants

 Development – Starts from the formation of sex cells, Zygote formation, and the subsequent
stages of one’s life, ends in death.
 Haploid (n) – When a cell has only half the chromosomes number or only 1 set of chromosomes
 Diploid (2n) – When a cell has the full chromosome number.
 Totipotent – a cell that is capable of differentiating to become any kind of cell.
 Fertilization – results from the union of the male and female gamete. Results in a unicellular
diploid zygote.
 Cleavage – Involves a series of mitotic divisions to produce a multicellular blastula.
 Blastula – a multicellular ball of cells that is produced after a zygote undergoes rapid cell
division.
 Gastrulation – morphogenetic movements of the cells to produce a gastrula. It has three distinct
layers, endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
 Organogenesis – The different germ layers differentiate into specific organ systems.
 Growth – increase in size of an individual.

Sporophyte – Plant that germinates into a mature one and produces flowers

Gametophyte – The Haploid multicellular individual

Microsporangium (2n) Megasporangium (2n)

Microspores (n) Meiosis Megaspores (n)

 Pollen (n) Embryo Sac (Ovuum)
(Male Gametophyte) (Female Gametophyte)

Paramecium

- Binary Fission – one paramecium cell divides into two genetically identical offspring, or
daughter cells.
- Conjugation – two mature paramecium will meet together to exchange genetic material

Hydra uses Budding for reproduction

Spirogyra uses Fragmentation for reproduction

Rhizopus uses Sporulation for reproduction

Mitosis - a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number
and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
Interphase – Replication
Prophase – Chromatin Condenses and Spindle fibers form
Metaphase – Aligning of chromatids
Anaphase – Separation of Sister Chromatids
Telophase – the cell itself is dividing into two
Meiosis – a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
Anaphase I: Stage of cell division in which the homologous chromosomes are moved to opposite ends of
the cell.

Anaphase II: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes divide and each chromatid moves to the
opposite poles of the cell.

Bivalent: Paired sister chromatids that make a group of four chromatids; also called a tetrad.

Chiasm: The point of crossover between chromosomes or other biological entities; pl. chiasmata.

Cohesin: Protein complex made of four subunits that binds sister chromatids together.

Crossing over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes in meiosis.

Homologous chromosome: In diploid cells, the two copies of each chromosome containing the same
sequence of genes, although the alleles may differ.

Meiosis: Type of cell division resulting in four haploid cells, the gametes.

Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate.

Meiosis II: Sister Chromatids separate.

Metaphase I: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes align along the equator of the cell.
Homologous chromosomes align parallel to each other.

Metaphase II: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes are moved to the equator of the cell.
 Prophase I: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes coil and condense.

Prophase II: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes attach to the reforming spindle apparatus.

Sister chromatid: One of a pair of chromatin threads; one side of a chromosome X-shape.

Synapsis: Binding of homologs during the early part of cell division.

Telophase I: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes may uncoil and the nucleus forms.

Telophase II: Stage of cell division in which the chromosomes begin to uncoil and the nucear envelope
begins to form.

Tetrad: Set of paired sister chromatids that form a group of four chromatids; also called a bivalent.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

 Receptacle – expanded end of the stalk; bears the floral parts.

