Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable Energy Sources
& Environment Protection

(An International Edition)
Renewable Energy Sources
& Environment Protection
(An International Edition)
Editors:
Dr. Shamal K. Doifode
HOD- Chemistry / Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry
Government College of Engineering, Amravati- [M.S.]- India.
Dr. Ashok G. Matani

Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Government College of Engineering, Amravati- [M.S.] India.
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Acknowledgements
Sharing the technical knowledge and developing the skills of renewable energy
sources & environment protection at undergraduate students post graduate and
doctorate level scholars have given us a motivation to write this book so as to
benefit students, teachers, professionals, Municipal Corporation officials, NGOs
working in the areas of renewable energy sources & environment protection,
conventional energy and pollution related issues, etc. This international edition
book of book chapters contains in depth coverage of concepts and techniques of
renewable energy sources, environment protection, energy generation and
efficiency improvements, waste management and utilization techniques practices
employed by various professions in industries and academic fields at various
places of the world.
We express our gratefulness and appreciations to our colleagues and academic

friends for having shared their experiences and research work and giving
constructive suggestions. We are also thankful to the publishers International
Research Publication House, New Delhi India for encouraging interactions with
us and meticulous processing of the manuscript. We offer our sincere thanks to
Hon. Dr. Abhay E. Wagh - Director of Technical Education – (D.T.E.) -
Maharashtra State , Mumbai as well as AICTE office bearers, Hon. Chairman
and Members of Board of Governance (BOG) of Government College of
Engineering, Amravati, for encouragement of writing books on specialized
themes of renewable energy, environment protection in the fields of engineering
and technology areas.
We look forward to suggestions for improving the contents of this book.

Dr. Ashok G. Matani
Preface
Renewable energy power generation has grown as a result of clean energy

policies in many countries. The fastest growing of these green energy sources is
solar power and wind power. Hydro power is the largest alternative energy
source in addition to geothermal power, biomass power and tidal power in the
market. Clean energy development is vital for combating climate change and
limiting its most devastating effects. 2014 was the warmest year on record. Some
1.1 billion inhabitants (17% of the world population) do not have access to
electricity. Equally, 2.7 billion people (38% of the population) use conventional
biomass for cooking, heating and lighting in their homes - at serious risk to their
health. As such, one of the objectives established by the United Nations is
to achieve to access to electricity for everyone by 2030, an ambitious target
considering that, by then according to the International Energy Agency (IEA)
estimates, 800 million people will have no access to an electricity supply if
current trends continue.
Several companies are pioneers in renewable energy. Iceland gets 85% of the
country’s electricity form earth’s heat. The country’s electricity supply is 100%
renewable and depends on geothermal and hydropower. Norway is around 98%
renewable and uses hydroelectric, geothermal and wind to achieve its goals.
Portugal rely on hydroelectricity for 38% to 58% electricity, wind power
contributes 20%, biomass 5% and solar around 1%. Scotland has a mandate to
become 100% renewable by 2022. Paraguay uses hydropower to provide 90% of
its electricity. Denmark uses 30% wind and 15% biomass for its energy needs.
Germany uses 98% renewable energy. According to the International Energy
Agency, world electricity demand will have increased by 70% by 2040 – its
share of final energy use rising from 18 to 24% during the same period – driven
mainly by the emerging economies of India, China, Africa, the Middle East and
South-East Asia.
Renewable energy needs to be targeted in the most effective locations such as in
the areas without an extensive grid infrastructure, micro grids should be created
and energy storage should be utilized. We should gradually move towards 100%
renewable and allow technical advancements and cost reduction along the ways
which will be driven by global market.

Dr. Ashok G. Matani
Table of Contents
S. No. Title/Authors Name Page No.
1. Ecological Psychology 1-7

Dr. Prashanthkumar T.M.
2. Sources of clean energy: Solar and Hydropower 9-23

energy
Ho Soonmin, Sumit Wagh, Abudukeremu Kadier
3. Potent bioremediators of environmental Polycyclic Aromatic 25-45

Hydrocarbons: A comparative study
Soumik Banerjee, Uma Ghosh
4. An Overview of Smart Grid System 47-66

Kommineni Siva Krishna, Kari Lavanya, Sirisha Adamala
5. Eco-Friendly Marketing 67-78

R K Jena
6. A Review of Thin Film Chalcogenide Photovoltaic 79-91

Materials
Ho Soon Min & Mohammad Junaebur Rashid
7. Linkage Between Global Co2 Emission And World 93-120

GDP
Dr. Debesh Bhowmik
8. Climate Change and Its Impact on Environment 121-135

Dr.G.Parimalarani
9. Novel method for the fabrication of nano composite of 137-157

proton conducting tin cerium phosphate-polyaniline
and its application in environmental remediation
Vinisha Valsaraj Puthiyandi and Janardanan Chathoth
10. The Importance of Environmental Ethics 159-167

Dr. Jayanna C.T.
11. Quantum dots diameter correlated with optical 169-189

properties of lead chalcogenides compounds
Y. Al-Douri
12. Nano-technology in renewable energy 191-208

S. S. Rathore and S. I. Yusufzai
13. The influence of Mortality Rate for Prey on A Three 209-225

Species Ecological Ammnesalim
K.V.L.N.Acharyulu
14. Global Stability Analysis On A Two Species Monad 227-238

Ecological Ammnesalim
K.V.L.N.Acharyulu
15. Overview of the entrepreneurship of biodiesel 239-252

companies in Mexico, perspective based on the
institutions
José G. Vargas-Hernández,
16. Nanotechnology in the field of renewable energy 253-273

K.D.B.B.Chary, K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu
17. Various Renewable Energy Sources and Importance 275-285

Dr. P.Sukumar and S.Sharmila
18. Wind, Geothermal, Small hydro & Water 287-304

energy, Ocean energy
19. Need for Implementing Renewable Energy Sources 305-312

20. Conventional energy sources and their limitations 313-319

21. Life without Energy “A Thought” & Its Quick Fix 321-336
Saurabh Mitra, Dr. Jayati Chatterjee Mitra, Dr.
C.V.Raman
22. Ecological Psychology: Introductory Review 337-356

Mukkala Pradeep Kumar, K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu,
Sirisha Adamala
23. An Overview of Environmental Chemistry 357-373

K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu, Mukkala Pradeep Kumar,
Sirisha Adamala
24. Laccase-Oxidoreductase Enzyme and It’s Application 375-396

in Bioremediation
Priyanka Ghosh, Uma Ghosh
25. Smart City and Sustainability 397-408

R K Jena
26. Efficiency Enhancment of Solar Panel 409-438

Kusumika Krori Dutta, Kumaraswamy H, Kotresh V,
Kiranganesh S, Shivanand B M,
27. Controlling Air Pollution in India: Potentialities and 439-448

Prospects for Environment Protection
Dr. Ashok G. Matani, Dr. S. K. Doifode
CHAPTER - 1
Ecological Psychology
Dr. Prashanthkumar T.M.

Assistant Professor
T.M.A.E Society’s College of Education
Gnanagangothri Campus, Harapanahalli – 583131
Davangere –Dist, Karnataka –State, India.
E-mail: prashantkumar.hpt@gmail.com
Introduction
The environment is a collection of natural factors capable of affecting living
organisms, Therefore any factor that can be consumed or used by an organism is
defined as a natural resources , different levels influence on living organisms of
ecology that specially human nature. Ecological psychology emphasizes the
community context in a broad temporal perspective; investigation in this area is
very difficult and takes a great deal of time. Data gathering of a typical behavior
setting survey can take over a year, without considering the periods of
preparation and data analysis. Thus this approach only allows considering the
periods of preparation and data analysis. Thus this approach only allows
considering small communities, mostly. Schools and churches, or small parts of
a city. This chapter discuss about ecological psychology and its structure.
Origin
The term ecological psychology first developed by the school of Roger Barker
and colleagues in the middle of 1940’s and it is distinguished from the current
new ecological psychology developed within the environmental psychology
during 1990’s.
2 Renewable Energy Sources & Environment Protection
Rationale of the Ecological Psychology

The first school born with the aim of studying human behavior as naturally
occurring and thus in its everyday context, is considered preparatory to today’s
environmental psychology, which itself began to develop at the end of 1960 with
the aim of understanding the relationship between psychological process and the
socio-physical environment with specific emphasis on its spatial physical feature.
The Second school represents a recent further development of environmental
psychology under the push of the full ecological revolution of the second half of
the twentieth century, within natural and environmental science and well
synthesized in the United Nations mandate of sustainable development.
Meaning and Definitions of Ecology and Psychology

Ecology and natural resources dynamics… from the ecological point of view, the
environment is a collection of natural factors (physical, chemical and biological)
of affecting living organisms. Therefore any factor that can be consumed or used
by an organism is defined as natural resources.
Ecological Theory
Ecological theory was developed by Urie Bronfen Brenner. He divided the
environment into five different levels. The micro system is the most influential
has the closest relationship to the person and is the one where direct contact
occurs. The meso-system consists of interactions between a person’s
microsystems.
Ecological Psychology
Ecological Psychology is also known as eco psychological or environmental
psychology is a somewhat new discipline that seeks to blend the principles of
psychology with those of ecology.
Ecological psychology looks at the relationship between people and their
physical surroundings.
Bronfen Brenner believed that a person’s development was affected by
everything in their surrounding environment. He divided the persons
Renewable Energy Sources & Environment Protection 3
environment into five different levels.

1) Micro System
2) Meso System
3) Exo System
4) Macro System
5) Chrono System.
Childs development is affected by their social relationships and the world around
them.
1.The Micro System

The micro system is the innermost level of the environment and it is closest to
the person and one in which they have direct contact. This system consists of
activities and interaction patterns in the child’s immediate surroundings.
A micro system typically includes family, friends, classmates, teachers and
neighbors, other people who have a direct contact with you. Relationships in a
micro system are bi-directional. The theory states that we are not more recipients
of the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro
system environment but we are contributing to the construction of such
environment.
2. The Meso System

The second level of environment Bronfen brenner’s model, the meso system
encompasses connections between Microsystems such as home, school
neighborhood and child care centre. The meso system involves the relationship
between the micro systems in one’s life. This means that you’re that your school
experience. For example if a child is neglected by his parents. He may have a
low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers also this child
may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a
group of classmates.
3. The Exo System

The ecosystem consists of social settings that do not contain children experiences
in immediate settings. The exo system is the setting in which there is a link
between the context where in the person does not have any role and the context
where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father
goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the
mother and the child’s social relationships or on the other hand. This event may
result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
4) The Macro System

This system is the fourth and outermost level of Bronfenrenner’s model of
ecological system theory. The macro system consists of cultural values, laws,
customs and resources. The macro system setting is the actual culture of an
individual. The cultural contexts involve the socio economic statics of the person
and or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third
world country for example being born to a poor family makes a person work
harder every day.
6) The Cronosystem
The cronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan. This may
also involve the socio historical contents that may influence a person. One classic
example of this is how divorce as a major life transition, may affect not only the
couple’s relationship but also their children’s behavior.
The Psychological Tradition and the Ecological Perspective

The general ecological perspective becomes concrete in specific theoretical
proposals of authors and schools. The term ecological psychology was first used
to identify a very precise psychological school begun at the end of the 1940’s by
a group from the University of Kanas under the guidance of the social
psychologist Roger Barker. The main aim of Roger Barker School was to study
and understand human behavior in everyday life conditions. The Roger Barker
was influenced by the field theory concepts of the social psychologist Kurt
Lewin. These concepts gave primary importance to the environment assigning it
a role in determining individual behavior equal to that of personal factors. Barker

and colleagues opened field station laboratory. The field station laboratory was
intended to be a laboratory in the field for observing behavior and for
understanding how the daily environment influences people’s behavior primarily
that of children.
Behavior Setting and Ecological Psychology

Behavior setting was defined as eco-behavioral phenomena natural units of
behavior that determined observable behavior. These were circumscribed and
stable systems of human activities that accompanied specific spatial temporal
characteristics concomitant with the same behaviors. In particular the physical–
spatial characteristics concomitant with the same behaviors. In particular the
physical spatial characteristics of the context were considered synomorphic with
the human activities and related physical forms of the environment in which
these behaviors occur. The parts of the behaviors setting were considered to have
a high degree of internal inter dependence thus they were discrete units or
entities within the ecological environment. In this way the setting was seen as
able to provide stability and homogeneity to individual behaviors in spite of the
variety of individuals participating in the same setting were self regulating
entities that orient and organize the behavior of the human components toward a
state of equilibrium of the setting of the human components toward a state of
equilibrium of the setting of the human components toward a state of equilibrium
of the setting according to the related programme of actions to be carried out or
the setting programme.
According to this view people enter the setting for different amounts of time,
with different degrees of involvement and responsibility. The number of people
who are part of a specific behavior setting may be more or less optimal.
The Ecological Approach to Perception

American psychologist James Jerome Gibson (1904-1979) was influential in
changing the way we consider visual perception.
According to this theory, perception of the environment inevitably leads to some
course of action.
Gibson’s theory of perception is information based rather than sensation based

and to that extent an analysis of the environment and the concomitant
specification information that the organism detects about such affordances is
central to the ecological approach to perception.
Affordance theory states that the world is perceived not only in terms of object
shapes and spatial relationships but also in terms of object possibilities for action
(affordances) –perception drive action.
Examples include buttons for pushing knobs for tuning, handles for pulling,
leavers for sliding.
Perception refers to how animals, including humans, can be aware of their
surroundings. The ecological approach to perception refers to a particular idea of
how perception works and how it should be studied. The label ecological reflects
two main themes that distinguish this approach from the establishment view.
First perception is an achievement of animal environment systems. Not simply
animals (or their brains) what makes up to the environment of a particular
animal-cliffs or caves or crowds –is part of this theory of perception. Second,
perceptions main purpose is guiding activity, so a theory of perception cannot
ignore what animals do. The kinds of activities that a particular animal does –
how it eats and moves and mats –are part of this theory of perception.
Including the environment and behavior as important parts of perceptual theory,
rather than as afterthoughts, is clearly different from theories that start inside the
eye (or the ear or the skin) but it is not necessarily controversial, nonetheless, the
ecological approach is considered controversial because of one central claim.
Perception is direct, to understand the claim and why some might consider it
troubling, we have to contrast it with the more traditional view. Most scientists
believe that perception begins with faulty input. For example, when objects in the
world reflect light, the pattern of light that reaches the back of the eye ( the part
called the retina) has lost and distorted a lot of detail. The job of perception then
becomes one of fixing the input and adding meaningful interpretations to it so
that the brain can make an inference (or educated guess) about what caused that
input in the first place. This traditional view is called indirect perception because
the animal’s awareness of the world is a result of these intermediary steps. A
theory of direct perception, in contrast, argues that the intermediary steps are
only needed if the scientists have described the input incorrectly. Including the
environment and activity into the theory of perception allow a better description
of the input, a description that shows the input to be richly structured by the
environment and the animals own activities. This means that the intermediary
steps are not needed and perception is direct.
Conclusion
The ecological theory investigates that environmental factors an important role in
the development process. Bronfen Brener emphasizes on the need to enhance
primary relationships in family setups or in immediate spheres of life where a
child receives direct influence. It is also vital to foster societal values as well as
attitudes accorded by teachers, sibling’s extended family, work supervisors or
legislators which have direct influence on positive development of children thus
political and economic policies which give importance to parental role in proper
child development and upbringing need be put in place.
References:
1. Barker.R.B(1987). Prospecting in Environmental Psychology. New
York : John Willey Pvt Ltd.
2. Boones,M and Sechiaroli. G(1995). Environmental Psychology: A
Psycho-Social Introduction. London: Sage Publications Pvt Ltd.
3. Boring, E.G (1942). Sensation and Perception in the History of
Experimental Psychology. New York: Appleton Century Crofts Inc.
4. David Moris, (2004). The Sense of Space. New York : State University
of New York press.
5. Gibson, J.J(1966). The Sense Considered as Perceptual Systems.
Boston: Hougton Mifflin company
CHAPTER - 2
Sources of clean energy: Solar and

Hydropower energy
Ho Soonmin1*, Sumit Wagh2, Abudukeremu Kadier3

1
Centre for Green Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, INTI International
University, Putra Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering,
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India.
3
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
Built Environment, National University of Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author’s, email: soonmin.ho@newinti.edu.my
Introduction:
Renewable energy technologies offer many advantages such as free, clean, can
reduce air pollutants and carbon emission (if compare to fossil-based oil and coal).
Currently, there have been a great number of investigations on the renewable
energy sources include solar energy [1-3], hydropower energy [4-6], nuclear
energy [7-9], geothermal energy [10-12], wind energy [13-15] and bio mass energy
[16-18] from all over the world. can be used in order to improve living conditions.
Scientists aim to develop these technologies move from pilot facilities to
commercial scale applications, to improve living conditions and have important
share in the electricity of the future all over world.
In this book, solar energy and hydropower energy will be highlighted. Also, we
are discussing about the advantages and disadvantages of these renewable energy
sources.
Keywords: Solar energy, hydropower energy, renewable energy
Literature Survey:
Hydropower energy
Hydropower (HP) is referred to hydroelectric power, which energy derived from
the movement of water. HP is obtained by harnessing the potential energy or the
gravitational force of flowing water stream. In order to harness HP energy, a HP
plant needs to be constructed in an area with flowing water. Basically, the main
components of a HP are dam or reservoir, penstock pipe, water turbine and
generator. The working principle of HP is that the water is stored in a dam or
reservoir and is released downstream through a pipe called the penstock, the
produced potential energy is used to do work. While, the water then hits the blades
of the turbine and rotate the mechanical shaft, which converts potential energy to
mechanical energy that drives a generator at the power house and subsequently
generating electricity [19-21].
HP is a well-established and the most important renewable energy source
worldwide as HP contributes roughly 20% (one-fifth) of world electricity
generation from both large and small scale power plants [22-25]. In fact, HP is the
only domestic energy resource for well-resourced countries, for instance, Paraguay
nearly 100% of the electricity comes from HP, and Paraguay is one of the world's
largest exporters of HP, 90% of generated energy is exported. Compared to other
renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass and geothermal, HP is one
of the cheapest, environment friendly mature renewable energy sources [26-28].
HP plants have been developed to almost full potential in developed countries [29]
due to their superior characteristics and many more are being installed by
developing countries such as China, Brazil and India. HP is the most widely used
form of renewable energy due to the many advantages associated with it. However,
nothing is perfect or perfectly efficient. There are some major drawbacks
associated with HP as well (Table 1).
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of hydropower energy

Advantages Disadvantages
Clean and Renewable-HP does not Negative environmental effects-
cause air pollution. HP energy works When a HP dam is built, a
without the use of any types of fossil reservoir is formed behind one face
fuels, such as coal, oil, uranium and of the dam wall. Depending on the
therefore there are no harmful size of the dam, this can have an
emissions as a result. Moreover, there impact over a large area as land is
is no production of any radioactive flooded as the reservoir fills which
hazards in generation of HP energy brings disastrous consequences
process. Besides, water is a renewable for aquatic eco-system,
energy source that will never run out wildlife, fish and even plants [36].
[30]. The damage caused by this process
is considered to more harmful than
the forest which would have
decayed naturally. Also, the river
environment is affected changes in
river levels, flow patterns and
water temperature.
Reliable and Efficient- HP is widely Safety Concerns: Although the
considered both a reliable and efficient safety levels of HP dams are
electricity source. Providing an considered good, however, there
adequate supply of water, HP are still fears over the safety of
production can be constant and some older dams. The failure of a HP
countries have been successful dam results in massive losses of
in producing a large amount of their human life and cause widespread
total electricity capacity from HP. For devastation. There have been
instance, Paraguay has been able to numerous disasters such as dam
produce nearly 100% of its electricity failure, the most notable taking
supply with HP. Generally, HP plants place in China in 1975 which
have a very long life of approximately killed 171,000 people.
50- 100 years which is much longer In addition, large HP dam
than that of even Nuclear Power Plant, construction has been linked to
which means that HPs are highly increased propensity of
profitable. Earthquakes. Massive Earthquakes
in China and India were linked to
the building of massive HP dams
in these countries.
Inexpensive-HP is very economical to Economic impact-HP dams are
produce once the initial HP dam has notoriously expensive to build. It
been constructed. HP dams have very requires lots of planning,
low operating and maintenance capital engineering and construction
costs when compared to those of before a dam can start producing
traditional power stations [31-34]. electricity to start paying for itself.
Besides, minimal man power is Apart from that, the time to
required to run a HP station, as most of construct a large HP project can

them run on automated machines, this take between 5-10 years which
further makes HP electricity leads to time and cost overruns.
inexpensive.
Flexible-HP plants have a degree of Dislocation of People-Often, large-
flexibility when it comes to meeting scale human and ecology
real-time energy demands. Compare to relocation occurs when the large
other alternative renewable sources of dams are built. Villages and even
electricity generation such as solar, small towns may have to
wind, HP energy can be used for dislocation to make way for a dam,
generating a continuous supply of destroying communities in the
electricity. Thus, the amount of process [37]. Although financial
electricity produced by HP is stable and incentives are often provided to
can be controlled [35]. When high or persuade people to relocate,
low volumes of electricity are however, in the absence of
demanded, operators of HP dam can inappropriate compensation,
adjust the water intake to increase or oppositions and major
decrease the flow of water into the dam disagreements become obvious
thus generating the appropriate amount results.
of electricity. Moreover, HP can be
generated in almost any size from 1
MW to 10000 MW which makes HP
technology very versatile, depending on
the source of water.
Additional Uses-The water after Limited Places to Build-This
generating electrical power by HP disadvantage of HP is present with
plants is available for irrigation and other forms of energy as well. For
other purposes. HP dams are often instance, you can’t build a nuclear
designed to create a large dam or plant on top of an earthquake prone
reservoir to one side of the dam wall. region, and a wind farm near the
This water is commonly used for not dead sea. HP can only be built in
only producing electricity via the dam particular areas with the perfect
but also for providing a water supply to conditions such as landscape, and
surrounding villages and cities. This precipitation levels [38].
reduces the cost of constructing a Nowadays there are limited places
separate reservoir to domestic water to build new dams. Furthermore,
supply. HP plants are impacted by drought.
When water is not available, the
HP plants can't produce electricity.
Tourism-The larger, more noticeable
HP dams can become landmarks for a
country or region helping to bring in
large number of tourists each year
providing a boost to the local economy.
World installed hydropower capacity indicates that the hydropower sector is

continuing to grow steadily across the world. In other words, hydropower energy
increasingly important role in providing flexible support to renewable energy
systems. Unsurprisingly, China (331 GW) leads in terms of world installed
hydropower capacity (Figure 1), followed by the United States (102 GW) and
Brazil (98 GW).
Figure 1: Global total of installed hydropower capacity (GW) by country at the

end of 2016, including pumped storage [39]
Solar energy
Background to the study
In the present scenario of world, the increasing consumption of electricity controls
the progress of different forms of energy use around the world. Mostly the energy
demand of the world is fulfilled by fossil fuels. As fossil fuels harm the
environment to extreme level it has been need of must to us, to find an alternative
for fossil fuel to generate energy. This alternative must be eco-friendly source of
energy generation in order to control the pollution and to produce green
environment. The sources which satisfy the above conditions are renewable energy
resources such as tidal, geothermal, solar, wind and hydroelectric generation etc.
Energy is vital for the progress of a nation and it has to be conserved in a most
efficient manner. Not only the technologies should be developed to produce energy
in a most environment-friendly manner from all varieties of fuels but also enough
importance should be given to conserve the energy resources in the most efficient
way. Energy is the ultimate factor responsible for both industrial and agricultural
development. The use of renewable energy technology to meet the energy
demands has been steadily increasing for the past few years, however, the
important drawbacks associated with renewable energy systems are their inability
to guarantee reliability and they are lean in nature. Import of petroleum products
constitutes a major drain on our foreign exchange reserve. Renewable sources are
considered to be the better option to meet these challenges. It is obvious that the
known resources of fossil fuels in the world are fast depleting. The importance of
renewable energy sources was recognized in the early 18th century. During the
past three decades, a significant effort has gone into the development, trial and
induction of a variety of renewable energy technologies for the use in different
sectors. Energy consumption has been growing rapidly in developing countries
like India where, about 15 % of the world’s population live. But the consumption
of energy is still a small fraction of the global energy production in comparison
with rising energy needs of the developing world and limited or declining non-
renewable resources.
The utilization of solar, wind and other renewable energy resources becomes very
important especially for the rural and remote areas [40] where access to power
lines is difficult. Renewable energy resources such as solar thermal, photovoltaic,
wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass and ocean thermal can play a significant role in
providing energy needs as well as sustaining the environment resources. These
resources, along with fuel economy measures will certainly become the proper
choice of appropriate technology option for an effective energy management. The
major areas where renewable energy technologies can be profitably employed are
the solar photovoltaic, wind, micro-hydro power and biomass energy conversion.
Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the
sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 x 1010 MW, which is thousands
of times more than the present rate of energy consumption on earth. Solar energy
could supply all the present and future energy needs of the world on a continuous
basis, which is one of the most promising nonconventional energy sources and it
is an environmentally clean source of energy that is available over almost all parts
of the world. The sun provides the basis for life on earth and sufficient energy to
meet all our needs. Photovoltaic is a technology to convert sunlight directly into
electrical energy. It has many advantages like, no noise and wear due to absence
of moving parts, environmentally benign operation, suitable source for remote
applications. Photovoltaic systems are prominently suitable for remote places
where there is no grid power supply. Also space programmers have proved the
technical feasibility of photovoltaic system, because of its high performance and
reliability.
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy
•This energy is environment friendly & does not create any pollution.
•It is best for producing electricity as well as for cooking purpose.
•Solar energy helps to decrease harmful gases, acid rain, global warming.
•Silent energy supplier as solar photovoltaic cells do not create sound while
Advantages
extracting heat from the sun and producing green electricity.

•Solar energy helps in reducing electricity bills.
•No maintenance is required for solar energy and also it does not have any
specific life span.
•Solar energy can be used for commercial and industrial purpose too.
•Solar energy can be used in only throughout daytime i.e. when sun is
glowing bright.
•Solar system like solar collectors, panels, solar cells are very expensive.
Disadvantages
•In case of cloudy climate, there would be no sign of sun which is

difficult [41].
•Solar batteries [42] that are need to be charged are very heavy and
require large storage space.
•Installation of solar energy requires large area so that the system can
provide better output.
Photovoltaic generation is gaining an increased importance as renewable energy

source due to its innate advantages like absence of fuel costs, fuel supply problem
and system reliability with little or no maintenance. Performance and reliability of
photovoltaic systems have been demonstrated in a large variety of small and
medium scale standalone application as well as MW grid connected power stations.
The main obstacle for using multi MW scale photovoltaic system is the very high
initial cost of the module. The solar photovoltaic systems may be operated in
several modes such as standalone system with or without storage battery, hybrid
and grid connected in accordance with their several applications. The ultimate
objective of the solar photovoltaic system design procedure is to obtain the size of
photovoltaic array and the battery bank, which can deliver power to load without
failure. The performance of the system exclusively depends upon the solar
resource at the site, system configuration and load parameters. The input energy
for solar photovoltaic systems is the incident solar radiation, which depends on the
location, time of the day, day of the year as well as solar energy receiving angle
and other relevant environment conditions. The solar photovoltaic (SPV) array
output also depends on the solar cell operating temperature, which is affected by
the ambient air temperature. These parameters continue to change hourly, daily,
monthly and yearly.
As we all human being know that this energy is available without fail every day
and having lot of potential in it & it is cost free. Solar energy is becoming
increasingly popular as the world takes notice of the burgeoning carbon emission
problems that come with burning fossil fuels. Discussion of the advantages and
limitations of solar energy as shown in Table 2.
Experimental Results
Solar panel is use to convert solar radiation to the electrical energy [43]. The
physical of photovoltaic (PV) cell is very similar to that of the classical diode with
a p-n junction formed by semiconductor material. When the junction absorbs light
[44], the energy of absorbed photon is transferred to the electron- proton system
of the material, creating charge carriers that are separated at the junction. The
charge carriers in the junction region create a potential gradient, get accelerated
under the electric field [45], and circulate as current through an external circuit.
Solar array or panel is a group of a several modules electrically connected in series
parallel combination to generate the required current and voltage [46]. Solar panels
are the medium to convert solar power into the electrical power. For achieving that
much of load our PV system is consider. PV system is still not that much efficient
to generate maximum solar radiation into electric power. So in this project 40Wp
WAAREE solar panel is used for experimentation.
Table 3: The voltage and current output from solar panel.
Day Time Solar radiation (W/m2) Voltage (V) Current (A)
9 A.M 530 4.33 0.8

10 A.M 740 6.02 1.23
11 A.M 880 8.22 1.8
12 A.M 930 9.95 2.33
1 P.M 1012 10.37 3.1
2 P.M 980 9.98 2.37
3 P.M 890 8.28 1.83
4 P.M 785 6.35 1.28
5 P.M 620 4.72 0.87
Table 3 shows the voltage and current output from solar panel. The readings are
taken on hourly basis for solar radiation. With help of pyranometer on hourly basis
solar radiations are noted down. For voltage and current measurement digital
multi-meter is used.
Power Vs Time
35
30
25
Power (W)
20
15
10
Power
5
0
9 A.M 10 A.M 11 A.M 12 A.M 1 P.M 2 P.M 3 P.M 4 P.M 5 P.M
Time
Figure 2: Power variation with respect to time

Figure 2 shows the variation of power output from the solar system alone. The
nature of graph is dome shape which shows the peak at time of 1 A.M, this because
of the large amount of solar intensity incident on earth surface as the intensity of
solar radiation is less in the morning are the power output is less and same is the
case afternoon. Multi-meter was used in order to evaluate the amount of solar
power received by earth surface in single day.
The increase in energy demand has caused considerable attention to be directed
toward sustainable energy resources. The important of electricity generation
through solar energy has been intensively highlighted globally. For example,
China accounted for 70 % of more than 50 GW worth of expansion announcements
globally in the first half of 2017 (Figure 3). Malaysia and Taiwan also help up their
end of the bargain with 8 % and 7 % respectively.
Figure 3: Total photovoltaic manufacturing capacity (MW) announcements by

country 1H 2017. [47]
Conclusion
Hydropower refers to the conversion of energy from falling water into electricity.
It is an example of renewable energy due to the water cycle is constantly renewed
by the sun. The power plant employs a dam on a river to store water, eventually,
hydropower project can deliver low-cost, clean sources of electricity to urban and
rural areas. Solar energy is that energy which is gets by the radiation of the sun. It
is present on the earth continuously and in plentiful manner. Solar energy is freely
available on the earth atmosphere. It doesn’t create any gases that mean it is
pollution free. It is economical in cost and has low preservation cost. It has long
life span and has lower emission. Solar panels convert solar energy from the sun
directly into useable electrical energy.
Acknowledgement:
INTI INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY is gratefully acknowledged for the
financial support of this work (HO SM).
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CHAPTER - 3
Potent bioremediators of environmental

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: A
comparative study
Soumik Banerjee, Uma Ghosh*

Dept. of Food Technology and Biochemical Engineering
Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.
*corresponding author – ughoshftbe@yahoo.co.in; soumikban@gmail.com
Abstract
Bioremediation is an efficient procedure through which the natural environment
can be cleansed of certain harmful compounds or materials. Some members of the
class of compounds known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are
considered to be potent human carcinogens. Their release in the environment from
various industries as effluent or solid wastes go unchecked or negligibly checked.
As they are a class of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and are also observable
recalcitrants, thus their unchecked interference with the environment proves very
persisting in the biospheres. Biosurfactants have leading roles in the remediation
of soil, water and air. Other uses of these remediators are highly extensive in the
petroleum production industries. The diverse use of biosurfactants are possible as
they are highly biodegradable, non-recalcitrant, low to negligibly toxic and works
extremely efficiently in diverse and adverse environmental conditions when they
are compared to their synthetic equivalents. Moreover, they can be produced cost
effectively with agro wastes. The present study aims to elucidate the potential
applications of the different potent bioremediation techniques for the remediation
of pollution of environmental caused by PAHs. It also focuses on the emerging
trends in the future of bioremediation procedures that is more economically and
scientifically feasible, and can be applied with ease in both aspects of cost and
work efficiency.
Keywords: Biosurfactant, Bioremediation, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

(PAHs), Agro wastes, Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Introduction
Bioremediation practices have increased extensive appreciation as nontoxic and
eco-friendly. Microbial bioremediation techniques that have recently gained much
attention in a useful procedure to produce cost effective products such as
biosurfactants. These are ubiquitous molecules that help in the degradation of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Industrial exudation of PAH
containing effluents are a major setback to the natural healthy environment and
contribute in one of the major cause of human carcinogenicity, genotoxicity and
mutagenicity (Bezza & Chirwa, 2016; Hu, Nakamura, Richardson, & Aitken,
2012).
Sources and occurrence of PAHs

PAHs are mainly consequences of anthropogenic activities, viz. burning of
biomass, incomplete fossil fuel combustion, oil escapes and various industrial
practices. PAHs are highly contaminated in soils from many sites, viz. coal storage
areas, coke oven plants, industrial gas plants and areas of coal tar spillage (Bezza
& Chirwa, 2016; H. Li, Chen, & Jiang, 2014). Point sources of PAHs can initiate
from petroleum and diesel spills and from industrial processes such as coal
liquefaction and gasification during coke production. For example, creosotes and
coal tar, which are by-products of coking, contain significant quantities of PAHs
(Fetter, Boving, & Kreamer, 2017) (eg creosote contains up to 85% PAHs (Khan,
Zaidi, Wani, & Oves, 2009)). More insignificant sources of PAHs include tobacco
smoke and burnt food. Natural processes can also provide a source of PAHs, such
as volcanic eruptions and forest fires (Blumer, 1976). In addition, PAHs can have
a geochemical foundation as they are created in pyrolysis, which includes the
exposure of deposits to high temperatures during sediment diagenesis (Bamforth
Selina M & Singleton Ian, 2005). A list of 30 different structures of the members
of PAHs are shown in Fig 1 (Richter, Grieco, & Howard, 1999).
Point sources of PAH contamination are the most significant environmental
concern. Though the areas contaminated are relatively small in size, the
contaminant concentration at these sites is often high and associated with co-
contaminants such as benzene, toluene, ethylene and xylene (BTEX) (Bamforth

Selina M & Singleton Ian, 2005) compounds, heavy metals and aliphatic
hydrocarbons, which can hinder remediation efforts. Soils can be contaminated
with between 1 μg kg−1 and 300 g kg−1 PAHs,(Kanaly & Harayama, 2000)
depending on the source of contamination (eg old coal gasification sites have the
higher levels stated). Atmospheric levels of PAHs resulting from the incomplete
combustion of materials such as coal and wood have been found to be between 60
μg m−3 and 3mg m−3 air (Freeman & Cattell, 1990; Ravindra, Sokhi, & Van
Grieken, 2008; Yunker et al., 2002).
However out of all the studies conducted, the pollution caused by the PAHs present
in the tannery industry wastes are still not vividly and widely studied. Tannery
industry being one of the major industries in the world are found in Mexico, Brazil,
Japan, South Korea, China, India and Pakistan. Korea, Japan and Italy import hides
from countries which have a large meat production industry i.e. USA, Australia,
and the European countries. Whereas the South American countries, for example
Argentina and Brazil, process their own hides. The leather industry is prevalent in
Brazil, especially in the South, in the Federal State Rio Grande do Sul, where more
than 50% of Brazilian leather is produced (Basegio, Berutti, Bernardes, &
Bergmann, 2002). Thus this has a wide researchable field and its bioremediation
can help in restoring the natural consistency of the environment by causing lesser
human fatalities.
Fig 1: List of different members of the class of PAHs (Richter et al., 1999) .
PAHs persistence in the environment

According to the European commission report published in 2012, it only states the
possibility of accounting for PAHs emission made by incinerating tannery
solidified wastes. It also states the use of Zeolite for abatement of the VOCs by
adsorption and by platinum for catalytic oxidation (Black et al., 2013). These
techniques so incorporated are not so cost effective and require well-funded
tanning industries to even go for these remediating procedures. So far no such
mention of biologically remediating these exudated compounds are taken into
consideration which will not only reduce the cost of their abatement but also will
provide in more efficiently removing these hazardous, possible carcinogens from
the biospheres.
The persistence of PAHs in the environment is dependent on a variety of factors,
such as the chemical structure of the PAH, the concentration and dispersion of the
PAH and the bioavailability of the contaminant. In addition, environmental factors
such as soil type and structure, pH and temperature and the presence of adequate
levels of oxygen, nutrients and water for the activity of the pollutant-degrading
microbial community will control the time that PAHs persist in the environment
(Neff, 2002; Sutherland, Rafii, Khan, & Cerniglia, 1995; Van Hamme, Singh, &
Ward, 2003) .
In general, the higher the molecular weight of the PAH molecule, the higher the
hydrophobicity and toxicity, and the longer the environmental persistence of the
molecule.1 In addition the ‘age’ of the contaminant in the soil/sediment matrix
plays a significant role in the biodegradability of PAHs in soil. A study using
phenanthrene as a model PAH showed that phenanthrene mineralisation and
therefore biodegradability was significantly reduced with time of ageing
(Hatzinger & Alexander, 1995).
The association of PAHs with co-pollutants such as hydrocarbons and heavy
metals is another factor that can prolong their residence time in the environment.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons and BTEX compounds are readily biodegradable by the in
situ microbial community relative to the more complex chemical structures of the
PAHs. This results in the depletion of available oxygen in the surrounding
environment and the onset of anaerobicity. Though recent work has shown that
there is a real potential for the biodegradation of PAHs in the absence of molecular
oxygen, details regarding the efficiency and scale of PAH degradation in anaerobic
environments is still limited, with rates of anaerobic organic matter oxidation up
to an order of magnitude less than those under aerobic conditions (Bamforth Selina
M & Singleton Ian, 2005; Eriksson, Sodersten, Yu, Dalhammar, & Mohn, 2003;
Makkar & Rockne, 2003; Meckenstock, Safinowski, & Griebler, 2004; Song, Jing,
Fleischmann, & Wilke, 2002). In addition, it is possible that the presence of heavy
metals in soil could inhibit microbial growth and hence limit the metabolism of
contaminants under anaerobic conditions.

