CH.

11 CELL COMMUNICATION

 Quorum signaling: sensing the concentration of signals to monitor local densities (bacteria)
 Local signaling
o Direct contact - cell junctions
o Paracrine signaling - growth factors
o Synaptic signaling - neurotransmitters
 Long distance signaling
o Endocrine signaling - circulatory system
o Electrical signaling - nervous system axons
 Receptors
o G Protein-Coupled Receptors - includes receptor, G protein, and enzyme
 GPCR receives signal (ex. Epinephrine)
 G protein activated by GTP and bind to cytoplasmic side of receptor
 G protein activates the enzyme by traveling down cell membrane
 The enzymes triggers cell response
 G protein hydrolyzes GTP to GDP + Pi
o Receptor Tyrosine Kinase - many pathways at once, abnormal leads to cancer
 RTK forms dimer after binding with signal (ex. Growth factors)
 Each tyrosine kinase phosphorylates tyrosine from other monomer
 Relay proteins attach to tyrosine, triggering cell response
o Ion Channel Receptors
 Ligand gated ion channel/voltage gated ion channels - nervous system
o Intracellular Receptors: hydrophobic, small
 Hormone-receptor complex forms
 Regulates gene transcription
 Cyclic AMP - broadcasts signals
o Activated by GPCR
o Synthesized by adenyl cyclase (ATP - cAMP)
o Activates kinase, triggering cell response (ex. Glycogen breakdown)
 Calcium - more widely used
o Muscle contraction, exocytosis, cell division - animal
o Greening - plants
o Activated by GPCR/RTK
o Less Ca in cytosol than endoplasmic reticulum and extracellular region
o Works with IP3 and DAG
 Regulation of the response - multistep pathways
o Amplification - # of activated products greater than preceding step because proteins persist
in their activated forms for long enough to activate many substrates
o Control points and pathway branching - better coordination
o Scaffolding proteins - enhances speed and accuracy of signal transfers
o Termination - reversible binding, concentration of bound receptors above threshold
 Apoptosis - prevents leakage of digestive enzymes
o Triggered by
 Mitochondrial proteins
 Irreparable DNA damage
 Excessive protein misfolding in ER
o Nervous system, immune system, hands and feet development
Definitions:

 Transduced: changed into another form

 G protein: acts like a GTPase, hydrolyzing GTP to GDP + Pi
 Kinase: protein adds P from ATP to another protein (usually serine/threonine in cytoplasm),
activating it; phosphorylation
 Protein phosphatase: dephosphorylation; kinases for reuse
 Second messenger: small, nonprotein, water soluble ion or molecule; concentration affects relay
molecules
 Phosphodiesterase: convert cAMP to AMP
 Scaffolding proteins: large relay molecule to which other relay molecules are simultaneously
attached; prevents diffusion

CH. 40 ANIMAL FORM AND FUCNTION

 Increasing # of cells decreases ratio of surface area/volume

 Tissue types - Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous
 Nervous system - nerve impulses act on neurons, muscles, or glands; specific pathway, immediate
response
 Endocrine system - hormones act on specific cells; travels all across body, gradual response
 Homeostasis: variable set point - fluctuation - stimulus - sensor - response
 Balancing heat loss and gain
o Insulation - adipose, oil secretion
o Circulatory adaptations - vasodilation, vasoconstriction, countercurrent exchange
o Evaporation - sweat, panting
o Behavior - exposure to sun
o Heat production - shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis, brown fat
 Ectothermic acclimatization - variants of enzymes, unsaturated lipids, antifreeze proteins
 Influences on metabolic rate
o Size - each gram of tissue increases in energy cost as size decreases
o Torpor - state of decreased activity and metabolism

Definitions:

 Regulator: controls internal change in the face of external fluctuations

 Conformer: internal conditions change in the face of external fluctuations
 Acclimatization: physiological adjustment to changes in external environment; temporary and
quick as opposed to adaptation
 Endothermic: heat generated from internal metabolism (mammals)
 Ectothermic: heat generated from external sources (amphibians, reptiles, fishes)
 Countercurrent exchange: transfer of heat between arteries and veins
 Non-shivering thermogenesis: mitochondria produces heat instead of ATP
 Behavioral fever: ectotherms maintain elevated body temp
 BMR: measured at rest, empty stomach, no stress, comfortable temp
 Estuation: summer torpor

CH. 43 IMMUNE SYSTEM

  Innate Immunity (plants and animals)
o Barrier defenses: skin, mucous membranes, body secretions, acidic pH
o Cellular defenses: Toll-like receptor, neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, eosinophils,
natural killer cells, interferons, complement system, inflammatory response
o Nonspecific to pathogens
o Rapid response
 Adaptive Immunity (vertebrates)
o Humoral/cell-mediated - activated by helper T cells
o Long lasting protection
o Highly specific to pathogen
o Slower response
 Characteristics of lymphocytes
o Receptor diversity
o Self-tolerance - MHC genes
o Proliferation of B and T cells after activation - effector/memory cells
o Immunological memory
 Primary immune response - effector cells
 Secondary immune response - faster, greater magnitude, longer period of high antibodies
 Helper T-cell activation - need antigen-presenting cell
o Helper T cell binds to antigen. CD4 binds to MHC
o Cytokines exchanged
o Helper T activated
 B cell activation - presents antigen same as helper T cell antigen receptor
o Binds to activated Helper T
o Cytokines exchanged
o Plasma B and memory B cells created
 Antibody function - neutralize, opsonize, activate complement system/natural killer
cells
 Cytotoxic T cell action- activated by helper T cell or antigen-presenting cell
o CD8
o Releases perforins and granzymes, causing apoptosis
 Types of immunity
o Naturally-acquired active immunity - exposure to pathogen
o Naturally-acquired passive immunity - through placenta
o Artificially-acquired active immunity - immunization by vaccines
o Artificially-acquired passive immunity - anti-body injection
 Allergic reaction
o Primary response: antibodies bind to mast cells
o Secondary response: antibodies on mast cells bind to allergen, producing histamine
 Autoimmune disease - lupus, T1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis
 Adaptations of pathogens
o Antigenic variation - epitope changes (flu/influenza )
o Latency - inactive state in cells (herpes)
o Direct attack - HIV - reverse transcriptase to produce new viruses in helper T cell - AIDS