 Calyx – consists of sepal, usually green, protects the flower in bud
 Androecium – male parts of the flower consists of stamens. Each stamen has
another containing pollen sacs.
 Corolla – Consists of petals, often colored and scented to attract insects.
 Gynoecium – female parts of the flower, consists of one or more carpels. Each
carpel contains one or more ovule in an ovary.
 Complete Flower – has all four parts.
 Incomplete Flower – at least one part is missing.
 Regular Flower – can be divided into two similar halves by any section passing
through the center. Radially Symmetrical.
 Irregular Flower – can be divided into two equal halves in one particular plane only.
 Pollination – transfer of pollen grains from one another to a stigma of a flower.
Types:
Self-pollination – when mature pollen grains of a flower falls on the stigma
of the same flower.
Cross-pollination – When pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of
another flower.
Advantages:
1. Healthy offspring
2. Leads to Variation
3. Greater Chances of Dispersal
Agents of pollination – wind, insect, and small birds.
Insect pollinated Flowers (Entomophile)
 Are scented
 Have stick stigma, for pollen grains to stick on
  Are brightly colored
Wind Pollinated flowers (Anemophile)
 Anthers/ Stigma hang outside the flower
 The Style/ Filament is long
 StigThema is hairy/feathery/branched
 Pollen grains are smooth/dry/light/small
 Large amounts of pollen grain
 Anthers are loosely attached to the filament
 Pollen grains may have structures w/c contain air to increase buoyancy
 Flowers have long stalks
Ways of preventing self-pollination
1. Protandry – anthers/stamens mature first
2. Protogyny – Pistils mature first
3. Monoecism – Male and Female parts on the same plant, but different flowers.
4. Dioecism – Male and Female parts are on different plants.
5. Incompatibility – Self Sterility
6. Heterostyly – Styles at different heights.
Double Fertilization

 The male generative nucleus divides and gives rise to two male nuclei
 One fuses with the ovum to form a zygote, the other fuses with the female polar nuclei to
form the endosperm (triploid and food storage used by the developing embryo)

Ovary -> Pericarp -> Fruit

Whole Ovule -> Seed
Parthenogenesis – development of a new animal without fertilization.
Parthenocarpy – development of a new plant without fertilization.
Cotyledon – use to distinguish if a plant is a monocot or dicot.
Monocot – tend to have “fibrous roots”, their stems arrange the vascular tissue (the circulatory
system of the plant) sporadically, leaves are characterized by their parallel veins, flowers
usually form in threes.
Dicots – roots also contain one main root called the taproot, vascular tissue of stems are
organized, Leaves are branching veins, flowers occur in groups of four or five.

Gonads:
Male – Testes – Sperm cells
Zygote Blastula Gastrula
One cell (Ectoderm,
Female – Ovary – Egg cell Cell Division Mesoderm,
Cleavage Endoderm)

Internal Fertilization – example most mammals

External Fertilization – example most Fishes
Ampulla – a saccular anatomical pouch
Viviparous – mammals that give birth to live young
Oviparous – egg laying mammals
Pouch – marsupials and the structure where the body will continue to develop
Mammary glands – produce milk
Ovaries (Hormones – estrogen and progesterone)
Oocyte – surrounded by special cells called follicle cells.
Graafian follicle – mature and ready to be released to mem oviduct for fertilization.
Hormones – which initiate and control development of secondary sexual characteristics and
prepares the uterus for implantation.
Menstruation – the unfertilized oocyte is released.

Oviducts (fallopian tubes)

- Conduct the oocyte to the uterus
- Fertilization occurs in the upper part of the oviduct (ampulla)
- Cilia
- Peristaltic movement (one way movement)
Uterus
- A hollow muscular organ
- The embryo develops inside the uterus
- Inner living (endometrium) supplies nutrients to the embryo
- The embryo is implanted in the inner uterine wall
- The thick uterus muscles of the uterus assist in birth
Testes
- Inside the testes are numerous coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules.
- Enclosed in a scrotal sac.
(Sertoli Cell – aids in nutrition of sperms)
Seminiferous Tubules
- Consist of actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms.
- Interstitial cells produce male hormones (testosterone)
- Unite to form the epididymis – roiled tube when sperms are stored temporarily.
Vas Deferens
- Tube through which the sperm possess through from the testes to the urethra.
Accessory Glands
- Produce the fluid to provide medium for the sperms to swim (Semen)
- Produces Semen:
o Seminal Vesicle
o Cowper gland
o Prostate gland
- Discard the other materials, like RNA, ER and etc.
- It needs to be motile for it to fertilize properly.
- Acrosome reaction (this prevents other sperms to penetrate the egg cell) prevents
polyspermy(egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm)
- Zona pellucida – where the sperm cell penetrates (cover of the egg cell)