PHILOSOPHICAL
AUGUSTINE (NUMIDIA,
PHILOSOPHY
- “LOVE FOR WISDOM”
-discussion of the self is a basic
search for meaning and purpose
in life.
SOCRATES (GREEK)
- We only know Socrates because
his illustrious students
- state of our soul, or our inner
being, which determines the
quality of our life.
- to obtain knowledge of what is
good and what is evil.
- what we think will bring us
happiness as ‘good’, and those
things we think will bring us
suffering and pain as ‘evil’.
- Virtue is defined as moral
excellence, and an individual is
considered virtuous if their
character is made up of the moral
qualities that are accepted as
virtues.
- “GNOTHI SEUTON”= “KNOW
THYSELF.”
- “SOCRACTIC METHOD” or the art
of questioning.
- Possession of knowledge is a
virtue and that ignorance is a vice
PLATO (GREEK)
- He is the acknowledged author
of the groundbreaking book “The
Republic”
- Theory of Human Nature –
The Tripartite Structure of the
Soul.
APPETITE SOUL - needs and wants
that are to be satisfied (physical
urges)
SPIRITED SOUL (will) - courageous
part of the person; one who wants
to do something or right the
wrongs
RATIONAL SOUL (reason)- “the
conscious mind”; decides, plans,
and thinks.
ST.
substance of either the soul or the
ROMAN PROVINCE OF
AFRICA)
-that everything is better if we
devote ourselves to God.
-Augustine believed one could not
achieve inner peace without
finding God's love.
-The physical body is bound to die
on earth while the soul is to
anticipate living eternally in
communion with God.
-credited with the invention of the
idea of “original sin.”
-man is that we are originally
sinful.
-the church being the city of god.
That a city governed by the
church is a city governed by god.
RENE DESCARTES (FRENCH)
-“COGITO ERGO SUM”, or “I
THINK THEREFORE, I AM”.
-DUALISM is the concept that
reality or existence is divided into
two parts. the mind is separate
from the empirically studied,
physical attributes of the body.
-He proposed the idea of
substance, essence of substance,
and modes of substance.
▪ The mind is the substance
▪ The essence of this
substance is thought
▪ A mind can be seen as
something that is defined
by thought.
▪ The modes of the mind,
then, are the various
ways of thinking
-the “SELF”; a THINKING THING
-Man innately knows basic logical
propositions.
JOHN LOCKE (ENGLISH)
-FATHER OF LIBERALISM
-Was against Augustinian and
Cartesian view of man
-personal identity (or the self) to
be founded on consciousness
(memory), and not on the
body.
-“empty” mind, a tabula rasa
DAVID HUME (SCOTT)
-he espoused three (3) notable
contention in philosophy;
empiricism, skepticism and
naturalism.
-He promoted empiricism by
basing his knowledge and
philosophy on evidences, knowing
and proving are two different
things. And in life, it is not what
you know, but rather what you
can prove.
-One can only know through
senses and experience.
-EMPIRICISM asserts that
knowledge is only attained
through the senses.
-was a known atheist and as such,
he believed in the natural cycle of
life.
-Everything is governed by reason,
by rationality and as such, there is
a natural order of things.
-There is no permanent “self”
IMMANUEL KANT
(GERMAN)
-Became critical of Hume’s ideas.
-there is a connection between
reason and experience. That in
order to have solid rationality, one
must have a variety of experience
and exposure.
-METAPHYSICS, that which is
beyond matter, he also subscribes
to the idea that pure reason is one
of the prime source of morality.
That what is right, that what is
moral, is best explained via reason
and rationality.
-RATIONALISM is the theory that
reason, rather than experience, is
the foundation of all knowledge.
-INNER SELF is comprised of our
psychological state and our
rational intellect.
-OUTER SELF includes our sense
and the physical world.
-APPERCEPTION is how we
mentally assimilate new ideas into
old ones. Occurring through
rational reasoning, it’s how we
make sense of new things.
-REPRESENTATIONS are the
immediate objects of our
awareness.
SIGMUND FREUD
(AUSTRIAN)
-FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
-Unconscious, preconscious,
conscious
- ID - pleasure principle
-EGO - reality principle
-SUPEREGO - morality principle
-PSYCHOANALYSIS is about
studying man via his unconscious
mind and his unconscious mind is
principally predicated on sex as a
form of aggression.