While according to a India Environment Portal by Center for Science and
Environment, there is no such ideas or even initiatives for the remediation of these
hazardous compounds (“India Environment Portal | News, reports, documents,
blogs, data, analysis on environment & development | India, South Asia,” n.d.).
Recently in 2010, the West Bengal State Pollution Control Board decided to put
up a unit for monitoring the pollution levels in various industries including tannery,
but till now no advancements had been made in the remediation of PAHs from the
industries. Very less research is carried out for cleaner remediation techniques and
thus serves as a highly lucrative area of research.
PAHs destructiveness
Most of the members of these class of compounds range from being possible
human carcinogen to being possible human carcinogenic in nature. According to
a study conducted in northern India it was seen that even rainwater has adequate
amounts of PAHs which can contribute to significant amount of fatality in humans
(Malik, Singh, & Singh, 2007). Research for measuring the toxic effects that PAHs
have upon mammalian health has shown acute carcinogenic, mutagenic and
teratogenic properties. Benzo[a]pyrene is recognised as a priority pollutant by the
US Environmental Protection Agency (Renner, 1999) as this compound is known
to be one of the most potently carcinogenic of all known PAHs (Juhasz & Naidu,
2000).
When ingested, PAHs are rapidly absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract due to
their high lipid solubility (Cerniglia, 1984). A major route of PAH uptake is via
dermal absorption as highlighted by a study of 12 coke-oven workers (Brandt &
Watson, 2003; VanRooij, Bodelier-Bade, & Jongeneelen, 1993). An estimated
75% of the total absorbed amount of PAHs (specifically pyrene) entered the body
through the skin, highlighting this as a major exposure route of PAHs. The rapid
absorption of PAHs by human beings results in a high potential for
biomagnification in the food chain. In general, the greater the number of benzene
rings, the greater the toxicity of the PAH (Cerniglia, 1992). The relative toxicity
of PAHs can be measured using LD50 values (the lethal dose in 50% of cases).
These are expressed as milligrams of toxic material per kilogram of the subject’s
body weight that will cause death in 50% of cases. It is important to specify the
route by which the toxic material was administered to the test animal (such as oral
or intraperitoneal), and the animal upon which the toxic material was tested (ie rat,
mouse) (Bamforth Selina M & Singleton Ian, 2005).
PAHs are also suspected carcinogens but are not thought to be genotoxic unless
they are ‘activated’ by mammalian enzymes to reactive epoxides and quinones.
This occurs via a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzyme-mediated reaction that
oxidises the aromatic ring to form epoxide and diol–epoxide reactive
intermediates. It is reported that these intermediates may undergo one of at least
four different mechanisms of oxidation and/or hydrolysis before the intermediates
combine with and/or attack DNA to form covalent adducts with DNA. DNA
adducts can lead to mutations of the DNA, resulting in tumors (Bispo, Jourdain, &
Jauzein, 1999; Harvey, 1996).
Table 1: Inhalation unit risk and chronic oral reference dose data of some
respective PAHs.
ANALYSIS No. of Inhalation Chronic Oral Bio-

rings Unit Risk Reference Dose accumulative
(µg/m3)-1) (mg/kg-day)
Anthracene 3 0.3 +
Benzo(j)fluoranthene 5 0.00011 +
Benzo[a]pyrene 5 0.0006 0.0003 +
Benzo[b]fluoranthene 5 0.00006 +
Benzo[g,h,i]perylene 6 +
Benzo[k]fluoranthene 5 0.000006 +
Benzofluorene, 2,3- 4 +
Chrysene 4 0.0000006 +
Fluoranthene 4 0.04 +
Naphthalene 2 0.000034 0.02 -
Phenanthrene 3 +
Pyrene 4 0.03 +
Generally, toxicity increases with an increase in number of benzene rings, but data
should be examined using careful consideration of the exposure route, etc (data
taken from the RAIS (“The Risk Assessment Information System,” n.d.)).
Bioremediation as a process for PAH decontamination

Bioremediation, which is also known widely as bioretrieval or bioreinstatement,
is a very useful biotechnological technique that helps in the degradation of organic
pollutants by products manufactured from biological sources such as microbes
(Johnsen, Wick, & Harms, 2005). The principle of this technique is to remove or
degrade organic pollutants from the natural environment that is either recalcitrant
or xenobiotic. Either the resulting product thus formed is negligibly harmful and
toxic, or it is completely removed by metabolizing these pollutants into the
indigenous microbes of the contaminated area which is seen to derive energy by
the process of metabolization. Different bioremediation strategies require different
process parameters, out of which some are commonly used such as
bioaugmentation and biostimulation of the contaminated environment.
In the case of treatment sites that lack nutrients, biostimulation (addition of
nutrients) has been implemented as a best option to speed up the treatment (de
Souza Pohren, de Oliveira Leite, de Angelis, & Vargas, 2016; Kuppusamy,
Thavamani, Megharaj, & Naidu, 2016; Mohan, Kisa, Ohkuma, Kanaly, &
Shimizu, 2006). It was demonstrated that nutrient addition alone to soils
containing coal tar in both laboratory and field-scale failed to significantly enhance
biodegradation of coal tar PAH (Taylor & Jones, 2001). However, after 55 days
the addition of biodiesel (readily biodegradable with low phytotoxicity) with
inorganic nutrients resulted in enhanced degradation of a number of PAH
components over the nutrient only treated samples. The increase in PAH
biodegradability by the biodiesel treatments was ascribed to tar solubilization and
dispersion, thereby increasing PAH bioavailability and its subsequent uptake by
indigenous biodegraders.
Bioaugmentation (i.e. the addition of contaminant degraders cultured at
laboratory) is the best option when the soils to be bioremediated constitute very
low populations of indigenous PAH degraders (Castiglione et al., 2016). It can be
either facilitated by aerobic or anaerobic organisms; however, aerobic
bioremediation is widely documented as the majority of laboratory cultured PAH
degraders are aerobic Gram positive or negative bacteria and fungi (Kuppusamy,
Thavamani, Megharaj, Lee, & Naidu, 2016). Microbial consortia of bacteria, fungi
and bacteria-fungi complex isolated from aged oil contaminated soil was shown to
degrade PAHs to a high level (45 - 56%) in both soil- and slurry-phase by (X. Li
et al., 2008). The authors observed rapid and extensive degradation of 2 - 3 ring
PAHs than 4 and more ring compounds and suggested the need for pretreatments
(preferably chemical pre-oxidation) to enhance the bioavailability as well as

removal efficiency of HMW PAHs in field soils. The fungal mycelium was found
to have a high surface area, which maximized both mechanical and enzymatic
contact with insoluble substrates and invaded a large volume of soil, which
resulted in high levels of PAHs degradation observed with the fungal consortium
over the other two.
Bioremediation of PAH-contaminated soils, sediments, and water can be
accomplished in a variety of ways, e.g. in situ treatment or ex-situ methods such
as bio-piling and composting. Waste can also be treated in bioreactors, though this
can be costlier than in situ technologies. It is important for bioremediation to be
comparable in cost and success to physical and chemical treatments of
contaminated land, such as landfilling, incineration and soil washing. The
applicability of bioremediation can be variable, but this is generally due to
unfavorable site conditions (see ‘Factors affecting the bioremediation of PAHs’),
therefore a thorough understanding of site conditions will allow optimization of
bioremediation and subsequently more effective results. In commercial situations
bioremediation of PAH-contaminated soils is not typically carried out when the
site contains significant amounts of PAHs that have more than four rings as the
low percentage removal of PAHs of this molecular weight and the time taken for
successful reduction in PAH concentrations is not economically viable (Bio-Logic,
personal communication). The method used is normally nutrient addition (see
‘Nutrient availability’) and aeration by frequent turning of contaminated soil. Total
PAH levels during a bioremediation trial are generally reduced from
approximately 3000mg to 1000mg total PAHs, per kg (Bamforth Selina M &
Singleton Ian, 2005).
Problems in Bioremediation
Bioremediation techniques are very useful but are often inadequate in isolation.
For example, soil tillage, which promotes microbial break-down of PAHs, is a
cheap but slow option and only works on the top 35 cm of soil (Kuppusamy et al.,
2017). Similarly, composting approaches use fresh organic matter or sewage
sludge to promote microbial degradation, while fast-growing plants can take up
contaminants and also encourage useful soil microbes (phytoremediation). The
speed of composting and phytoremediation is influenced by the weather, for
example slowing down in cold temperatures. Removing soil for treatment in a
bioreactor allows better control over conditions and results in fast removal of
PAHs by bacteria, but incurs additional cost and energy. Combining processes, for
example using tillage followed by phytoremediation, plus adding PAH-degrading
bacteria, increases efficiency. However, in highly contaminated soils (>10 000 mg
per kg), the researchers note that pre-treating with a more effective thermal or
chemical process is currently necessary — a drawback of bioremediation. Pre-
treating the soil with biosurfactants (produced from bacteria and fungi) could
improve the success rate of bioremediation by increasing the bioavailability of
PAHs, but, to make this feasible, work is needed to produce biosurfactants cost-
effectively (Kuppusamy et al., 2017).
An emerging technology, enzyme-mediated bioremediation, offers a greener,
more efficient approach than established chemical treatments. The process uses
microbial enzymes that transform PAHs into less toxic substances in the soil. One
major benefit is that these enzymes can work at relatively low temperatures and in
a wide pH range. One enzyme of particular interest is a fungus extract, laccase,
though this is, at present, costly (Kuppusamy et al., 2017; Kuppusamy,
Thavamani, Megharaj, & Naidu, 2016).
Metabolism of PAHs
There are three fundamentally different mechanisms in the aerobic metabolism of
PAHs by microorganisms (Fig 2) and specific details of bacterial and fungal
(ligninolytic and non- ligninolytic) PAH metabolism are discussed below. The
basis of these mechanisms is the oxidation of the aromatic ring, followed by the
systematic breakdown of the compound to PAH metabolites and/or carbon
dioxide. Anaerobic metabolism of PAHs is thought to occur via the hydrogenation
of the aromatic ring. PAH-degrading microorganisms are ubiquitously distributed
in the natural environment, such as in soils (bacteria and non-ligninolytic fungi)
and woody materials (ligninolytic fungi). Many PAH contaminated soils and
sediments host active populations of PAH-degrading bacteria. For example,
phenanthrene-degrading bacteria were isolated from PAH-contaminated
mangrove sediments in Hong Kong (Tam, Guo, Yau, & Wong, 2002). These
isolates were able to degrade phenanthrene under a range of salinities both in pure
and mixed cultures. Anaerobic environments, e.g. municipal sewage sludge
(Chang, Chang, & Yuan, 2003) and marine sediments (J. D. Coates, Woodward,
& Allen, 1998; John D. Coates, Woodward, Allen, Philp, & Lovley, 1997), can
also host a diverse array of PAH-degrading bacteria. Unlike non-ligninolytic fungi,
the ligninolytic fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, are commonly
associated with woody materials and are not commonly found in soils. However,
these fungi can be enriched in a soil by the addition of straw, wood chips and other
lignin rich substrates. A thorough listing of microorganisms capable of PAH
degradation is provided by Mueller et al (Mueller, Cerniglia, & Pritchard, 1996).
Fig 2: The three main pathways for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

degradation by fungi and bacteria (Cerniglia, 1992).
PAHs are a common contaminant of anaerobic environments such as aquifers

(Bakermans, Hohnstock-Ashe, Padmanabhan, Padmanabhan, & Madsen, 2002;
Bewley & Webb, 2001; Meckenstock, Annweiler, Michaelis, Richnow, & Schink,
2000) and marine sediments (J. D. Coates et al., 1998; John D. Coates et al., 1997;
Sherafatmand & Ng, 2015; Singh, Kawamura, Yanase, & Barrie, 2017). Even
aerobic environments such as contaminated soils, sediments and groundwater can

develop anaerobic zones (Lv, Lin, Su, & Zhang, 2016). This is due to the organic
contaminant stimulating the in situ microbial community, resulting in the depletion
of molecular oxygen during aerobic respiration. This oxygen is not replenished at
the same rate as its depletion, which results in the formation of anaerobic zones
proximal to the contaminant source. It was not until recently that the potential of
microorganisms to degrade PAHs in the absence of molecular oxygen has been
recognised. Previous studies have tended to focus upon the thermodynamically
more favourable aerobic processes of bioremediation of recalcitrant organic
compounds such as PAHs, whereby molecular oxygen is incorporated into the
aromatic ring prior to the dehydrogenation and subsequent PAH ring cleavage (see
earlier for details of the mechanisms of aerobic degradation of PAHs). In the
absence of molecular oxygen, alternative electron acceptors such as nitrate, ferrous
iron and sulfate are necessary to oxidise these aromatic compounds, with recent
research clearly demonstrating that PAH degradation will occur under both
denitrifying (Rockne et al., 2000; Rockne & Strand, 1998) and sulfate-reducing (J.
D. Coates et al., 1998; John D. Coates et al., 1997; Meckenstock et al., 2000;
Zhang, Sullivan, & Young, 2000) anaerobic conditions. The mechanisms of
anaerobic PAH degradation are still tentative, though recent studies have proposed
a mechanism for the anaerobic degradation of naphthalene (Meckenstock et al.,
2000; Zhang et al., 2000), which is summarised in Fig 3. The first step is the
carboxylation of the aromatic ring to 2-naphthoic acid, which may activate the
aromatic ring prior to hydrolysis. Stepwise reduction of 2-naphthoic acid via a
series of hydrogenation reactions results in decaclin-2-carboxylic acid which is
subsequently converted to decahydro-2-naphthoic acid. There may be other
mechanisms for anaerobic naphthalene degradation, however these have not yet
been elucidated. For example, it is proposed that the initial step in anaerobic
naphthalene degradation under sulfate-reducing conditions occurs via a
hydroxylation reaction to form a naphthol intermediate (Bedessem, Swoboda-
Colberg, & Colberg, 1997).
Fig 3: Simplified proposed pathway for the anaerobic metabolism of naphthalene

under sulfate-reducing conditions (Meckenstock et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2000).
Emerging technologies
Recently, electrokinetic remediation, enzyme-mediated bioremediation, multi-
process phytoremediation and vermiremediation have been employed in the
treatment of PAHs contaminated soils (Kuppusamy et al., 2017). Notably, existing
research on the application of vermiremediation (Ekperusi & Aigbodion, 2015) to
treat PAHs contaminated soils is very limited. There are wider avenues to
investigate the use of these new remedial approaches in conjunction with the
established physical, chemical and/or biological treatments to achieve maximum
PAH removal efficiency. The current trends in the application of bioremediation
techniques are shown in Fig 4.
Fig 4: Current trend of application of technologies – (a) Frequency of technology

used in the remediation of PAH contaminated soils; (b) Bioremediation
technologies used (in percentage terms) within its observed frequency range; (c)
Integrated technologies use (in percentage terms) within its observed frequency
range (Kuppusamy et al., 2017).
Future aspects of Bioremediation techniques

Some recently advances in innovative remedial approaches that are mostly
biological and expected to give rise to an ‘era of green biotechnology’ in the near
future are nanoremediation, transgenic approaches and photo-hetero microbial
systems. These emerging technologies have successfully remediated a number of
organic and inorganic pollutants (Kuppusamy et al., 2017; Kuppusamy,
Thavamani, Megharaj, Lee, et al., 2016; Kuppusamy, Thavamani, Megharaj, &
Naidu, 2016). However, their potential to remediate PAH contaminated soils are
still unexplored and hence could be the focus of future research in order to develop
a rapid, reliable, low cost and risk-based PAH cleanup strategy.
Conclusion
The perseverance and toxicity glitches related with PAHs in the environment have
caused in a large amount of laboratory-based work that has concerted on the ability
of a variety of microorganisms (fungi and bacteria) to transform these complex
aromatic molecules. The pathways of aerobic PAH transformation have been
established and it is known that many environments contain microbes capable of
reducing PAH concentrations. These factors have led to an interest in the potential
use of microbes to remediate PAH-contaminated soils and more recent work has
established that it is possible to use microbial-based processes to remediate PAH-
contaminated soil. These processes, e.g. land-farming and biopiling, are effective
on shallow contamination but when PAH contamination is at depth then the use of
bioremediation becomes more problematical. However, a recent field study has
shown that bioremediation of contaminated aquifers is possible by the introduction
of aeration to the subsurface. In addition, the potential of the biodegradation of
PAHs under anaerobic conditions is promising, allowing further advances for the
in situ treatment of the contaminated subsurface. Overall, the bioremediation of
PAH-contaminated sites is practicable given the extensiveness of our existing
knowledge. Although the intrinsic limitations of the bioremediation of PAH-
contaminated environments are known, further research is required to assess these
limitations, and exploit the potential of the in situ microbial populations to
metabolize PAHs (particularly the larger molecular weight PAHs) in those sites
with sub-optimal conditions, such as adverse pH and/or temperatures. Successful
commercial options are heating, extraction, oxidation and selected bioremediation
systems. This is because each PAH contaminated site case is different, and the way
to accomplish it requires careful weighing of all significant factors, along with the
limits set by the remediation policy, available financial support and public
acceptance. As green remediation is of interest and bioremediation is what people
prefer, what is now important is to investigate the future directions proposed in
this review as well as gain a better understanding how microbial communities
cooperate. The studies on the structure and functions of microbial communities in
the polluted sites on different spatial and chronological scales and their responses
to different stimuli using community fingerprinting and environmental genomics
techniques can show the way (Megharaj, Ramakrishnan, Venkateswarlu,
Sethunathan, & Naidu, 2011) . It is impractical to restore all natural functions of
PAH polluted soils and not every site can ever be completely mended to a primeval
state given the cleaning of background conditions. Hence, the application of the
principle of function-directed risk-based green remediation approach may be
enough to manage long-term PAH contaminated soils. In addition, further research
is required to develop potential anaerobic remediation technologies that can be
applied to remediate the numerous subsurface sites that are contaminated with
PAHs.
Acknowledgement
The authors are indebted to the Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India for the support
given to carry out this work. We are also grateful to the University Grants
Commission (UGC) for the financial support for the same.
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CHAPTER - 4
1
An Overview of Smart Grid System
Kommineni Siva Krishna1, Kari Lavanya2, Sirisha Adamala3

1
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Vignan’s Foundation for
Science, Technology and Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
2,3
Applied Engineering Department, Vignan’s Foundation for Science,
Technology and Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
Abstract
Electrical power is one of the most important infrastructure input necessary for
the rapid economic development of country. The rapid economic development is
in turn causing huge stresses in the existing generation, transmission and
distribution systems as they are not able to keep pace with the increasing
demand. Installation and incorporation of a large number of electrical power
generation units with increased capacities to deal with the surging demand has
an adverse impact of the environment towards to this smart grid technology is
very important. There is a pressing need to accelerate the development of low
carbon energy technologies in order to address the global challenges of energy
security, climate change and economic growth. Smart grids are particularly
important as they enable several other low-carbon energy technologies,
including electric vehicles, variable renewable energy sources and demand
response. This chapter gives an overview of a smart grid.
Introduction
In the last 100 years, the average temperature of the earth has raised 0.74 oC,
which has caused a variety of environmental problems, such as climate change
and rising sea levels. Further, fossil fuel is being exhausted because of a sharp
increase in the consumption of energy after the industrial revolution. Some
environmental experts expect that fossil fuel will run out completely in the near
future. For this reason, recently, smart grid technology used for sustainable
growth is emerging and a lot of related works have been done by various
researchers around the world. Electrical power is one of the most important
infrastructure inputs necessary for the rapid economic development of a country.
The rapid economic development is in turn causing huge stresses in the existing
generation, transmission and distribution systems as they are not able to keep
pace with the increasing demand. Installation and incorporation of a large
number of electrical power generation units with increased capacities to deal
with the surging demand has an adverse impact of the environment therefore
efficient energy management is imperative. Conventional instrumentation has
proven inadequate for the purpose of managing the extensive and complex power
systems. Intelligent systems driven by microprocessors and computers need to be
employed for online monitoring and control of modern large-scale power
systems, in generation, transmission and distribution to overcome the
complexities and drawbacks of the conventional instrumentation schemes. These
intelligent systems form the basis of the smart grid.
Conventional Power Grid

Conventional power grid constitutes of various operation like generation,
transmission and distribution of electricity. Generation includes generation of
power using renewable sources (wind and water) as well as from non-renewable
sources (coal). Once the power is generated, it is send to substation in the power
plant. From substations, it is sent to the power grid from where it is then
transmitted to different cities. The ancient power system mainly focuses to
generate, transmit and distribute energy with the quality to support demand and
other motive was to make business as effective as possible. As the supply and
demand for electricity has shoot up abruptly. There has been no significant
investment in the transmission and distribution infrastructure.
Concept of Grid
Imagine filling a small salt shaker from a large bag of salt. It would be an
extremely difficult job and much of the salt would be spilled in the process.
However, if a funnel is used, the large amount of salt being poured into the top of
the funnel is reduced to a small manageable stream at the narrow end, making the
task of filling the salt shaker an easy one. The power grid works in much the same
way. Extra high voltage electricity is delivered through the power grid from
where it is generated and along the way converted into manageable voltage levels
to be used by the consumer.
Power grid is a network of power lines, transformers, and associated equipment
employed in distributing electricity over a geographical area. In other words it
can be defined as an interconnected network for delivering electricity from
suppliers to consumers. It consists of generating stations that produce electrical
power, high-voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to
demand centers, and distribution lines that connect individual customers. Power
stations are generally located near fuel sources like dam site. But the power
produced is not transmitted as it is. This is stepped up to a higher voltage at
which it connects to the electric power transmission network (grid). The structure
of a grid can vary depending on the constraints of budget, requirements for
system reliability, and the load and generation characteristics.
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network. The cheapest
and simplest topology for a distribution or transmission grid is a radial structure.
This is a tree shape where power from a large supply radiates out into
progressively lower voltage lines until the destination homes and businesses are
reached. Most transmission grids offer the reliability that more complex mesh
networks provide. The expense of mesh topologies restricts their application to
transmission and medium voltage distribution grids. A substation receives its
power from the transmission network; the power is stepped down with a
transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions across
the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the
major streets near the substation. Electric utilities across regions are many times
interconnected for improved economy and reliability. Interconnections allow for
economies of scale, allowing energy to be purchased from large, efficient
sources. Utilities can draw power from generator reserves from a different region
in order to ensure continuing, reliable power and diversify their loads.
Interconnection also allows regions to have access to cheap bulk energy by
receiving power from different sources. For example, one region may be
producing cheap hydropower during high water seasons, but in low water
seasons, another area may be producing cheaper power through wind, allowing
both regions to access cheaper energy sources from one another during different
times of the year. Neighboring utilities also help others to maintain the overall
system frequency and help manage tie transfers between utility regions.
Primary task performed in conventional power grid is consisting of three major

parts:
• Generating plant for electric power
• Transmission of the electric power
• Distribution of the electric power
Generating Plant for Electric Power

Mostly electric power generating plants are located near the source of power
generation like dams, coal mines, etc. Some of the sources for power generation
are:
• Coal
• Gas
• Hydro-electric
• Wind Power
• Geo thermal
• Solar
• Nuclear fission
• Petroleum
The deployment of variable generation is expected to increase to over 20% of

overall supply in many regions (with some regions significantly surpassing this
level), supported by government policy and regulation, at state, provincial and
regional levels. Regulatory mechanisms need to be developed to encourage
business models and markets that enable sufficient flexibility required by
variable generation deployment to ensure reliable system operation. Markets
must be transparent to allow asset owners and third parties to enter and offer
conventional as well as innovative solutions to provide such flexibility. More
effort is needed in demonstrating and verifying the interactions between well-
known and established approaches (such as peaking generation plants) and other
flexible approaches (including expanded DR applications), along with market
design refinements that enable continued innovation.
Transmission of the Electric Power

Once the power is generated from the generator, it is send to the substation in the
power plant where they step up the voltage by using the step-up transformers for
transmission purposes. As the voltage is stepped up, it reduces the transmission
losses. It is then sent to the power grid from where it is then transmitted to
different cities. All the power generated in different places by different methods
is stepped up and sent to a common place called the grid.
Investment in the smartening of transmission networks is occurring around the
world. Many transmission systems already use some smart grid technologies and
are operating robustly, allowing for adequate competition among generators and
therefore ensuring appropriate electricity prices. Other transmission systems are
plagued by congestion and concerns over ageing infrastructure. Even as
transmission systems are being smartened, new transmission capacity and
interconnections with other electricity systems are also needed. Deploying new
transmission is often complicated by the unbundled and liberalised nature of
electricity systems and by lengthy approval processes.
Distribution of the Electric Power

The electric power grid connects different parts of the country and the grid
distributes the power to the different parts of the country or state through the
transmission lines or network connecting different cities. Outside the city, the
transmitted power from the grid is stepped down in voltage to by a step-down
autotransformer and it is distributed to the users. Major challenges for power grid
are to align their decisions on the operation of network, its maintenance and
customer service with the ultimate goal of the electricity industry. This includes
the transition of centralized generation and unidirectional flow of power to
decentralization and multidirectional flows.
The smartening of distribution networks can bring significant benefits to
operators and customers, but requires considerably more effort than smartening
transmission networks. Distribution networks have many more nodes to be
instrumented and managed. Distribution systems connect to nearly all electricity
customers (excluding large industrial customers connected to the transmission
system), as well as distributed generation, variable/dispatch able resources and
new loads such as electric vehicles. Smart grid technology must be strategically
deployed in order to manage this complexity, as well as the associated costs, to
the benefit of all stakeholders.
Smart Grid
A working definition should include the following attributes:
 Assess grid health in real time.
 Predict behavior, anticipate
 Adapt to new environments like distributed recourses and renewable
energy resources.
 Handle stochastic demand and respond to smart applications.
 Provide self-correction, reconfiguration, and restoration.
 Handle randomness of loads and market participants in real time.
 Create more complex interactive behavior with intelligent devices,
communication protocols, and standard and smart algorithms to improve
smart communication and transportation system.
A smart grid is an electricity network that uses digital and other advanced
technologies to monitor and manage the transport of electricity from all
generation sources to meet the varying electricity demands of end-users. Smart
grids co-ordinate the needs and capabilities of all generators, grid operators, end-
users and electricity market stakeholders to operate all parts of the system as
efficiently as possible, minimizing costs and environmental impacts while
maximizing system reliability, resilience and stability. For the purposes of this
roadmap, smart grids include electricity networks (transmission and distribution
systems) and interfaces with generation, storage and end-users. While many
regions have already begun to “smarten” their electricity system, all regions will
require significant additional investment and planning to achieve a smarter grid.
Smart grids are an evolving set of technologies that will be deployed at different
rates in a variety of settings around the world, depending on local commercial
attractiveness, compatibility with existing technologies, regulatory developments
and investment frameworks. Fig. 1 demonstrates the evolutionary character of
smart grids.
Fig.1 Evolutionary Character of Smart Grids
Smart grid is a technology used by modern electric grid for computer based
control and automation. The main aim is to improve the reliability, sustainability,
efficiency and economics of the transmission as well as distribution system.
Smart grid uses both analog and digital information to manage the production,
transmission and distribution of power. The ‘grid’ refers to networks that are
used to carry power from the plant where it is produced to its consumers. ‘Smart
grid’ refers to computerizing the power utility grid i.e. smart grid is automation
technology that permits the utilities to adjust and control all devices from central
location along with the consumers to participate in that by adjusting their
consumption. The move to a smart grid promises to bring out change in entire
business model of power industries and their relationships with all stakeholders,
utilities, regulatory and consumers.
It allows bidirectional communication between utilities and customers, which is
the major addition of intelligence from conventional grid to smart grid. Smart
grid will extend and enhance the existing features with intelligent electronic
devices (IDE) which can provide more detailed information along with
bidirectional communication. This enhanced communication will act as a
gateway that can help both utilities and customers to participate and come out
with more informed decisions. This will extend the functionality of the
monitoring system, which enable utilities to improve the reliability and stability
of the grid and provide customers the means to monitor and manage their own
consumption. For implementing, key elements to focus are network monitoring,

billing and bi-directional response. The move to a smart grid promises to bring
out change in entire business model of power industries and their relationships
with all stakeholders, utilities, regulatory and consumers. It allows bidirectional
communication between utilities and customers, which is the major addition of
intelligence from conventional grid to smart grid. Smart grid will extend and
enhance the existing features with IDE, which can provide more detailed
information along with bidirectional communication. This enhanced
communication will act as a gateway that can help both utilities and customers to
participate and come out with more informed decisions. This will extend the
functionality of the monitoring system, which enable utilities to improve the
reliability and stability of the grid and provide customers the means to monitor
and manage their own consumption. The two-way digital communication and
plug and play capabilities of smart grid helps in minimizing the human
interventions, which in turn results in drastic saving of power. Advanced
metering infrastructure is an approach to encourage consumers to take part in
power distribution. It enables customer friendly concepts.
An automated distributed energy delivery network of smart grid will be able to
monitor the entire process. It will be comprises of distributed computing and
communications to deliver real time information and enable to automate balance
of supply and demand at device level. Though Nation’s transportation sector
emits very high percentage of carbon dioxide, yet the generation of power emits
carbon dioxide much more than this percentage. Smart grid deployment will be
key tool in treating this challenge of reducing greenhouse gases and other
pollutant. Smart Grid assists the utilities in minimizing this in following ways:
 Energy Efficiency: On consumption side, consumers will be capable of
exercising usage control, which will result in tremendous increase in
consumer side efficiency.
 Avoidance of new construction: Increase in assets optimization allow
utilities to defer new generation investment. The ability to manage
existing load efficiently minimizes the need to build new infrastructure.
 Integration of renewable energy resources: Smart grid technologies
help in integrating renewable resources into the grid. It delineates the
systematic approach that is required to address both technical and non-
technical issues associated with the implementation of smart grid for
renewable resources.
From above all discussion about smart grid, it is known as an intelligent grid:
Fig. 2 Smart Grid Intelligent Automation Function
Advance integration of telecommunication, sensing, control, and optimization

has been recognized to help achieving adaptive interaction, self-healing,
efficiency and reliability of a smart grid. Fig. 3 shows a summary of the major
functional elements to be considered in the smart grid design. Power systems
control depends on the accessibility and sensor measurements quality. Faults
caused by broken or bad connections, bad communication, sensor failure may, in
fact, give rise to failure of power system controllers and consequently lead to
severe contingencies. Fault-tolerant technologies will be needed in a smart grid
to improve its reliability and security and advanced control methods should
accomplish real-time forecasting by using computational intelligence methods.
These methods provide applications such as monitoring and data gathering from
sensors and analysing data to detect and provide solutions. Intelligence in a smart
grid is required in all levels, it would be required to endow each substation and
power plant with a processor that monitors and communicates with other ones
via smart sensors.
Goals of Smart Grid

A smart grid provides advanced products and services altogether along control,
communication, self-healing technology and intelligent monitoring in order to
focus on:
 Efficient transmission of power: Smart grid ensures the possibility of
continuous and uninterrupted power supply.
 Quicker restoration of electricity after power disturbances: Better fault
tolerance against power disturbances: Electrical disturbances that can
cause damage include under voltages and overvoltage will be reduced.
 Reduced operations and management costs for utilities, and ultimately
lower power costs for consumers: One time cost of smart grid
implementation is high, but this is more stable and reliable, so the
maintenance cost decreases, which in turn will lower the cost for
customers.
 Reduced peak demand, which will also help lower electricity rates: As
users will be encouraged to sift their peak load by smart pricing, this will
reduce the peak demand.
 Increased integration of large-scale renewable energy systems: Use of
renewable sources in power generation helps, smart grid technologies to
transform the power system. This will create the grid infrastructure to
support a sustainable energy future.
 Better integration of customer-owner power generation systems,
including renewable energy systems. This helps in minimizing the load
on power grids
Need for Smart Grids

According to the Ministry of Power, India’s transmission and distribution losses
are amongst the highest in the world, averaging 26% of total electricity
production, and as high as 62% in some states. These losses do not include non-
technical losses like theft etc.; if such losses are included, the average losses are
as high as 50%. India losses money for every unit of electricity sold, since India
has one of the weakest electric grids in the world. Some of the technical flaws in
the Indian power grid are - it is a poorly planned distribution network, there is
overloading of the system components, there is lack of reactive power support
and regulation services, there is low metering efficiency and bill collection, etc.
India is venturing very fast into renewable energy resources like wind and solar.
Solar has great potential in India with its average of 300 solar days per year. The
government is also giving incentives for solar power generation in the form of
subsidies for various solar applications; and has set a goal that solar should
contribute 7% of India’s total power production by 2022. With such high targets,
solar is going to play a key role in shaping the future of India’s power sector. A
lacuna of renewable resources is that their supply can be intermittent i.e. the
supply can only be harnessed during a particular part of the day, like day time for
solar energy and windy conditions for harnessing wind energy, also these
conditions cannot be controlled. With such unpredictable energy sources feeding
the grid, it is necessary to have a grid that is highly adaptive (in terms of supply
and demand). Hence, the opportunities for building smart grids in India are
immense, as a good electric supply is one of the key infrastructure requirements
to support overall development.
The purpose of developing smart grids is to seamlessly transition from the
existing centralized Power network powered with fossil fuels to generation
systems powered with renewable energy.
Also, conduct research, development and demonstration to foster technology
innovations that are technically feasible, robust and cost-effective to facilitate
greater share of renewable energy in overall energy mix, and develop research
pathways to allow 100% renewable powered grid eventually. It is expected to
evolve technologies and develop methodologies and business models tunable to
local as well as at global needs.
Smart Grid Components

 Intelligent appliances: Capable of deciding when to consume power
based on pre-set customer preferences. This can go a long way toward
reducing peak loads which has a major impact on electricity generation
costs - alleviating the need for new power plants and cutting down on
damaging greenhouse emissions. Early tests with smart grids have shown
that consumers can save up to 25% on their energy usage by simply
providing them with information on that usage and the tools to manage
it.
 Smart power meters: Smart power meters featuring two-way
communications between consumers and power providers to automate
billing data collection, detect outages and dispatch repair crews to the
correct location faster. Smart meters are microprocessor based devices
that provide a two way communication capability. They help
homeowners and the suppliers to manage the respective electricity usage
and supply in a more efficient and cost effective manner. With the help
of the information provided by such smart meters the power companies
will have the capability to set up real time pricing systems for
electricity.
 Smart substations: Smart substations that include monitoring and
control of critical and non-critical operational data such as power factor
performance, breaker, transformer and battery status, security, etc.
 Smart distribution: That is self-healing, self-balancing and self-
optimizing including superconducting cables for long distance
transmission, and automated monitoring and analysis tools capable of
detecting or even predicting cable and failures based on real-time data
about weather, outage history, etc.
 Smart generation: Capable of “learning” the unique behaviour of power
generation resources to optimize energy production, and to automatically
maintain voltage, frequency and power factor standards based on
feedback from multiple points in the grid.
 Virtual power plants: The goal of virtual power plants is to allow
discrete energy resources to access the energy market i.e. to feed the
electricity grid constantly and reliably.
 Micro grids: A micro grid is a cluster of local discrete energy resources
and loads in such a way that an operation is possible within the grid or in
independent mode. Usually it is connected at the low voltage level but
sometimes also at the medium voltage level. All these technologies can
be used in India in different forms depending on the applications.
Smart Grid Technologies

 Integrated Communications include data acquisition, protection, and
control, and enable users to interact with intelligent electronic devices in
an integrated system.
 Sensing and measurement technologies support acquiring data to
evaluate the health and integrity of the grid and support automatic meter
reading, elimination of billing estimates, and prevent energy theft.
 Advanced components are used to determine the electrical behaviour of
the grid and can be applied in either standalone applications or connected
together to create complex systems such as micro grids. The success,
availability, and affordability of these components will be based on
fundamental research and development gains in power electronics,
superconductivity, materials, chemistry, and microelectronics.
 Advanced control methods are the devices and algorithms that will
analyse, diagnose, and predict grid conditions and autonomously take
appropriate corrective actions to eliminate, mitigate, and prevent outages
and power quality disturbances.
 Improved interfaces and decision support convert complex power-system
data into information that can be easily understood by grid operators
The Role of a Smart Grid

 The significant potential of smart grids could revolutionise the way we
generate and use energy, enabling new forms of generation to connect
and bringing customers into the heart of the equation with their ability to
shift demand and help balance the system. To realise that potential, we
need to rethink the roles and responsibilities of all the players in the
electricity system; we need to continue to invest in smart technologies in
the near term and integrate them into existing networks;
 In a technical sense, a smart grid is a modernised electricity grid that
uses information and communications technology to monitor and
actively control generation and demand in near real-time, which provides
a more reliable and cost effective system for transporting electricity from
generators to homes, businesses and industry. Smart meters are a key
enabler of a smart grid, providing information to help improve network
management as well as facilitating demand shifting and supporting
distributed and renewable energy generation.
 In practice, the smart grid can help network operators spot problems
earlier and re-route power helping to ensure a more reliable and secure
supply. The increased control over the network also enables a wider,
more sophisticated range of smart methods to support renewable
generation and storage and manage supply and demand at a more local
level. Furthermore, with increasing demand for electricity through the
increasing electrification of heating and transport, smart grids will help
the electricity system cope with the demands placed upon it. With smart
meters providing near real-time energy use information, consumers and
communities will be able play a much more active role in the energy
system, for example, through demand side response, where they are
incentivised to use energy away from peak times to help reduce pressure
on the system as a whole and to take advantage of lower price periods.
 Smart grids do not remove the need for conventional reinforcement of
networks, but with more efficient use of infrastructure they can minimise
or defer the need for investment helping to reduce costs and incorporate
low carbon technologies at a faster rate. The diagram below outlines the
role and relationships between different elements of the smart grid as it
evolves incrementally to enable whole energy system integration.
The Environmental Impacts of Smart Grid

The resulting forecasts of global power sector CO2 emissions are illustrated in
Fig. 3. The conservative scenario leads to 5% reduction in annual power sector.
CO2 emissions by 2030, with the average annual growth rate in CO2 emissions
dropping from 0.7 to 0.5 % .The expanded scenario produces even further
reductions. Power sector CO2 emissions in 2030 drop by 16% relative to the
business-as-usual case. CO2 emissions are essentially flattened under this
scenario, with the annual change in CO2 emissions becoming an average
decrease of 0.1% per year.
Fig. 3 CO2 Emissions

By 2020, national emissions are projected to reach 22% above 1990 levels, even
with current measures delivering significant abatement. Most of this increase will
come from the stationary energy sector which is projected to rise to 170% of
1990 levels by 2020. These reductions are the product of several changes to the
power system. Fewer coal and natural gas plants are built, because there is
generally a lower need for new capacity due to the decreased demand for
electricity. In the expanded scenario, much of this capacity is displaced with
cleaner renewable resources. The reduction in line losses also reduces the amount
of electricity that must be produced by power plants in order to meet demand.
Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Worldwide demand for electrical energy is expected to rise 82% by 2030
(Energy Information Administration, US. Unless revolutionary new fuels
are developed, this demand will be met primarily by building new coal,
nuclear, and natural gas electricity generation plants. Not surprisingly,
world CO2 emissions are estimated to rise by 59% by 2030 as a result.
The smart grid can help offset the increase in CO2 emissions by slowing
the growth in demand for electricity.
 Enable consumers to manage their own energy consumption through
dashboards and electronic energy advisories. More accurate and timely
information on electricity pricing will encourage consumers to adopt
load shedding and load shifting solutions that actively monitor and
control energy consumed by appliances.
 In deregulated markets, allow consumers to use information to shift
dynamically between competing energy providers based on desired
variables including energy cost, greenhouse gas emissions, and social
goals. Users could include utility companies, homeowners with rooftop
solar panels, and governments with landfills that reclaim methane gas.
This open market approach could accelerate profitability and speed
further investments in renewable energy generation.
 Broadcast demand response alerts to lower peak energy demand and
reduce the need for utility companies to start reserve generators. Remote
energy management services and energy control operations will also
advise consumers, giving them the choice to control their homes
remotely to reduce energy use.
 Allow utility companies to increase their focus on ‘Save-a-Watt’ or
‘Mega-Watt’ programs instead of producing only power. These

programs are effective because offsetting a watt of demand through
energy efficiency can be more cost effective and CO2 efficient than
generating an extra watt of electricity.
Overview of the Technologies Required for Smart Grid

To accomplish the diverse necessities of the smart grid, the following enabling
technologies must be developed and implemented.
 Sensing, measurement, control, and automation technologies: These
include Phasor measurement units (PMU) and wide area monitoring,
protection and control (WAMPAC) to ensure the security of the power
system.
 Intelligent electronic devices (IED) to provide advanced protective
relaying, measurements, fault records, and event records for the power
system, integrated sensors, measurements, control and automation
systems, and information and communication technologies to provide
rapid diagnosis and timely response to any event in different parts of the
power system. These will support enhanced asset management and
efficient operation of power system components, to help relieve
congestion in transmission and distribution circuits and to prevent or
minimize potential outages and enable working autonomously when
conditions require quick resolution. Smart appliances, communication,
controls, and monitors to maximize safety, comfort, convenience, and
energy savings of homes.
 Smart meters, communication, displays, and associated software to allow
consumers to have better choice and control over electricity use. Those
will provide consumers with accurate bills, accurate real-time
information on their electricity use, and enable demand management and
demand-side participation.
Information and communications technologies include
 Two-way communication technologies to provide connectivity between
different components in the power system and loads.
 Open architectures for plug-and-play of home appliances, electrical
vehicles, and micro-generation.
 Communications and the necessary software and hardware to provide
customers with greater information enable customers to trade in energy

markets.
 Software to ensure and maintain the security of information and
standards to provide scalability and interoperability of information and
communication systems
Power electronics and energy storage include

 High-voltage DC (HVDC) transmission and back-to-back schemes and
flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) to enable long-distance
transport and integration of renewable energy sources.
 Different power electronic interfaces and power electronic supporting
devices to provide efficient connection of renewable energy sources and
energy storage devices.
 Series capacitors, unified power flow controllers (UPFC) and other
FACTS devices to provide greater control over power flows in the AC
grid.
 HVDC, FACTS, and active filters together with integrated
communication and control to ensure greater system flexibility, supply
reliability, and power quality.
 Power electronic interfaces and integrated communication and control to
support system operations by controlling renewable energy sources,
energy storage, and consumer loads.
 Energy storage to facilitate greater flexibility and reliability of the power
system.
Key Challenges
Consumer’s level of understanding about how power is delivered to their
homes is often low. So before going forward and implementing smart
grid concepts, they should be made aware about what smart grids are?
How smart grids can contribute to low carbon economy? What benefits
they can drive from smart grids? Therefore,
 Consumers should be made aware about their energy consumption
pattern at home, offices etc.
 Policy makers and regulators must be very clear about the future
prospects of smart grids.