Definitions:
  Toll-like receptor: mammalian receptor that produces signals that respond to invading pathogen
 Neutrophils: self-destruct after engulfing; first response
 Dendritic cell: antigen-presenting cell; macrophage
 Eosinophils: under epithelium; discharge multicellular invaders like parasitic worms;
 Natural killer cells: attack cell membrane of infected cell, causing apoptosis; indirect attack
 Interferons: prevent cell-cell infections
 Complement system: proteins that act in a cascade, resulting in lysis of pathogen; direct attack
 Inflammatory (local) response: cytokines and histamines
o Cytokines: neutrophils to injury site
o Histamine: blood vessels dilate and more permeable
 Inflammatory (systemic) response: extensive tissue damage, fever, more neutrophils
 Effector cells: short-lived, immediate action, opposed to memory cells
 Clonal selection: antigen binds to receptors specific to its epitope, allowing proliferation and
memory
 Antigen-presenting cell: macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells; associated with MHC
 Immunization: use of antigens to generate primary immune response, allowing for a strong
secondary response
 Active immunity: immune response by body
 Passive immunity: antibodies given
 Monoclonal antibodies: prepared by single clone of cultured B cells specific to epitope; chorionic
gonadotropic detection
 Immunodeficiency: innate/adaptive immune response not working

CH. 45 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Local regulators
o Prostaglandins, polypeptides (GFs and cytokines), gases
 Hormones
o Water soluble - polypeptides, amines
o Lipid soluble - steroids
 Multiple responses - receptor, relay, and response proteins
 Endocrine pathway: gland responses to stimulus - hormone
 Neuroendocrine pathway: sensory neuron responds to stimulus - neurosecretory cell
(hypothalamus) - neurohormone (posterior pituitary)
 Oxytocin - mammary glands, uterine muscles
 GH (ant pit) - IGF (liver) - bone and cartilage growth
 Hormone cascade: TRH (hypothalamus) - TSH (anterior pituitary) - Thyroxine (thyroid gland)
 PTH - raises blood calcium
o Breaks down bone
o Reabsorbs calcium in kidneys
o Production of vitamin D, which uptakes calcium from food
 Calcitonin - lowers blood calcium
o Inhibits bone breakdown
o Calcium excretion
 Adrenal cortex (endocrine gland): CRH (hypothalamus)- ACTH (anterior pituitary) - glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids (cortex)
 Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine): epinephrine, norepinephrine
Definitions:

 Prostaglandins: group of local regulators with diverse functions; fatty acids

 Autocrine signaling: secreting cell is target cell
 Tropic hormone: redirects signals from hypothalamus to other endocrine glands
o FSH + LH = gonads
o TSH = thyroid
o ACTH = adrenal gland
 Posterior pituitary: hormones from hypothalamus stored here; released by impulse

Ch. 48 NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Resting Membrane Potential (-70 mV) created by Na/K ATPase and K leak channel
 Na/K ATPase - 3 Na out for 2 K in (1 ATP used)
 K leak channels - allow K to leak out
 Voltage-gated channels
o -70 = -resting (closer to Eq K+)
o -50 = threshold stimulus, Na channels open - depolarization
o 35 = Na channels close (refractory period), K channels open - repolarization
o -90 = K channels close - hyperpolarization
o Na/K ATPase and K Leak channels restore polarity
 Conduction of action potential - action potential spreads from axon hillock to synaptic terminal
o Na flows in
o Depolarization spreads to next region, reinstating action potential
 Frequency (not magnitude) of action potential proportional to strength of stimuli
 Synapse:
o Depolarization reaches synapse
o Calcium channels open
o Synaptic vesicles fuse with terminal membrane, releasing neurotransmitters
o Neurotransmitters bind with ionotropic receptors, resulting in post-synaptic (graded)
potential
 Sum of EPSP + IPSP determines whether action potential will be created

Definitions:

 Graded potential: magnitude varies with strength of stimulus; fades as it spreads

 Electrical synapse: gap junctions
 Chemical synapse: neurotransmitter released
 Ionotropic receptors: ligand gated ion channels, bind to neurotransmitters, causing graded
potentials
o Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP): depolarizes; channels permeable to Na and K;
closer to threshold
o Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP): hyperpolarizes; channels permeable to Cl- and K
 Summation: individual post-synaptic potentials combine
o Temporal: single synapse fires many EPSP/IPSP at a time
o Spatial: multiple synapses
 Metabotropic receptors: GPCRs that bind to neurotransmitters, resulting in opening/closing of ion
channels; slower, but last longer