GILBERT RYLE (BRITISH)
-British philosopher – self is taken
as a whole, with BODY AND MIND
COMBINATION.
-The self is an integrated whole
made up of different parts and
systems.
-GHOST IN THE MACHINE means
the consciousness or mind carried
in a physical entity.
-He believed that human
consciousness and mind are very
dependent on the human brain
PAUL CHURCHLAND
(CANADIAN)
-Folk Psychology will eventually be
discredited by scientific inquiry.
Indigenous notions, theories,
concepts and ideas will be
supplanted by scientific method.
-The “self” is defined by the
movements of the brain.
-ELIMINATIVE MATERIALISM
contention is that people’s
common sense understanding of
the mind is false and that most of
the mental states that people
subscribe to, in turn, do not
actually exist.
-The world could be wrong; most
people could be wrong and even
the mind could also be wrong. In
short, everyone and everything
could be fallible. There is no such
thing as infallibility.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
(FRENCH)
-EXISTENTIALISM is predicated on
the premise that man gives
meaning to his own life.
Happiness and sadness are
dependent on the individual and
his perception of his on reality.
Consciousness and perception are
related to one another.
-Phenomenology of Perception:
-The Body
-The Perceived World
-People in the World
SOCIOLOGY
-the study of how human society is
established
-people’s interactions with each
other and the effects they have to
one another.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF
-SEPARATE - it is distinct from
other selves, it is always unique
and has in its own identity.
-SELF-CONTAINED &
INDEPENDENT – it is distinctive
with its own thoughts,
characteristics and volition and
does not require any other self to
exist.
-CONSISTENT – has enduring
personality
-UNITARY – it is the center of all
experiences and thoughts that run
through a person
-PRIVATE – sorts out information,
feelings, emotions, thoughts and
processes within the self that are
never accessible to anyone but the
self.
-Isolated from the external world.
MARCEL MAUSS
-every self has two faces:
PERSONNE AND MOI.
-MOI refers to a person’s sense of
who he is, his body, and his basic
identity.
-PERSONNE is composed of social
concepts of what it means to be
who he is and how he behave
given the expectations and
influences from others.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD:
THEORY OF SOCIAL
BEHAVIORISM
-FATHER OF AMERICAN
PRAGMATISM
-He rejected the notion of the
biological determination of the
self.
-people develop self-images
through interactions with other
people.
-the Self, which is the part of a
person’s personality consisting of
self-awareness and self-image, is
A PRODUCT OF SOCIAL
EXPERIENCE.
-THE SELF DEVELOPS SOLELY
THROUGH SOCIAL EXPERIENCE.
Mead rejected Freud’s notion that
personality is determined partly
by biological drives.
-SOCIAL EXPERIENCE CONSISTS
OF THE EXCHANGE OF SYMBOLS.
Mead emphasized the particularly
human use of language and other
symbols to convey meaning.
-KNOWING OTHERS’ INTENTIONS
REQUIRES IMAGINING THE
SITUATION FROM THEIR
PERSPECTIVES. Mead believed
that social experience depends on
our seeing ourselves as others do,
or, as he coined it, “taking the role
of the other.”
STAGES OF SELF-
DEVELOPMENT
STAGE 1 PREPARATORY STAGE
(BIRTH – 2 YEARS OLD)
-imitates the actions and
behaviors of other people
STAGE 2 PLAY STAGE (2-6 YEARS
OLD) -children begins to interact
with others
-This also where they practice real
life situations through pretend
play and is the on-set of self-
consciousness.
STAGE 3 GAME STAGE (6-9 YEARS
OLD)
- They start to understand the
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of
the “generalized other” or society
as a whole.
-The “me” is the social self and
the “I” is the response to the
“me”.
-“I” – is the response of an
individual to the attitudes of
others. This is our individual
identity.
-“ME” - is how we believe the
generalized other sees us.
-The “I” is the knower, the “me”
is the known
-SOCIALIZATION IS A LIFETIME
ENDEAVOR, and the people one
interacts with will change
throughout a person’s and such
interactions will concretize the
identity and sense of self.
CHARLES COOLEY: THEORY
OF THE LOOKING-GLASS
SELF
-SOCIOLOGIST
-believed that we form our self-
images through interaction with
other people.
-He was particularly interested in
how significant others shape us
as individuals
-SIGNIFICANT OTHER is someone
whose opinions matter to us and
who is in a position to influence
our thinking, especially about
ourselves.