 Utilities need to focus on the overall capabilities of smart grids rather
than mere implementation of smart meters. They need to consider a more
holistic view.
Access to Affordable Capital

Funds are one of the major roadblocks in implementation of smart grid. Policy
makers and regulators have to make more conducive rules and regulations in
order to attract more and more private players. Furthermore, the risk associated
with smart grid is more; but in long run it is expected that risk return profile will
be closer to the current situation as new policy framework will be in place and
risk will be optimally shared across the value chain. In addition, the hardware
manufacturers are expected to invest more and more on mass production and
R&D activities so that technology obsolescence risk can be minimized and
access to the capital required for this transition is at reasonable cost.
Skills and Knowledge

As the utilities will move towards smart grid, there will be a demand for a new
skill sets to bridge the gap and to have to develop new skills in analytics, data
management and decision support. To address this issue, a cadre of engineers and
managers will need to be trained to manage the transition. This transition will
require investment of both time and money from both government and private
players to support education programs that will help in building managers and
engineers for tomorrow. To bring such a change utilities have to think hard about
how they can manage the transition in order to avoid over burdening of staff with
change.
Cyber Security and Data Privacy

With the transition from analogous to digital electricity infrastructure comes the
challenge of communication security and data management as digital networks
are more prone to malicious attacks from software hackers, security becomes the
key issue to be addressed. In addition to these concerns on invasion of privacy
and security of personal consumption data arises. The data collected from the
consumption information could provide a significant insight of consumer’s
behaviour and preferences. This valuable information could be abused if correct

protocols and security measures are not adhered to. If above two issues are not
addressed in a transparent manner; it may create a negative impact on customer’s
perception and will prove to be a barrier for adoption.
Conclusion
The aim of this chapter is to provide a basic discussion on the background of the
smart grid; its concept and definition. Even though the smart grid concept is not
yet fully defined, a working definition of the smart grid was given.
Environmental impact of implementing smart grid, particularly the way it can be
used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the overview of the technologies
required for smart grid are discussed in this chapter.
References
1. Frye W (2008). Transforming the electricity system to meet future
demand and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Cisco Internet Business
Solutions Group.
2. Ekanayake J, Liyanage K, Wu J et al (2012). Smart grid, technology and
applications. Wiley, NY.
3. Weedall M (2000). BPA smart grid overview, energy and
communications. Washington House Technology, January 22,
http://www.pnwer.org/portals/9/BPA smart grid.pdf.
4. Niehage U (2007). Pathways to a smart grid, power transmission and
distribution siemens, November 8.
5. IBM (2009). Smart grid overview-IBM. International Exhibition and
Conference, Gridtech, New Delhi, January 29-30.
6. Kothari DP and Nagrath IJ (2007). Power system engineering. 2nd
Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
7. Wenpeng L, Sharp D, Lancashire S. (2010). Smart grid communication
network capacity planning for power utilities. IEEE PESS Transmission
and Distribution Conference and Exposition, 1-4, 19-22 April.
8. IEEE Power and Energy Magazine (2010). The path of the smart grid.
http://www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber = 05357331.
Authors
Mr. Kommineni Siva Krishna has completed Post Graduation,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the
Branch of Power systems at Vignan’s Foundation for Science
Technology and Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh.
Ms Kari Lavanya is pursuing Post Graduation, Department of

Applied Engineering in the Branch of Farm Power and
Machinery at Vignan’s Foundation for Science Technology and
Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh. She is the
author of about 1 publication in international journal and 1 in
national journal. Her areas of interest include Mechanization
and Research in Farm Machinery.
Dr. Sirisha Adamala is working as Assistant Professor at

Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research,
Vadlamudi, Andhra Pradesh. She is the author of about 15
publications in international journals and 5 in national
journals. Her area of interest includes Remote sensing and GIS
applications in water resources engineering, Soft computing
modelling in hydrology, and climate change.
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CHAPTER - 5
Eco-Friendly Marketing
R K Jena
Professor, Department of IT & Analytic Institute of Management Technology,
Nagpur, India.
Abstract
Today, environment issues are seen everywhere in the world. These issues are very
crucial i.e., warming, waste disposal, climate change, and pollution etc. and
influence our daily life. Eco-friendly marketing is the marketing of goods and
services that are presumed to be sold for environment. It involves an entire process
of product manufacturing to supplying in market. Such as: raw material used in
product, technology, packaging and distribution. It is also called ecological
/sustainable/environmental marketing. But many corporates are still hesitated to
use eco-friendly marketing practices even after government compulsion. The main
reason for this is the firm still thinks that eco-friendly marketing practice may
increase their cost of production and reduce the profit. On the other hand
consumers are increasingly becoming concerned about the environment and
various issues related to it at the global level. This change has encouraged many
organizations to respond with 'environmentally' friendly products. This chapter
attempts to examine the concept of Eco-friendly marketing, the various challenges
and opportunities associated with it, as well as study the various initiatives taken
in the Indian context by various organizations as well as by the Government. The
discussion revealed that Eco-friendly marketing is gaining importance in India for
various issues concerning sustainable development.
Key-word: Eco-friendly Marketing, Sustainability, Green Initiatives.
1. Introduction
Due to a recent growth in environmental concerns among the communities over
the last few decades, the demand for sustainable development and Eco-friendly
marketing has been achieving its momentum greatly (Chen & Chang, 2012;
Leonidou, Leonidou, Fotiadis & Zeriti, 2013). The ultimate goal of sustainability
is depicted as a development that includes formulating a social and economic
system which must be incorporated within environmental concerns (Saadatian,
Lim, Mat & Sopian, 2012). This has placed a high pressure on corporations to
carry their social and environmental obligations and revise their business
operations and practices accordingly to develop sustainable business processes to
survive in the long run (Lundberg, Fredman & Wall-Reinius, 2012). In this
manner, the concept of Eco-friendly marketing emerged together and has become
an important buzz-phrase in core operations of many businesses all around the
world. The emergence of this term has provided comfort to many companies to
use this as a mechanism to perform corporate social responsibility (CSR).
Eco-friendly marketing was defined as “the way to conceive exchange
relationships that goes beyond the current needs of the consumers, considering at
the same time the social interest in protecting the natural environment” (Chamorro
& Bañegil, 2006). Likewise, Soonthonsmai (2007) defined Eco-friendly marketing
as actions carried out by organisations that are apprehensive about the ecology or
green problems by providing the environmentally friendly goods or services to
bring satisfaction among customers and the community. Referring to another
definition given by Rahman, Reynolds, and Svaren (2011), Eco-friendly marketing
means a business that is operated in a way that decreases waste, environmentally
friendly, saves energy and mostly encourages environmental health and
sustainability of the society. Eco-friendly marketing can also refers to the process
of selling products and/or services based on their environmental benefits. Such a
product or service may be environmentally friendly in itself or produced in an
environmentally friendly way, such as:
 Being manufactured in a sustainable fashion
 Not containing toxic materials or ozone-depleting substances
 Able to be recycled and/or is produced from recycled materials
 Being made from renewable materials (such as bamboo, etc.)
 Not making use of excessive packaging
 Being designed to be repairable and not "throwaway"
Eco-Friendly Marketing is not simply the act of giving lip-service to loving the
environment, but really making an effort, whether in designing products, offering
services, or building a corporate culture that has a significant impact on the
environment and the world around us. The concept of Eco-Friendly Marketing
goes beyond the simple, ''Buy me!'', type of advertising or selling, and not only
tells the consumer about the product, but why it aligns with things that the
consumer finds important. That might include recyclable packaging, sustainable
manufacturing or design, free of toxins and chemicals. Many companies are
moving toward Eco-Friendly Marketing as part of their organization's overall
social responsibility. The idea behind social responsibility is that a company
behaves in such a way that it is aware of, and behaves sensitively toward, concerns
facing society, culture, and the environment. Therefore business try their best to
reduce its energy consumption or has developed practices that make all of its
packaging more Eco-friendly. Eco-friendly marketing, then, is certainly one way
to project an organization's social responsibility out into the world. Eco-friendly
marketing is particularly important in industries where consumers are focused on
sustainability and more environmentally-friendly consumption, such as
automobiles and foods. Surprisingly; Eco-friendly marketing is not for everyone,
so companies must weigh whether their consumers are more - or less - motivated
to make purchases or be loyal to a brand by eco-friendly practices.
Eco-friendly Marketing Mix
Every company has its own favorite marketing mix. Some have 4 P's and some
have 7 P's of marketing mix. The 4 P's of Eco-friendly marketing are that of a
conventional marketing but the challenge before marketers is to use 4 P's in an
innovative manner (Zimmer MR, Stafford TF, Stafford MR, 1994).
Product
The ecological objectives in planning products are to reduce resource consumption
and pollution and to increase conservation of scarce resources (Kotler P , 2000).
Price
Price is a critical and important factor of Eco-friendly marketing mix. Most
consumers will only be prepared to pay additional value if there is a perception of
extra product value. This value may be improved performance, function, design,
visual appeal, or taste. Eco-friendly marketing should take all these facts into
consideration while charging a premium price.
Promotion
There are three types of green advertising:
 Ads that address a relationship between a product/service and the
biophysical environment
 Those that promote a green lifestyle by highlighting a product or
service
 Ads that present a corporate image of environmental responsibility
Place
The choice of where and when to make a product available will have significant
impact on the customers. Very few customers will go out of their way to buy green
products.
2. Traditional marketing Vs Eco-friendly marketing

Figure 1 is the philosophy of Eco-friendly marketing which differentiates
traditional marketing with Eco-friendly marketing. It explains that Eco-friendly
marketing is not only about understanding the commercial exchange relationship,
but merely about understanding an organization’s relationship with society
(Chamorro & Bañegil, 2006) which includes the environment in general. Also
stated, the effort to embrace Eco-friendly marketing is not only the duty of
marketing department but it involves the entire organization with different
functional areas involvement such as quality, design, production and supplies. The
development of Eco-friendly marketing evolves throughout the process of
planning, implementation and control on policy of products or services, price,
place (distribution) and promotion with the objectives to minimize the impact on
the natural environment.
Figure-1: Eco-friendly Vs Traditional Marketing (Adapted from Chamorro and

Bañegil, 2006)
However, when discussions about Eco-friendly marketing and ecological

degradation topics are raised, the attention is highly placed on product-based
industry which includes companies that produce cars, processed food, electrical
appliances, consumer goods and others. This is because they are more visible in
terms of production, the usage of raw materials and output produced as the overall
processes involve merely physical goods. In contrast, service organisations’ efforts
such as hotels may not be apparent, given the intangible nature of services (usually
lack of physical presence), inseparable (produced and consumed simultaneously),
heterogeneous (never exactly repeated and varies with different hands) and
perishable (cannot be stored for later use) (Zeithaml, Parasuraman & Berry, 1985).
Thus, hotels are striving and finding hard times to incorporate the green practices
into their daily operation while it is a challenge for them to cater the needs of green
consumers with reference to sustainable practices.
3. Eco-friendly marketing: Evolution

The first wave of Eco-friendly marketing came into picture in 1980s. Corporate
Social Responsibility Reports (CSR) started with the ice cream seller Ben and
Jerry's where the financial report was supplemented by a greater view on the
company's environmental impact. In 1987 a document prepared by the World
Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development
as meeting "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own need", this became known as the Brundtland Report
and was another step towards widespread thinking on sustainability in everyday
activity.
The Concept Eco-friendly marketing has evolved through three phases as
described by Peattie (2001). The initial phase was mainly about dealing with those
products and industries having a direct impact (negative) on the environment and
now, Eco-friendly marketing has entered its third phase which advocates
sustainability that is talking about how our environment can remain diverse and
productive over time.
 The First Phase - 'Ecological' Eco-friendly marketing : This phase
mainly focused on specific 'environment problems' such as air pollution,
oil spills, and synthetic DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) and
providing solution to these environmental problems. The main focus of
the first phase of Eco-friendly marketing was on those industries and
products that have a direct impact on the environment (such as oil, mining,
chemical industries, etc.).
 The Second Phase - 'Environmental' Eco-friendly marketing : This phase
involves the use of clean technology for designing innovative (new)
products or production systems, which eliminates waste and pollution at
the design stage. This phase focused on products which are generally used
in homes (such as cleaning goods, white goods, carpets, paper, etc.) along
with services such as banking and tourism.
 The Third Phase - 'Sustainable' Eco-friendly marketing : The marketing
discipline is beginning to address Eco-friendly marketing, not just in term
of reducing environment damage, but in pursuit of sustainability.
Companies like IBM and McDonalds have used their bulk purchasing
power to enforce their back supplier to improve their eco-performance at
their own level and back it up with green audits. It can be proposed that
Eco-friendly marketing is not just simply about green packaging and
marketing green products, but it is a holistic marketing concept which

involves environment friendly/green practices in an organization at all
levels, from backward suppliers to forward retailers, and ensuring the
same at all intermediary stages such as the production, designing,
marketing, and selling.
4. Advantages of Eco-Friendly Marketing

Companies that develop new and improved products, and services with
environment inputs in mind give themselves access to new markets, increase their
profit sustainability and enjoy a competitive advantage over the companies that are
not concerned for the environment (Chitra K, 2007).
Some of the advantages of Eco-friendly marketing are as follows
 It ensures sustained long-term growth along with profitability.
 It saves money in the long run, although initial cost is more.
 It helps the companies to market their products and services keeping the
environment aspects in mind. It helps in accessing the new markets and
enjoying competitive advantage.
 Most of the employees also feel proud and responsible to be working for
an environmentally responsible company.
 It promotes corporate social responsibility.
5. Eco-Friendly Marketing Landscape in India

Considering the importance of the environment for human beings, the Indian
Government as well as various organizations are taking 'green initiatives' for the
sake of environmental protection and sustainability to promote eco-friendly
marketing.
5.1 Initiatives taken by the Government

The following are the initiatives taken by the Government of India:
 The Reserve Bank of India has requested the Non-Banking Financial
Corporations (NBFCs) to take proactive steps and initiatives to increase
the use of electronic payment systems, and to gradually phase-out cheques
and eliminate post-dated cheques in their routine business transactions as

a part of “Green Initiative” (Department of Financial Services,
Government of India : Green Initiative Master Circular, 2012). Ä The
Finance Minister announced ` 600 crore for green initiatives in the Union
Budget, 2011 mainly for the protection and regeneration of forests and for
environmental management (iGovernment , 2011).
 The Government has set up various standards for environment protection
such as energy efficiency standards for appliances (refrigerators, air
conditioners, tube lights, transformers, and other electrical appliances),
energy conservation building code (ECBC), and fuel efficiency/emission
norms for vehicles (Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of
India, 2010).
 The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA), Government of India has taken
a 'Green Initiative in the Corporate Governance' vide its Circular Nos.
17/2011 dated 21.04.2011 and 18/2011 dated 29.04.2011 which enables
the entity to deliver all important documents to shareholders in the
electronic form (i.e. to their e-mail address) that have been registered with
the depository participants, including the notice of extra ordinary general
meeting, annual general meeting, director's reports, audited financial
statements, and so forth (Octane Research, 2013).
 In the Government's report of annual Indian economic survey 2011-2012,
sustainable development and climate change was introduced for the first
time, where lower-carbon sustainable growth was proposed as a central
element of India's 12th five-year-plan (Patankar, 2012).
 According to an estimate, India spent approximately US$45 billion on
green IT and sustainability initiatives in the year 2012, and the figure may
reach US$70 billion by 2015, fueled by the Government's push for greater
adoption (Yap, 2012).
5.2 Initiatives Taken by Private Organization

Wipro and Infosys: Wipro and Infosys’s are going green Wipro launched
desktops, laptops are known as Wipro green wares. It was the first company in
India who developed eco-sustainability in the form of energy, water efficiency and
waste management. Wipro are actively seeking to become a very green company.
Wipro has taken various initiatives to be green and the main objective of this is to
become a carbon natural, water positive and energy saving in business
organization. Wipro designs products and solutions that can minimize hazardous
waste (Wipro, 2017). For the purpose of enhancing ecological sustainability,
WIPRO is continuously offering green products. Wipro has adopted a number of
steps for ecological-sustainability at its corporate level also. Wipro wants to
become fully carbon natural and to achieve zero carbon emission by balancing the
carbon released by the firm with equaling quantity off set. Wipro, Infosys reduced
it per capita consumption of electricity and procured renewable energy. In future,
every new building on campus follows integrated design methods for the purpose
maximize the day light and reduce heat. It will construct energy efficient building,
at present also, in Wipro 18 building are certified to the international green
standard. It replaced order office equipment with new energy saving equipment.
Wipro and Infosys also installed solar panel also in their campus. We know that
solar power is 70% cheaper than power generated by diesel. Solar energy has no
adverse impact on our surrounding also. Products manufactured by these firms are
less harmful to environment.
Tata Metaliks Limited: This deals in mining and metal sector. It has given a green
view to reduce its carbon foot prints. The objective of Tata Metaliks Limited is to
increase the green cover through plantation, ground water, power generation and
use of natural fertilizers etc. The major green initiatives of this company is related
to water utilization. It depends entirely on the ground water or no municipal supply
and it will perform a complete water neutral operations.
Suzlon Energy: Suzlon energy also going green. Suzlon is the world’s 4th largest
wind power company among the greenest and best company in India. It is a
renewable company manufacturer and produce wind Turbines, now Suzlon 30%
power of renewable energy in India. It meets the need of present without
compromising the capacity of future generation to meet their needs. Its total
revenue was $ 4.18 billion in 2011.
Electronics sector: The consumer electronics sector provides room for using Eco-
friendly marketing to attract new customers. One example of this is HP's promise
to cut its global energy use 20 percent by the year 2010. To accomplish this
reduction below 2005 levels, The Hewlett- Packard Company announced plans to
deliver energy-efficient products and services and institute energy-efficient
operating practices in its facilities worldwide.
Maruti Udyog Ltd: Greening of Supply Chain: The company has remained ahead
of regulatory requirements in pursuit of environment protection and energy
conservation at its manufacturing facilities, and in development of products that
use fewer natural resources and are environment friendly (Narendra KP , 2013).
The company credited the 'Just-in-Time' philosophy adopted and internalized by
the employees as the prime reason that helped to excel in this direction. The
company has been promoting 3R since its inception. As a result the company has
not only been able to recycle 100% of treated waste water but also reduced fresh
water consumption. The company has implemented rain water harvesting to
recharge the aquifers. Also, recyclable packing for bought out components is being
actively promoted.
The company has been facilitating implementation of Environment Management
System (EMS) at its suppliers' end. Regular training programs are conducted for
all the suppliers on EMS. Surveys are conducted to assess the vendors who need
more guidance. The systems and the environmental performance of suppliers are
audited. The green co-efficient of this system is much better than the conventional
system.
6. Conclusion
Considering the importance of the environment for human beings, the concept of
green marketing/environment friendly marketing and sustainable development is
getting attention in India with time, but it is still at a nascent stage. The
Government has already announced and implemented various policies and
regulations for environmental protection, whereas various organizations are
willingly adopting environment friendly practices. They are taking these steps
after seeing the positive response from consumers towards green products and also
to comply with the legal framework of the Government. However, the problem is
with the small firms in adopting green practices because they are concerned about
short run profits ; adopting green practices involves a high initial cost and such
practices are profitable only in the long run. For such organizations, forceful
implementation of legislation is required by the Government. Green marketing is
not just another concept of marketing because along with the profitability concern,
it deals with social and environmental dimensions too, so it has to be pursued with
more concern and importance.
Many organizations want to turn to green, as an increasing number of consumers'
want to associate themselves with environmental friendly products. Alongside,
one also witnesses confusion among the consumers regarding the products. In
particular, one often finds distrust regarding the credibility of green products.
Therefore, to ensure consumer confidence, marketers of green products need to be

much more transparent, and refrain from breaching any law or standards relating
to products or business practices.
References
Chitra K (2007) In search of the Green Consumers: A perceptual study. Journal
of Services Research, 7, 173-191.
Chamorro, A., & Bañegil, T. M. (2006). Green marketing philosophy: a study
of Spanish firms with ecolabels. Corporate Social Responsibility and
Environmental Management, 13(1), 11-24.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/csr.83
Chen, Y. S., & Chang, C. H. (2012). Enhance green purchase intentions: The
roles of green perceived value, green perceived risk, and green trust.
Management Decision, 50(3), 502-520.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00251741211216250.
iGovernment (2011). India approves Rs. 600 crore for green initiatives.
Retrieved from http://www.igovernment.in/site/india-approves-rs-600-cr-
green-initiatives-39365
Kotler P (2000) Marketing Management-The Millennium Edition Prentice Hall
of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
Leonidou, L. C., Leonidou, C. N., Fotiadis, T. A., & Zeriti, A. (2013). Resources
and capabilities as drivers of hotel environmental marketing strategy:
Implications for competitive advantage and performance. Tourism
Management, 35, 94-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.06.003
Lundberg, C., Fredman, P., & Wall-Reinius, S. (2012). Going for the green? The
role of money among nature-based tourism entrepreneurs. Current Issues
in Tourism, 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2012.746292
Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India. (2010). Indian
initiatives on green trade, investment and climate policy towards a low
carbon economy [power point presentation]. Regional Symposium on
Low Carbon Economy: Trade, Investment and Climate Change, Bali,
Indonesia, 13-14 October, 2010, Retrieved from
www.unescap.org/tid/projects/lowcarbon_s3_india.pdf.
Narendra KP (2013) Successful Adoption of CNG and Emerging CNG-H2
Program in India.
Octane Research (2013, January). Go green initiatives in corporate governance.
Retrieved from http://www.octane.in/research/pdf-
report/Go_Green_Initiative_In_ Corporate_ Governance _ 2013.pdf
Peattie, K. (2001). Towards sustainability: The third age of green marketing. The
Marketing Review, 2 (2), 129-146.
Rahman, I., Reynolds, D., & Svaren, S. (2011). How “green” are North
American hotels? An exploration of low-cost adoption practices.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 720-727.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.09.008
Saadatian, O., Haw, L. C., Mat, S. B., & Sopian, K. (2012). Perspective of
Sustainable Development in Malaysia. International Journal of Energy
and Environment, 2(6), 260-267.
Soonthonsmai, V. (2007). Environmental or green marketing as global
competitive edge: Concept, synthesis, and implication. In EABR
(Business) and ETLC (Teaching) Conference Proceeding, Venice, Italy.
Wipro (2017). Wipro Green Initiatives, www.wipro.com
Yap, J. (2012, October 3). India's green IT, sustainability spend to hit $45B in
2012. ZDNet. Retrieved from http://www.zdnet.com/in/indias-green-it-
sustainability-spend-to-hit-45b-in-2012-7000005150/
Zeithaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). Problems and
strategies in services marketing. The Journal of Marketing, 33-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251563.
Zimmer MR, Stafford TF, Stafford M R(1994)Green Issues dimensions of
environmental concern. Journal of Business research 30: 63-74.
CHAPTER - 6
A review of thin film chalcogenide

photovoltaic materials
Ho Soon Min1,* & Mohammad Junaebur Rashid2

1
Centre for Green Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, INTI International
University, Putra Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
and Technology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
*Corresponding author, email: soonmin.ho@newinti.edu.my
Abstract
Chalcogenides such as CdTe, Cu(InxGa1-x)Se2, Cu(InxGa1-x)(SeyS1-y)2, Cu2ZnSnS4,
Cu2ZnSnSe4, CdS, CuinS2 and CuGaS2 are highly interesting for their use as light
absorber layers in solar cells. In the recent past, intensive research has been
investigated to improve the electrical and material properties, and finally enhance
the quality of solar cells. In this book chapter, power conversion efficiency was
conducted on the samples to ensure that these semiconductor materials could be
used for the fabrication of cost-effective solar cells.
Key words: chalcogenide, light absorber layer, power conversion efficiency, thin
films
Introduction:
Solar energy is an important source of renewable energy and energy is created by
the light of the sun (solar panel). Solar energy is free, safe for environment and
could be considered as “clean energy”. So far, many studies have been conducted
to search for new and cheaper metal chalcogenides [1, 2] in solar cell applications
[3-5]. Research activities have been immensely focused on the synthesis [6-9] and
characterization [10-14] of thin films. A lot of literature has been reported to till
date on the preparation of binary, ternary, quaternary and penternary materials
using various deposition techniques [15-17]. The film thickness varies from
nanometer to micrometers. Researchers successfully produced thin films using
solution based deposition method. The obtained films are cheaper [18, 19] to use
for photovoltaic materials than silicon [20-22].
Here, power conversion efficiency was investigated. This test is defined as the
ratio of power produced by the fabricated solar cell to the incident sunlight energy
into the cell pert time.
Literature review:
Up-to-date, the solar cells include both crystalline silicon solar cells and new thin-
film technologies (Figure 1) such as cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium
diselenide. The high growth rate of thin film production and increase of the total
production share indicate that the thin film technology is gaining more and more
acceptance. Currently, there are more than 130 companies which are involved in
the thin film solar cells and silicon based solar cells production process ranging
from research and development activities to major manufacturing plants. At
present, the most common material used in photovoltaic technology is silicon. The
ongoing shortage in silicon feedstock and the market entry of companies offering
turn-key production lines for thin film solar cells led to a massive expansion of
investments into thin film capacities. Table 1 indicates top-10 solar manufacturer
in the world.
Figure 1: Market share by technology [23]

Thin film materials usually have high absorption coefficients so that most of the
light can be absorbed in a layer of about 1 m or less. These materials to be
potential candidates in solar cells due to the band gap energy between 0.9 to 2.5
eV. The main advantage of thin films based solar cell is their promise of lower
costs, since less energy for processing and relatively lower costs for the materials
are required and large scale production is feasible. Also, the metal chalcogenide
thin films should be low cost, non-toxic, robust and stable. The metal chalogenides
can produce either n-type or p-type semiconductor. Generally, p-type material is
preferred because electrons in many cases have a higher mobility and the materials
therefore exhibit a higher minority carrier length.
Table 1: Top-10 solar cell producers in 2016 [24]
RANKING Producer
1 Hanwha Q-cells
2 JA Solar
3 Trina Solar
4 First Solar
5 Jinko Solar
6 Motech
7 Tongwei Solar
8 Yingli Green
9 Canadian Solar
10 Shun Feng
Thin film deposition is any method for depositing a thin film of material onto
substrates. There are two categories of thin film processes, namely chemical and
physical process. The example of chemical process such as chemical vapor
deposition, chemical bath deposition and electrodeposition while physical process
like sputter deposition, vacuum evaporation and pulsed laser deposition. Each of
these techniques has advantage and limitation as well. The deposition method used
must depend on the type of film required and the limitation present on choice of
substrates. The costs of deposition technique also play an important role in
determining the mass output of thin film products in market.
The suitable group VI elements such as sulphur (S), selenium (Se) and tellurium
(Te) with the combination of group I (Cu, Ag, Al) and group III (Al, Ga, In)
elements can yield compound semiconductor showing photovoltaic effect. These
groups I-III-VI semiconductor or ternary semiconductors are known as
chalcopyrite. In solar cell the most commonly used chalcopyrite is copper indium
gallium diselenide [Cu(InxGa1-x)Se2, CIGS], where x is the content of In. CIGS
technology opens up enormous potential for a new growth market. Formerly, a
niche market, but, in recent years, the CIGS has grown to become an established
technology because of these cells are already achieving an efficiency rate of
around 22 % [Figure 2]. Another alternative of this type is Gallium free variants,
abbreviated as CIS (CuInSe2). Researchers are also using sulfur, which is another
type of chalcopyrite, to obtain indium gallium diselenide/disulfide [Cu(InxGa1-
x)(SeyS1-y)2, CIGSS], where x and y are the content of In and Se, respectively.
Figure 2: Growth in efficiency of competitor’s thin film technologies in the

laboratory [25].
The rare element In (indium) scarcity is limiting the development of

CIGS/CIS/CIGSS solar cell. Thus, the searching of In free chalcogenide
semiconductors led us to find kesterite materials consisting of four or five
elements. These are copper zinc tin sulphide (Cu2ZnSnS4, CZTS), copper zinc tin
selenide (Cu2ZnSnSe4, CZTSe) and using a mixture of sulphur and selenium,
[Cu2ZnSn(SSe)4, (CZTSS)]. Besides these different types, another chalcogenide
semiconductor is cadmium telluride (CdTe), as the group VI element Te can form
chemical bond with group II element cadmium (Cd). In the Table 2, we have listed
the reported best conversion efficiency, their open circuit voltage (Voc), short
circuit current (Jsc) and fill factor (FF) of different chalcogenide thin films.
As an example of CIGS thin film solar cell, we can see that in ref [26,27], a high
temperature alkali post deposition treatment is performed for the deposition of
absorber layer. Also the buffer system of CdS/(Zn,Mg)O is optimized to obtain an
enhancement in UV transmission. As a result, the record power conversion
efficiency of 22.6% is reported for the first time [27].
In the case of Cd free Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2 (CIGSS) thin film solar cell a two-step
sulfurization after selenization process is carried out. This process makes the
absorber layer Ga-rich and S-rich at the backside and at the surface, respectively.
The absorber layer then reduces the interface recombination enabling carrier
collection. Afterwards the K treatment in S-containing ambient is performed
followed by the deposition of two buffer layers of Zn(O,S,OH)x (ZOS) and
(Zn,Mg)O, consecutively [26, 28]. This structure, then as a result exhibit the
current density of 39.45 mA/cm² and the record efficiency of 22.0%.
Recent studies indicating that the kesterite copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS) is
promising material for solar cell study. This is because of its element availability,
low cost, suitable deposition process and good photovoltaic property. Different
types of buffer layers such as zinc sulfide (ZnS), cadmium sulfide (CdS) and Zn1–
xCdxS is used on top of CZTS absorber layer. Among them the Zn1–xCdxS (with 35
% Zn content) creates an optimized conduction band offset enhancing the
recombination leading to an improvement of open circuit voltage and fill factor.
Nevertheless, the best reported conversion efficiency of thin film CZTS solar cell
with Zn0.35Cd0.65S buffer layer is found 11.0 % [29].
In copper zinc tin selenide (CZTSe) thin film solar cell, an efficiency of 9.1 % with
Voc=0.476 V and Jsc=31.8 mA/cm² is reported [30]. This is obtained by band-gap
tuning of absorber CZTSe layer using germanium (Ge) as suitable metal
substitutions. The Ge composition is varied between 0 to 40 %. and 40 % Ge-
substituted CZTGSe exhibited the best result.

The highest efficiency of 12.6 % copper zinc tin sulphide selenide (CZTSS) thin
film solar cell is reported by improving the bulk properties of the CZTSS material
[31]. These materials have optical absorption coefficient (105 cm-1) and direct band
gap of 1.45-1.6 eV. The improved optical architecture reduces the open circuit
voltage compared to previous devices.
The band gap of cadmium telluride (CdTe) is 1.5 eV, which is a perfect match to
the solar spectrum. However, the superstrate configuration of CdTe thin film solar
cell suffers from suitable metal back contact. Also, many scientists claim that there
are major issues occurred in cadmium telluride thin films such as stability and
degradation in efficiency. On the other hand, enhancement in efficiency is shown
by adding an indium tin oxide (ITO) layer to the transparent conductive oxide
(TCO)/CdS/CdTe stack and then thinned the CdS to allow more light. So far, the
best reported efficiency of CdTe solar cell is found 22.1 % recorded by First Solar
[32]. In other cases, thermal evaporation method has been used to synthesis CdS
and CdTe as reported by Wagah and co-workers [33]. They claim that the tunnel
diode of CdTe/CdS was deposited in the back of the cell, resulting in a power
conversion efficiency of more than 7 % for a solar cell device.
Co-evaporation deposition technique has been employed to prepare Cu2SnS3 films
as described by Ayaka et al [34].. Power conversion efficacy of solar cell was
investigated under various copper to tin compositional ratios. Finally, they
conclude that solar cell with 4.3 % power conversion efficiency could be obtained
under reporting conditions (Cu/Sn ratios of 1.87).
Thin film based solar cell structure with ITO/CuInS2/Al2O3/(CH3NH3)PbI3/Ag was
designed by Chen and co-workers [35]. The effect of the thickness of CuInS2 films
on the performance of photovoltaic cell was investigated. The degradation of the
short circuit current density (Jsc) and fill factor values could be seen. There were
studies that indicated that too thick CuInS2 films can reduce the performance of
solar cell. 5.3 % of power conversion efficiency is the best results as shown in their
research.
The TCO/CdS/CuInS2/CuGaS2 thin films solar cell has been created by Goto and
co-workers [36]. During the experiment, the Ga-Cu stacked precursor layer with a
copper to indium ratio of 1. They propose that 240 nm films were vacuum
evaporated onto molybdenum coated soda lime glass substrate. The films were
sulfurized in an argon and hydrogen sulfide mixture gas at 530 C. The CuGaS2
layer was treated in KCN solution. Finally, they reported that solar cell has
efficiencies up to 13 %.
Jaramillo and co-workers [37] have highlighted that SnS films can absorb visible
light strongly and have potential to be good absorber materials. The thin films
based solar cells have reached efficiency depending on the deposition technique
(atomic layer deposition (4.36 %) and thermal evaporation (3.88 %) method).
Potlog and other workers [38] have reported a multi-junction solar cell with the
structure ZnSe/CdTe, CdS/CdTe/ and ZnTe/CdTe thin films. These absorber
materials have been prepared using close space sublimation method onto
transparent conductive oxide-coated glass. The CdS/CdTe solar cell showed
remarkably higher conversion efficacy (9.9 %) if compared to ZnSe/CdTe (4.7 %)
and ZnTe/CdTe (1.3 %) thin films.
Rohit [39] has described the preparation of cadmium sulfide and Cu2S thin films
using spin coating method. Heterojunction solar cells have been fabricated in order
to study the performance of solar cell. The research conclude that these
semiconductors are the most promising light absorbers for solar cell with
efficiency about 10.9 %.
A series of experiments have been carried out by Ji and co-workers [40] in order
to evaluate the effect of annealing temperature (150 to 300 C) on the photovoltaic
performance. Ammonia, thiourea and zinc sulfate were used as starting materials
to synthesize zinc sulfide thin films through chemical bath deposition method. The
AZO/ZnS/textured p-Si heterojunction solar cells were fabricated under various
annealing temperatures. All the photovoltaic parameters indicated improvements
of the power conversion efficiency from 0.89 % to 3.66 % as the annealing
temperature was increased from 150 to 250 C under air mass 1.5 G solar
illumination.
Table 2: Record photovoltaic conversion efficiency of different types of

chalcogenide thin films measured under the global AM1.5 spectra
(1000 Wm−2) at 25°C
Cell Voc (V) Jsc FF % Efficiency Year,

(mA/cm²) % Reference
CIGS 0.7411 37.76 80.6 22.6 ± 0.5 2016 [26, 27]
CIGSS 0.7170 39.45 77.9 22.0 ± 0.5 2017 [26, 28]
CZTS 0.7306 21.74 69.3 11.0 ± 0.2 2016 [26, 29]
CZTSe 0.476 31.8 60.4 9.14 2012 [30]
CZTSS 0.5134 35.21 69.8 12.6 ± 0.3 2013 [26, 31]
CdTe 0.8872 31.69 78.5 22.1 ± 0.5 2016 [26, 32]
PbS -- -- 36.8 0.04 2011 [41]
Bi2S3 -- -- 39 0.056 2006 [42]
CdSe0.6Te0.4 -- -- 58 0.43 2014 [43]
Cu2ZnSnS4 -- -- -- 3.8 2016 [44]
CuIn(S,Se)2 0.369 13.7 45 2.3 2015 [45]
Cu2ZnSnS4 0.56 6.25 30.4 1.1 2014 [46]
Sb2S3 0.64 3.7 0.29 0.7 2009 [47]

Conclusion:
Metal chalcogenides (CIGS, CIGSS, CZTS, CdTe and CZTSS) are highly
interesting for their use as light absorber layers in solar cell. The best power
conversion efficiency of these materials exceeding 22 %.
Acknowledgement:
INTI INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY is gratefully acknowledged for the
financial support of this work [HO SM].
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CHAPTER - 7
Linkage between Global Co2 Emission and

World GDP
Dr. Debesh Bhowmik

Retired Principal,
Associated with International Institute
for Development Studies, Kolkata, India.
Abstract
In this paper author attempted to verify the relationship between global CO2
emission and global GDP ,and between CO2 emission per capita and GDP
growth or GDP per capita growth rate during 1960-2015 through double log
regression model,Granger Cusality test,Johansen cointegration model and by
vector error correction model and impulse response functions.The trend of
emission and per capita emission are shown by semi-log regression model.The
structural breaks of emission is shown by Bai-Perron model. The paper
concludes that the global co2 emission has been rising at the rate of 2.19% per
year and per capita co2 emission is rising at the rate of 0.58% per annum
significantly during 1960-2015.Both of them are stationary,stable and
convergent according to ARIMA(1,1,1) model and they do not belong to random
walk hypothesis. Global CO2 emission during 1960-2015 contains four upward
structural breaks in 1968,1976,1988, and 2004 respectively and per capita
emission has two upward structural breaks in 1969 and 2004 respectively.World
CO2 emission is positively related significantly with global GDP,and GDP per
capita during 1960-2015.World CO2 emission per capita is positively related
significantly with world GDP,GDP growth per capita during the same
period.But global GDP growth is negatively related with global CO2 emission
significant during 1960-2015.There are no cointegration between world GDP
and world CO2 emission and CO2 emission per capita but there is one
cointegrating vector in each between global GDP growth ,global CO2 emission
and world CO2 emission per capita during 1960-2015 repectively.Both of them
have stable,stationary and convergent VEC model whose impulse response
functions are converging towards zero.
Keywords: world CO2 emission,world per capita CO2 emission,world GDP,
world GDP per capita,world GDP growth.
JEL- O13, O40, O44, P28, P48, Q43, Q53, Q56,
I. Introduction
During1960-2015, emissions of CO2 from fuel combustion have tripled and the
main actors have changed. In 1960 the contribution of emissions by China was
around 9%, 1% for India and 10% for rest of the world. By 2015, their
contribution was 24%, 5% and 23% respectively, and China becomes the largest
emitter in the world. Most previous studies of CO2 – Income relationship aim
either to verify and estimate the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis
of economic inequity or to describe the long-run equilibrium relationship
between GHG emissions and energy consumption, or GDP, or other. The first
application of Kuznets Curve to environmental studies is done by Grossman and
Krueger (1991, 1993, 1995) followed by Holtz-Eakin (1995) , or more recently
by Perman and Stern (2003), McKitrick and Strazicich (2005) , Aldy (2006) and
Dinda (2004). The results of these studies are controversial about EKC’s
hypothesis, giving opposite conclusions. Dinda and Coondoo (2006) performed
cointegration analysis between per capita CO2 emissions and per capita GDP on
a panel of 88 countries and conclude that a long-run relationship exists between
the variables. The econometric approach which is usually used to estimate the
relationship between GHG emissions and economic growth, as well as to test
EKC hypothesis, has been criticized in academic literature on many points. The
countries with the same level of economic development may have different
relationship between emissions and economic growth for many reasons. The
global CO2 emission scenario is clear since CO2 emission is increasing along
with global GDP or GDP growth rate. The relationship does not behave like EKC
hypothesis. This paper is an empirical attempt to show the relationship clearly
through econometric analysis.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW

There are huge economic literatures on climate change and environment
protection and with related themes. I have discussed some of the researches on
the subjects that are correlated with my article.
Azomahou, Laisney and Van(2005) examined the empirical relation between
CO2 emissions per capita and GDP per capita during the period 1960-1996, using
a panel of 100 countries. Estimation results show that this relationship is upward
sloping. Choi, Heshmati,& Cho(2010) took data (1971-2006) from China (an
emerging market), Korea (a newly industrialized country), and Japan (a
developed country) and estimated EKC which showed different temporal
patterns. China shows an N-shaped curve while Japan has a U-shaped curve.
Tiwari (2011) found that environmental degradation (i.e., CO2 emissions)
Granger causes economic growth in the long-run in India during 1971-2005.
Arouri, Youssef, M'Henni, & Rault(2012) taking 12 Middle East and North
African Countries (MENA) data over the period 1981–2005 showed that real
GDP exhibits a quadratic relationship with CO2 emissions for the region as a
whole. Farhani (2012) verified 15 MENA countries covering the annual period
1973-2008 and found that there is a unidirectional causality running from GDP
and CO2 emissions to EC. The results indicate that an increase in energy
consumption may lead to increase in the income and the CO2 emission. Lean &
Smyth(2013) examined in ASEAN countries over the period 1980 to 2006. The
long-run estimates indicate that there is a statistically significant positive
association between electricity consumption and emissions and a non-linear
relationship between emissions and real output, consistent with the
Environmental Kuznets Curve. Chueh(2014) showed that the emissions of
carbon dioxide may not depend on the growth of per capita GDP using the
hierarchical clustering approach to cluster 36 countries during 1990-2011. Alam
(2014) examined the relationship between economic growth (GDP per capita)
and CO2 emissions of Bangladesh based on the environmental Kuznets curve
hypothesis, using World Bank data over 1972-2010 and found that the existence
of EKC “U” shape does not hold. Antonakakis , Chatziantoniou and Filis(2015)
took data of 106 countries during 1971-2011 which revealed that the effects of
the various types of energy consumption on economic growth and emissions are
heterogeneous on the various groups of countries. Moreover, causality between
total economic growth and energy consumption is bidirectional, and the
continued process of growth aggravates the greenhouse gas emissions
phenomenon. Omri(2015) examines the nexus between CO2 emissions, energy
consumption and economic growth using simultaneous-equations models with

panel data of 14 MENA countries over the period 1990-2011. His results show
that there exists bidirectional causal relationship between energy consumption
and economic growth and there exists bidirectional causal relationship between
economic growth and CO2 emissions for the region as a whole. Muhyidin,
Saifullah,& Fei(2015) showed that CO2 emission, income development level,
total energy usage within the country and industrial production index growth to
be cointegrated thus indicating a long-run cointegrating relationship among all
the series in Malaysia during 1970 to 2012. Mesagan(2015) studied in Nigeria
during 1970-2013 and verified that growth relates positively with CO2 emission
using VECM.In China, during 1990–2012, Wang ,Li , Fang , & Zhou(2016)
found that surprisingly, no such causal relation was found between economic
growth and CO2 emissions. Mir and Storm(2016) verified that CO2 emissions
are monotonically increasing with per capita GDP for 40 countries (and 35
industries) during 1995-2007. Magazzino(2016) showed that the predominance
of the “growth hypothesis” emerges in three GCC countries (Kuwait, Oman, and
Qatar), since energy use drives the real GDP. Moreover, only for Saudi Arabia a
clear long-run relation has not been discovered. Finally, the results of the
variance decompositions and impulse response functions broadly confirm their
previous empirical findings. Their results significantly reject the assumption that
energy is neutral for growth during 1960-2013. Xiongling (2016) suggests that
there is evidence that economic development can improve environmental
degradation in the long-run and economic growth may have an adverse effect on
the CO2 emissions in China during 1961-2010. Cederborg & Snöbohm(2016)
conducted on 69 industrial countries as well as 45 poor countries using cross-
sectional data and conclude that there is a relationship between economic growth
and environmental degradation, the impact of this relationship is however
different. The empirical result of the cross-sectional study implies there is in fact
a relationship between per capita GDP and per capita carbon dioxide emissions.
The correlation is positive. Ahmada, Azreen, Zulkiflib, Aziz,Hassanc,Yaseer &
Abdoh(2016) found strong positive relationship between GDP and energy
consumption during 1980-2011 in Malaysia.
III. Objectives of study

This study endeavours to verify the empirical relationship through econometric
models between world CO2 emission in kilo ton and world GDP(current
US$),world CO2 emission per capita in metric ton with world GDP and GDP per
capita (in current US$ ) and with their growth rates respectively during 1960-
2015 showing the empirical evidences in several countries.
IV. Data and Methodology

The data on Global CO2 emission in kiloton during 1960-2015 was collected
from Carbon-dioxide Information Analysis Centre Environmental Science
Division,Oale Ridge National Laborotory,Tennessee,USA. Global GDP and
GDP per capita,and their growth rates, global CO2 emission per capita in metric
ton during 1960-2015 were taken from World Bank. Semi-log and double –log
regression models were undertaken. For stationary ARIMA(1,1,1) models was
tested. Bai-Perron(2003) model was used to find out structural breaks. Granger
Causality test(1969) was done to show causal relationships among
variables.Johansen (1988,1995) model was used to get cointegration and error
corrections through VECM. Assume y=world GDP in current US$, x1=world co2
emission in( kt of co2 equivalent),kt=kilo ton,x2=world co2 emission per capita in
metric ton,x3= world GDP growth rate in annual %,x4=world GDP per capita
current us$, x5=world GDP per capita growth rate % respectively.
V. Findings from econometric models

World co2 emission (in kiloton of co2 equivalent) has been increasing at of rate of
2.199% per year during 1960-2015 significantly at 5% level which is alarming.
Log(x1)=16.20187+0.02199t
(753.08)*(33.48)*
R2=0.95,F=1121.57*,DW=0.08,x1=world co2 emission in Kt of co2 equivalent,
t=year, *=significant at 5% level.
In figure 1,the estimated semi-log linear trend line has been plotted which
showed increasing steadily upward.
17.50
17.25
17.00
actual
16.75
.2 fitted
log(x1) 16.50
.1
16.25
residual
16.00
.0
-.1
-.2
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 15
year(t)
Residual Actual Fitted
Figure 1: World CO2 emission

(Source-Plotted by Author)
And world co2 emission per capita in metric ton has been rising up at the rate of
0.58% per year during 1960-2015 significantly at 5% .
Log(x2)=1.253+0.005808t
(64.44)*(9.78)*
R2=0.639 , F=95.75* ,DW=0.097 , x2= world co2 emission per capita in metric
ton,*=significant 5% level.It is shown in Figure 2.
In Figure 2: The upward rising trend line of word co2 emission per capita in
metric ton
1.7
1.6
actual fitted 1.5
1.4
.15
1.3
log(x2)
.10 residual
1.2
.05
1.1
.00
-.05
-.10
-.15
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 15
year(t)
Figure 2: The upward rising trend line of word co2 emission per
capita in metric ton
(Source-Plotted by author)
ARIMA(1,1,1) model suggested that world co2 emission is stipulating but this
series during 1960-2015 has been converging and stationary since coefficients
AR and MA are less than one and whose t statistic are significant at 5% level. Its
inverted AR root is 1.00 and MA root is -0.67.
Log(x1t)= 16.74023+0.9977log(x1t-1)+ϵt+0.6743log(ϵt-1)+0.000665σ2t
(25.45)* (62.15)* (4.70)* (5.29)*
R2=0.99 ,F=3436.67* ,DW=1.64 , *=significant at 5% level.
Even, the world per capita co2 emission in metric ton has been rising in the
stationary and convergence fashion which is shown by ARIMA(1,1,1) model
where coefficients of AR and MA are less than one whose t statistic are
significant at 5% level and even t statistic of the coefficients of σ2t is also
significant at 5% level. The estimated model is highly significant since R2=0.96
and AR and MA roots are 0.99 and -0.51 respectively.
Log(x2t)= 1.39668+0.9881log(x2t-1)+ϵt+0.5147log(ϵt-1)+0.000448σ2t
(7.25)* (28.57)* (3.34)* (5.05)*
R2=0.96 ,F=516.24* ,DW=1.94 , *=significant at 5% level.
Variance ratio test confirmed that the world co2 emission (in kt co2 equivalent)
during 1960-2015 does not follow random walk and showed stationary because z
statistic of variance ratios from period one to sixteen are significant at 5% level
and joint test of maximum absolute z value is significant at 5% level. It is seen in
Table 1.
Table 1: Variance ratio Test

H0=log(x1)=Martingale, Lag specified as grid:Min-2,Max-16,step-1
Joint tests Value df Probability

Max Z at period 10 4.7327 55 0.00
Individual tests
Period Variance SE Z statistics
ratio
2 1.44 0.16 2.75 0.00
3 1.76 0.231 3.28 0.00
4 2.07 0.281 3.81 0.00
5 2.26 0.319 3.96 0.00
6 2.41 0.352 4.02 0.00
7 2.60 0.382 4.20 0.00
8 2.82 0.410 4.45 0.00
9 3.02 0.437 4.64 0.00
10 3.18 0.461 4.73 0.00
11 3.26 0.484 4.67 0.00
12 3.29 0.506 4.54 0.00
13 3.28 0.527 4.32 0.00
14 3.18 0.548 3.98 0.00
15 3.12 0.568 3.73 0.00
16 3.14 0.587 3.65 0.00
Source-Calculated by Author
Moreover, Variance ratio test confirmed that the world co2 emission per capita
(in metric ton) during 1960-2015 does not follow random walk and showed
stationary because z statistic of variance ratios from period one to sixteen are
significant at 5% level and joint test of maximum absolute z value is significant
at 5% level.It is seen in Table 2.
Table 2: Variance ratio test
H0=log(x2)=Martingale, Lag specified as grid:Min-2,Max-16,step-1
Joint tests Value df Probability

Max Z at period 11 4.43 55 0.00
Individual tests
Period Variance ratio SE Z statistics
2 1.41 0.172 2.38 0.00
3 1.69 0.247 2.82 0.00
4 1.99 0.297 3.32 0.00
5 2.17 0.335 3.49 0.00
6 2.31 0.367 3.56 0.00
7 2.45 0.396 3.67 0.00
8 2.67 0.424 3.95 0.00
9 2.88 0.450 4.19 0.00
10 3.07 0.474 4.37 0.00
11 3.20 0.496 4.43 0.00
12 3.28 0.518 4.41 0.00
13 3.31 0.539 4.29 0.00
14 3.23 0.559 4.00 0.00
15 3.21 0.578 3.82 0.00
16 3.24 0.597 3.76 0.00
Following Bai-Perron test of L+1 vs L sequentially determined breaks selecting

trimming 0.15 with maximum five breaks, we have found four structural breaks
of the world co2 emission in kilo ton co2 equivalent during 1960-2015 in which
all breaks are upward in 1968,1976,1988 and 2004 respectively and found
significant at 5% level. The t values of the coefficients in all breaks are
significant.All are seen in Table 3.
Table 3: Structural breaks(HAC Standard error & covariance(Bartlett

Kernel,Newey-West fixed bandwidth=4.0))
Variable Coefficient SE T statistic Probability

1960-67=8obs
C 16.18 0.027 589.83 0.00
1968-1975=8obs
C 16.54 0.027 603.19 0.00
1976-1987=12obs
C 16.77 0.022 748.67 0.00
1988-2003=16obs
C 16.97 0.019 875.15 0.00
2004-2015=12obs
C 17.30 0.022 772.60 0.00
R2=0.95,F=295.13* AIC=-2.189,SC=- DW=0.93
2.0
The estimated structural breaks are seen in Figure 3 including actual line of
world co2emission during 1960-2015.
17.6
break-4(2004)
17.2
break-3(1988)
break-2(1976) actual 16.8
break-1(1968)
16.4
.2
log(x1)
16.0
.1
residual
.0
-.1
-.2
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 15
year(t)
Figure 3: Structural breaks of world co2 emission.

Similarly, following same methodology, we have found two structural breaks of

the world per capita co2 emission in metric ton during 1960-2015 in which all
breaks are upward in 1969 and 2005 respectively and found significant at 5%
level. The t values of the coefficients in all breaks are significant. All are seen in
Table 4.
Table 4: Structural break (HAC Standard error & covariance(Bartlett
Kernel,Newey-West fixed bandwidth=4.0))
Variable Coefficient SE T statistic Probability

1960-68=9obs
C 1.205 0.034 35.21 0.00
1969-2004 =36obs
C 1.42 0.008 162.16 0.00
2005-2015 =11obs
C 1.57 0.019 82.47 0.00
R2=0.87, F=192.37*, AIC=-3.47, SC=-3.34, DW=0.79, Source-Calculated by
Author
The estimated structural breaks are seen in Figure 4 including actual line of
world per capita co2emission during 1960-2015.
1.7
break-2(2005) 1.6
actual 1.5
break-1(1969)
1.4
1.3
1.2
log(x2)
.10
1.1
.05
residual
.00
-.05
-.10
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 15
year(t)
Figure 4: Structural breaks of world co2 emission per capita.

There is a positive relation between world GDP and world co2 emission in
kiloton during 1960-2015.It is verified by double log linear regression model
which is stated below. It states that one percent increase in world co2 emission
per year led to 3.38 per cent increase in world GDP per year which is statistically
significant at 5% level.
Log(y)=-54.28797+3.381542log(x1)
(-37.502)* (39.32)*
R2=0.96 ,F=1546.084 ,DW=0.092 ,*=significant at 5% level, y=world GDP in
current US$ , x1=world co2 emission in kt co2 equivalent.
Similarly, one per cent increase in world co2 emission per capita per year led to
8.721 per cent increase in world GDP in current US$ per year during 1960-2015
which is significant at 5% level.
Log(y)=-9.754799+8.721039log(x2)
(-8.20)* (10.44)*
R2=0.66,F=109.128*,DW=0.0600,x2=world co2 emission per capita in metric
ton,*=significant at 5% level.
But, the relation is not the identical in the growth rate of world GDP which is
inversely related with world co2 emission, i.e., one per cent increase in world co2
emission in kiloton per year led to 0.965092 per cent decrease in world GDP
growth rate per year during 1960-2015 which is significant at 5% level.
Log(x3)=17.29152-0.965092log(x1)
(2.44)* (2.29)*
R2=0.088,F=5.26*,DW=2.00 ,x3=world GDP growth rate,*=significant at 5%
level.
2
actual
1 fitted
-1
LOG(X3)
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5
LOG(X1)
Figure 5: Relation between x3 and x1

Similarly, one per cent increase in world co2 emission per capita in metric ton per
year led to 2.46097 per cent fall in world GDP growth rate per year during 1960-
2015 which is significant at 5% level.
Log(x3)=4.542009-2.460974log(x2)
(2.41)* (-1.859)*
R2=0.060,F=3.457 ,DW=1.97,*=significant at 5% level.x2= world co2 emission
per capita in metric ton x3= world GDP growth rate in annual %,
2
1 fitted
actual
0
-1
LOG(X3)
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65
LOG(X2)

(Source-Plotted by author)
Causality tests assured that there are bidirectional causality between world GDP
and world Co2 emission in kiloton,and per capita world co2 emission in metric
ton but there are unidirectional causality between world GDP growth rate ,world
co2 emission in kiloton and world’s co2 emission per capita in metric ton during
1960-2015 respectively. The causality test results are given below.
Table 5: Causality test
Null Hypothesis Observations F statistic Probability

y does not Granger Cause x1 55 0.58 0.44
x1 does not Granger cause y 3.94 0.05
y does not Granger Cause x2 55 2.81 0.09
x2 does not Granger Cause y 0.40 0.52
x3 does not Granger Cause x1 55 3.90 0.05
x1 does not Granger Cause x3 7.72 0.00
x3 does not Granger Cause x2 55 4.54 0.03
x2 does not Granger Cause x3 11.44 0.00
(Source-Calculated by Author)
One per cent rise in world GDP per capita per year led to 0.3611 per cent hike in
world co2 emission per year during 1960-2015 which is highly significant at 1%
level.
Log(x1)=13.96426+0.36115log(x4)
(183.38)* (37.90)*
R2=0.96 , F=1436.94* ,DW=0.099,x4= world GDP per capita current US$,
It is depicted in Figure 7 in which the fitted line is shown upward.
9.5
9.0
actual
8.5
8.0
LOG(X4)
7.5 fitted
7.0
6.5
6.0
16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5
LOG(X1)

They are causally related uni-directionally which is given in Table 6.

Table 6: Causality between x1 and x4
Hypothesis Observation F Statistic probability

x4 does not Granger cause x1 55 0.03229 0.85
x1 does nor Granger cause x4 4.709 0.03
2
1 fitted
actual
0
LOG(X3) -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65
LOG(X2)

One per cent rise in world GDP per capita per year led to 0.0973 per cent hike in
world co2 emission per year during 1960-2015 which is highly significant at 1%
level.
Log(x2)=0.6468+0.0973log(x4)
(8.75)*(10.53)*
R2=0.67 ,F=110.92* ,DW=0.094
It is depicted in Figure 9 in which the fitted line is shown upward
9.5
9.0 actual
8.5
8.0
LOG(X4)
7.5 fitted
7.0
6.5
6.0
1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65
LOG(X2)

Their causal relationship is bi-directional which is shown in Table 7.

Table 7: Causality between x2 and x4
Hypothesis Observation F Statistic probability

x4 does not Granger cause x2 55 1.522 0.22
x2 does nor Granger cause x4 0.6670 0.41
It is estimated that one per cent increase in world co2 emission per year led to
0.86028 per cent decrease in world GDP per capita growth rate per year during
1960-2015 which is insignificant at 5% level.
Log(x5)=14.375-0.860281log(x1)
(1.0) (-1.01)
R2=0.018 ,F=1.027 ,DW=1.57,x5= world GDP per capita growth rate %
respectively
In Figure 10,the downward linearly fitted line is shown.
2
actual
0
fitted
-2
LOG(X5)
-4
-6
-8
-10
16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5
LOG(X1)
Figure 10: Relation between world co2 emission and world GDP per capita
growth rate
Similarly, one per cent increase in the world co2 emission per capita per year will
induce 2.92% decrease in the world GDP per capita growth rate per year during
1960-2015 which is insignificant.
Log(x5)=4.048-2.9249log(x2)
(1.08) (-1.11)
R2=0.022,F=1.24,DW=1.59
It is shown below in Figure 11 .
2
actual
0 fitted
-2
LOG(X5)
-4
-6
-8
-10
1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65
LOG(X2)
Figure 11: Relation between world co2 emission per capita and world GDP per
capita growth rate
Moreover, we have found that there is no cointegrating relationship between

world GDP in current US$ ,world Co2 emission in kiloton and world co2
emission per capita in metric ton during 1960-2015 repectively which have been
obtained by the Johansen cointegration test given below.
Table 8: Cointegration rank test between x1 and y
Hypothesised Eigen value Trace 0.05 critical Probability**

no of CEs Statistics value
None 0.1727 12.08 15.49 0.15
At most 1 0.0337 1.851 3.84 0.17
Max Eigen
Statistic
None 0.1727 10.23 14.26 0.19
At most 1 0.0337 1.851 3.84 0.17
Table 9: Cointegration rank test between x2 and y
Hypothesised no of Eigen Trace Statistics 0.05 critical Probability**

CEs value value
None 0.126 9.268 15.49 0.34
At most 1 0.036 1.99 3.84 0.17
Max Eigen
Statistic
None 0.126 7.27 14.26 0.45
At most 1 0.036 1.99 3.84 0.15
Source-Calculated by Author, ** denotes Mackinnon-Haug-Michelis(1999) p

value
But it was found that there is one cointegrating vector each between world GDP
growth rate with world co2 emission in kiloton and world co2 emission per capita
in metric ton respectively during 1960-2015 which were calculated by Johansen
cointegration test where Trace statistic and Max Eigen statistic are significant for
one cointegrating equation in both the cases.
Table 10: Cointegration rank test between world GDP growth and world co2
emission
Hypothesized no of Eigen Trace statistic 0.05 critical Probability**

CEs value value
None* 0.328 21.79 15.49 0.00
Atmost 1 0.005 0.306 3.84 0.58
Max Eigen
Statistic
None* 0.328 21.48 14.26 0.00
At most 1 0.005 0.306 3.84 0.58
*Denotes rejection of null hypothesis at 0.05 level,** denotes Mackinnon-Haug-
Michelis(1999) p value,Source-Calculated by author
Table 11: Cointegration rank test between world GDP growth and world co2
emission per capita
Hypothesized no Eigen Trace statistic 0.05 critical Probability**

of CEs value value
None* 0.375 27.36 15.49 0.00
Atmost 1 0.0358 1.97 3.84 0.16
Max Eigen
Statistic
None* 0.375 25.39 14.26 0.00
At most 1 0.0358 1.97 3.84 0.16
*Denotes rejection of null hypothesis at 0.05 level,** denotes Mackinnon-Haug-

Michelis(1999) p value,Source-Calculated by author
The VEC Model between world GDP growth rate and world co2 emission during
1960-2015 is estimated below. All equations are not good fit and error correction
is significant at the equation ∆x3t and its speed of adjustment is low.
∆x1t=372545.8+0.2589∆x1t-1 +106853.9∆x3t-1-0.0045EC
(3.38)* (1.39) (2.209)* (-0.493)
R2=0.178,F=3.62,AIC=28.92,SC=29.07 ,
∆x3t=-0.1619+2.81E-07∆x1t-1+0.1868∆x3t-1-1.06E-07EC
(-0.527) (0.54) (1.38) (-4.09)*
R2=0.368,F=9.73 ,AIC=3.34,SC=3.49
This VECM is stable since all of inverse roots of AR characteristic polynomial

are lying inside the unit circle. The roots are (1.0,0.259±0.369i,0.0817) which are
shown below.
Inverse Roots of AR Characteristic Polynomial
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Figure 12: Unit circle

The impulse response functions state that any external shock may lead to
stationary process which are seen in the Figure 13.
Response to Cholesky One S.D. Innovations

Response of X1 to X1 Response of X1 to X3
800,000 800,000
600,000 600,000
400,000 400,000
200,000 200,000
0 0
-200,000 -200,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
-0.2 -0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 13: Impulse response functions

Residual test for normality of VECM suggested that Hansen-Doornik (1994)

procedure of residual correlation where Chi-square test of skewness, kurtosis and
Jarque Bera were not significant in some cases of component and joint analysis.
It is shown in Table 12 below.
Table 12: Normality test
Component Skewness Chi square df Probability

1 1.217 11.55 1 0.00
2 -0.4436 2.041 1 0.15
Joint 13.60 2 0.00
Kurtosis
1 5.654 0.0068 1 0.93
2 2.549 1.264 1 0.26
Joint 1.271 2 0.529
Jarque-Bera
1 11.56 2 0.00
2 3.305 2 0.19
Joint 14.87 4 0.00
The estimated model of VECM between world GDP growth rate and world co2
emission per capita is given below where R2 are very low, error correction in
second equation is significant but the speed of adjustment is very fast.
∆x2t=0.0267+0.3361∆x2t-1 +0.0225∆x3t-1-0.0202EC
(1.99) (1.73) (2.54)* (-0.088)
R2=0.21,F=4.44,AIC=-2.03,SC=-1.88 ,*=significant at 5% level
∆x3t=-0.1334+3.08∆x2t-1+0.1652∆x3t-1-1.514EC
(-0.69) (1.11) (1.31) (-4.64)*
R2=0.41,F=11.68 ,AIC=3.27,SC=3.42,*=significant at 5% level.
This VECM is stable since all of inverse roots of AR characteristic polynomial

are lying inside the unit circle. The roots are (1.0,0.309±0.429i,-0.0496) which
are shown below.
Inverse Roots of AR Characteristic Polynomial
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Figure 14: Unit circle

Source-Plotted by Author
The impulse response functions state that any external shock may lead to
stationary process which are seen in the figure 15.
Response to Cholesky One S.D. Innovations
.16 .16
.12 .12
.08 .08
.04 .04
.00 .00
-.04 -.04
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.00 1.00
0.75 0.75
0.50 0.50
0.25 0.25
0.00 0.00
-0.25 -0.25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 15: Impulse response function

Source- Plotted by Author
Residual test for normality of VECM suggested that Hansen-Doornik (1994)

procedure of residual correlation where Chi-square test of skewness, kurtosis and
Jarque Bera were not significant in all cases of component and joint analysis. It is
shown in Table 13 below.
Table 13: Normality test
Component Skewness Chi square df Probability

1 0.372 1.464 1 0.2262
2 -0.1179 0.1530 1 0.695
Joint 1.168 2 0.445
Kurtosis
1 3.64 1.743 1 0.186
2 2.39 0.394 1 0.530
Joint 2.137 2 0.343
Jarque-Bera
1 3.208 2 0.201
2 0.547 2 0.760
Joint 3.75 4 0.440
VI. Limitations and future scope of this study

There are other indicators which influence CO2 emissions, all of which are not
included in the models. Environment Kuznet curve is not explained here in
details because this hypothesis is critical to analyse by this simple tools taken in
the model. Global emission and GDP relation in individual country’s case study
is not taken into account in this study. It is left for future study.
VII. Concluding remarks

The paper concludes that the global co2 emission has been rising at the rate of
2.19% per year and per capita co2 emission is rising at the rate of 0.58% per
annum significantly during 1960-2015.Both of them are stationary, stable and
convergent according to ARIMA(1,1,1) model and they do not belong to random
walk hypothesis. Global CO2 emission during 1960-2015 contains four upward
structural breaks in 1968, 1976, 1988, and 2004 respectively and per capita
emission has two upward structural breaks in 1969 and 2005 respectively. World
CO2 emission is positively related significantly with global GDP, and GDP per
capita during 1960-2015.World CO2 emission per capita is positively related
significantly with world GDP,GDP growth per capita during the same period.
But global GDP growth is negatively related with global CO2 emission
significant during 1960-2015.There are no cointegration between world GDP and
world CO2 emission and CO2 emission per capita but there is one cointegrating
vector in each between global GDP growth , global CO2 emission and world CO2
emission per capita during 1960-2015 repectively. Both of them have stable,
stationary and convergent VEC model whose impulse response functions are
converging towards zero.
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CHAPTER - 8
Climate Change and Its Impact on

Environment
Dr. G.Parimalarani
Associate Professor, Department of Banking Management,
Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamilnadu
1. Introduction:
The industrialization that started from the late 17th Century is believed to have
accelerated the process of climate change by emissions of Greenhouse Gases to
the atmosphere. The liberalization of the Indian Economy in the early 1990s and
the unprecedented growth have brought our country in the centre stage of climate
change discussions. The present state of the environment with regard to climate
change is reflected in the condition of the atmosphere and hydrological system of
the earth.
Climate change is a driving force of evolution that life on earth has undergone
since its origin. The impacts of climate change is engaging the attention of
planners, governments and the politicians worldwide since the emergence of the
threat of climate change which has origins in anthropogenic activities. There is a
growing concern about manmade developments causing, even if partially or
insignificantly, the climate change outcomes. The Fourth Assessment Report of
the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) has reported that the
impact of human activities on climate and climate systems is unequivocal. It is
no longer the scientific enquiry but the concern now rather is the timing and
magnitude of the abrupt changes in the climate.
2. Driving forces of climate change

Basic economic developments are the main drivers behind human induced
climate change. Increased production of goods and services, changes in the
production structure, increased transportation, a higher demand for all kinds of
consumer goods, etc., contribute to a higher pressure on the atmosphere thereby
increasing the greenhouse gas concentration. Particularly important is, of course,
the ever increasing demand for energy. At present the world’s economy runs on
fossil fuels. The combustion of coal, oil and natural gas and derived products
provide energy to nearly all economic activities. The emission of Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) is a residual product of burning these fossil fuels. Also changes in land
use pattern, deforestation and land clearings are important driving forces leading
to a rise in Carbon Dioxide emissions.
2.1 Pressure on the environment:

Driving forces lead to human activities such as transportation or food production,
i.e. result in meeting a need. These human activities exert 'pressures' on the
environment, as a result of production or consumption processes, which can be
divided into three main types: (i) excessive use of environmental resources, (ii)
changes in land use, and (iii) emissions (of chemicals, waste, radiation, noise) to
air, water and soil. Emissions include direct emissions to air, water and soil,
indirect emissions to air.
3. Factors Influencing Climate Change

Climate is a vibrant phenomenon and undergoes continuous changes over
centuries. There are natural forces like photosynthesis of the plants, eruption of
volcanoes, emission of methane from agricultural activities, vapor emissions etc.
The important factors, which are responsible for climate change and are causally
contributed by human civilization on earth, are listed below:
• Greenhouse Gases
• Deforestation
• Land-use Change
• Energy Usage
• Vehicular Usage
3.1 Greenhouse Gases

Human civilization and industrialization have amplified the emissions of
‘Greenhouse Gases’, which are considered to be one of the main causal factors
accelerating climate change in the post industrialization era. GHGs constitute
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
• Methane (CH4),
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O),
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perflurocarbons (PFCs)
• Sulpurhexafluoride (SF6)
In addition to this, water vapor, which absorbs the heat radiations from Sun and
trap such radiations in the atmosphere making the earth warmer, is considered
important. Emissions of GHGs beyond certain limits make earth’s atmosphere
hotter and induce climate change. The extent of GHGs in the atmosphere
increased phenomenally from 280 ppm1 (1750) to 379 ppm in 2005 (IPCC-
AR42). The available global data on CO2 since 1970 indicates that the annual
emissions have grown at about 80% from 21 to 38 gigatons, which represents
77% of the total anthropogenic emissions. The global increases in CO2
concentrations are primarily due to
• Fossil Fuel Use
• Land-use and Land-use Change
• Agricultural activities
• Industrial Development
• Forestry
Table 1: Emission data for selected countries (2008)
Region/Country Energy Co2 Per capita Kg Percapia Percapita

consumed Emission energy CO2/$GDP electricity CO2
(MTOE) (MT cons.(Kg.OE) PPP) cons(kwh) emission
CO2) (tones)
World 12029.0 28962 1.82 0.47 2752 4.38
China 1970.0 6071 1.48 0.60 2346 4.58
Brazil 235.6 347 1.23 0.22 2154 1.50
India 421.0 1146 0.53 0.28 543 1.18
Japan 513.5 1236 4.02 0.34 8475 9.68
S.Africa 134.3 346 2.82 0.67 5013 7.27
Thailand 104.0 226 1.63 0.41 2157 3.54

Turkey 100.0 265 1.35 0.32 2210 3.59
UK 211.0 523 3.48 0.29 6142 8.60
USA 2340.0 5769 7.75 0.50 13616 19.10
France 264.0 369 4.15 0.21 7573 5.81
Germany 331.0 798 4.03 0.34 7185 9.71
Russia 786.0 1593 5.54 0.97 6443 11.24
Source: Programme implementation statistics related to climate change-India

2015, GOI
MTOE: Metric Tons of oil Equivalent: MT CO2: million tons , OE-Oil
Equivalent :KWH: Kilo watt hour
CO2 is the most important anthropogenic GHG as it constitutes about 70% of the
total emissions. CO2 originates from burning of fossil fuel (56.6%), deforestation
and decay of biomass (17.3%), agriculture etc. The largest growth in GHG
emissions between 1970 and 2004 has come from energy supply, transport and
industry while deforestation, agriculture and residential/commercial buildings are
only minor contributing factors.