-The LOOKING-GLASS SELF refers
to a self-image that is based on
how we think others see us.
ANTHROPOLOGY
- human biological and cultural
diversity.
- studies the human species and
it’s immediate ancestors.
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
-study of human society and
culture
 Ethnography (based on
field work)
 Ethnology (based on
cross-cultural comparison
ARCHEOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
-reconstructs, describes, and
interprets human behavior and
cultural patterns through material
remains.
BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
-focuses on these special interests:
human evolution as revealed by
fossil, human genetics, human
growth and development,
LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
- its social and cultural context
across space and over time.
CONFORMITY
-a change in behavior or belief as
the result of real or imagined
group pressure.
OBEDIENCE
-acting in accord with a direct
order or command.
COMPLIANCE
-conformity that involves publicly
acting in accord with an implied or
explicit request while privately
disagreeing.
ACCEPTANCE
-conformity that involves both
acting and believing in accord with
social pressure.
NORMATIVE INFLUENCE
- conformity based on a person’s
desire to fulfill others’
expectations, often to gain
acceptance.
 Salient when we are in
public.

INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE
- conformity occurring when
people accept evidence about
reality provided by other people.
SPOTLIGHT EFFECT
-belief that others are paying
more attention to one’s
appearance and behavior
ILLUSION OF TRANSPARENCY
-our concealed emotion are “leak
out” and can be easily read
DEV’T. OF THE SOCIAL SELF
1. THE ROLES WE PLAY
-our sense of role affects the way
we see our self.
2. SOCIAL COMPARISONS
-evaluating one’s abilities and
opinions by comparing oneself
with others.
3. SUCCESS & FAILURE
-our daily experiences of success
and failure gives us a sense of
social self.
4. OTHER PEOPLE’S JUDGMENTS
-what people think well of us, it
helps us think well of ourselves.
 LOOKING-GLASS SELF
-tendency to use others as
a mirror for perceiving our
selves.
5. THE CULTURE
-in cultural psych, self and culture
are seen as mutually constitutive.
-culture and self construct each
other.
-culture transforms us and then
we transform the culture.
Self & Culture
INDIVIDUALISM
- the concept of giving priority to
one’s own goals over group goals
-can result to independent self
(identity as unique individual).
COLLECTIVISM
-giving priority to the goals of
one’s group
-can result to interdependent self
(identity in relation to others).
GROWING INDIVIDUALISM
-“the me generation”
CULTURE & COGNITION
-Asian thinking (more collectivist)
vs. western thinking (more
individualist).
Culture & Self-esteem
SELF-ESTEEM– overall self-
evaluation or sense of self-worth.
• Americans tend to have
high self-esteem with
disengaged emotions–
feeling effective, superior
and proud. (Kitayama &
Markus, 2000)
• Asians tend to have high
self-esteem with positive
social engagement–
feeling close, friendly, &
respectful. (Kitayama &
Markus, 2000)
Psychological
ABSTRACTIONS OF THE SELF
-The SELF is the sense of personal
identity and who we are as
individuals (Jhangiani & Tarry,
2014).
-Distinction between “I” and “Me”
(James, 1890)
 “I” = the thinking, acting,
and feeling self
 ”Me” = physical
characteristics as well as
psychological capabilities
that makes who you are
-Distinction between “I” and “Me”
(Rogers, 1959)
 “I” = the one acts and
decides
 ”Me” = what you think
about yourself as an
object
-Related to constructs such as
identity and self-concept
Multiplicity of the self
-The self has two subsystems
(Rogers):
(1) the self-concept- which
includes all those aspects of one's
identity that are perceived in
awareness
(2) the ideal self- our view of our
self as we would like it to be or
what we would aspire to be.
SELF-CONCEPT – knowledge about
oneself
SELF-ESTEEM – general attitude
toward oneself, value of oneself
SELF-SCHEMA – impressions about
oneself
Levels of Awareness
(1) experiences that are
subceived; that is, experiences
symbolized below the threshold of
awareness that are either ignored
or denied and not allowed into the
self-concept;
(2) those that are distorted are
reshaped to fit it into an existing
self-concept.
(3) those that are consistent with
the self-concept and thus are
accurately symbolized and freely
admitted to the self-structure.
Perceived Self-Control
-SELF-EFFICACY
– A sense that one is competent &
effective.