India’s share of CO2 in the total emissions in the world is very insignificant in
per-capita terms. The per-capita emission of an Indian citizen is 1.2 tons of
Carbon dioxide whereas his counterpart in USA contributing 20.6 tons as per
UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008. The per-capita emissions of UK
and Japan are 8 and of USA 17 times higher than that of India. India’s
contribution to the world total is only 4.6% when compared to USA’s
contribution of 20.9% followed by 17.3% of China.
The energy sector is the major producer of CO2. 58.6 % of our energy needs are
met from coal , which is abundant, locally available and cheap when compared to
alternative fuels. As per Central Electricity Authority CO2 Baseline Database for
the Indian Power Sector, CO2 emissions in the power sector are continuously
increasing in all parts of the country.
The global atmospheric concentration of Methane has increased from pre-
industrial value of about 715ppb (Particles per Billion) to 1774ppb in 2005 (The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4th Annual Report (IPCC-AR4).
Methane is generated due to the following activities:
• Agriculture
• Energy Sources like biomass burning, coal mining and handling and
flaring of natural gas systems
• Waste disposal
• Land-use
• Land-use Change
• Forestry
• Shifting Cultivation practice
In India, the Methane emissions in the year 1994 were 18,583 Gg, (Giga gram)
out of which 78% came from agriculture, 16% from energy sources and 6% from
waste disposal. The rest is contributed by other activities mentioned above.
Global Nitrous Oxide concentration increased from about 270 ppb (1750) to 319
ppb (2005). Many halocarbons including hydro-fluro-carbons have also
increased from a near-zero level to significant levels primarily due to human
activities.
3.2 Land-use Change

Land-use change is another major predicament to be viewed seriously. As per the
data available, after the enactment of Forest Conservation Act, 1980, a huge
portion of forestland is diverted for non-forest use. The reported figure for the
year 1981 is 1331 ha whereas the cumulative figure till 2004 is 9,54,839 Ha. A
relative growth in the land-use change is also visible in urban and rural areas due
to urbanization and industrialization. Fragmentation of forests and habitats are
another major reason for loss of biodiversity. There are no data which gives any
indication of loss of biodiversity and loss of biomass due to this land use change.
3.3 Energy Usage

After the liberalization and globalization, India is on a high growth path and
envisages about 7-8% GDP growth rate per annum. The energy generation has
grown manifold due to the ever increasing demand for energy since 1992. Coal,
Gas and Diesel being the major sources of power in India, the emissions of
GHGs are also on the rise. The GHG emission level estimation, however,
depends on utilization of installed capacity.
In addition to this, the unorganized sector is also engaged in power generation
through low capacity diesel generator sets and coal-fired generators. Data on
such activities are not available and extent of pollution caused by such units is
still beyond our reach.
3.4 Vehicular Usage

The number of vehicles registered in India is on the increase over the last 7 years
at an average annual cumulative rate of 10%( data from 2004 to 2011). It
indicates the increases in the use of fossil fuel and thereby an increases in GHG
emissions. Data reveals that there has been consistent growth in vehicular
registration, however no indication on the emission load is available. The
emission load depends on the types of vehicle. In India, we have standard and
non-standard vehicular emissions, which also vary from place to place depending
on regulatory mechanisms in use by the civic and local authorities in different
areas. Some metropolitan cities have standards in consonance with the European
Emission standards, but the data are not captured according to the types of
vehicles and their average usage per annum.
4. Visible/Perceivable Impacts of Climate Change

The resilience of the ecosystems is likely to be disturbed in the future due to
abrupt climatic change which could appear in the form of floods, drought,
wildfires, ocean acidification etc., inducing further loss of biodiversity and the
earth’s latent capacity for mitigation and regeneration. The rise in temperature,
change in precipitation patterns, sea level rise, melting of snow cover and
mountain glaciers, coastal erosion and occurrence of health hazards and disaster
events are perceived as the visible impacts of climate change. The following are
the main dimensions/impacts of climate change and some of these are explained
in brief in the sub- sections which follow.
• Temperature
• Rainfall (Precipitation)
• Mountain Glaciers
• Sea Level Rise
• Health
• Agriculture
• Coastal Erosion
• Biodiversity Loss
• Storm/Storm Events
• Soil Moisture Availability
• Sea Surface Temperature
4.1 Temperature
The temperature increase is wide spread across the globe and is greater at higher
northern latitudes. It is estimated that there is a 100-year linear trend of 0.740C
increase. It is observed since 1961 that the average temperature of the global
ocean has been taking up over 80% of the heat being added to the climate
system. Warming of the climate system induces increase in global average air
and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global
average sea level.
In India, an increase in the linear trend of about 0.40C in the surface air
temperature hasbeen observed in the past century. A warming trend is visible
along the west coast, central India, interior peninsula and the North-Eastern
India, but some cooling trends are also visible in the North-West India and parts
of South-India. (NAPCC, 2008). To analyze the comparative change in the
Indian peninsula, both sea level temperature and land surface temperature are
required to be recorded on long term basis at different climatic zones of the
country. India Meteorological Department (IMD) is the nodal agency to provide
the data on temperature. The time series data on mean temperature of major cities
in India are available with this department.
4.2 Rainfall (Precipitation)

Indian monsoon rains are the backbone of Indian economy as most of our
agricultural activities, rivers and replenishment of ground water sources have a
direct dependence on monsoon rains. Monsoon rains are a manifestation of the
complex interactions between land, ocean and atmosphere. Rainfall data are
collected by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in respect of the
meteorological subdivisions of the country on day-to-day basis. A significantly
long series of rainfall data are therefore available to analyze patterns of change in
distribution, intensity and duration of rainfall. The All-India rainfall data do not
show any significant trend in monsoon rains, however, there are some regional
variations. A trend of about 10 to 12% (of the normal) increase in monsoon rains
were reported along the west coast, northern Andhra Pradesh and north-western
India during the last century. A decreasing trend of about 6 to 8% is observed
over the last 100 years over eastern Madhya Pradesh, North-Eastern India and
some parts of Gujarat and Kerala (NAPCC, 2008).
4.3 Mountain Glaciers

The ice and snow deposits on the Himalayan ranges are lifelines of northern
India in many ways. These deposits provide a perennial supply of water though
many rivers, which cater to the livelihood, drinking water, and water for
industrial purposes. Any recession in the snow cover in the Himalayas is going to
affect the life in the Northern parts of India where half of India’s population
resides. The available data on snowfall in Himalayan ranges show a recession in
some parts of the Himalayan ranges. The river systems of the Brahmaputra, the
Ganges and the Indus draws water directly from melting of the Himalayas.
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) and Snow and Avalanche Studies
Establishment (SASE) are responsible for collection and supply of data on
cryosphere (the component of earth’s system comprising frozen water like
snow, permafrost and glaciers).
4.4 Sea Level Rise

IPCC has estimated a sea level rise of 1 to 2 mm per year globally. Due to sea
level rise, the fresh water sources near the coastal areas will suffer from salt
intrusion and inundation of coastal areas where the density of population and
their dependence on sea for livelihood activities are high.
4.5 Health
There is a high incidence of occurrence of vector borne diseases like Malaria,
Kala-azar, Japanese Encephalitis, filaria, Chikungunia etc., in the immediate
past. It is observed that changes in climatic patterns may alter the distribution of
vector species and increase its spread in new areas. An increase in temperature
and relative humidity may enlarge the transmission windows. Effluent emissions
to water bodies and salination of rivers through sea level rise may increase the
incidence of water borne diseases. Deaths due to heat wave are reported from
several parts of the country from time to time, particularly during the summer.
Central Bureau of Health Intelligence (CBHI) under Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare compiles data on cases/death due to communicable diseases.
However, the reasons for variations should be traced in linkage with the climate
change over time, so that the impact of climate change could be ascertained on
disease patterns.
4.6 Agriculture
India is a predominantly agriculture-oriented economy, as 52% of the population
directly depends on agriculture either as farmers or agricultural laborers, and
their concentration is higher at 76% in the villages. Variation in climate will have
a direct impact on the majority of the livelihood of the people. Food production
in India is sensitive to climate change like variations in temperature and monsoon
rainfall. Rise in temperature has a direct impact on the Rabi crop and every 10C
rise will reduce wheat production by 4 to 5 Million Tons. Every small change in
temperature and rainfall has significant effect on the quality and quantity of
fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, basmati rice and aromatic and medicinal plants. It
is predicted that a loss of 10 to 40% in production may occur by 2100 due to
climate change (NAPCC).
4.7 Coastal Erosion

Population in coastal regions are vulnerable to natural disasters like cyclones,
floods, droughts, soil and land erosion leading to irreparable loss or damage to
sown areas in arid and semi-arid zones caused by climate change. About 40
million hectares of land is flood-prone, including river-deltas on three sides of
the country stretching over 6000 km of coastal belt, affecting about 30 million
people on an average each year. National Institute of Disaster r Management and
CSO are responsible for the collection and compilation of hazard and disaster
data respectively. State governments would also start compiling data on disasters
at district levels. All these inputs are to be integrated to assess climate change
impacts.
4.8 Biodiversity Loss

India is one of the species-rich countries in the world and about 6% of the
world’s biodiversity is reported from India. The existence of biodiversity helps to
keep a balance between the environment and earth through its ecosystem
services. A comparison of data on ‘Number and status of plant species in India’
published in 2001 and 2007 does not give any indication to the extent of change
which happened in the last few years due to rapid economic growth, urbanization
and land-use change. The existing data do not provide any insight into the loss of
biodiversity in the country. The NAPCC also emphasizes on the need for
‘creation of biodiversity registers (at national, district and local levels) for
documenting genetic diversity and the associated traditional knowledge. Some
interesting findings here are the reduction in the number of known species in
India of ‘Fern & Fernallics’ from 1200 to 1135 during the reference period
(2001-2007).
Zoological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Forest Survey of India
and the State Forest Department are responsible for collection and supply of data
related to biodiversity.
4.9 Storm/Storm Events

The ‘Storm Event’ is a rainfall event that produces more than 0.1 inch of
precipitation and that, which is separated from the previous storm event by at
least 72 hours of dry weather.
4.10 Soil Moisture Availability

‘Soil moisture’ is the ability of the soil to hold water. Soil moisture impacts the
distribution and growth of vegetation, soil aeration, soil microbial activity, soil
erosion, concentration of toxic substance, the movement of nutrients within the
soil and to the roots.
4.11 Sea Surface Temperature

Sea surface temperature is the temperature of the water close to the surface of the
sea, which is measured by drawing water from one meter below the surface of
the sea.
5. The impact of climate change on the economy

Climate change has the potential to create a wide range of economic impacts. In
all likelihood all sectors of the economy will be affected. Some impacts will
gradually affect economic processes, such as the effect of increasing temperature
on energy demand, whereas others may come as extreme events, such as sudden
floods or forest fires. Impacts may be either negative or positive. For example,
agriculture may become more productive or tourism may flourish in areas
experiencing higher or lower temperatures. However, in a global level, the
negative impacts will generally outweigh the economic benefits. Beside industry
specific impacts, the economy as a whole may be at risk in certain areas due to
an increase in sea level and an increase in runoff by rivers. Coastal zones usually
contain large human populations and a high concentration of economic activities.
Flooding and extreme storm events may seriously disrupt economic activities and
cause loss of produced capital. The same is true for areas adjacent to major river
systems which may be subject to flooding when precipitation and overland flow
increases.
Assessing the impact of climate change faces a fundamental challenge of
complexity. The set of mechanisms through which climate may influence
economic outcomes, positive or negative is extremely large and difficult to
investigate. For example, a decrease in agricultural output or value added
products may be induced by climate change. However, climate change is only
one driver among many that will shape agriculture in future decades. Other
factors, such as technological developments, socio-economic factors or other
environmental issues could have a similar large impact.
6. India and Climate change –Mitigation and Adaptation

There are two options available to address the problems which may arise out of
pollutions caused to the air, water or soil. The term ‘mitigation’ involves actions
that reduce the likelihood of the event or process. In other words, Mitigation
refers to measures for reduction of emissions of GHGs that cause climate change
like switching from fossil fuel based power generation to alternative sources of
renewable energy like solar, wind, nuclear etc. ‘Adaptation’ involves actions that
reduce the impact of the event or process without changing the likelihood that it
will occur. The process may include relocating the communities living close to
the sea level or switching to crops that can withstand higher temperature etc
Under the ambit of NAPCC, 8 Missions have been initiated to implement the
programmes related to mitigation and adaptation. The missions are:
• National Solar Mission
• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency in Industry
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
• National Water Mission
• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
• National Mission for a ‘Green India’
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
These eight form the core of National Action Plan representing multi-
Pronged long term and integrated strategy for achieving the goals in the context
of climate change. For institutionalizing the National Mission, nodal ministries
have been identified for each of the missions.
Climate action is on the upswing with several concurrent initiatives unfolding
simultaneously and serving as an impetus for action at all levels- global, national
and organizational. Over 160 Governments submitted Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement; United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) were rolled out; while the Financial Stability
Board’s Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) declared
their recommendations for the adoption and merging of climate and financial
reporting
7.1 India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

In the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in
Paris, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) requested all countries to codify their contributions on the reduction
in GHG emissions and overall enhancement in climate performance.
These submissions would include information about the country’s emission
reduction plans, pragmatic timelines required to achieve this deadline, scope of
emission reduction, type of approach to be adopted for the same and a base year
from which emission reductions will be measured, and a robust adaptation plan.
India’s NDC pledged to undertake the following activities –
 Reduce emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005
levels;
 Increase the share of non-fossil fuel-based electricity to 40% by 2030;
 Increase renewable energy generation to 175 GW by 2022;
 Enhance its forest cover which will absorb 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of
carbon dioxide by 2030.
By implementing the objectives set forth in the NDCs, India aims to pursue a
low-carbon emissions pathway, while simultaneously endeavoring to meet all the
developmental challenges that the country faces today. The eight key parameters
highlighted in the NDC are Sustainable Lifestyles, Cleaner Economic
Development, Reduce Emission Intensity of GDP, Increase the Share of Non-
Fossil Fuel Based Electricity, Enhance Forests Carbon Sink, Adapt to Climate
Change, Mobilize Finance, and Technology Development &Transfer.
8. Conclusion
Climate has played a significant role in the economic development of India.
Climate change is net result of several factors and many sectors of the economy
are climate sensitive. In a world buffeted by hurricanes, floods, drought, extreme
heat and debilitating water shortages, Companies are increasingly being called up
to take action. Governments are considering radical and unprecedented actions
like India aims to become 100% e-vehicle nation by 2030 which has thrown the
auto industry in whirl of activity. Experts are already examining implications on
electricity generation and renewable targets along with energy storage options.
Think tanks are looking at the feasibility of increasing India’s renewable target
from 175 GW to 400 GW by 2030. With newer forms of carbon markets and
products coming to fore, those who prepare for a carbon constrained world will
reap the benefits. National governments have pledged NDCs and are working on
operational plans to address climate change .
References
Editorial Note. 2015. “Editorial Note: Correction to Richard S. Tol's ‘The
Economic Effects of Climate Change’,” Journal of Economic
Perspectives, vol. 29, no. 1, Winter, 217-20.
Fankhauser, Samuel. 1995. Valuing Climate Change—The Economics of the
Greenhouse, 1st edition. London: EarthScan.
Gillingham, Kenneth, William D. Nordhaus, David Anthoff, Geoffrey
Blanford, Valentina Bosetti, Peter Christensen, Haewon McJeon, John
Reilly, and Paul Sztorc. 2015. “Modeling Uncertainty in Climate
Change: A Multi-Model Comparison.” No. w21637. National Bureau of
Economic Research.
Government of India, Ministry of statistics & Programme implementation
statistics related to climate change,India ,2015
Hope, Chris. 2006. “The Marginal Impact of CO2 from PAGE2002: An
Integrated Assessment Model Incorporating the IPCC’s Five Reasons for
Concern.” Integrated Assessment Journal 6(1): 19 –56.
Ioannidis, John P. A. 2016. “Why Most Clinical Research Is Not Useful,”
PLOS, 13(6), p.e1002049.
Sunita Narain, Prodipto Ghosh , Saxena. N.C , Jyoti Parikh, Preetisoni . 2009”
UNDP, India, Climate change perspective from India.
Tol, Richard S. J. 2014. “Correction and Update: The Economic Effects of
Climate Change” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 28(2), 221–26.
Tol, R., & Anthoff, D. (2014, August 28). FUND Technical Tables. Retrieved
May 25, 2016.
Ward, R. (2014a, April 15). Errors in estimates of the aggregate economic
impacts of climate change | Grantham Research Institute on climate

change and the environment. Retrieved from
http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/news/errors-in-estimates-of-the-
aggregate- conomic-impacts-of-climate-change/
William D, Nordhaus& Andrew Moffat 2017. “A survey of Global impacts of
climate change:Replication, Survey methods and a statistical analysis”,
Discussion paper No.2096 .
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CHAPTER - 9
Novel method for the fabrication of nano

composite of proton conducting tin cerium
phosphate-polyaniline and its application in
environmental remediation
Vinisha Valsaraj Puthiyandi1* and Janardanan Chathoth

Post Graduate and Research Department of Chemistry, Sree Narayana College,
Kannur-670 007, Kerala, India
E-mail: vinipunep@gmail.com, jeeje_dianthus@yahoo.com
Abstract:
A novel tin cerium phosphate-polyaniline nano composite ion exchanger was
prepared by in-situ polymerization method. The physico-chemical properties of
the material were determined using, FTIR (Fourier Transform Infra-Red), SEM
(Scanning Electron Microscopy), TGA (Thermogravimetric Analysis) and XRD
(X-ray diffraction). The X-ray diffraction study showed that the composite
material formed is highly crystalline in nature where as its inorganic counter
part, tin cerium phosphate is amorphous in nature. The composite formed, is in
nano range. SEM image of composite depicted its needle like morphology. The
pH titration studies revealed bifunctional strong acid behaviour of the
exchanger. The newly synthesized composite material exhibits better ion
exchange capacity, thermal stability and chemical stability. On the basis of
distribution studies, the material was found to be highly selective for toxic heavy
metal ion like Pb(II). The material is demonstrated as a good adsorbent for the
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vinipunep@gmail.com ( Vinisha Valsaraj P)
organic pollutant like dyes from aqueous solution. The proton conducting
behavior of nano composite was studied using solatron (1255B FRA FI1287
Electrochemical Phase) impedance analyzer and has the proton conductivity of
the order of 10-3 S cm-1. The antibacterial activity of tin cerium phosphate-
polyaniline was explored against staphylococcus aureus. The results confirmed
the bacteriostatic nature of the tin cerium phosphate-polyaniline. On the basis of
good ion exchange capacity, adsorption ability and antimicrobial activity, tin
ceriumphospahte-polyaniline can be considered as an excellent material for the
environmental remediation.
Keywords: Nano composite, ion exchange capacity, polyaniline, proton
conductivity, adsorption, antimicrobial acitivity
Introduction
During the last 15 years, the developments of organic-inorganic hybrid materials
have attained a great deal of attention for the people from different research
fields because of its intrinsic multifunctional character. Illustrative examples of
this versatility are their high-added value applications as coatings for corrosion
protection and abrasion resistance, artificial membranes for ultra and
nanofiltration, adsorbents of toxic compounds, materials with specific optic,
electrical and/or magnetic properties for telecommunications or information
displays, etc. The hybrid materials often present the best properties of each of its
components in a synergic way such as modified chemical, physical, and
mechanical properties [1, 2]. Most of the organic-inorganic hybrid materials are
nano composite materials in which the inorganic part and the organic entities
interact at molecular level in the nanoscopic domain. Nano composites lead to
unexpected new properties exhibiting a vast application potential [3] which are
often not exhibited by individual compounds and thus open a new avenue for
chemists, physicists and materials scientists [4].
Composite materials formed through the incorporation of inorganic materials and
organic polymers are attracted for the purpose of creating high performance or
high functional nano composite materials. In literature, various methods of
preparing these hybrid materials have been reported [5–9]. The conversion of
inorganic ion-exchangers has been taking place into composite ion exchange
materials is the latest development in this discipline. These materials are used in
the general areas of chemical sensors, chromatography, fabrication of selective
materials, and electrical and electronic applications. Inorganic precipitate ion-

exchanger based on organic polymeric matrix must be an interesting material, as
it should possess the mechanical stability due to the presence of organic
polymeric species and the basic characteristics of an inorganic ion-exchanger
regarding its selectivity towards some particular metal ions. It was therefore
considered to synthesize such hybrid ion-exchanger with a good ion-exchange
capacity (I.E.C.), high stability, reproducibility, and selectivity towards heavy
metal ions for environmental applications. For this purpose we selected
polyaniline the aryl amine which has received great exposure since its
rediscovery by Shirakawa et al [10]. All of the previously reported polyaniline
conducting polymers based composite ion exchanger were prepared by direct
mixing of synthesized polyaniline into the matrix of inorganic ion exchanger
[11,12].
Thus, in this paper, we report the preparation of composite of conducting
polymer, polyaniline and inorganic precipitate, tin cerium phosphate by a process
of simultaneous gelation of inorganic acid salt as well as polymerization of
aniline monomer using in-situ polymerization techniques. This material was
characterized using various instrumental and non-instrumental techniques, and
studied the ion exchange properties, dye adsorption capability, proton conducting
behaviour and antimicrobial activity of the nano composite introduced here.
Materials and Methods

Reagents: Stannic chloride (E.Merck), Ammonium ceric nitrate (E.Merck),
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (Loba Chem) and aniline (E.Merck) were used for
the synthesis of the exchangers. All other reagents and chemicals used were of
analytical grade.
Apparatus and instruments: A glass column was used for column operations.
ELICO LI613 pH meter was used for pH measurements. FT-IR Spectrometer
model Thermo-Nicolet Avtar 370 for IR studies, X-ray Diffractometer Bruker
AXS D8 Advance for X-ray diffraction studies, JEOL Model JSM - 6390LV for
scanning electron microscopic analysis, TG Perkin Elmer Diamond TG/DTA
Analysis System for thermogravimetric/ derivative thermogravimetric analysis
were used. UV-Visible Spectrophotometer model JASCO V660 was used for
spectrophotometric measurements.
Synthesis of tin cerium phosphate-polyaniline (SnCeP-PANI): Ammonium ceric

nitrate solution (0.05 M), stannic chloride solution (0.05 M) and sodium
dihydrogen phosphate solution (0.05 M) were prepared. Sodium dihydrogen
phosphate solution was added to mixtures of ammonium ceric nitrate solution
and stannic chloride solution with constant stirring in volume ratios 1:2:3
corresponding to Sn:Ce:PO4 and formed tin cerium phosphate gel. For the
synthesis of composite we added acidic solution of aniline monomer to the gel of
tin cerium phosphate. Due to the redox activity of cerium present in the inorganic
gel, aniline monomer got oxidised to polyaniline and it was formed in the
interlayer of tin cerium phosphate. The resulting gel was kept for 24 hrs at room
temperature maintaining the pH at 1. pH was adjusted with 1.0 M NaOH/1.0 M
HNO3. It was then filtered, washed with deionized water and dried. The
exchanger was then converted into the H+ form by treating with 1.0 M HNO3 for
24 hrs with occasional shaking and intermittent changing of acid. It was then
washed with deionized water to remove the excess acid, dried and sieved to
obtain particles of 60- 100 mesh.
pH titrations: Topp and Pepper method [13] was used for pH titrations using
NaOH/NaCl, KOH/KCl, systems. 0.5 g of exchanger was equilibrated with
varying amounts of metal chloride and metal hydroxide solutions. At equilibrium
(after equilibration), pH of the solutions was measured and plotted against the
milliequivalents of OH- added.
Ion-exchange capacity: The ion exchange capacity of the material was
determined by column method. 1.0 g of the exchanger in H+ form was taken in a
glass column of 1.1 cm diameter. The H+ ions were eluted by percolating 100 mL
of 1.0 M NaCl solution. The effluent was collected and titrated against standard
sodium hydroxide solution. The exchange capacity in meqg-1, IEC was calculated
using the formula,
av
IEC 
w
Where, a is the molarity, v is the volume of alkali used during titration and, w is
the weight of the exchanger taken [14].
Effect of eluant concentration: To find out the optimum concentration of the
eluant for complete elution of H+ ions, a fixed volume (100 ml) of NaCl solution
of varying concentrations was passed through a column containing 1.0 g of the
exchanger in the H+ form with a flow rate of 0.5 ml min-1. The effluent was
titrated against a standard alkali solution of 0.1 M NaOH for the H + ions eluted
out.
Elution behavior: Since an optimum concentration of 1.0 M NaCl for a complete
elution of H+ ions was observed for sample, a column containing 1.0 g of the
cation-exchanger in H+ form was eluted with NaCl solution of this concentration
in different 10 ml fractions with minimum flow rate as described above. Each
fraction of 10 ml effluent was titrated against a standard alkali solution for the H+
ions eluted out.
Thermal effect on ion-exchange capacity (I.E.C.): To study the effect of drying
temperature on the I.E.C., 1.0 g samples of the composite cation exchange
materials in the H+ form were heated at various temperatures in a muffle furnace
for 2 hrs and the Na+ ion-exchange capacity was determined by column process
after cooling them at room temperature.
Distribution coefficient (Kd): Distribution studies were carried out for various
metal ions in demineralized water by batch process. In this method, 0.1 g of the
exchanger (60-100 mesh) was equilibrated with 20 mL of the metal ion solutions
for 24 hrs at room temperature. The metal ion concentrations before and after
sorption were determined spectrophotometically/ complexometric titration
against standard EDTA solution. In the complexometric method, the Kd values
were calculated using the formula,
(I  F ) V
Kd  
F W
Where, I is the initial volume of EDTA used, F is the final volume of EDTA
used, V is the volume of the metal ion solution (mL) and W is the weight of the
exchanger [14].
Effect of electrolyte concentration on distribution coefficient: This was studied
by equilibrating known amount of exchanger with metal ion solution in
electrolytes of varying concentrations (0.1M, 0.01 M, 0.001 M NH4NO3 and
HNO3).
Binary separations: The column (30 cm x 0.69 cm internal diameter) on which
the separations were to be carried out was filled uniformly with the exchanger (5
g) without any air bubbles get stuck. Then the mixture of the metal ion solutions
of concentration about 0.005 M (10 mL) was slowly added. The process was
repeated for maximum sorption. The exchanged metal ions were eluted using
suitable eluent. The rates of flow in all separations were 0.2 mL per minute. The
concentrations of metal ions in the solution were determined by collecting known
volume of effluent at regular intervals.
Adsorption Experiments: Dye adsorption experiments were carried out by taking
10 mL stock solution of dye (10 mgL-1) and treated with a dose of 0.2 g of the
adsorbent. The variable studied were agitation time, adsorbent dose, initial dye
concentration. After desired time of treatment of samples were filtered to remove
the adsorbent. The progress of adsorption was estimated using UV-Visible
spectrophotometer at 663 nm.
Conductivity measurements: The protonic conductivities of the materials were
measured using pellets of 13 mm diameter and 1×5–2 mm thickness. The
opposite sides of the pellets were coated with conducting silver paste to ensure
good electrical contact. Impedance measurements were taken using 1255B FRA
FI1287 Electrochemical Phase impedance analyser over a frequency range of 5
Hz to 1 MHz at a signal level below 1 V, interfaced to a minicomputer for data
collection. The measurements were made in the temperature range 30–80 °C. In
all cases, since the impedance plots of the materials consist of single depressed
semi-circles, the pellet conductivity was calculated by arc extrapolation to the X-
axis, taking into account the geometric size of the pellets.
Antimicrobial activity: The antimicrobials present in the plant extract are allowed
to diffuse out into the medium and interact in a plate freshly seeded with the test
organisms. The resulting zones of inhibition will be uniformly circular as there
will be a confluent lawn of growth. The diameter of zone of inhibition can be
measured in centimeters. Petriplates containing 20ml Muller Hinton medium
were seeded with 24 hrs culture of bacterial strains such as Staphylococcus
aureus, Wells of approximately 10mm were bored using a well cutter and 25 μL,
50 μL and 100μL of sample was added to the well from a stock concentration of
0.1g/1mL. The plates were then incubated at 37 °C for 24 hrs. The antibacterial
activity was assayed by measuring the diameter of the inhibition zone formed
around the well (NCCLS, 1993). Gentamycin was used as a positive control.
Results
The organic-inorganic nano composite tin cerium phosphate-polyaniline was
prepared using a novel preparation strategy. By the addition of the acidic solution
of aniline monomer into the tin cerium phosphate, the colour of the gel changed
from yellow to green and finally to black colour which indicated the formation of
polyaniline. The polyaniline formation into the matrix of inorganic exchanger is
due to the redox action of cerium present in the tin cerium phosphate gel which
oxidised the aniline and helped for its polymerization. The earlier report of
composite ion exchange material based on polyaniline showed that the
preparation of composite material was by simple addition of prepared gel of
polyaniline into the inorganic matrix. The composite material obtained was in
black in colour.
In the FT-IR spectrum of the material (Fig. 1a), a strong and broad band around
3400 cm-1 is found which can be ascribed to –OH stretching frequency. A sharp
peak around 1600 cm-1 can be attributed to H–O–H bending band, which
represents the strongly bonded –OH groups in the matrix. The –OH stretching
bands merge together and shift to lower frequency in the spectrum of the
composite cation-exchanger. A strong and broad band around 1000 cm-1 may
represent the presence of ionic phosphate groups. An assembly of two sharp
peaks in the region 500–800 cm-1 may be due to the presence of metal oxygen
bond. These characteristic stretching frequencies showed close resemblance with
the inorganic precipitate, i.e. tin cerium phosphate, indicating the binding of
inorganic precipitate with organic polymer and formation of ‘organic–inorganic’
composite ‘SnCeP-PANI’. Another assembly of two peaks in the region 1300–
1400 cm-1 may be ascribed due to the stretching vibration frequency of C–N in
the material [15], as it resembles the stretching vibration frequencies for C–N
found in polyaniline. This proved that the SnCeP-PANI contains considerable
amount of polyaniline.
Fig. 1 a. FTIR spectra and b. XRD of SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI

The XRD patterns of SnCeP (refernce) and SnCeP-PANI composites are shown
in Fig. 1b. X-ray diffraction pattern of the SnCeP showed no observable peaks
which conformed amorphous nature of the material. XRD analysis displayed
crystalline nature of the composite exchanger with high intensity peak of 2θ
value and the average crystalline size was found to be 10-20 nm ranges which is
in the nano range. The particle size was calculated from the full width at half-
maximum of the peak using Debye Scherrer equation,
0.9
D
 cos  max
where D is the average crystal size in nm, λ is the characteristic wavelength of X-
ray used, θmax is the diffraction angle and β2θ is the angular width in radians at an
intensity equal to half of the maximum peak intensity. The crystallanity may be
developed by the intercalation of polyaniline in between the SnCeP layer because
of the in-situ preparation and which gave the stability to the SnCeP. The
intercalation of polyaniline was proved with the support of d value of the
composite material [16]. The characteristic peaks appeared at 15°, 20.5°and 26°,
corresponding to (011), (020) and (200) crystal planes of PANI. The XRD
pattern of SnCeP-PANI shows that the (200) peak is the strongest, which
indicates preferential growth in a certain direction. The peaks at 2θ values of
37.9° and 54.2° may be due to the (200) and (220) plane of crystalline SnO2
present in the composite which shows the corresponding d (2.37 and 1.68
respectively) values of these planes.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) photographs of SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI
are shown in Fig. 2. The SEM pictures demonstrated the difference in surface
morphology of inorganic exchanger and composite material. It has been revealed
that after binding of polyaniline with SnCeP, the morphology has been changed
to needle like structure which may be due to in-situ preparation strategy.
Fig. 2 SEM images of (a) SnCeP and (b) PANI-SnCeP
The TGA curve (Fig. 3a) of both samples recorded continuous weight loss of
mass up to 150 °C, which may be due to the removal of external water molecule
[17]. In the case of composite material there was a sudden weight loss at 550 °C
it may be due to the decomposition of organic part. From 601 °C onwards, a
smooth horizontal section represents the complete formation of the oxide form of
the material.
Fig. 3 a. TGA of SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI and b. pH titration curve of SnCeP-

PANI
pH titration curve obtained under equilibrium conditions for each of NaOH/NaCl

and KOH/KCl system showed two inflection points which indicate the
bifunctional behaviour of the material (Fig. 3b). It appears to be a strong cation
exchanger as indicated by a low pH (~2.1) of the solution when no OH ions were

added to the system. The exchange capacity obtained from the curve is in
agreement with that obtained by the column method.
The composite material possessed ion exchange capacity of 1.28 meqg-1 which is
higher than its inorganic counter part tin cerium phosphate (0.92 meqg -1).
Improvement in ion exchange capacity of composite material is considered to be
the presence of binding polymer (polyaniline). In order to check the
reproducibility of the prepared composite, it was synthesized four times under
identical conditions of the concentration of reagents, mixing ratio and drying
temperature. Ion-exchange capacity and yield of each product were examined.
The averages and standard deviation of the ion-exchange capacity and yield were
found to be 1.28 meqg−1 and ± 0.04%, respectively. Ion exchange capacities for
mono (alkali) and bivalent (alkaline earth) metal ions have been studied for
finding out the effect of the size and charge of the exchanging ion on the ion
exchange capacity (Table 1). The ion-exchange capacity of the composite cation
exchanger for alkali metal ions (except Na+) and alkaline earth metal ions
increased according to the decrease in their hydrated ionic radii.
Table 1 Effect of hydrated ionic radii and charge on IEC
Metal ion Hydrated ionic radii (A°) IEC (meqg-1)
Li(I) 3.40 1.34
Na(I) 2.76 1.28
K(I) 2.32 1.00
Mg(II) 7.00 0.98
Ca(II) 6.30 0.69
Ba(II) 5.90 0.47

The column elution experiment indicated a dependence of the concentration of

the eluent on the rate of elution, which is a usual behavior, for such materials. A
maximum elution was observed with the concentration of 1.0 M NaCl as
indicated in Fig. 4a. The elution behavior of the exchanger (Fig. 4b) reveals that
the rate of exchange is quite fast as only 100 mL of NaCl solution (1.0 M) is
sufficient for almost complete elution of H+ ions from the column containing 1.0
g exchanger. Hence, fast kinetic would facilitate the operation of the column for
the separation of metal ions.
Fig. 4 a. Effect of eluent concentration on ion-exchange capacity, b. Elution

behavior of SnCeP-PANI
It was observed that on heating at different temperatures for 3 hrs, the mass, and
ion-exchange capacity of the exchanger were changed as the temperature
increased (Fig. 5). The composite cation exchange material was found to possess
good thermal stability as the sample maintained about 60% of the initial mass by
heating up to 400 °C. However, in respect to ion exchange capacity, this material
was found to possess better thermal stability as the sample maintained 70% of
the ion-exchange capacity up to 150 °C and it retained about 31% of the initial
ion-exchange capacity by heating up to 300 °C and 11% up to 500 °C where as
tin cerium phosphate retained only 8% of ion exchange capacity up to 500 °C.
Fig. 5 Effect of temperature on IEC of SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI
The solubility experiment indicated that the composite material has reasonable
good chemical stability as the results indicated that the material was resistant to
solutions of different acids, bases, organic solvents, salts, etc. The chemical
stability may be due to the presence of binding polymer, which can prevent the
dissolution or leaching of any constituent element into the solution.
Table 2 Kd values of various metal ions in different electrolyte
Metal DMW 0.001 M 0.01 M 0.1 M 0.001 M 0.01 M 0.1 M
ions HNO3 HNO3 HNO3 NH4NO3 NH4NO3 NH4NO3
Pb(II) 336.00 321.90 300.20 267.00 335.90 299.76 234.12
Cu(II) 139.60 130.90 122.00 87.90 130.90 96.10 56.00
Zn(II) 62.00 45.67 12.30 2.90 60.40 33.10 5.60
Mg(II) 25.40 12.00 NA NA 25.00 10.90 NA
Mn(II) 73.40 70.12 34.22 10.10 70.46 23.50 7.80
Bi(III) 169.20 150.00 123.00 100.10 160.90 134.50 98.12
Ca(II) 18.95 8.99 NA NA 17.89 NA NA
Hg(II) 81.90 75.67 32.10 9.90 80.90 56.70 23.33
Ni(II) 39.80 29.00 11.11 NA 38.80 13.20 NA
Co(II) 66.00 62.11 31.11 16.70 60.70 21.90 9.90
Cd(II) 60.00 50.00 21.10 5.60 59.00 21.00 8.90
In order to understand the potentiality of the composite cation-exchange material

in the separation of metal ions, distribution studies for 11 metal ions were
performed in various electrolytes (Table 2). The SnCeP-PANI composite ion
exchanger has wide variety of Kd value for different metal ions and have higher
selectivity towards Pb(II) and Bi(III) in comparison to other metal ions studied.
The selectivity was found to be in the order Pb(II) > Bi(III) > Cu(II) > Hg(II) >
Mn(II) > Co(II) > Zn(II) > Cd(II) > Ni(II) > Mg(II) > Ca(II). The distribution
studies proved the selectivity of composite towards the metal ions increased
compared to its inorganic counter parts. The effect of electrolyte concentration
on distribution coefficients for the composite is given in the table 3. The results
show that the value decreases with increase in electrolyte concentrations.
Binary separation of metal ion viz Cd(II)-Pb(II), Hg(II)-Pb(II), Ni(II)-Pb(II) and
Cd(II)-Bi(III) were carried out on the column of the SnCeP-PANI for
conforming the separation capability. From the electrolyte concentration studies
the eluent used for the separations are different concentrations of HNO3 and
NH4NO3. Elution curves (Fig. 6) were drawn by collecting known volume of
effluents at regular intervals which summarizes the salient features of these
separations. The separation was based on sequential elution of ions through the
column depending upon the metal-eluting ligand (eluent) stability. It was also
observed that Pb(II) as well as Bi(III) retained strongly on the cation exchanger
column. The weakly retained metal ions get eluted first, followed by the stronger
one. It is evident from data that the separations are quite sharp, quantitative and
reproducible.
Table 3 Kd values of various metal ions in different electrolyte on SnCeP-PANI
Metal 0.001M 0.01M 0.1M 0.001M 0.01M 0.1M
ion HNO3 HNO3 HNO3 NH4NO3 NH4NO3 NH4NO3
Pb(II) 321.90 300.20 267.00 335.90 299.76 234.12
Zn(II) 45.67 12.3 2.90 60.40 33.10 5.60
Mn(II) 70.12 34.22 10.10 70.46 23.50 7.80
Ni(II) 29.00 11.11 NS 38.80 13.20 NS
Hg(II) 75.67 32.10 9.90 80.90 56.70 23.33
Ca(II) 8.99 NS NS 17.89 NS NS
Cd(II) 50.00 21.10 5.60 59.00 21.00 8.90
Co(II) 62.11 31.11 16.70 60.70 21.90 9.90
Cu(II) 130.90 122.00 87.9 130.90 96.10 56.00
Bi(III) 150.00 123.00 100.10 160.90 134.50 98.12
Mg(II) 12.00 NS NS NS NS NS
Fig. 6 Elution curves for the separation of metal ions on SnCeP-PANI
We studied the effect of polyaniline incorporation into the inorganic matrix of

SnCeP towards the adsorption of dye to understand its potentiality in the
environmental applications. The adsorption experiment of methylene blue (MB)
dye using diffuse reflectance uv-visible spectroscopy was conducted for SnCeP
and SnCeP-PANI shown in Fig. 7. After the treatment with materials for 2 hrs
the adsorption intensity of MB solution was decreased in the case of SnCeP-
PANI treated MB solution compared with the other. In the case of SnCeP treated
MB solution, adsorption maxima shifted from its original position while in the
case of composite materials treated MB solution the shift was not observed. The
shift in the adsorption maxima indicated the dye material changed into its
original structure to other form. It suggested that in the case of SnCeP treated
MB, degradation of dyes occurs where as SnCeP-PANI treated MB, adsorption
was occurred rather than the degradation. The 50 mg g-1 solution of methylene
blue was treated with SnCeP-PANI for 2 hrs and percentage removal of dye was
found to be 99% which is comparatively high adsorption percentage while

considering about other synthetic composite materials.
Fig. 7 Methylene blue adsorption on SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI
The impedance plots for SnCeP-PANI at different temperature was showed in

Fig 8 and impedance spectra consist of a single depressed semicircle. Sample
resistance (R) was measured by extrapolation of high frequency arc crossing to Z
axis. Proton conductivity was measured using eq, σ = l/RA, where σ is
conductivity, l is sample thickness and A is electrode area (cm2). Arrehinus plots
(logσT vs 1/T) were represented for SnCeP, and SnCeP-PANI in Fig 9a and 9b
respectively. Activation energy for each sample was calculated using arrehius
equation [σ = σO exp(-Ea/kT)] where k is Boltzman constant and T is
temperature.
Fig. 8 Impedance spectra of SnCeP-PANI at different temperature

range of 30-80°C
Conductivity measured in the range 30–80°C for SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI is
presented in table 4. As calculated from the electron impedance spectra, sample
SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI achieved a proton conductivity of 6.50×10-4 and
3.61×10-3 S cm−1 respectively at 90% relative humidity at 30°C. Arrhenius plots
for two materials were observed the linearity in the temperature range of 30–
80°C. From specific conductance for SnCeP, and SnCeP-PANI, it was observed
that increases with increasing temperature (Table 1). This fact is also supported
by the study of heating effect on IEC, suggesting mechanism of transportation to
be grotthus type, where conductivity depends on water ability located on the
surface to rotate and participate. Further results are also in agreement with the
suggestion that the protons are not able to diffuse along an anhydrous surface,
where spacing of –OH groups is too high. Although all the conductivities shown
here increase with increasing temperature, the absolute values of the conductivity
clearly vary with each other. The proton migration is dominantly through the
Grotthuss mechanism. In this mechanism, the proton transport is mainly caused
by the hopping of the protons from one water molecule to another through
tunnelling mechanism. To a smaller extent, the proton forms hydrogen bond with
the water molecules and exits as H3O+ and diffusion of H3O+ ions enhances the
proton transport. The increase in temperature strongly affects both mechanisms;
hopping as well as diffusion becomes faster.
Table 4 Specific conductance of SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI at various

temperatures
Temperature (K) Specific conductivity σ (Scm-1)
SnCeP SnCeP-PANI
303 6.50×10-4 3.61×10-3
313 7.08×10-4 4.14×10-3
323 7.48×10-4 6.24×10-3
333 8.37×10-4 6.77×10-3
343 9.42×10-4 8.32×10-3
353 1.04×10-3 1.02×10-2

Ea/kcalmol-1 0.89 2.13
The higher conductivity value of SnCeP-PANI compared with SnCeP can

correlate with the IEC value of these materials. Higher IEC values indicate more
exchangeable protons and hence more available conducting protons. It is
agreement with the pH value of the exchangers. σSnCeP-PANI is higher compared to
with σSnCeP, due to the presence of conducting polymer. However, observed
conductance depends on concentration of charge carriers, availability of vacant
sites, crystal structure, surface morphology, hydrophobicity, presence of
interstitial sites, temperature, activation energy etc.
Fig. 9 Arrhenius plot for (a) SnCeP and (b) SnCeP-PANI in the temperature
range of 30-80 °C
The energy of activation (Ea, kcalmol-1) values observed are 0.89 for SnCeP and
2.13 for SnCeP-PANI. The activation energy at saturated humidity was less
which means the lower energy barrier for the proton conduction. Therefore, both
observations indicate that water molecule adsorbed by the composite material
promotes proton conduction to a high degree. This is mainly due to the adsorbed
water molecules to form the proton channels in the interlayers of inorganic
matrix for the smooth transfer of protons. Ea values follows the order SnCeP-
PANI < SnCeP however σ values follows the order SnCeP < SnCeP-PANI. It
shows that it has no correlation with the order of conductivity of the exchanger
presented. The materials SnCeP and SnCeP-PANI synthesized in our lab have
higher specific proton conductance compared with other materials discussed in
the previous literatures.
Table 5 Organism: Staphylococcus aureus
Sample Volume of sample (µL) Zone of inhibition (mm)

Gentamycin 27
Sample –SnCeP-PANI
25μL Nil
50 μL 14
100 μL 17
The analysis data are described in the table 5. It is observed that material shows
moderate activity against bacteria staphylococcus aureus. Area of zone of
inhibition is used as a criterion to ascertain the biocidal activity. According to
this criterion, 10 mm to 17 mm zone of inhibition zone would represent
significant activity. The photographic images of antibacterial study
(Staphylococcus aureus) of SnCeP-PANI are shown in Fig 10. The mechanism
responsible for antimicrobial activity involves the rupturing of bacterial cell wall
due to the binding of composite which release ions that react with the thiol
groups (-SH) present on the bacterial cell surface to the outer membrane of
Staphylococcus aureus. The heavy metal present in composite also inhibits the
active transport and retards the enzyme activity, thus deactivating the proteins,
rupturing the cell membrane and eventually causing the cell lysis [18].
Fig. 10 Photographic images of zone of inhibition for staphylococcus aureus on

SnCeP-PANI
Conclusions
The highly crystalline nano composite tin cerium phosphate-polyaniline was
prepared by a novel method. The nano composite exhibits a good ion exchange
capacity, thermal stability, and chemical resistivity and it has high ion exchange
capability with lead metal ion. It showed good adsorptive power for the uptake of
methylene blue dye from aqueous solution. The ion exchange and adsorption
behavior of this composite is important from the environmental pollution

chemistry point of view, where an effective separation method is needed for the
removal of heavy metal ions and dyes from aqueous system. The materials
presented in this paper have higher proton conductivity compared to other
materials already reported; hence it will be a promising candidate for the field of
electrochemical devices. Composite material has an effective antimicrobial agent
against staphylococcus aureus bacteria. In view of all these outcomes, it may be
concluded that SnCeP-PANI composite ion exchanger could be a potential
candidate for the environmental remediation.
Acknowledgements
Author gratefully acknowledges the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), New Delhi, for the award senior research fellowship. The author is also
gratefully acknowledged to STIC, Cochin for instrumental support.
Reference
[1] Judeinstein P and S´anchez C 91996) Hybrid organic-inorganic
materials: a land of multidisciplinarity, J Mater Chem 6:511–525.
[2] Ruiz-Hitzky E, Casal B, Aranda P, Galv´an JC (2001) Inorganic-organic
nanocomposite materials based on macrocyclic compounds, Reviews in
Inorganic Chemistry 21:125–159.
[3] Meneghetti P and Qutubuddin S (2004) Synthesis of Poly(methyl
methacrylate) Nanocomposites via Emulsion Polymerization Using a
Zwitterionic Surfactant, Langmuir 20:3424–3430.
[4] Qiang X, Chunfang Z, Zun YJ, Yuan CS (2004) The effects of polymer-
nanofiller interactions on the dynamical mechanical properties of
PMMA/CaCO3 composites prepared by microemulsion template, J Appl
Polym Sci 91:2739-2749.
[5] Chujo Y (1996) Organic—inorganic hybrid materials, Curr Opin Solid
State Mater Sci 1:806-811.
[6] Sanchez C and Ribot F (1994) New J Chem 16:1007.
[7] Judeinstein P and Sanchez C (1996) Hybrid organic–inorganic materials:
a land of multidisciplinarity, J Mater Chem 6:511.

[8] Mark JE, Lee CY, Bianconi PA (1995) Eds Hybrid Organic–Inorganic
Composites, American Chemical Society, Washington.
[9] Douglas JC, Douglas H, Pamela JZ, Robert PH, Robert L, Robert CH,
Zubieta J (1999) Coord Chem Rev 737:190–192.
[10] Shirakawa H, Louis E, Macdiarmid AG, Chiang CK, Hegger AJ (1977) J
Chem Soc Chem Commun 16:578–579.
[11] Zafar Alam, Inamuddin, Nabi SA (2010) Desalination 250:515-522.
[12] Khan AA and Inamuddin (2006) React Funct Polym 66:1649-1663.
[13] Topp NE and Pepper KW (1949) J Chem Soc 3299-3303.
[14] Vogel AI (1975) A text book of quantitative inorganic analysis,
Longman Group Limited, London.
[15] Duval C (1963) Inorganic Thermogravimetric Analysis, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp315.
[16] Rao CNR (1963) Chemical Applications of Infrared Spectroscopy,
Academic Press, New York.
[17] Celly M. S. Izumi, Vera R. L. Constantino, L. A. Marcia. Temperini
(2008) J Nanosci Nanotechnol 8:1782-1789.
[18] Cook G, Costerton J W, Darouiche R O (2000) Int J Anti Agent 13: 169-
173.
CHAPTER - 10
The Importance of Environmental Ethics
Dr. Jayanna C.T.

MA,M.Phil,Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, SJM College for Womens Dental College Campus
Chitradurga – 577 502, Karnataka State
Mail:jayannact@gmail.com
Abstract
The importance of ethics and fundamental value judgments in environmental
economics is high-lighted by discussing the controversial concept of existence
values. The social value depends crucially on the social objective, which is not
necessarily self-evident, e.g., since some individuals tend to value nature
intrinsically. It is shown that the motives behind willingness to pay figures matter
for the social value, and the conventional view that people respond to CV
questions solely in order to maximize their own utility or well-being is
questioned. The importance of being explicit about value judgments is
emphasized, and it is argued that environmental economics should consider non-
conventional assumptions which take the social context into account to a larger
degree.
Key words: altruism, contingent valuation, ethics, existence values, motives,
simplifying assumptions, welfare theory
The environmental crisis is an outward manifestation of the crisis of mind and

spirit. It all depends on how we think and act. The strains of the ecological crisis
are so apparent that the task to preserve the environment is a must. Adjusting the
relationship between humans and nature is one of the most fundamental issues
we face and must deal with today. With the increasing deterioration of ecological
systems on which human beings rely and the aggravation of the environmental
crisis, human beings have realized that we cannot rely on economic and judicial
methods alone to solve the problems of environmental pollution and ecological
imbalances. Only after we have adopted an appropriate attitude towards nature
and have established a new ethical relationship between human beings and nature
will we be able to love and respect nature automatically, and can deals with the
issues of environmental pollution and ecological imbalances. In this context,
environmental ethics and its approaches can play a vital role to run our life
smoothly and can make a balance between man and other beings in our
surrounding environment.
OBJECTIVES:
Environmental Ethics:
Environmental ethics is the philosophical discipline that consider the moral and
ethical relationship of human beings to the environment. In other words it
considers the ethical basis of environmental protection. Its emergence was the
result of increased awareness of how the rapidly growing world population was
impacting the environment as well as the environmental consequences that come
with the growing use of pesticides, technology and industry. It aims to provide
ethical justification and moral motivation for the cause of global environmental
protection. Environmental ethics helps define man’s moral and ethical
obligations towards the environment. It considers the ethical relationship
between people and the natural world and the kind of decisions people have to
make about the environment:
1. Should we cut down the main forest for the sake of human consumption?
2. Should we knowingly cause the extinction of other species?
3. Should humans be forced to live a simpler life style in order to protect
and preserve the environment?
Thus, environmental ethics has no specific international environmental code, it
simply tries to answer the questions of how humans should relate to their
environment, how we should use the Earths resources & how we should treat
other species etc.
The concept of environmental ethics does not just provide opportunity for
spirited debate on the value of sustainable development. It has played an
important role in influencing the growth of ideas and opinions, representing

something new in global governance, that seek to express genuine beliefs and
values that should ideally govern decision-making for the benefit of humans and
the rest of the living world. The most outstanding expression of these beliefs and
values is perhaps the Earth Charter.
First it presents a holistic worldview driven by such ethical concerns as respect
for nature, rather than the economics and science driven environment by the
‘numbers approach’ that most businesses and government take toward
sustainable development. This holistic approach views the strengthening of
democratic institutions, the transparency and accountability of governing
institutions, and participatory decision-making as inseparable from
environmental protection and social and economic justice.
In particular, there are a number of principles and sub-principles in the Earth
Charter that directly bear upon human rights, sustainable development and,
specifically, the rights and ethical treatment of Indigenous peoples. These are
embedded in the Charter's four key principles under the broad heading of
‘Respect and Care for the Community of Life’:
1) Respect Earth and life in all its diversity: (a) recognise that all human
beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of
its worth to human beings; (b) affirm faith in the inherent dignity of all
human beings and in the intellectual, artistic, ethical, and spiritual
potential of humanity.
2) Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and
love: (a) accept that with the right to own, manage, and use natural
resources comes the duty to prevent environmental harm and to protect
the rights of people; (b) affirm that with increased freedom, knowledge,
and power comes increased responsibility to promote the common good.
3) Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable
and peaceful: (a) ensure that communities at all levels guarantee human
rights and fundamental freedoms and provide everyone with an
opportunity to realise his or her full potential; (b) promote social and
economic justice, enabling all to achieve a secure and meaningful
livelihood that is ecologically responsible.
4) Secure Earth's bounty and beauty for present and future
generations: (a) recognise that the freedom of action of each generation
is qualified by the needs of future generations; (b) transmit to future
generations values, traditions, and institutions that support the long-term

flourishing of Earth's human and ecological communities.
The Charter then proceeds to outline in some detail how these principles and sub-
principles are to be implemented under the headings of ‘Ecological Integrity’,
‘Social and Economic Justice’ and ‘Democracy, Nonviolence and Peace’. Time
and space constraints will not permit an exhaustive review of the specific
provisions of the Charter necessary to appreciate its full ethical implications and
comprehensiveness of purpose. However, it should be noted that significant
attention is given, in the Charter, to the protection and preservation of the
traditional knowledge and spiritual wisdom of Indigenous peoples, as well as the
eradication of poverty as an ethical, social and environmental imperative. The
latter includes guarantees of the right to potable water, clean air, food security,
uncontaminated soil, shelter and safe sanitation11 as well as the protection of
human rights upholding the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and
social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual
well-being.
Because it is not a policy making document which may be ratified by some
governments and flouted or rejected by others, it is hoped by the framers of the
Earth Charter that it will generate changes in attitude and ethical behaviour
across a wide constituency including individuals, communities, local
governments, schools and universities, non- governmental organisations and
businesses. Accordingly, the Earth Charter Commission hopes that it will
become a common standard for ethical, just and environmentally sound
behaviour by which the conduct of all individuals, organisations, businesses,
governments and trans-national institutions will be guided and assessed.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainable development was popularised by the Brundtland
Report thus
Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own needs. The concept … does imply limits – not
absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and
social organisation on environmental resources and by the ability of the
biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. But technology and social
organisation can both be managed and improved to make way for a new era of
economic growth.
The concept as postulated in the report seems to suggest that we can continue to
have economic growth so long as we develop better ways of managing the
environment. However, the concept has now been extended to the socio-
economic realm where the goal is not just a sustainable level of physical stock or
physical production from an ecosystem over time, but some sustained increase in
the level of societal and individual welfare. This broader context was found to be
essential to the objective of sustainable development, in order to give specific
emphasis to poverty alleviation, equity, public participation and culturally
appropriate strategies.
The extension of the concept of sustainable development fits well within the
concept of environmental ethics, which seeks to create a balance between the
best naturalistic values, as well as good humanistic ones for respecting
ecosystems. Accordingly, viewing sustainable development from an
environmental ethics perspective, extends the emphasis of sustainable
development from the traditional understanding postulated in the Brundtland
Report, to take into account ethical issues relating to a wide range of economic,
social and cultural factors which helps achieve the ethical values of equity,
justice, temperance and wisdom in the choices we make concerning the
environment.
It is important to note that the discourse on environmental ethics and sustainable
development has been developed alongside a larger debate on development from
a human rights perspective which espouses some of the same values.
Development from a human rights perspective is people centred, participatory
and environmentally sound. It involves not just economic growth, but equitable
distribution, enhancement of people’s capabilities and a widening of choices. It
gives priority to poverty eradication, self-reliance and self-determination of
people and governments and protection of the rights of the vulnerable, minorities
and Indigenous peoples.
Development from a human rights perspective in the Declaration on the Right to
Development is viewed as a comprehensive economic, social, cultural and
political process. Its objective is the constant improvement of the well being of
the entire population of individuals, on the basis of their active, free and
meaningful participation in the development and fair distribution of the resulting
benefits.
Accordingly, development from a human rights perspective is important because

it provides a conceptual framework for the process of sustainable development,
which is normatively based on international human rights standards operationally
directed at promoting and protecting human rights. Additionally, development
from a human rights perspective is important because it focuses on raising levels
of accountability in the environmental development process by identifying claim
holders and their entitlements and corresponding duty holders and their
obligations. This allows for the development of adequate laws, policies,
institutions, administrative procedures and mechanisms of redress and
accountability that can deliver on the entitlements, respond to violations and
ensure accountability.
Development from a human rights perspective also gives preference to strategies
for empowerment. The goal is to give people the power, capacities, capabilities
and access needed to change their own lives, improve their own communities and
influence their own destinies. Finally, development from a human rights
perspective also requires a high degree of participation, from communities, civil
society, minorities, Indigenous peoples, women and others.
The development of environmental law since its appearance in the early 1960s,
as a defined subset of administrative law, has progressed through a number of
distinct stages and, by coincidence rather than design, each decade since the
1960s appears to be dominated by a particular regulatory focus. The 1960s
heralded the development of ‘command and control’ regulation ie, specific
legislative regulatory limits were established with respect to clean air, clean
water and contaminated land. Compliance was determined solely on the basis of
whether the ‘polluter’ was within or outside of the regulatory parameters set by
the legislation.
As a result of these failures, there have been growing calls for more effective
approaches to achieving sustainable development made necessary from the
impact of economic and social globalisation on the environment. Development
from a human rights perspective is meant to provide a framework that ties in the
linkage between environmental ethics, human rights and sustainable
development. The implementation of indigenous rights provides a good
illustration of the new approaches that have been undertaken at both international
and national level to take into account not just environmental and ethical but
human rights issues in order to achieve sustainable development.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

The magnitude and urgency of contemporary environmental problems –
collectively known as the environmental crisis form the mandate for
environmental ethics – a reexamination of the human attitudes and values
towards nature. In this respect three approaches can be taken to environmental
ethics.
The essence of goodness is to maintain and cherish life, and the essence of evil is
to destroy and damage life. All living beings have the will to live, and all living
beings with the will to live are sacred, interrelated and of equal value. It is,
therefore, an ethical imperative for us to respect and help all life forms.
According to some commentators our exploitative and destructive attitude
towards nature originates in an „anthropocentric_ attitude. Hence, they argue, we
need a fundamentally new way of interacting with nature. More science and
technology are not going to get us out of the present ecological crisis until we
find a new religion, or rethink our old one. The impact of value system on our
interaction with nature has been taken over by many environmental ethicists,
particularly by representative of the so-called „Deep ecology_ movement. „Deep
ecology_ states that the natural world is a subtle balance of complex
interrelationships in which the existence of organisms is dependent on the
existence of others within ecosystems.
“Eco-centrism_ is that holistic theory according to which the whole eco-system,
comprising both the biotic and a biotic parts of nature, deserves moral worth.
This eco-centric theory directs us to extend our moral concern to items that are
non human, indeed to things that are not even animals, such as plants, forests etc.
DEEP ECOLOGY:
Environmental ethics provides moral grounds for social policies aimed at
protecting the earths environment and remedying environmental degradation.
That is why it can be viewed that environmental ethics involves ecological
consciousness amongst us. Ecological consciousness is a growing spirit that
speaks of tolerance, interdependence etc. It also show path to a sustainable
future. Ecological consciousness makes a bond in nature creating ecological
balance. Otherwise the concept of ecological imbalance will emerge. Therefore,
it can be opined that we are in a chain in environment if one knot is displaced
from another the whole chain will be useless. Similarly it can be asserted that
nature is an umbrella of all beings under which each and every being develop
forms of life according to their own nature.
Naess listed some deep-ecology platform that may be summarized as follows:
1. All life has value in itself, independently of its usefulness to humans.
2. Richness and diversity contribute to life’s well-being and have value in
themselves
3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to
satisfy vital needs in a responsible way.
4. The impact of humans in the world is excessive and rapidly getting
worse.
5. The diversity of life, including culture can flourish only with reduced
human impact.
6. Basic ideological, political, economic and technological structure must
therefore change.
This six fold deep ecology platform shows that it emphasises not the rights of
human but the interdependence of all ecosystem and sees the environment as a
whole entity, valuable in itself. This is often known as ” eco-holism”.
CONCLUSIONS
Ecological consciousness safeguard against cruelty to all creatures. Rather it
involves a safe and sustainable temperament in order to live happily with nature.
Due to lack of ecological consciousness we pollute our environment.
Finally I can be opined that the importance of environmental ethics in the present
day society is indispensable. In so far as we are living in harmony with nature, so
apart from viable environment we cannot think of a human life possible in this
eco-centric universe. To make a viable environment we have to comprehend the
distinction between ecological balance and ecological imbalance. Thus, so far as
environmental ethics is concerned, ecological consciousness leads to the welfare
of all in our environment and nature.
“Greatest happiness of the greatest number” – Thus, we the human beings, along
with the other forms of life are a part of the food chain closely associated with
each other together form our environment.
REFERENCE
Arumugam, E. (2008) Principles of Environmental Ethics. Sarup & Sons
Publication, India.
BARUAH, I. (2008) Socio-cultural and Environmental Factors of Health and
Economy. Sarup & Sons Publication, India
Boadway, R. and M. Keen (1993) ‘Public Goods, Self-selection and Optimal
Income Taxation’, International Economic Review 34(3), 463–478.
Common, M., I. Reid and R. Blamey (1997), ‘Do Existence Values for Cost
Benefit Analysis Exist?’ Environmental and Resource Economics 9,
228–238.
Dixon, H. D. (1997), ‘Controversy – Economics and Happiness’, Economic
Journal 107, 1812–1814.
Frank, R. H. (1985b), Choosing the Right Pond. Human Behavior and the
Quest for Status. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
CHANDRAKANTA, S. (2011) Moral Philosophy Contemporary Perspectives.
EBH Publisher, Guwahati, India.
Hausman, D. M. and M. S. McPherson (1993), ‘Taking Ethics Seriously:
Economics and Contemporary Moral Philosophy’, Journal of Economic
Literature 31(2), 671–731.
Kahneman, D. and J. L. Knetsch (1992a), ‘Valuing Public Goods: the Purchase
of Moral Satisfaction’, Journal of Environmental Economics and
Management 22(1), 57–70.
LEOPOLD ALDO (1997) The Land Ethic. Blackwell Publisher, Oxford.
NAESS, ARNE (1996) Deep Ecology. Rawat Publication, New Delhi, India.
SUBBARAO, S. (2001) Ethics of Ecology and Environment. Rajat Publication,
New Delhi, India.
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CHAPTER - 11
Quantum dots diameter correlated with

optical properties of lead chalcogenides
compounds
Y. Al-Douri1,2,
1
Nanotechnology and Catalysis Research Center (NANOCAT), University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
2
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, University of Sidi-Bel-Abbes,
22000-Algeria.
Abstract
The full potential-linearized augmented plane wave (FP-LAPW) method is

implemented in WIEN2K code to calculate the indirect energy gap (Γ-X) using
density functional theory (DFT). The FP-LAPW method is utilized for solving the
equations of DFT. Modern implementations allow for a number of
approximations to exchange and correlation and make no approximations to the
shape of the crystal potential, unlike methods employing the atomic sphere
approximation (ASA) which assume spherical symmetry around each atom. The
Engel-Vosko generalized gradient approximation (EV-GGA) and modified Becke
Johnson (mBJ) formalisms are used to optimize the corresponding potential for
energetic transition and optical properties calculations of PbS and PbTe
compounds as a function of quantum dot diameter and are used to test the
validity of our model of quantum dot potential. The refractive index and optical
dielectric constant are investigated to explore best applications for solar cells.
The calculated results are in agreement with other experimental and theoretical
data.

) For correspondence: Email: yaldouri@yahoo.com.
Keywords: Quantum dot; Lead chalcogenides; Optical properties; Refractive

index; Optical dielectric constant.
1. Introduction
The IV–VI semiconductors are among the most interesting materials in solid-
state physics. The most widely studied compounds in this group are PbS and
PbTe. These materials have narrow band gap, which is usually less than 0.5 eV
and whose temperature coefficient dEg = dT is positive, and they have high
mobility [1]. These lead salts show interesting in optoelectronic applications [2].
It is advantageous to use the computational method based on total energy
calculations to study the phase transition from the coordinated number Nc = 4 to
6-fold [3]. Third-generation approaches to photovoltaics (PVs) aim to decrease
costs and significantly increasing efficiencies but maintaining the economic and
environmental cost advantages of thin-film deposition techniques [4]. There are
several approaches to achieve such multiple energy threshold devices [4,5];
tandem or multicolor cells, concentrator systems, intermediate-level cells,
multiple carrier excitation, up/down conversion and hot carrier cells [6].
Billaud and Truong [7] have computed the ground state Lamb shift of a
semiconductor spherical quantum dot in the effective mass approximation. It
appears to be significant enough to be detectable for a wide range of small
quantum dots synthesized in semiconductors. They have suggested the Casimir
effect to observe it. While, Thu and Voskoboynikov [8] have calculated the
lowest energy states of electrons confined in an asymmetrical InAs/GaAs double
lens-shaped quantum dot molecule in external magnetic field. Based on the
effective three-dimensional one electronic-band Hamiltonian approximation, the
electronic energy states of the system were computed by non-linear iterative
method using Comsol MultiPhysics package. This description allows them to
simulate the semiconductor quantum dot molecule in arbitrary directed magnetic
field. Simulation results clearly have showed that the diamagnetic shifts of the
electronic energy levels are anisotropic and non-uniform. Therefore, they have
demonstrated an opportunity to dynamically manipulate electronic states not only
by varying the magnitude but also changing the direction of the magnetic field.
Moreover, Lam and Ng [9] have used as bio-tags to emit different color light
with different dot sizes, and quantum dots are currently extensively studied for
application as quantum devices taking advantage of the artificial atom”

properties such as their discrete energies, electron spins and quantum transport
energies. The self-assembled semiconductor quantum dots are grown on the
wetting layer of a few monolayer thickness and subsequently capped with a
strain-reduction layer covering the dots to stabilize them. They have studied the
indium arsenide/gallium arsenide self-assembled quantum dots modeled with a
wetting layer between the quantum dot and substrate, and the strain-reducing
capping layer above the quantum dot. They have introduced a new model with an
interfacial layer between the quantum dot and the capping layer and investigate
the effective mechanical and electronic properties using the finite element
method and deformation potential theory. However, Udipi et al. [10] have
presented semiclassical simulation results for the potential energy profile and
electron density distribution in 200 nm silicon quantum dot. For the solution of
the continuity equation, the efficient difference approximations proposed by
Scharfetter and Gummel [11] have extended to three dimensions. In essence,
they have followed the two-dimensional approach due to Selberherr et al. [12]
extend two to three dimensions.
The investigation of further materials research is interesting when one tries to

gain some information about the diameter dependence of the compounds;
especially it is proved with some of other materials [13,14]. It seems more
fundamental to relate the diameter dependence behavior to the bonds between
nearest atoms. By controlling the evolution with diameter dependence of the
compound, it could attempt to link the effect of quantum dot diameter to the
quantum dot potential. In this context, we have used this procedure for testing the
validity of our model [15] of QDs potential. The obtained energy band gaps are
used to calculate the quantum dot potential and to predict materials for QDs.
The aim of this work is to verify our model [15] for calculating the diameter
dependence on QDs potential for dot diameters down to 60 nm and 65 nm for
PbS and PbTe compounds, respectively using the full potential linearized
augmented plane wave (FP-LAPW), in addition to investigate the optical
properties of refractive index and optical dielectric constant using specific
models for the mentioned alloys.
2. Quantum dots
The confinement can be due to electrostatic potentials (generated by external

electrodes, doping, strain, impurities), the presence of an interface between
different semiconductor materials (e.g. in core-shell nanocrystal systems), the
presence of the semiconductor surface (e.g. semiconductor nanocrystal), or a
combination of these. A quantum dot has a discrete quantized energy spectrum.
The corresponding wave functions are spatially localized within the quantum dot
but extend over many periods of the crystal lattice [13].
A quantum dot contains a small finite number (of the order of 1-100) of
conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons, i.e., a finite number
of elementary electric charges. Small quantum dots, such as colloidal
semiconductor nanocrystals, can be as small as 2 to 10 nanometers,
corresponding to 10 to 50 atoms in diameter and a total of 100 to 100,000 atoms
within the quantum dot volume. Self-assembled quantum dots are typically
between 10 and 50 nm in size. Quantum dots defined by lithographically
patterned gate electrodes, or by etching on two-dimensional electron gases in
semiconductor heterostructures can have lateral dimensions exceeding 100 nm.
At 10 nm in diameter, nearly 3 million quantum dots could be lined up end to
end and fit within the width of a human thumb. Simplifying things greatly (as
this guide aims to do, mostly), quantum dots are incredibly small particles. They
range between 2 to 10 nanometers in diameter, which is equivalent to 50 atoms.
Yes, atoms. You can’t measure these things using your old school shatter proof
ruler. It’s this small size that gives quantum dots the unique properties to
improve our tech. The color light that a quantum dot emits is directly related to
its size; smaller dots appear blue, larger ones more red. In LCD screens they’re
applied as a way of eliminating the need for White LED backlights and color
filters [14,15].
Higher peak brightness – One of the reasons TV manufacturers like quantum

dots is that they allow them to produce TVs with much higher peak brightness.
This opens up some interesting possibilities, such as enabling support for ‘high
dynamic range’ TVs that support standards such as Dolby Vision. In simple
terms, Dolby Vision is a film standard that, when used, results in content that
retains more color and contrast information than existing standards. The result is
pictures that have greater differences in the brightest and darkest parts of the
image and look more ‘dynamic’ and real as a result. Imagine shots were looking
into the sun actually feels like looking in to the sun for real and you get an idea.
To do this you need brighter TVs and quantum dots deliver exactly that.
Following the acceptance of 4K resolutions, HDR in general is the next big
feature of TVs, and all of the top TV sets announced at CES 2016 this year have
made bold claims about their ‘high dynamic range’ capabilities. Quantum Dot
technology, like OLED, goes hand in hand with this advance [10,15].
3. Chalcogenides
Chalcogenides are materials containing one or more chalcogen elements (e.g. S,

Se or Te) as a substantial constituent. They are covalently bonded materials and,
although they may be amorphous or crystalline, they are fundamentally
semiconductors with a band gap typically of 1–3 eV, depending on composition.
Chalcogenides, are particularly noted for their functionality, with strong, varied
responses to optical, electrical and thermal stimuli. A 2006 review identified 44
separate exploitable “effects” in chalcogenides, including their ability to switch,
bend, self-organize and photo-darken, in addition to their inherent Infrared
transparency, optical nonlinearity and semiconducting nature. Traditionally
many Chalcogenides have a reputation for containing high levels of impurities
leading to high optical loss and inconsistent mechanical properties. This unique
process yield losses is 100 times lower than found in glasses produced just a few
years ago and has extended their operating window further into the infrared [4].
Transition metal chalcogenides occur with many stoichiometries and many

structures. Most common and most important technologically, however, are the
chalcogenides of simple stoichiometries, such as 1:1 and 1:2. Extreme cases
include metal-rich phases (e.g. Ta2S), which exhibit extensive metal-metal
bonding, and chalcogenide-rich materials such as Re2S7, which features extensive
chalcogen-chalcogen bonding. For the purpose of classifying these materials, the
chalcogenide is often viewed as a dianion, i.e., S2-, Se2-, Te2- and Po2-. In fact,
transition metal chalcogenides are highly covalent, not ionic, as indicated by
their semiconducting properties. In most of their chalcogenides, transition metals
adopt oxidation states of II or greater. Nonetheless, several examples exist where
the metal/chalcogenide ratio is far less than one. Such compounds typically have
extensive metal-metal bonding. Metal monochalcogenides have the formula ME,
where M = a transition metal and E = S, Se, Te. They typically crystallize in one
of two motifs, named after the corresponding forms of zinc sulfide. In the zinc
blende structure, the sulfide atoms pack in a cubic symmetry and the Zn2+ ions
occupy half of the tetrahedral holes. The result is a diamond framework. The
main alternative structure for the monochalcogenides is the wurtzite structure
wherein the atom connectivity is similar (tetrahedral), but the crystal symmetry is
hexagonal. A third motif for metal monochalcogenide is the nickle
arsenide lattice, where the metal and chalcogenide each have octahedral and
trigonal prismatic coordination, respectively. This motif is commonly subject to
non-stoichiometry. Important monochalcogenides include some pigments,
notably cadmium sulfide. Many minerals and ores are monosulfides [5,6].
Metal dichalcogenides have the formula ME2, where M = a transition metal and
E = S, Se, Te. As usual, the most important members are the sulfides. They are
always dark diamagnetic solids, insoluble in all solvents, and exhibiting
semiconducting properties. In terms of their electronic structures, these
compounds are usually viewed as derivatives of M4+, where M4+ =
Ti4+ (d0 configuration), V4+ (d1 configuration), Mo4+ (d2 configuration). Titanium
disulfide was investigated in prototype cathodes for secondary batteries,
exploiting its ability to reversibly undergo intercalation by lithium. Molybdenum
disulfide, the subject of many thousand publications, is the main ore of
molybdenum where it is called molybdenite. It is used as a solid lubricant and
catalyst for hydrodesulfurization. The corresponding diselenides and even
ditellurides are known, e.g., TiSe2, MoSe2 and WS2. Transition metal
dichalcogenides typically adopt either cadmium diiodide or molybdenum
disulfide structures. In the CdI2 motif, the metals exhibit octahedral structures. In
the MoS2 motif, which is not observed for dihalides, the metals exhibit trigonal
prismatic structures.[1] The strong bonding between the metal and chalcogenide
ligands, contrasts with the weak chalcogenide—chalcogenide bonding between
the layers. Owing to these contrasting bond strengths, these materials engage in
intercalation by alkali metals. The intercalation process is accompanied by
charge transfer, reducing the M(IV) centers to M(III). In contrast to classical
metal dichalcogenides, iron pyrite, a common mineral, is usually described as
consisting of Fe2+ and the persulfido anion S22−. The sulfur atoms within the
disulfido dianion are bound together via a short S-S bond. "Late" transition metal
disulfides (Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) almost always adopt the pyrite or the related
marcasite motif, in contrast to early metals (V, Ti, Mo, W) which adopt 4+
oxidation state with two chalcogenide dianions. Several metals, mainly for the
early metals (Ti, V, Cr, Mn groups) also form trichalcogenides. These materials
are usually described as M4+(E22−)(E2−) (where E = S, Se, Te). A well-known
example is niobium triselenide. Amorphous MoS3 is produced by treatment of

tetrahiomolybdate with acid:
MoS42− + 2 H+ → MoS3 + H2S (1)
The mineral patronite, which has the formula VS4, is an example of a metal
tetrachalcogenide. Crystallographic analysis shows that the material can be
considered a bis(persulfide), i.e. V4+,(S22−)2 [6].
4. Computational method
The linearized augmented planewave (LAPW) method is utilized for solving the
equations of DFT. Modern implementations allow for a number of
approximations to exchange and correlation (LDA, GGA, and LDA+U, among
others) and make no approximations to the shape of the crystal potential, unlike
methods employing the atomic sphere approximation (ASA) which assume
spherical symmetry around each atom. Like most modern electronic-structure
methods, the LAPW method is a variational expansion approach which solves
the equations of DFT by approximating solutions as a finite linear combination
of basis functions. What distinguishes the LAPW method from others is the
choice of basis. The LAPW basis is constructed to be particularly accurate and
efficient for the solution of the all-electron ab initio electronic-structure problem,
where solutions are rapidly varying and atomic-like (like isolated-atom solutions)
near the atoms but more smoothly varying and not atomic-like throughout the
rest of the cell.
The calculations were carried out using the full potential linearized augmented
plane wave (FP-LAPW) method as implemented in WIEN2K code [16]. The
exchange correlation potential was treated using the generalized gradient
approximation (GGA) [17] for the total energy calculations, the Engel-Vosko
GGA (EVGGA) formalism [18] and modified Becke Johnson (mBJ) [19] for
principal energy calculations. To overcome the shortcoming of both LDA and
GGA of underestimation the energy gap [20] we have used EVGGA and mBJ.
This shortcoming is ascribed to the fact that they do not reproduce the exchange
correlation energy and its charge derivative correctly. Hence, the modified form
of GGA is the EVGGA that is improved in mBJ, which is capable to better
reproduce the exchange potential at the expense of less agreement in the

exchange energy that yields a better band splitting [21-24]. In the FP-LAPW
method, the wave function, charge density and potential were expanded by
spherical harmonic functions inside non-overlapping spheres surrounding the
atomic sites (muffin-tin spheres) and by plane waves basis set in the remaining
space of the unit cell (interstitial region). The maximal l value for the wave
function expansion inside the atomic spheres was confined to lmax =8. The
muffin-tin radii were assumed to be 2.0 atomic units (a.u.) for Pb, S and Te. The
plane wave cut-off of Kmax = 8.0/RMT was chosen for the expansion of the wave
functions in the interstitial region for the PbS and PbTe binary compounds, while
the charge density is Fourier expanded up to Gmax = 14 (Ryd)1/2. The irreducible
wedge of the Brillouin zone was described by a mesh of 10 special k-points for
binary compounds. The self-consistent calculations are converged since the total
energy of the system is stable within 10-5 Ry. The FPLAPW has been proved to
be one of the accurate methods of calculating the electronic properties within the
density functional theory [25-28].
5. Results and discussion
The covalent semiconductors are four-fold coordinated. The reason that the
density of structure is so low and the nearest neighbors of atoms are bound by
overlapping hybridized orbitals, which are the well-known sp3 hybrids with
tetrahedral shape. Hence, it is possible to tune the energy band gaps using dot
diameter. The calculated values of the direct (ΓΓ) and the indirect (ΓX) and
(ΓL) energy band gaps within EVGGA and mBJ of PbS and PbTe compounds
at different dot diameters are listed in Table 1 along with the experimental data
[29] and theoretical results [30,31]. Our calculated values of the (ΓΓ) energy
band gap is overestimated compared to other results. This could be attributed to
using of the EVGGA and mBJ approximations. Due to these values, PbS and
PbTe compounds at nano scale have been classified as indirect energy band gap
semiconductor. Because of their use in infrared light generation and detection,
the energy gap variations of dot diameters represent an important property to
study. As mentioned at Table 1, the energy band gaps correlate inversely with the
dot diameters and confirmed by Fig. 1.
Table 1. The calculated principal energy gaps for PbS and PbTe compounds
(in eV) at different QD’s diameters (in nm) compared to other experimental
data and theoretical results.
QD’s Eg (Γ-Γ) Eg (Γ-X) Eg (Γ-L)

diameter
PbS
Bulk 1.2448C1 1.1888C2 0.286a 7.1691C1 5.2538C1 4.6518C2
0.989b 0.069c 6.786C2
C1 C2
60 C1 C2 C1 C2 5.25 5.61
61 7.17 7.74 7.16 6.83 5.11 5.38
62 6.75 7.19 7.12 6.81 4.98 5.28
63 6.42 6.86 6.82 6.79 4.87 5.18
64 6.19 6.58 6.57 6.78 4.75 5.08
65 5.90 6.34 6.26 6.67 4.65 4.99
5.69 6.14 6.04 6.45
PbTe
Bulk 4.0139C1 3.8054C2
C1 C2 a C1
1.2948 1.185 0.19 5.6827
0.5704b 0.032c 5.1268C2 C1 C2
65 4.01 4.20
67 C1 C2 C1 C2 3.91 3.98
68 5.34 5.52 5.68 5.12 3.82 3.90
69 4.99 5.10 5.61 5.25 3.73 3.83
70 4.73 4.85 5.52 5.28 3.65 3.75
71 4.52 4.64 5.44 5.30 3.57 3.68
4.34 4.47 5.20 5.32
4.19 4.33 5.00 5.16
a
: Ref. [29] exp., b: Ref. [30] theo., c: Ref. [31] theo. C1: calculated by EVGGA,
C2: calculated by mBJ.
7.8
a
7.6 EgmBJ
7.4
EgEVGGA
7.2
7.0
Energy gap (eV)
6.8 EgXEVGGA
6.6
6.4 EgXmBJ
6.2
6.0
5.8
EgLmBJ
5.6
5.4
5.2
5.0 EgLEVGGA
4.8
4.6
60 61 62 63 64 65
Quantum dot diameter (nm)
5.8 b
5.6
EgXEVGGA
5.4
EgXmBJ
5.2
Energy gap (eV)
5.0 EgEVGGA
EgmBJ
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2 EgLmBJ
4.0
EgLEVGGA
3.8
3.6
65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Fig. 1 Calculated energy band gaps direct (ΓΓ), and indirect (ΓX) and
(ΓL) for (a) PbS and (b) PbTe compounds as a function of QDs diameter [46].
The energy band gaps between the valence band maximum (VBM) at the point 
and the conduction band minimum (CBM) at the point X are computed based on
the FP-LAPW. By means of our recent model [15], the quantum dot potential has
evaluated, according to the formula:
b 3
P QD
 . E g .10 . (2)
a
b
where is constant (in eV-1) [see Table 4 in Ref. 15], E g is the energy gap
a
along Γ-X (in eV) and  is an appropriate parameter for group-IV ( = 6), III-V
( = 4) and II-VI ( = 2) semiconductors (in V).
A correlation between QD’s diameter and pressure effect changes is stated. If

quantum dot diameter is changed, the strong sp3 covalent bonding that
characterizes the covalent structure is affected. From our viewpoint, this
discrepancy at diameter dependence is an immediate consequence of the
difference in the corresponding quantum dot potential. In Table 2, the calculated
quantum dot potential at quantum dot diameter dependence is computed.
Table 2 The calculated quantum dot potential for PbS and PbTe compounds
(in mV) compared to other value at different QD’s diameters (in nm).
QD’s diameter PQD cal. x10-3 PQD [10]
PbS C1 C2
60 1.36 1.299 1
61 1.35 1.293
62 1.29 1.290
63 1.24 1.28
64 1.18 1.26
65 1.14 1.22
PbTe
65 1.07 0.972 1
67 1.06 0.997
68 1.04 1.003
69 1.03 1.007
70 0.98 1.010
71 0.95 0.980
C1: calculated by EVGGA, C2: calculated by mBJ.
The critical dot diameter is the value that separates the decrease and the increase
of the QDs potential. The diameter dependence correlates with transition
pressure (Pt) that is important to be computed from difference in molar free
energies of compounds. The Gibbs free-energy difference, Gt, between
compounds which has the tetrahedral coordination at diameter dependence is
nearly given by G=H-TS (in kJ.mol-1) where H is enthalpy, T is temperature
and S is entropy. Most of energies are larger for smaller bond lengths. Changing
the QDs potential with dot diameter is confirmed by the change of the energy
gaps at principal points (Γ- Γ, Γ-X and Γ-L) as shown in Table 1. The QDs
potential varies inversely with quantum diameter (Table 2) and confirmed by Fig.
2. The relationship is linear and nonlinear for PbS and PbTe compounds,
respectively. Consequently, fluctuations of the QDs potential appears. Our
calculated QDs potential values are in accordance with other data [10]. It is
mentioned that the variation of the QDs potential is an indication of the electron
tunnels the quantum dot.
1.40
a
using EVGGA
Quantun dot potential (mV)
1.35
using mBJ
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15
1.10
60 61 62 63 64 65
1.08
b
using EVGGA
Quantum dot potential (mV)
1.06
using mBJ
1.04
1.02
1.00
0.98
0.96
0.94
65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Fig. 2 QDs diameter dependence of the quantum dot potential for (a) PbS and (b)
PbTe compounds [46].
The refractive index n is a very important physical parameter related to the