-How competent we feel on the
task.
--Given challenging tasks, people
who imagine themselves as
hardworking and successful
outperform those who imagine
themselves as failures (Ruvolo &
Markus, 1992).
LOCUS OF CONTROL
- The extent to which people
perceive outcomes as internally
controllable by their own efforts
or as externally controlled by
chance or outside forces.
INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL
-You probably believe you control
your own destiny.
-“I failed because I didn't study.”
EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL
-You probably feel chance or
outside forces determine your
fate.
-“I failed because my teacher
didn’t like me by chance.”
ABSTRACTIONS OF THE SELF
-Theories generally see the self
and identity as mental constructs
created and re-created in memory.
-current researches suggest that
the FRONTAL LOBE is the specific
area of the brain associated with
processes concerning the self.
Symbolic interactionism (Mead,
1934)
Suggests that the self is created
and developed through human
interaction (Hogg & Vaughan,
2010).
1. We do not create ourselves out
of nothing. Society helped in
creating the foundations of who
we are.
2. We need others as reference
points of our identity. We need
others to reinforce our identity
(e.g., social media interactions).
3. What we think as important to
us may also have been influenced
by what is important in our social
or historical context (e.g.,
education)
DEINDIVIDUATION
- Loss of self-awareness and
evaluation apprehension; occurs
in group situations that foster
responsiveness to group norms,
good or bad.
HIGH SOCIAL AROUSAL +
DIFFUSED RESPONSIBILITY =
Deindividuation
GROUP SIZE
-Has the power to arouse and
render individuals unidentifiable.
PHYSICAL ANONYMITY
-Being anonymous makes one less
self-conscious, more group-
conscious, and more responsive to
cues present in the situation
DIMINISHED SELF-AWARENESS
-Diminished self-consciousness
tend to disconnect behavior from
attitudes.
-Unself-conscious, deindividuated
people are less restrained, less
self-regulated, more likely to act
without thinking about their own
values, and more responsive to
the situation.
WESTERN
-The focus is on oneself and
personal needs known as egoism.
-It is more inclined to more
acquisition of material things.
-It is obsessed with being
successful.
EASTERN
-The focus is on others and the
feeling of others called
collectivism.
-The culture is tilted towards less
assets (a mantra that less is more).
-More inclined towards long life,
which is equated with wealth.
WESTERN
-Wealth and poverty is the result
of enterprise and hard work.
-The culture celebrates the youth
and being young.
-It subscribes the idea of
evolution.
EASTERN
-Wealth and poverty is the result
of fortune and luck.
-The culture values the wisdom of
years and seniority.
-It subscribes the idea of
reincarnation.
WESTERN SELF
-A social construction which is
symbolically and signally created
between and among social beings.
-Self is multidimensional entity.
-Self takes form in
communication.
-Self is intimately connected to
bodily experience both
ontogenically and here and now
awareness.
-Self is both phenomenal and non-
phenomenal.
-Self acquires substance according
to semantic, syntactic, and
pragmatic.
EASTERN SELF
-A gentleman by following the
moral way consisting of the virtues
of love, righteousness, wisdom,
propriety, and loyalty in order to
promote harmony in society.
-Detachment and desirelessness
to reach nirvana, or state of
enlightenment.
-MAHAYANA or reciprocal
relationship.
-BUDDHISM or compassion to
other humans for belief that we
are part of the same ever changing
universe.
-Attachment of liberation in the
identification of Atman (the
spiritual essence of all individuals).
-Brahman as the spiritual essence
of the universe through the four
Yogas.
-TAOISM is philosophical belief
based on the idea that there
is central or organizing principle of
the Universe, a natural order or a
"way of heaven", Tao, that one
can come to know by living in and
is eternally nameless.
-Concept of Kapwa, recognition of
shared identity, an inner self
shared with others.
-There are two levels or modes of
social interaction – ibang tao or
“OUTSIDER”, and hindi ibang tao
or “ONE OF US”.
WESTERN (Individualism)
-People are autonomous and
independent from their in-groups.
-People give priority to their
personal goals of their in-groups.
-People behave on their basis of
attitudes rather than norms.
EASTERN(Collectivism)
-Interdependent within their in-
groups.
-In-groups primarily shape their
behavior.
-Behave in a communal way.
-Concerned in maintaining
relationship with others.