microscopic atomic interactions. From theoretical viewpoint, there are two
different approaches of viewing this subject: firstly; the refractive index will be
related to the density and local polarizability and secondly; the refractive index
will be closely related to the energy band structure of the material, through the
dielectric constant. [32]. Consequently, many attempts have been made in order
to relate the refractive index and the energy gap Eg through simple relationships
[33-38]. However, these relations of n are independent of temperature and
incident photon energy. Here the various relations between n and Eg will be
reviewed. Ravindra et al. [38] had presented a linear form of n as a function of
Eg:
n    E g (3)
where   4.048 and   0.62 eV-1. Herve and Vandamme [39] have
proposed an empirical relation as follows:
2
 A 
n  1   (4)
E B
 g 
where A  13.6 eV and B  3.4 eV. For group II-IV semiconductors, Ghosh et
al. [40] have published an empirical relationship based on the band structure and
quantum dielectric considerations of Penn [41] and Van Vechten [42]:
A
n2 1  (5)
( E g  B) 2
where A  8.2E g  134 , B  0.225E g  2.25 and ( E g  B ) refers to an

appropriate average energy gap of the material. Thus, using these three models
the variation of n with dot diameter has been calculated. The results are displayed
in Fig. 3. The calculated refractive indices and the optical dielectric constants of
the end-point compounds are investigated and listed in Table 3.
Table 3 Calculated refractive indices for PbS and PbTe compounds at diameter
dependence using Ravindra et al. [38], Herve and Vandamme [39] and Ghosh et
al. [40] models corresponding to optical dielectric constant.
QD’s diameter
n  
PbS
Bulk 3.27a,1 3.31a,2 3.09b,1 3.12b,2 4.26c,1 4.30c,2 4.16* 10.69a,110.95a,2 9.54b,1 9.73b,2 18.01c,1 01710c,2
60 97.0 97.0 0709
a,1 a,2 b,1
07.1
b,2
0711 07..
c,1 c,2
9701a,1 9710a,2 17.0b,1 1710b,2 1711c,1 1701c,2
61 971.a,1 97.0a,2 0700b,1 07.0b,2 071.c,1 0710c,2 97..a,1 97.9a,2 17.0b,1 17.1b,2 1711c,1 171.c,2
62 9700 97.. 0700
a,1 a,2 b,1
0709
b,2
071. 0711
c,1 c,2
9701a,1 97.0a,2 17.0b,1 17.0b,2 1710c,1 1710c,2
63 0791a,1 9711a,2 0701b,1 0709b,2 0710c,1 0711c,2 0791a,1 9701a,2 1701b,1 17.0b,2 17..c,1 1711c,2
64 0709 9710 0701
a,1 a,2 b,1
0700
b,2
0700 071.
c,1 c,2
0710a,1 97.0a,2 170.b,1 17.0b,2 1701c,1 1711c,2
65 0700 970. 0701
a,1 a,2 b,1
0700
b,2
0701 071.
c,1 c,2
0711a,1 9709a,2 170.b,1 170.b,2 17.1c,1 1710c,2
PbTe
Bulk 3.24a,1 3.31a,2 3.06b,1 3.13b,2 6.22c,1 6.31c,2 5.98** 10.49a,1 10.95a,2 9.36b,1 9.79b,2 38.68c,1 39.81c,2
65 07.0a,1 0711a,2 0700b,1 0701b,2 1790c,1 1790c,2 1711a,1 179.a,2 171.b,1 1711b,2 1711c,1 1791c,2
67 0701a,1 07.1a,2 0700b,1 07015b,2 1791c,1 1790c,2 1701a,1 1710a,2 171.b,1 1711b,2 1711c,1 1711c,2
68 070. 0701 0700.
a,1 a,2 b,1
0700 b,2
1709 1791
c,1 c,2
17.1a,1 170.a,2 171.b,1 171.b,2 1710c,1 1710c,2
69 07.1a,1 070.a,2 07.9b,1 07005b,2 1701c,1 1709c,2 1700a,1 17.1a,2 1710b,1 171.b,2 17.1c,1 1710c,2
70 07.1 07.1 07.0
a,1 a,2 b,1
07.9
b,2
170. 1701
c,1 c,2
1700a,1 170.a,2 1701b,1 1710b,2 1701c,1 1710c,2
71 0711 07.0 07.0.
a,1 a,2 b,1
1.705 b,2
170. 1701
c,1 c,2
1711a,1 1790a,2 1701b,1 17.9b,2 17.9c,1 17..c,2
a
: Ref. [38], b: Ref. [39], c: Ref. [40], *: Ref. [44] Expt., **: Ref. [45] Expt. 1:
calculated by EVGGA,
2: calculated by mBJ.
2.0
GEVGGA
1.8 a
GmBJ
HEVGGA
1.6
Refractive index
HmBJ
1.4
1.2
1.0
REVGGA
0.8
RmBJ
0.6
60 61 62 63 64 65
2.20
2.15
2.10
GEVGGA
b
2.05
2.00 GmBJ
Refractive index
1.95
1.90
1.85
1.80
1.75
HEVGGA
1.70
1.65 HmBJ
1.60
1.55 REVGGA
1.50 RmBJ
1.45
1.40
65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Fig. 3 QDs diameter dependence of the refractive index (n) for (a) PbS and (b)
PbTe compounds [46]. R: Ravindra et al. [38], H: Herve & Vandamme [39], G:
Ghosh et al. [40].
This is verified by the calculation of the optical dielectric constant ε∞, which
depends on the refractive index. Note that    n 2 [43]. It is clear that the
calculated n using the model of Ghosh et al. [40] and EVGGA approximation
are appropriate ones due to reflectivity parameter is important in enhancing the
photo conversion for solar cells. Again, a linear dependence of PbS and PbTe
compounds properties on dot diameter is observed and the refractive index for
small diameter dependence tends to shift towards the blue–green [46]. It means a
high absorption and low reflection spectrum may be attributed to increase solar
cells efficiency.
6. Conclusions
The FP-LAPW method provides a good way to calculate the electronic

properties, investigate optical properties of low reflectivity value for PbS and
PbTe compounds and prove that 60 nm and 65 nm for PbS and PbTe compounds,
respectively using Ghosh et al. are more appropriate for solar cells applications,
expecting new trends for other materials and new realization for quantum dots.
Also, EVGGA approximation gives best suitability for QDs potential.
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CHAPTER - 12
Nano-Technology in Renewable energy
S. S. Rathore*, 1 and S. I. Yusufzai2

1
Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Karnataka Veterinary,
Animal and Fisheries Science University, Mangalore, Karnataka, India.
2
Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries Science, Junagadh
Agricultural University, Veraval, Gujarat, India.
E-mail – sanjay.rathore941@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Renewable energy can be well-defined as one type of energy sources which can
be provide light, electricity and heat without polluting the environment. Energy
generation from fossil fuels has been well-known as the main cause of
environmental pollution. The noticeable advantage of renewable energy is that no
fuel is mandatory, which abolishes the emission of carbon dioxide. The present
global energy problem can be returned to insufficient fossil fuel supplies and
extreme gas emissions consequential from increasing fossil fuel consumption. It
was stated that the present petroleum consumption was 105 times faster than the
nature can produce and at this vast rate of consumption, the world’s fossil fuel
reserves will be declined by 2050 [1,2]. Also, it is fascinating to mention that the
global demand for energy is projected to be approximately 30 and 46 TW by 2050
and 2100, respectively [3]. Fossil fuels are crude oil, coal and natural gas. They
are not renewable, once burnt they are vanished forever. These sources provide
more than 90% of our energy demand, but contain a steep environmental cost.
However, due to the massive demand of energy and little availability of fossil fuels
*
Correspondence- Sanjay Singh Rathore, Department of Aquaculture,
College of Fisheries, Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Science University,
Mangalore, Karnataka, India
there is a shift toward renewable energy sources. Examples of these sources of

energy comprise solar, wind, biomass, hydrogen and geothermal energies. These
unpolluted sources can be utilized rather than conventional fossil fuels and nuclear
energy. From the other side, a new science arena grown rapidly which is called
Nanotechnology, has much and significant responsiveness in the recent years due
to many engineering and technological diligence. Also, there are several
advantages which can be perceived from the design of nanotechnology based
products for renewable energy which are [4]:
(1) An increased efficiency of lighting and heating.
(2) Increased electrical storage capacity.
(3) A decrease in the amount of pollution from the energy using.
Moreover, nanotechnology can be used to ameliorate renewable energy sources;
for example wind energy proficiency can be enhanced by using light, more
strength nano-materials for rotor blades. In biomass energy using nano-based
exactitude farming to optimize crop used to produce biofuels. Nano-coatings can
be used to avoid the corrosion in tidal energy equipments, while nano-composites
are utilized to form drilling machines in geothermal energy more fatigue-
resistance.
1.1. Manufacturing and advantages of nano-materials

The term “nanomaterials” addresses a wide array of materials including
nanocrystalline materials, nanocomposites, carbon based nanomaterials (such as
carbon nanotubes) and metal based nanomaterials (such as aluminium oxides).
There are three general approaches of manufacturing of nano-materials by
suspending nanoparticles into base fluids. These methods can be classified as
follows [5]:
1. Addition of acid or base to change the pH value of suspension.
2. Adding surface active agents and/or dispersants to disperse particles into
fluid.
3. Using ultrasonic vibration.
It was absolved that nanotechnology could affectedly allowed renewable energy
to replace the traditional, environmentally unfriendly, fossil fuels in the future.
Serrano et al. [6] reviewed some developments of nanotechnology to sustainable
energy production, storage and use. In their review, they picked out some
momentous contributions in the solar, hydrogen and new generation batteries and
supercapacitors as an examples of the contributions of nanotechnology in the
energy sector. They presented the following benefits of using nanotechnology in
the sustainable energy:
1- The efficiency of the photovoltaic (PV) solar cells were increased, while their
manufacturing and electricity production costs were reduced at an unprecedented
rate.
2- Hydrogen production, storage and transformation into electricity in fuel cells
were improved by using nanostructured materials. This was occurred by increasing
hydrogen adsorption capacity which led to make the fuel cells more efficient and
cheaper.
Guo [7] reviewed the relevant renewable energy technologies such as
hydrogen fuel, solar cell, biotechnology based on nanotechnology, and the relevant
patents for exploiting the future energy for the friendly environment. From his
review, he concluded that if the nanotechnology field mixed with the renewable
energy sources, the following points were satisfied:
1. Fuel cells became low cost and high efficient.
2. The production, distribution, and storage of hydrogen fuel became low
cost.
3. Nanotechnology may help to increase the efficiency and decrease the
cost of tapping solar energy.
Grebler and Nentwich [8] presented an article about the relationship between the
nano-materials and the environment. They extracted the following notations:
1. Nanotechnology can be used to optimize materials, for example plastics
or metals with carbon nanotubes (CNTs), will make airplanes and vehicles
lighter and therefore make a reduction in the fuel consumption.
2. When nano-scale carbon black added to modern automobile tires leads to
reinforce the material and reduce rolling resistance. This makes a fuel
savings of up to 10%.
3. Nanomaterials can help for self-cleaning or “easy-to-clean” coatings. For
example, if they added to glass, they save both energy and water in
cleaning process, since such surfaces are easier to clean or not required to
be clean continuously.
4. Nanotribological wear protection products such as fuel or motor oil
additives can reduce fuel consumption of vehicles and extend engine life.
5. Nanoparticles such as flow agents allow plastics to be melted and cast at

lower temperatures.
6. Nanoporous insulating materials in the construction industry can help to
reduce the energy needed to heat and cool buildings.
7. Nanoceramic corrosion coatings for metals without toxic heavy metals
(chromium, nickel), for example in automobiles, can replace
environmentally harmful or hazardous chromium (VI) layers.
8. Nano-scale titanium dioxide and silica can replace the environmentally
damaging bromine in flame retardants.
2. Nanotechnology applications in renewable energies

2.1. Solar energy
Solar energy is one of paramount sources of renewable energy. It can be used
proficiently in various practical uses like solar power plants, solar cell, seawater
desalination, solar collectors etc. In fact, sunlight falling on Earth offers a solution,
since the hourly solar flux incident on Earth’s surface is greater than the annual
human consumption of energy in a year [9]. That is why the sun is so appearing as
an ultimate energy source on the earth. The quantity of solar energy received by
earth is a function of the season, with the highest magnitude of incoming solar
energy received during the summer months [10].
2.1.1. Solar cells types

There are different types of solar cells which can be described briefly as follows
[11, 12]:
Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC): This type of solar cells allows optical absorption
and charge separation/injection by relating a dye sensitizer (a light-absorbing
material) with a wide-bandgap semiconductor of nano-crystalline morphology as
the photoanode. It is depended on the combination of interpenetrating networks of
mesoscopic semiconductor materials with electrolytes as alternatives to the p–n
junctions of inorganic solid-state semiconductors in conventional solar cells.
Organic-polymer-based PV solar cell (OPV): In this type, excitons are separated
into free electron–hole pairs by the effective field generated across the
heterojunction between two different organic materials, known as the donor and
acceptor molecules. This type is manufactured as a result of the increasing
requirements for economical renewable energy sources, as a one option for the
production of energy from light at very low cost.
Hot carrier solar cells: In this type, a freed electron is bumped high into the
conduction band by a too-energetic photon. Therefore, its electronic temperature
becomes quite hot (as high as 3000 K). The hot electron will relax to the bottom
of the conduction band, typically within a few hundred femto-seconds, imparting
heat to the lattice as it does so. This type of solar cells has the following
advantages:
1. Using of a high-energy electron will rise the photovoltage of the device as
well as its efficiency.
2. The excess energy will be stopped from heating the device and from
lowering its efficiency.Nanoparticles deliver the following advantages in
the solar power plants Taylor et al. [13]:
1- The extremely small size of the particles ideally allows them to
pass through pumps and plumbing without adverse effects.
2- Nanofluids can absorb energy directly which exceeding
intermediate heat transfer steps.
3- Nanofluids can be optically selective (i.e., high absorption in the
solar range and low emittance in the infrared range).
4- A more uniform receiver temperature can be achieved inside the
solar collector which reducing material constraints.
5- Enhanced heat transfer by higher convection and thermal
conductivity may improve receiver performance.
6- Absorption efficiency may be enhanced by tuning the
nanoparticle size and shape to the required application.
The next generation of solar cells is thin film solar cells (i.e., flexible sheets of
solar panels) that are easier to produce and install, use less material and are
inexpensive to manufacture. For example, these sheets can be incorporated into a
briefcase that charges laptop, cell phone or can covered buildings windows to
collect solar energy from the entire building rather than just its roof. So, it can be
used to supply power to high-rise buildings [14]. Experimental researches have
already shown that quantum dots (tiny nanoparticles only a few nanometers in
size) are three times more efficient for solar energy conversion than the best
material presently used for solar cells [15].
Baraton [16] presented an overview of nanosized titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) for
applications in photocatalytic water splitting and more precisely in dye-sensitized
solar cells (DSSCs). It was revealed that particle size and shape, crystallinity,
surface morphology and chemistry of the TiO2 material were considered as a vital
parameters to be controlled for enhancing the performance of the dye-sensitized
solar cells.
2.2. Hydrogen energy

2.2.1. Fuel cells
Hydrogen is not an energy source, but just an atomic energy carrier. Hydrogen and
fuel cell technologies come forth as one of the most promising solutions to
diversity energy resources and to energy sustainability and environment [17]. Fuel
cell is generally considered in the framework of hydrogen, since it changes
hydrogen and oxygen into water, producing electricity and heat in the course. This
occurs in an environmentally friendly manner, with no detrimental carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions. However, methane and methanol can also be used for fuel cell.
The fuel cell was designed by William Robert Grove in 1839 and can be defined
as an electrochemical-energy scavenger that transforms the chemical energy of a
fuel, such as hydrogen or methanol, into electricity via a chemical reaction with an
oxidizing agent, such as oxygen or air. In spite of the enormous benefits of the fuel
cell, it still has many drawbacks such as high cost, durability issues and operability
issues. Nanotechnology can be used to resolve these drawbacks. In general, the
nano materials can be used in the membrane of the fuel cell (which is responsible
for the detachment of hydrogen into protons and electrons), catalysts and
electrodes. This is due to the tremendously large surface to volume ratio compared
with bulk materials [18].
2.2.2. Fuel cells types

There are different kinds of fuel cells which can be described briefly as follows
[19]:
Hydrogen fuel cell (HFC): This type of cell is utilized in automotive industry as a
possible substitute for fossil fuels in passenger cars and public transportation.
Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC): This type of cell is used in power portable
small electronic devices such as laptop computers and cell phones. It has many
features such as low working temperature, high energy-conversion efficiency and
low emission of pollutants.
2.2.3. Advantages of the fuel cell

Fuel cell has many advantages such as [20]:
1- It provides unpolluted energy with no CO2 emissions on H2 and
less than 50% CO2 emissions on hydrocarbons. Also, it gives no
NOx or SO2 emissions.
2- Its efficiency is high (around 40–90%).
3- No noise energy source.
Abbaraju et al. [21] utilized composite Nafion membranes which comprising
TiO2/SnO2 nanoparticles to improve the proton exchange membrane fuel cells.
They noticed that the functioning of the modified fuel cell was increased in
contrast with the fuel cell with a conventional Nafion membrane especially at high
temperatures. Elzatahry et al. [22] organized by a modest chemical route the cobalt
and nickel oxides–graphene nanocomposite for fuel cell applications. The
structure, morphology and properties were characterized using X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). The electrocatalytic action
for the methanol oxidation reaction in acidic medium of these nanocomposites
compared to platinum had been confirmed using cyclic voltammetry technique.
They resolved that the prepared cobalt oxide/graphene nanocomposite had been
used successfully for methanol oxidation as a fuel cell application.
2.2.4. Diesel engine

Recently, much consideration are done by researchers for using hydrogen in
internal combustion engine. When hydrogen burns in an internal combustion
engine the exhaust is clean water vapor. As a result, it is better than CO2 emissions
associated with fossil fuels [23]. As stated earlier, nanofluids have many
significant properties, one of them linked with their strong capability to absorb the
radiation. Therefore, they can be utilized efficiently in the combustion action to
diminish it. Heywood [24] described that the radiation heat transfer in diesel
engines contributed (20–35%) of the entire heat transfer, and it mostly came from
dust particles formed during combustion processes. Lately, the efficiency of the
internal combustion engine is about (30–40%). Nanotechnology could advance the
combustion process by designing specific catalysts with maximized surface area
[25]. Kao et al. [26] added nanofluid in the form of aluminum nanoparticles coated
by alumina submerged in water to diesel fuel to explore the consequence of high
temperature reaction responding to diesel engine performance, fuel consumption
and discharge emission.
2.3. Biomass/bioenergy
Biomass is a term called to all organic materials that stem from plants (including
algae, trees and crops). Biomass is produced by green plants converting sunlight
into plant material through photosynthesis and comprises all land and water-based
vegetation, together with organic wastes. The biomass resource can be count as an
organic matter, in which the energy of sunlight is stored in chemical bonds. When
the bonds between adjacent carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules are broken
by digestion or combustion, these substances give up their stored chemical energy.
Biomass is presently projected to contribute of about 10–14% of the world’s
energy supply [27, 28].
2.3.1. Biofuels
Biofuels were count as a potential automotive fuel with a bright future. They are
fast progressing as a new research area to offer alternative sources of renewable
energy. Ethanol and methanol (for examples) which are considered as an excellent
biofuels and are highly flammable and prepared by certain yeasts. They can be
constituted from plant sugars or plant fibers. Currently, Brazil and USA account
for nearly 80% of global biofuels production. Both countries produce mainly
bioethanol (USA from maize and Brazil from sugar cane). Bioethanol is the most
frequently used biofuel for spark ignition (gasoline) engine applications due to
similar auto-ignitability properties to those of gasoline fuel.
2.3.2. Biogas
It is a flammable gas alike the natural gas comprises mostly of a mixture of gases,
usually carbon dioxide and methane. It forms by bacteria when air or oxygen is
absent. Biogas can be used instead of natural gas for heating and cooking and is
considered to be a source of renewable energy. This is due to the production of
biogas depends on the supply of grass, which usually grows back each year. Biogas
is used also in the transportation arena. For example, in Sweden during 2008
approximately 15,000 cars and hundreds of buses and trucks were running by
biogas. Biogas is produced from four main sources [29]:
1- Sewage treatment plants.

2- Landfills.
3- Cleaning of organic industrial waste streams.
4- Mesophilic and thermophilic digestion of organic waste.
2.3.3. Vegetable oil

They have equivalent energy density, heat of vaporization and stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio with mineral diesel. Vegetable oils in diesel engines lead to a
significant diminutions in emissions of sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, smoke
and noise [30].
2.3.4. Bio-oil
Is a dark brown viscous, corrosive and acidic with distinctive smoky odor used as
fuel for furnaces, gas turbine, diesel engines, boiler and stationary engines. They
obtained from air dried wood by high pressure liquefaction (HPL) result in a
complex mixture of volatile organic acids, ethers, esters, ketones, alcohols,
aldehydes, and non-volatile constituents. These oils could be upgraded
catalytically to give an organic distillate product which is robust in hydrocarbons
and useful chemicals. Bio-oil has a complex chemical composition comprised
chemical products of lignocelluloses biomass like aliphatic alcohols/aldehydes,
pyranoids, benzenoids, fatty acids, furanoids and high molecular mass
hydrocarbons [31]. Sajith et al. [32] demonstrated experimentally that using
nanosized cerium oxide particles as additives on biodiesel fuel were found to
noticeably abridged the emission levels of hydrocarbons and NOx components.
2.3.5. Biodiesel
Is methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acid prepared from virgin or used vegetable oils
and animal fats or recycled cooking grease. The use of biodiesel in conventional
diesel engines leads to a considerable lessening in emission of unburned
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide (CO). Wen et al. [33] demonstrated an
experimental study about the preparation of KF/CaO nanocatalyst and its utlity in
biodiesel manufacture from Chinese tallow seed oil. They determined that the
biodiesel yield was attained up to 96.8% in the presence of KF/CaO nanocatalyst
and could be utilized efficiently to convert the oil with higher acid value into
biodiesel. Hu et al. [34] used a nanomagnetic solid base catalyst (KF/CaO–Fe3O4)

for biodiesel production. The findings showed that, when the reaction was
perfomed at (65 °C) with a methanol/oil molar ratio of 12:1 and a catalyst
concentration of (4 wt %), the biodiesel yield exceeded 95% at 3 h of reaction
time. They summarized that the nano-magnetic solid base catalyst used in the
preparation of biodiesel gave a decent outlook of its development and practical
utility.
2.4. Wind energy/wind turbines

Wind energy is another type of renewable energies which can be defined as the
use of the wind as an energy source. A wind energy system (i.e., wind turbine)
converts the kinetic (moving) energy of the wind into mechanical or electrical
energy that can be used for practical purpose. In fact, wind turbines don’t need to
burn the fuel. As a result, they considered friendly to the environment. On the other
hand, the wind is connected to the sun, so as the sun shines the wind exists on the
earth. The effects of wind energy on the environment are commonly less
challenging than those result from other power sources. Recently, more than 23
billion kW h of clean and cheap electricity are being produced annually around the
world. For example, India power production utilizing wind energy is projected
around 1000 MW, while Germany produced about 4400 MW of electricity from
wind energy [35]. Greco et al. [36] assessed experimentally using a sliding contact
linear reciprocating rig, the friction and wear activities of a boron nitride based
surface treatment and nano-particle lubricant additives for wind turbine gearbox
applications to accommodate severe operating conditions and mitigate surface
originated failure. Nano-colloidal boronnitride based lubricant additives were
looked at as a complementary technology to react with the borided surface to form
a wear protective tribofilm.
2.5. Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy can be defined as the thermal energy extracting from the earth's
crust that varies in length between 5 and 10 km. At these greater depths, the
temperature is real high. Thus, nanofluids can be used as a cooling fluids to cool
the pipes which exposed to this high temperatures. Also, it can be used to cool the
necessary parts like sensors and electronics in drilling machines which working
under high friction and high temperature environment. Geothermal energy sources
are classified in terms of the measured temperature as low (<100 °C), medium
(100–150 °C) and high temperature (4150 °C) while they extracted by using a
ground heat exchangers [37]. Geothermal energy has several applications. For
example, district heating applications use networks of piped hot water to heat many
buildings across entire communities. More than 72 countries have reported direct
use of geothermal energy. Iceland being the world leader where about (93%) of its
homes are heated with geothermal energy. For this reason, Iceland saving over
(100$ million) annually in avoided oil imports. Also, it is now considered one of
the cleanest countries around the world due to geothermal energy applications
[38].
2.6. Tidal/water energy

As the Earth spins on its axis, it rotates through the oceanic tidal bulge elevated by
the Moon. This leads to the well-known rise and fall of the tides, roughly at 12.5
h interims along the seacoast. This process is continual every day, so the tidal
energy represents another source of renewable energy [39]. In general, the water
energy can be considered as a major source of renewable energy for two reasonable
reasons. The first is about 70 percent of the earth’s surface is enclosed by water.
The second one that the world's potential for wave energy is around (10,000–
15,000 TWh) per year. The power acquired from the sea waves can be used in
water hydrogen production, ocean mining, desalinization, liquid and solid sated
synthesized fuels and ice production [40]. Very newly, Qu et al. [41] explained in
their review that nanotechnology offered chances to develop next-generation water
supply systems. They explained that nano-materials had many amazing properties
such as high surface area, photosensitivity, catalytic and antimicrobial activity,
electrochemical, optical, and magnetic properties which offered useful features for
many applications like sensors for solar disinfection/decontamination, water
quality monitoring, specialty adsorbents, and high performance membranes. They
concluded that the development of nanotechnology must go in parallel with
environmental health and safety research to improve sustainable water
management.
2.7. Sustainable electricity storage

Many of the sustainable energy substitutes herein described produce (e.g. PV solar
cells) or require (e.g. water splitting) electricity. Hence, novel more efficient
means to store electricity are very much needed in the way to a more sustainable
production, transformation and use of energy. Some of the most imperative energy
storage systems are batteries and capacitors. The involvement of nanotechnology
to hydrogen storage has been explored in the previous section devoted to the new
hydrogen storage.
2.7.1. Rechargeable batteries

Most of the active research in this field is presently focused on rechargeable
lithium batteries. This market actually accounts for around 10 billion dollars per
year. As compared with the aqueous batteries, the Li-ion chemistry leads to an
increase of 100–150% on storage capability of energy per unit weight and volume.
However, some weaknesses arise, associated to low energy and power density,
large volume change on reaction, safety and costs. The aforesaid shortcomings can
be reduced (or are being reduced) by the application of nanotechnology to the field
of rechargeable batteries. Enthusiastically research in nanobatteries points out the
use of nanomaterials for both the electrodes and the non-aqueous electrolyte.
Electrolyte conductivity upsurges up to six times by introducing nanoparticles of
alumina, silicon or zirconium to non-aqueous liquid electrolytes. Most efforts have
been attentive on solid state electrolytes, solid polymer electrolytes (SPE). Poly
(ethylene oxide)-based (PEO-based) SPE received most consideration since PEO
is safe, green and lead to flexible films. However, polymers usually have low
conductivity at room temperature and, depending on SPE compositions, their
interfacial activity and mechanical stability are not high enough. In this sense,
nanocomposite polymer electrolytes could assist in the fabrication of highly
efficient, safe and green batteries. For example, the introduction of ceramic
nanomaterials as separators in polymer electrolytes upsurges the electrical
conductivity of these materials at room temperature from 10 to 100 times
compared with the corresponding undispersed SPE system. TiO2, Al2 O3 and SiO2
and S-ZrO2 (sulphate-promoted superacid zirconia) have been used for this
purpose, founding that the introduction of S-ZrO2 led to the best performance [42].
Certain efficient approaches regarding the nanostructuration of the anode for
rechargeable lithium batteries involved the replacement of LiC6 electrode, with
storage capacities of 340 mAh/g, by graphite nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes.
These had been additional replaced by nanosized metal oxides (i.e., titanium,
aluminium, vanadium, cobalt, tin as well as silicon oxides) mostly in the form of
nanotubes and nanowires thus evading both the lithium deposition and some safety
complications. In this way, a similar storage capacity to the traditional graphite
electrodes has been attained [43–45]. For example, the synthesis of silicon
nanowires further anchored to the substrate behaving as current collector led to
Chan et al. [46] to obtain a charge capacity of ca. 3000 mAh/g during 10 cycles
after the first one, losing about one third of capacity in the first cycle.
2.7.2. Supercapacitors
Electrochemical capacitors (ECs), also named supercapacitors and ultracapacitors,
store electrical energy, like batteries, but using a different mechanism. While
batteries do it chemically, ultracapacitors store electricity physically, by separating
the positive and negative charges. Since the discovery of ECs [47], these devices
have attracted noticeably less attention than batteries as energy storage devices.
Nonetheless, thanks to both the contribution of nanotechnology and the better
understanding of charge storage mechanisms (ion behaviour in small pores) the
interest on ECs has noticeably increased recently [48].
There are three types of ECs: pseudocapacitors, also named redox supercapacitors,
electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLCs) and hybrid capacitors. The
nanomaterials typically used are metal-based nanocomposites and conductive
polymers, carbon-based nanostructures and hybrid inorganic/organic
nanocomposites, respectively. EDLCs are the most common devices presently.
Current technologies are mostly based on blending porous materials (like activated
carbon) with a conductive additive (like graphite or metals). A transition from
activated carbon electrodes to carbon based nanostrucutures is being done in order
to improve the performance of these devices. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) form an
open mesoporous network which permit the solvated ions to easily access to the
interface of the double layer. In summary, the capacitance of CNT exceeds that
corresponding to traditional activated carbons only if these are functionalized, e.g.
controlled oxidation of their surface, or addition of some contaminations [49–53].
Higher specific power, higher specific capacitance and higher conductivity can be
accomplished by the blending of activated carbon with small quantities of CNTs,
which can be further upgraded by doping with metal oxides or conductive
polymers, but at present, the cost is too high as to be economically feasible for the
industry. Another approach includes the use of carbon aerogels, which could led
to an improvement in both capacitance and cyclability due to their low electronic
charging and ionic resistance [53].
3. Conclusion
Sustainable energy production, transformation and use are very much necessary to
maintain the readily and cheap access to energy to the developing and increasingly
demanding world population while lessening the impact on the environment. The
novel multifunctional materials synthesized from the broad and multidisciplinary
field that is nowadays called nanotechnology are critical to overcome some of the
technological restrictions of the various substitutions to the non-renewable
energies. Some important conclusions are summarized below:
1. The use of nano-materials in the renewable energy field can play a crucial
role in increasing the efficiency of solar cell, fuel cell and wind turbine.
2. Nanotechnology can improve the developed countries ability to reduce the
environmental impact of burning fossil fuels to produce energy.
3. Nanotechnology makes a significant reductions in the cost of expensive
components, such as solar cells as well as in the areas of hydrogen
production and storage.
4. Nanotechnology can be considered as a key enabler of the increasing
hydrogen energy utilization.
5. Bio fuels industry greatly improved by utilizing nano-particles.
6. Further researches are needed to study the effect of nanotechnology in
geothermal, wind and tidal energies, since the number of published papers
in these fields are very limited compared with the corresponding papers
related with the other types of the renewable energies.
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CHAPTER - 13
The influence of Mortality Rate for Prey on a

Three Species Ecological Ammnesalim
K.V.L.N.Acharyulu
Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics,
Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla-522101,India.
kvlna@yahoo.com
Abstract
The present Chapter investigates on a three species ecological Ammnesalism
with limited resources consisting of a prey (S1), a predator (S2) surviving on
Ammensal species and a enemy (S3) Ammensal to the prey in which the prey has
a mortality rate. The mathematical model represents a set of three first order
non-linear simultaneous equations. The equation for enemy is non-linear but de-
coupled with the prey-predator pair. The four equilibrium points of the model
are traced and criteria for their stability are discussed. Trajectories of the
perturbations over the equilibrium points are extracted.
Keywords: Equilibrium point, Stability, Carrying capacity, Equilibrium state.
AMS Classification: 92 D 25, 92 D 40
1. INTRODUCTION
The mathematical methods are widely used for solving ecological problems of
diverse nature. One of the several problems central to ecology, in general is that
of ecosystem stability "steadiness". It is clear that only a stable ecosystem may
exist over a long time. On the other hand, the limits of stability determine those
maximal ecosystem loads, the exceeding of which will lead to an "ecological
catastrophe", i.e., destruction of ecosystem. Lotka [9] initiated theoretical

ecology in 1925 ,since then so many Mathematicians and Ecologists contributed
to the growth of this area of knowledge reported as in the treatises of Meyer [10],
Kapur [6, 7] and several others. N.C.Srinivas [11] studied the competitive
ecosystems of two species and three species with limited and unlimited
resources. Lakshminarayana and Pattabhi Ramacharyulu [8] investigated prey-
predator ecological models with a partial cover for the prey and alternative food
for the predator and prey-predator model with cover for prey and alternate food
for the predator with time delay. The present authors [1-5] probed various
interactions of ecological Ammensalism between multiple interacting species.
The present study in this chapter focuses on a three species Ammensal ecosystem
consisting of a prey (S1), a predator (S2) and an enemy (S3) Ammensal to the
prey with mortality rate for prey. The model is built by a set of three first order
non-linear simultaneous equations. All the four equilibrium points of the model
are inferred. The trajectories on perturbations over the steady states are
illustrated.
NOTATIONS ADOPTED:
N1: The population of the prey-Ammensal S1.
N2: The population of the predation striving of the prey S1.
N3: The population of the enemy to the prey S1.
a1: The natural death/decay rate of prey S1.
a2: The natural growth rate of S2.
a3: The natural growth rate of S3.
aii: The rate of decrease of Si due to insufficient resources of Si, i =1,2,3.
a12: The decrease of prey (S1) due to inhibition by the predator (S2).
a13: The rate of increase of the Ammensal (S1) due to its successful promotion by
the enemy(S3).
a21: The rate of increase of the predator (S2) due to its successful attacks on the
prey (S1).
K1   a1 / a11  the carrying capacity of prey (S1).
K2   a2 / a22  is the extinction coefficient of predator (S2).
K3   a3 / a33  is the carrying capacity of enemy (S3).
P   a12 / a11  is the coefficient of prey-Ammensal inhibition of the predator.
Q   a21 / a22  is the coefficient predation consumption of the prey.
   a13 / a11  is the coefficient of Ammensalism.
2) BASIC EQUATIONS
(i). Equation for the growth rate of the Ammensal- Prey species S1  :
dN1
 a11 N1  K1  N1  PN 2   N3  (1)
dt
(ii). Equation for the growth rate of the Predator species S 2  :
dN1
 a22 N 2  K 2  N 2  QN1  (2)
dt
(iii). Equation for the growth rate of the Enemy species S 3  :
dN3
 a33 N3  K3  N3  (3)
dt
3) Equilibrium States
dN i
These are given by  o, i  1,2,3 .The system under investigation has Four
dt
equilibrium states .
A) Fully washed out state: N1  0 ; N 2  0 ; N3  0 (4)
B) Enemy only exited state: N1  0 ; N 2  0 ; N3  K3 (5)
C) Predator only exited state : N1  0 ; N2  K2 ; N3  0 (6)
D) Ammensal- prey washed out state: N1  0 ; N2  K2 ; N3  K3 (7)

4) STABILITY OF THE EQUILIBRIUM STATES
We consider slight deviations u1 (t ) , u 2 (t ) and u 3 (t ) over the steady

 
state N1 , N 2 , N 3 :
N1= N1 + u1 (t ) ,N2= N 2 + u 2 (t ) , N3= N 3 + u 3 (t ) (8)
where u1 (t ) , u 2 (t ) and u 3 (t ) are small so that their second and higher powers
and products can be neglected.
The basic equations (1), (2) and (3) are linearized to obtain the equations for the
perturbed state,
dU
 AU (9)
dt
where
  K1a11  2a11 N1  a11 PN 2   a11 N3 a11 PN1  a11 N1 
  (10)
A a22QN 2 K 2 a22  2a22 N 2  a22QN1 0 
 
 0 0 K3 a33  2a33 N3 
5) Stability of Fully washed out state:
N1  0 ; N2  0 ; N3  0
The corresponding linearized perturbed equations are

du1
  K1a11u1 (11)
dt
du2
 K 2 a22u2 (12)
dt
du3
 K3 a33u3 (13)
dt
The corresponding characteristic equation is
 1  K1a11   2  K2 a22   3  K3a33  =0 (14)
whose characteristic roots are 1  K1a11  0 , 2  K2 a22  0 , 3  K3a33  0 .

Since two of the three roots are positive so that the steady state is unstable.
The above equations (11), (12) and (13) yield the solution curves
u1  u10 e K1a11t , u2  u20 e K2 a22t , u3  u30 e K3 a33t (15)
where u10 ,u 20 and u 30 are initial values of u1 , u 2 , u 3 respectively.
The above solution curves are illustrated in Fig.1 to Fig.4 and followed by some
notices.
Case (i) When u 30  u10  u 20 ; K2 a22  K3a33
The predator eclipses the enemy after the time instant t23*  1 u 
log  20 
 K3a33  K2 a22   u30 
in natural growth rate. In this case the prey outnumbers the enemy up to the time
1 u 
t12*  log  10  and there after the dominance is reversed. It is
 K2 a22  K1a11   u20 
exemplified in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
Case (ii) When u 20  u10  u 30 ; K2 a22  K3a33
The predator always outnumbers both the prey and the enemy in natural growth
rates as well as in their initial population strengths. In this case the enemy
dominates over the prey after the time instant t13*  1 u  but it has
log  10 
 K3a33  K1a11   u30 
low initial population strength. This is depicted as in Fig.2.
Fig.2
Case (iv) When u10  u 20  u 30 ; K2 a22  K3a33
The prey goes past both the predator and the enemy till the time
instants
1 u  and t13*  1 u  respectively after
t12*  log  10  log  10 
 K2 a22  K1a11   u20   K3a33  K1a11   u30 
which the
dominance is reversed. In this case the enemy outnumbers the predator after
time
instant t23*  1 u 
log  30  . It is pictured in Fig. 4.
 K2 a22  K3a33   u20 
Fig..4
Case (iv) When u10  u 20  u 30 ; K2 a22  K3a33
The Ammensal-prey outnumbers both the predator and the enemy till the
time instants
1 u  1 u 
t12*  log  10  and t13*  log  10  respectively and
 K2 a22  K1a11   u20   K3a33  K1a11   u30 
there after the prey-Ammensal goes down even though its initial
population strength is greater than that of both the predator and the enemy. Here
the predator always out-numbers the enemy in natural growth rate as well as in
its initial population strength. This is illustrated in Fig.5.
Fig.5
5A)Trajectories of Perturbed Species:
From the equations (15) by eliminating t, the trajectories in u1  u 2 plane,

u 2  u 3 plane and u 3  u1 plane are obtained as
K3 a33 K 2 a22  K3 a33
 K 2 a22
 u2  u 
K1a11
 u3  u 
K1a11
 u1  u 
   2  ;    3  ;    1  (16)
 u10   u20   u20   u30   u30   u10 
6 Stability of Enemy only exited state : N1  0 ; N 2  0 ; N3  K3
The characteristic matrix of this state is
a11  K1    0 0 
 
A 0 K 2 a22 0  (17)
 0 0  K3 a33 
The corresponding characteristic equation is
  a  K
1 11 1      2  K2 a22   3  K3 a33  = 0 (18)
The characteristic roots of (18) are 1  a11  K1    , 2  K2 a22 , 3   K3a33 .
The steady state is unstable since one root 2 is positive.
From (17) ,the solutions of linearized perturbed equations in this case are given
by
u1  u10e a11 (  K1 )t ; u2  u20 e K2 a22t ; u3  u30 e K3a33t (19)
The above solution curves in this case are instanced as follows and observations
are exhibited below.
Case (i) When u10  u 20  u 30 : ( K1   )a11  K3a33
The predator prevails the prey after the time instant t12*  1 u 
log  10 
 K2 a22  (  K1 )a11   u20 
but its initial population strength is less than the of the Ammenal-prey. In this
case both the prey and the enemy converge asymptotically to the equilibrium
point, while the predator departs from the equilibrium point. This is depicted in
Fig. 6.
Fig.6
Case (ii) When u10  u 20  u 30 : ( K1   )a11  K3a33
The prey outnumbers both the predator and the enemy till the time instants
1 u  and t13*  1 u 
t12*  log  10  log  30  after which
 K2 a22  ( K1   )a11   u20   K3a33  ( K1   )a11   u10 
the prey diminishes. In this case both the prey and the enemy converge
asymptotically to the equilibrium point, while the predator goes forth from the
equilibrium point.This is shown in Fig.7
Fig.7
6 (A) Trajectories of Perturbed Species:
The trajectories of (19) in the u1  u 2 plane, u 2  u 3 plane and u 3  u1 plane are

given by
 K 2 a22 K3 a33 a11 (  K1 ) a33 K3 a11 (  K1 ) a22 K 2
 u1  u  u 
   2   3  (20)
 u10   u20   u30 
7 Stability of Predator only exited state: N1  0 ; N2  K2 ; N3  0
The corresponding linearized perturbed equations of this state are
 a11 ( K1  P) 0 0 

A   a22QK 2  K 2 a22 0  (21)
 0 0 K3 a33 
The characteristic equation of the above system is
  a  K
11 1  P      K2 a22     K3 a33  = 0 (22)
The characteristic roots of the equations in ( 21) are   a11  K1  P   0
2   K2 a22  0 and 3  K3a33  0 . Hence, the state is unstable.

By solving the system of equations, we get the solutions curves i.e.
u1  u10 e a11 ( K1  P )t (23)
u2  u20  1  e K2 a22t  1e a11  K1  P t (24)
a22QK 2u10
where 1 
 K 2 a22  a11  K1  P  
u3  u30 e K3 a33t (25)
When u20  1
The above solutions become
u1  u10e a11 ( K1  P )t , u2  u20e a11 ( K1  P )t , u3  u30 e K3 a33t (26)
The above solutions curves are illustrated as follows and observations are laid
out as below.
Case (i) When u 30  u10  u 20
In this case the enemy always outnumbers both the prey and the predator in
natural growth rates as well as in their initial population strengths. However both
the prey and the predator converge asymptotically to the equilibrium point while
the enemy goes away from the equilibrium point. It is shown in Fig.8.
Fig.8
Case (ii) When u10  u 20  u 30
In this case both the prey and the predator outnumbers the enemy till the time
1 u  1 u 
instants t13*  log  10  and t23*  log  20 
 K3a33  ( K1  p)a11   u30   K3a33  ( K1  P)a11   u30 
respectively after which both are declining further. It is clear that both the prey-
Ammensal and the predator asymptotically converge to equilibrium point while
the enemy goes far away from the equilibrium point. This is illustrated in Fig.9.
Fig.9
Case (iii) When u10  u 30  u 20
The enemy outmatches both the prey and the predator in their natural growth
rates. In this case the prey outnumbers the enemy till the time instant
1 u  after which the dominance is reversed.
t13*  log  10 
 K3a33  ( K1  P)a11   u30 
Fig.10
7 (A) Trajectories of Perturbed Species:
The trajectories in the u1  u 2 plane, u 2  u 3 plane and u 3  u1 plane are given

by
 K3 a33 a11 ( K1  P ) ( K1  P ) a11  K3 a33
u1 u 2 u  u   u3  u 
 ;  2   3  ;    1  (27)
u10 u 20  u20   u30   u30   u10 
8 Stability of Ammensal- prey washed out state: N1  0 ; N2  k2 ; N3  K3
The characteristic matrix of this state is
 a11  k3   PK 2  K1   0 0 
 
A a22QK 2  K 2 a22 0  (28)
 0 0  K3 a33 
 
The characteristic equation of the above system is
  a11  k3   PK2  K1      K2 a22     K3a33  =0 (29)
The characteristic roots of the equations in (28) are 1 =

a11  k3   PK2  K1  ,
2   K2 a22 and 3   K3a33 .

In this case all the three roots are negative. Hence the state is stable.
From (28) the solutions of linearized perturbed equations in this case are given
by
 a11  K1  ( K3  PP2 )t
u1  u10 e (30)
u2  u20   2  e K2 a22t   2 e
 a11  K1   K3  PK2  t
(31)
a22QK 2u10
where  2  (32)
 K 2 a22  a11  K1   K3  PK 2  
 
u 3  u 30 e  k3 a3 3t (33)
When u 20  L2
The solutions in this case become

 a11  K1  K3  PK2  t
u1  u10 e (34)
 a11  K1   K3  PK2  t

u2  u20 e (35)
u3  u30 e K3 a33t (36)
Case (i) When u10  u 20  u 30 ;  K1   K3  PK2   K3a33
Initially both the prey and the predator outnumber the enemy till the time instants
1 u  and 1 u 
t13*  log  10  t23*  log  20 
a11  K1   K3  PK 2   K3 a33  u30  a11  K1   K3  PK 2   K3 a33  u30 
respectively after which the enemy outnumbers both the prey and the predator.
This is illustrated in Fig.11.
Fig.11
Case (ii) When u10  u 20  u 30 ;  K1   K3  PK2   K3a33
In this case the Ammensal-prey and the predator always out-number the enemy
in natural growth rates as well as in their initial population strengths. However
the three species converge asymptotically to the equilibrium point. Hence the
steady state is stable. This is instanced as in Fig.12.
Fig.12
8(A) Trajectories of Perturbed Species:
The trajectories of (34), (35) and (36) in the u1  u 2 plane, u 2  u 3 plane and
u 3  u1 plane are given by
a22  K1   K3  PK 2 
u1 u2  u3  a33 k3
   (37)
u10 u20  u30 
Conclusion
It is noticed that the Ammensal- prey washed out state is stable among exiting
four equilibrium states in the model of “A Three Species Ecological
Ammnesalim with Mortality Rate for Prey”
Acknowledgement:
The Author is thankful to Journal of Engineering Research and Studies (JERS)
for their constant encouragement and also for giving permission to him to publish
this chapter.
REFERENCES
[1] Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch.; “An Ammensal-
Enemy specie pair with limited and unlimited resources respectively-A
numerical approach”, Int. J. Open Problems Compt. Math(IJOPCM).,
Vol. 3, No. 1,pp.73-91., March (2010).
[2] Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch.; “On The
Stability of An Ammensal- Enemy Harvested Species Pair With Limited
Resources” - Int. J. Open Problems Compt. Math(IJOPCM)., Vol. 3, No.
2.,pp.241-246, June(2010).
[3] Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch.; “In view of the
reversal time of dominance in an enemy-ammensal species pair with
unlimited and limited resources respectively for stability by numerical
technique”, International journal of Mathematical Sciences and
Engineering Applications(IJMSEA); Vol.4, No. II, June (2010).
[4] Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch.;On the stability
of an enemy -Ammensal species pair with limited resources,
International Journal of Applied Mathematical Analysis and
Applications, vol 4, No.2, pp.149-161,July (2009).
[5] Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch “On The Stability
Of An Ammensal - EnemySpecies Pair With Unlimited Resources”.
International e Journal Of Mathematics And Engineering
(I.e.J.M.A.E.) Volume-1,Issue-II,pp-115-124;(2010)
[6] Kapur J.N., Mathematical modeling in biology and Medicine, affiliated
east west, 1985.
[7] Kapur J.N., Mathematical modeling, wiley, easter, 1985
[8] Lakshmi Narayan K & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu N.Ch. “A prey-predator
model with cover for prey and alternate food for the predator and to me
delay”. International journal of scientific computing Vol1, 2007, pp-7-
14.
[9] Lotka AJ. Elements of physical Biology, Willim & WIlking Baltimore,
1925
[10] Meyer W.J., Concepts of Mathematical modeling MC. Grawhil, 1985.
[11] Srinivas N.C., “Some Mathematical aspects of modeling in Bi-medical
sciences bg“Ph.D Thesis, Kakatiya University 1991.
Brief Information of the Author:

Dr.K.V.L.N.Acharyulu: He is working as Associate
Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Bapatla
Engineering College, Bapatla which is a prestigious
institution of Andhra Pradesh. He took his M.Phil.
Degree in Mathematics from the University of
Madras and stood in first Rank. R.K.M. Vivekananda
College,Chennai. Nearly for the last seventeen years
he is rendering his services to the students and he is
applauded by one and all for his best way of
teaching. He has participated in many seminars and
presented his papers on various topics. More than 114 articles were
published in various International reputed Journals. He authored three
books and edited more than 75 books. He obtained his Ph.D from ANU
under the guidance of Prof.N.Ch.Pattabhi Ramacharyulu, NIT, Warangal.
He is a Member of Various Professional Bodies and created three world
records in the research field. He received so many awards and rewards for
his research excellency in the field of Mathematics.
CHAPTER - 14
Global Stability Analysis on a Two Species

Monad Ecological Ammnesalim
K.V.L.N.Acharyulu
Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics,
Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla-522101,India.
kvlna@yahoo.com
Abstract
This Chapter intends to test the global stability of a two species Monad
Ammensalism which is instituted by Liapunov’s stability criteria. It is extracted
by constructing a suitable Liapunov’s function for appraising the global stability
of the model in the case of normal steady state.
Keywords: Equilibrium states, Stability, Liapunov’s function for global stability
AMS Classification: 92 D 25, 92 D 40
1). Introduction:
K.V.L.N.Acharyulu and and N.Ch.Pattabhi Ramacharyulu [1-5] analyzed the
Local stability of an Ammensal- enemy eco-system on the quasi-linear basic
balancing equations. Local stability analysis for an Ammensal- enemy eco-
system with various resources in different cases has been also fulfilled in the
author’s earlier work. Several authors like Lotka[7], Kapur[6] etc. utilized this
method in various situations for global stability. The present Chapter is mainly
focused on the establishment of the global stability of the co-existent equilibrium
state of a two species Monad Ammensalism with limited resources by employing
a property constructed by Liapunov’s function with Liapunov’s criteria for global
stability
2). Basic concepts:

Consider an autonomous system
dx dy
 F1 ( x, y) and  F2 ( x, y ) (1)
dt dt
Assume that this system has an isolated initial point taken as (0, 0). Consider a
function E(x,y) possessing continuous partial derivatives along with the path of
(1).This path is represented by C= [(x (t), y (t)] in the parametric form. E(x,y)
can be regarded as a function of ‘t’ along C with rate of change
If the total energy of physical system has a local minimum at a certain
equilibrium point then the point is said to be stable .Liapunov generalized this
principle by constructing a function E(N1, N2) whose rate of change is given by
E E N1 E N 2 E E
 .  .  F1  F2 (2)
t N1 t N 2 t N1 N 2
corresponding to the system.
(ii)Theorem (A): If there exists a Liapunov’s function E (x,y) for the system (1),
then the critical point (0,0) is stable. Further, if this function has additional
property that the function (2) is negative definite, then the critical point (0, 0) is
asymptotically stable. (3)
The following theorem provides to ascertain the definiteness of a Liapunov’s
function.
(iii)Theorem (B): The function E(x,y) = ax2+bxy+cy2 is positive definite
if a>0 and b2– 4ac<0 and negative definite if a<0, b2 – 4ac<0. (4)
Notations adopted
N1 and N2 are the population ratess of the Ammensal and Enemy species with
natural growth rates a1 and a2 respectively.
a11 = The rate of decrease of the Ammensal due to insufficient food.
a12 = The rate of increase of the Ammensal due to inhibition by the enemy.
a22 = The rate of decrease of the enemy due to insufficient food.
Ki = ai aii are the carrying capacities of Ni, i = 1, 2

 ,β = Monad type parameters.

The state variables N1 and N2 as well as the model parameters a1, a2, a11, a22, K1,
and K2 are assumed to be non-negative constants.
3). Construction of Basic Equations of the model:

The model equations for a two species Ammensal interaction with a monod type-
variable coefficient of Ammensalism with limited resources is given by the
following system of non-linear ordinary differential equations.
(i) Equation for the growth rate of Ammensal Species (S1):
dN1
 N1  a11  K1  N1   F  N 2   (5)
dt
In equation (5) the function F (N2) is the characteristic of the
Ammensalism N1 with respect to the enemy N2 with the properties:
F (N1) is bounded and F (N1)  a constant, as N1   .
The Ammensal characteristic model considered is a two parameter model of the

monad type :
 N2
F (N2) = (6)
  N2
Here   F     0 is a parameter characteristic of Ammensalism.

Further  ( 0) is another parameter signifying the strength of
Ammensalism:   0 strong Ammensalism,   0 weak Ammensalism
and   0 , the interaction would be neutral.
(ii) Equation for the growth rate of enemy species (S2):

dN 2
 a2 N 2  K 2  N 2  (7)
dt
4). Equilibrium Points and Equilibrium states:

The system has the following four equilibrium states E1-E4 resulting from
dN1 dN 2
= 0; =0 (8)
dt dt
E1: Fully washed out state : N1 = 0; N 2 = 0 (9)
E2: The state in which only the : N1 = 0; N 2 = K2 (10)
enemy survives and the Ammensal

is washed out
E3: The state in which only the : N1 = K1; N 2 = 0 (11)
Ammensal survives and the enemy

is washed out
1   K2 
 K1a11 
  K 2 
E4: Co-existent state : N1 = ; N 2 = K2
a11 
(Both Ammensal and enemy survive) (12)

5). Global stability of the model by Liapunov’s function :
The linearized basic equations are
dU1   N2 
 a11 N1U1  1   N1U 2 (13)
dt   N2    N2 
dU 2
= - a22 N 2 U2 (14)
dt
The characteristic equation is
   a N    a
11 1 22 
N2  0 (15)
Equation (15) is of the form  2 + p  + q = 0

where
p = a11 N1 + a22 N 2 >0 (16)

q = a11 a22 N1 N 2 >0 (17)
   K2 
2
  K2  
  a1  a2    4 a2 1
a  
    K2     K2  
 
Therefore the conditions for Liapunov’s function are satisfied
Now we define
E (U1, U2) = ½ (aU12 + 2b U1 U2 + cU22) (18)
a 
2
22 N2  a11 a22 N1 N 2
where a = (19)
D
  N2 
  1 a22 N1 N 2
  N2    N2 
b= (20)
D
2
   N2  
a N 
2
   1 N1   a11 a22 N1 N 2
   N 2    N 2
11 1
 
c= (21)
D
D = pq = ( a11 N1 + a22 N 2 ) (a11 a22 N1 N 2 ) (22)
From equations (16) and (17) it is clear that D > 0 and a > 0
Also
     
2

  (a11 N1 ) 2     N 2  1 N1   a11a22 N 1 N 2 
    
  (a N )  a11 a22 N1 N 2      N2    N2   
2
D 2 (ac  b 2 )  D 2   22 2  
 D   D 
  

  
   N2  
2

   1 a22 N 1 N 2  

  N2    N2  
-    (23)
 
D 
 
  


 
 2
= a22 N 2  a11a22 N1 N 2
2
 a 2 N 2 


11 1
2
  N2 
2
   N 
2 2
N1  a11a22 N1 N 2 
2


 2 
 
-  2 2
a22 2 N1 N 2 
2 2
(24)
 
    N 
2 2
  N2
 2 
D2(ac-b2) = a222a112 N1 2 N 2 2 + a223 a11 N1 N 2 3+a22 a113 N1 3 N 2
 2 2 3 2 2
+ a11 a22 N 2 N1  a112 a22 2 N 1 N 2 (25)
  N 
2
2
 D2 (ac – b2) > 0

 ac – b2 > 0 i.e., b2 – ac < 0 (26)
Therefore the function E (U1, U2) at (18) is positive definite.
E dU1 E dU 2    N2  
Further    aU1  bU 2   a11 N1U1  
 1 
 N1U 2 
U1 dt U 2 dt    N2    N2  
 
+  bU1  cU 2   a22 N 2U 2  (27)
By substituting values of a, b and c from equations (19), (20) and (21) in (27) we
get
 a N
   a11a22 N1 N 2  
2
E dU1 E dU 2  22 2  a N U 2
   
U1 dt U 2 dt   11 1  1
 D  
  
    K2   
    1 a22 N1 N 2  
 (a N 2 )  a11 a22 N1 N 2     N2    N2 
  
2
  22  N1    a N1  a N
U1U 2
  11 22 2
  (  N2 )
2
D

D
 
   
   
   N2       N2  
2
 
 1   a22 N1 N 2   (a11 N 1 )  
2
  1 N1   a11a22 N1 N 2  
   N 2    N 2        N2    N2     2
 N1    a22 N 2  u2
  (  N2 )
2
 D
  D  
    
    
(28)

 a22 N 2  a11 a22 N1 N 2
2
 
 a11 N1 
2
=   U1
2
  D  
  
    
 2 2    (   N ) 2 a22 N1 N 2  
 a N  a11 a22 N1 N 2
  22 2  N  2

 a11 N 1  a22 N 2  
U1U 2
 D  (  N 2 )2 1 

D  
   
   
    2 2  2 2 2  
 a22 N1 N 2   a11 N1  N1  a11 a22 N1 N 2  
 (   N 2 )  (  N2 ) a N 
2 4
  N  U 22
 D  (  N 2 )2 1  D  22 2 

    
    

 a11a22 N1 N 2  a11 a22 N1 N 2
2 2


2 2
=  U
2
  D  1
 
 2 2   2 2 
 a N N 2   a11 a22 N1 N 2    a11a22 N1 N 2   a22 N1 N 2   U U
2 2
  22 1
    1 2
   
2 2
   N2 D     N2 D 
   
  2 2  2 2 2 2 
  a11 a22 N1 N 2   a22 N1 N 2  a11a22 2 N1 N 2 
2
 a N 1 N 2   (  N 2 ) 
2 2 4
  22  U 22
 (   N 2 ) D
4   D 

  
  

 a11a22 N 1 N 2 (a11 N 1  a22 N 2 )  2

= -   U1
 D 
 2 2 2 2 
 a22 2 N 1 N 2   a11a22 N 1 N 2   a11a22 N1 N 2  a22 2 N1 N 2  U U
+  1 2
 
2
   N2 D 
 
 a N 12 N  2  2 a 2 a N 12 N 2  2  2 a N 2 N a11a222 N 1 N 2
2

+ 22 2
 11 22
 22 1 2
 U 22
 (  N 2 )4 D D (  N 2 )4 D D 
 
 a a N 1 N 2 (a11 N1  a22 N 2 )  2  a 2 a N 1 N 2  a a 2 N N 2 2 ) 
=   11 22 U1   11 22 11 22 1
U 22
 D   D 
 
= 

 a11a22 N 1 N 2 a11 N1  a22 N 2  
 a a N 1 N 2 a11 N1  a22 N 2
 U 2   11 22
 U 2
 D  1
 D  2
   
D 2 D 2
=  U1  U 2 = - (U12  U 22 )
D D
(29)
E dU1 E dU 2
   (U12  U 2 2 ) (30)
u1 dt u2 dt
which is clearly negative definite.

So E (U1,U2) is a Liapunov’s function for the linear system.
Next we prove that E (U1, U2) is also a Liapunov’s function for the non-Linear
system also.
If f1 and f2are two functions in N1 and N2 defined by
  N2 
f1 (N1, N2) = N1  a1  a11 N1   (31)
   N2 
f2 (N1, N2) = N2  a2  a22 N2  (32)
E E
we now have to show that f1  f 2 is negative definite.
U1 U 2
Putting N1 = N1 + U1 and N 2 = N 2 + U2 in (5) and (7) we get
  (N 2  U2 ) 
du1
 
= N1  U1  a1  a11 ( N1  U1   
  ( N 2  U 2 ) 
dt 
1
  U2 
 
 N1  U1 a1  a11 ( N 1  U1 )2  1   ( N 2  U 2 )( N 1  U1 )
  N2    N2 

 U2 
= a1 N1  a1 U1  a11 ( N1 2  2 N1 U1  U12 )  1  
 N 1 N 2  N 1U 2  N 2U1  U1U 2
  N 2    N 2 

   
 N1 N 2  N1   N1 U 22   N 2   
 a11 N1 U1    U  a U 2
   U1U 2  UU 2
   N 2     N 2 
       
2 2 11 1 2 2 2 1 2
   N2   N2    N2   N2
   
 
 N1 N 2  N1
 a11 N1 U1    U  F (U ,U )
du1
 f1 (U1, U2) = 

 2
(33)
 
  N2
2 1 2
dt    N2 
 
where F(U1, U2) =

 
 N1  N2  
a11 U12  U 22    U U  U1 U 2 2
 
  N2     N2   
2 1 2 2
   N2   N2
 
Also
du2
dt
 
 N 2  U 2 a2  a22 N 2  U 2  
dU 2
 f 2 (U1 ,U 2 )    a22 N 2U 2  G(U1 ,U 2 ) (34)
dt
where G (U1,Uu2) = - a22 U22
From (18)
E
= aU1 + bU2 (35)
du1
E
= bU1 + cU2 (36)
du2
Now
   
E E   N1 N 2  N1 
f1  f 2   aU1  bU 2   a11 N1U1    U  F (U1 ,U 2 ) 
  2
U 2    
2
dU1
    N2 N 2 

 
(b U1 + cUu2)[- a22 N 2 Uu2 + G (U1, U2)] (37)

E E     N2  
f1  f 2   aU1  bU 2  a11 N1U1    1 N1 U 2 
dU1 U 2     N2    N2  

  bU1  cU 2  a22 N2U 2  + [(aU
1 + bU2) F (U1, U2) + (bU1+cU2) G(U1, U2)] (38)
From (29)
E E
f1  f 2  - (U12 + U22) + (aU1+bU2) F(U1, U2) + (bU1+cU2) G (U1,U2) (39)
dU1 U 2
By introducing polar co-ordinates U1 = r cos  , U2 = r sin  we can write the

equation (39) as
E E
f1  f 2  - (r2) + r{[a cos  + b sin  ] F(U1, U2) + [b cos  + c sin  ]
dU1 U 2
G(U1, U2)}
(40)
Let us denote largest of the numbers |a|, |b|, |c| by M.
r r
Our assumptions imply that | F (U1, U2) | < and | G (U1, U2)| < for all
6M 6M
sufficiently small r > 0.
E E 4Kr 2 r2
So f1  f 2  r 2    0 (41)
dU1 U 2 6M 3
Thus the function E (U1,U2) is positive definite with the condition that
E E
f1  f 2 is negative definite
dU1 U 2
 The equilibrium state E4 is “asymptotically stable” .
6).Conclusion:
The Global stability of a mathematical model of two species Monad
Ammensalism with limited resources in the co-existent equilibrium state is
explained and It is observed that the normal state is asymptotically stable.
7). Acknowledgement:
The Author is thankful to International eJournal of Mathematics and Engineering
(IeJME) for their constant encouragement and also for giving permission to him
to publish this chapter.
8).References
[1]. Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch..; “On The Stability
of An Ammensal- Harvested Enemy Species Pair With Limited
Resources” in “International journal of computational Intelligence
Research (IJCIR)”, Vol.6, No.3; pp.343-358, June 2010.
[2]. Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch. “An Ammensal-
Enemy specie pairwith limited and unlimited resources respectively-A
numerical approach”, “Int. J. Open Problems Compt. Math (IJOPCM)”.,
Vol. 3, No. 1,pp.73-91., March 2010.
[3]. Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch.;"On An
Ammensal-Enemy Ecological Model With Variable Ammensal
Coefficient” is accepted for publication in “International Journal of
Computational Cognition( IJCC)”
[4]. Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch “In view of the
reversal time of dominance in an Enemy-Ammensal species pair with
unlimited and limited resources respectively for stability by numerical
technique”, “International journal of Mathematical Sciences and
Engineering Applications(IJMSEA)”; Vol.4, No. II, June 2010.
[5]. Acharyulu. K.V.L.N. & Pattabhi Ramacharyulu. N.Ch. “On The Stability
Of An Ammensal - EnemySpecies Pair With Unlimited Resources”.
“International e Journal Of Mathematics And Engineering
(I.e.J.M.A.E.)”, Volume-1,Issue-II,pp-140-149;2010.
[6]. Kapur J.N., Mathematical Modeling, Wiley Eser (1985)
[7]. Lotka A.J., Elements of Physical Biology, Williams & Wilking, Baltimore,
1925.
Brief Information of the Author:

Dr. K.V.L.N. Acharyulu: He is working as Associate
Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Bapatla
Engineering College, Bapatla which is a prestigious
institution of Andhra Pradesh. He took his M.Phil.
Degree in Mathematics from the University of Madras
and stood in first Rank. R.K.M. Vivekananda College,
Chennai. Nearly for the last seventeen years he is
rendering his services to the students and he is
applauded by one and all for his best way of teaching.
He has participated in many seminars and presented his papers on various
topics. More than 114 articles were published in various International
reputed Journals. He authored three books and edited more than 75 books.
He obtained his Ph.D from ANU under the guidance of Prof.N.Ch.Pattabhi
Ramacharyulu, NIT, Warangal. He is a Member of Various Professional
Bodies and created three world records in the research field. He received so
many awards and rewards for his research excellency in the field of
Mathematics.
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CHAPTER - 15
Overview of the entrepreneurship of biodiesel

companies in Mexico, perspective based on the
institutions
José G. Vargas-Hernández,
M.B.A; Ph.D.
Research Professor. Department of Administration
University Center for economic and Managerial Sciences.
University of Guadalajara, Periférico Norte 799 Edificio G-201-7, Núcleo
Universitario Los Belenes CUCEA, Zapopan, Jalisco C.P. 45100; México
josevargas@cucea.udg.mx, jgvh0811@yahoo.com,jvargas2006@gmail.com
Juan José Esparza López

Maestría en Negocios y Estudios Económicos
Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas. Universidad de
Guadalajara
Abstract
The objective of the present research is to analyze the role of the institutions in the
biodiesel industry, in order to know if there is a relationship with the quality and
maturity of the same with the ventures. Starting from a literary review, the
framework of the current situation is identified, covering aspects related to formal
institutions, laws, rules, regulatory bodies and the theory that supports the
relationship between institutions and entrepreneurship. Concluding that the
institutions in Mexico have increased their maturity and incentive to increase the
number of producers and distributors of biodiesel thus taking advantage of the
growing market.
Keywords: Institutions, entrepreneurship, biodiesel
JEL: M20, M13, Q13, Q35, Q42
1. Introduction
The current situation of a shortage of natural resources requires the innovations
and ventures in production sectors that help to reverse the situation, so the research
seeks the stability of markets that achieve competitiveness and preservation of the
environment.
The biodiesel market is in constant growth. By 2023 consumption is expected to
reach more than 40 million liters around the world. According to OECD (2017)
information, the United States, as well as European countries and some countries
of South America such as Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and Chile stand out to have
quickly added in this new project of an economy with a better vision of the
preservation of the environment. This new change in the consumption trends of
the people, generates new markets that can be exploited by developed country
economies as emerging countries that have the necessary resources for the
production and supply of biodiesel.
Entrepreneurship is given by several factors, some of which may be the best
scenarios, such as unique opportunities, innovations that meet specific needs that
were not counted in the past. These types of entrepreneurship are what the
countries need because they get the most number of benefits, job creation,
sustainable economic growth. The boom in the demand for biodiesel at the global
level could be one of those opportunities that must be taken advantage of.
However, the opportunity to recognize a growing market alone does not ensure
success because the planning and knowledge of the terrain in which entrepreneurs
seek to enter, are flaws that could be had. Being a relatively new market few are
those who have all the necessary information to say know or be experts in the
competitive bioenergy market.
For this reason, formal institutions such as laws or bodies that govern the conduct
of industry can be a tool that helps entrepreneurs to have a delimited vision of the
actions that are possible to carry out, which can be observed as a knowledge which
is transferred from the institutions to the entrepreneurs that helps them to generate
success.
In addition to the existence of formal institutions with sufficient quality and
maturity as can be easy to apply legal frameworks and regulatory bodies with good
planning and implementation of actions, such as aid in reducing taxes. This may
provide financial support and development on the part of the researchers in a
specific line of research, which serves to give rise to a greater degree of
entrepreneurship in a specific sector that has all the incentives.
The background check showed that there was a clear concern about the lack of
rules in the game in this sector that made the market in Mexico unable to
consolidate. However, there were already bodies that were looking to develop
enough regulations to clarify the path of those interested in entering this new
market that was emerging at a fast pace.
Therefore, in this study, a theoretical analysis will be carried out, comparing the
evolution of the biodiesel production companies in Mexico, in order to determine
if there is a relationship with the formal institutions and they will solve the
inefficiency that was seen in this sector in 2008.
2. Background of the problem

In 2009 Biotop, which was a project for the evaluation of technical opportunities
and research needs for Latin America, mentioned how the Mexican regulatory
framework for the promotion of biofuels was at an early stage and was still under
development. Limiting for biodiesel companies in Mexico could be due to formal
institutions that did not work in the best way.
The knowledge of this failure in the Mexican market seeks to be solved as Rembio
in 2009 mentions that there were no specific promotion policies for the second
generation of biofuels, but these are likely to be included in a new biofuels research
program, which will be developed by The National Council and Technology
(CONACYT).
It has been noted in the empirical review that a problem in Mexico for
entrepreneurs interested in the renewable energy markets in specific biodiesel is
that the institutions are not clear enough in their actions that helps to understand
the market.
3. Delimitation of the problem

Given the growing market for biodiesel consumption and the fact that there are no
companies that monopolize production, a solid production base can be created in
Mexico to help the country's economic growth. However, no solid evidence has
been found to be advanced at the pace that should be.
Considering that natural factors are conducive to the production of the raw material
and there is no monopolizing company of production in Mexico, adding that the
demand for biodiesel is increasing, it would be expected that by complying with
the theory of resources and capabilities and that the industry is not strong, the
biodiesel production sector is increasing. This leads to conclude that there is some
other factor inhibiting this growth, and the antecedents of the lack of institutions
that help the initiatives of productive companies in biodiesel generates the
following question:
How have formal institutions impacted the creation of biodiesel producing
companies in Mexico?
4. Justification
As the biodiesel sector is a growing market that demands more liters’ year after
year, it is an opportunity for Mexico, to consolidate its productive industry and to
be competitive worldwide.
Figure 1: Projection of biodiesel production and consumption from 2013 to 2023

Source: Prepared by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD Stats, 2017).
As can be seen from 2014 consumption has approached the production with its
increase of 1454.6 per year in average consumption compared to the 1436 that
increases per year on average the production. It is concluded that, if this trend
continues, the demand to consume will be higher than the production, which is
why it is a moment for there to be ventures in this sector. The estimators of the
variations in the independent variable are good estimators because the coefficient
of determination (r2) is greater than .6 which is a parameter that is used to accept.
However, there is concern that institutions have been able to improve the picture,
so that enterprises in this sector have a better direction. The Energy Regulatory
Commission in (2014) mentions the regulatory area in which it is in charge of
energy, in addition to mentioning the institutions that also help regulate it, such as
the National Hydrocarbons Commission (CNH), the Secretary of Energy SENER),
the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (SHCP), the Federal Economic
Competition Commission (COFECE) and the Security, Energy and Environment
Agency (ASEA).
The objective of the institutions is to create conditions for the efficiency of the
energy markets (Energy Regulatory Commission 2015). There is a growth in the
regulatory framework of bioenergetics, for which it is necessary to know if the
stability in the regulatory framework that has been established has helped in the
stability of the market and above all to know if the institutions have favored that
there are ventures in biodiesel.
There is a relationship with institutions and entrepreneurs around the world as
research in 2015 mentions that
"To the extent that the entrepreneur carries out his activity in an
environment where the rules of the game are well-defined (i.e. that
there is good protection of property rights, that the judicial system
functions properly, that governments are stable or that there is no
corruption, among other factors), the entrepreneur will enjoy greater
security that will positively contribute to the success of his company
"(Fuentelzas and Gonzalez, 2015).
5. Theoretical assumption
Ho: Formal institutions positively impact the entrepreneurship of biodiesel
companies in Mexico.
6. Theoretical conceptual framework

A. Emergence of biodiesel
With the emergence of the industrial revolution by force, the great population
growth around the world arises some problems, as Agarwal (2007) mentions
humanity faces problems, in which arises the main interest on the environmental
deterioration and the crisis of the industry energy. One of the main causes of air
pollution is the burning of oil, since the combustion of air produces large amounts
of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen), sulfur oxides, unburned
hydrocarbons and ash thin (Agarwal, 2007). In addition, it needs to be considered
that hydrocarbon-based fuel is a non-renewable good, it is finite on the planet and
therefore it has been necessary to resort to energies that can be renewable and more
friendly to the environment.
"Recent studies indicate that there are other sources of energy, which
have extremely low emissions and appear to have the potential to
become energy sources for automotive propulsion, including
alcohols, natural gas, hydrogen and biodiesel" (Medina, Chávez and
Jáuregui, 2012, 63).
This leads to the conclusion that an alternative for this destruction that causes
economic growth inconsiderate by the environment, may be the use of these
substitutes for conventional fuels.
The definition of biodiesel used for this work is as follows:
"It is a mixture of methyl esters of fatty acids (FAMEs) that is
obtained by a process of transesterification, mainly from vegetable
oils and animal fats and, more recently from algae. It can be used as
a substitute for conventional diesel, as it has similar properties,
reducing pollution and extending the life of the vehicle's engine. In
its production, glycerin is obtained as a by-product, with multiple
industrial applications. "(Molina, 2012, 7)
B. Theories of entrepreneurship
First, it is necessary to state that it is what is understood as an entrepreneurship.
The entrepreneurship is the search for constant change, generation of ideas,
speculation of projects that generate beneficial effects for the economy and society
(Contreras and González, 2010). In a broader explanation, Sánchez and Pérez

(2015) define it as those initiatives of an entrepreneurial nature that relate the way
of being an individual where are included the way of thinking, reasoning and
acting, with the search for a business opportunity, which give as a result initiative
that generate value not only in an economic sense. In addition, concerned with
social aspects, where all the actors are involved in the initiative, which go from
owners, employees, customers, suppliers and society in general that enjoy this
benefit.
However, Baumol (1990) makes a distinction between undertakings that are
productive, unproductive and destructive. The productive enterprise is one in
which there really is innovation, economic growth and can be associated with the
discovery of good business opportunities. There are more distinctions between
what are entrepreneurships like the one that is done between entrepreneurship by
opportunity and entrepreneurship by necessity. When there is an opportunity
venture, there is greater growth in the economy because that innovation has found
a new niche market, which is exploitable. What does not happen when individuals
are forced to undertake by necessity, that the development of jobs and growth of
the economy is not with the same acceleration (Reynolds, Bygrave, Autio, Cox
and Hay, 2003)
The World Economic Forum also continues to classify high-impact
entrepreneurship as one that generates greater benefits for consumers through the
use of innovations, which in turn also generate more job opportunities and greater
wealth for owners (Economic Forum World, 2014).
For all in their classifications they approach the same point in which they describe
the entrepreneur as the one who manages to find opportunities that generate greater
benefits and the use of innovations that sustain and exploit the opportunity more
time. These entrepreneurs who focus on their clients are the ones who generate the
greatest wealth for their owners (Hitt, Ireland, Sirmon and Trahms, 2011). These
entrepreneurs tend to plan their actions better and to enter the market early and the
most usual is that they undertake in markets with which they have already had
interaction, which makes their rate of failure less than in situations in which there
is no such planning and market knowledge (Liñán, Fernández, Romero, 2013).
Entrepreneurship is an indispensable mechanism for the development of
economies (Schumpeter, 1934), it is necessary for every economy to develop
enterprises that foster the generation of valuable jobs and innovations. However,
the view was that political rulers should focus on favoring the growth of developed
firms with the greatest potential for growth, leaving behind small firms and
ventures (Friar and Meyer 2003). The political rulers who are responsible for the
development of public policies, which Bazua and Valenti (1993) explains that a
public policy is a reference to any social decision, which can be taken by an
individual, an organization or the state.
Governments at all levels from federal, state, and local to the importance of firms
on the economy, social and political issues have focused on creating the policies
needed to support entrepreneurship. But they are faced with the decision whether
policies will focus on supporting the nation's leading firms, helping existing firms
achieve survival, or focusing on the formation of new enterprises (Stam, Studdle,
Hessels and Stel, 2009).
C. Theories of formal and informal institutions

North (1990) defines institutions as the humanly constructed constraints that
structure human interaction, which is understood as the "rules of the game".
Companies must take into account the terrain in which they will enter to know how
they can act and if it is possible to take advantage. In addition to mentioning that
institutions are created to reduce uncertainty. These institutions that are created to
reduce uncertainty can encourage investment to increase productivity, but in
countries where institutions are not as robust, the effect is the opposite (North
1990).
Peng (2012) states that the institutional framework is constituted by both formal
and informal organizations, which will mark the actions that can be taken
individually and collectively. Formal organizations are institutions that are
represented in writing and are usually more rigorous in making them comply with
the desired pattern of behavior; These are the laws, the regulations and the rules.
However, for the study of this research, the informal institutions that although in
many investigations show that it is one of the main factors to consider when
entering new markets of which knowledge is lacking, this study only focuses on
analyzing how the formal institutions favor or not the ventures.
Undoubtedly, the levels of entrepreneurship in a given country or region are
conditioned by the environment in which entrepreneurship is carried out, since
such an environment can facilitate or discourage the initiation of new initiatives
(Fuentelsaz, González and Macías 2015). Institutions of a formal nature, such as
laws or regulations, make it easier to visualize how processes should be carried
out, which makes the business easier to manage and if it does not have experience,
as is the case of ventures having a well-defined way of acting can achieve success.
Proprietary rights, commercial legislation, constitution procedures, ideas, cultural
beliefs, gender, attitudes towards the entrepreneur, etc., influence the appearance
and development of new companies (Marulanda and Morales, 2016, 18).
Based on the theory of institutions, Urbano and Diaz (2009) affirm that the
environment in each country will be decisive in terms of business opportunities
that are available in addition to the perception about them and their ability or
capability to adaptation to use them in their favor will generate greater incentives
for the creation of new companies.
Without the necessary experience, in the new environment in which new start-ups
seek to penetrate, they may encounter problems that limit access to financing,
make it difficult to hire high-quality personnel and result in higher transaction
costs (Aldrich and Auster, 1986). Under the circumstances of uncertainty on the
part of those seeking to undertake an initiative, Fuentelzas (2015) mentions how
the existence of solid institutions can facilitate the resolution of complications of
inexperience, access to resources necessary for its functioning, and stability in the
development of its activities. Institutions can facilitate access to resources and
provide the necessary stability for the development of the activity, with the
consequent effect on levels of business survival.
This demonstrates that the quality of institutions has a strong influence on
competitiveness and growth, affects investment decisions, the organization of
production and plays a key role in the way societies distribute profits and the costs
of developing strategies and policies. However, an unstable institutional
environment leads to even more complicated behavior among firms, hinders their
cooperation and makes the vision of growth in the short term, which has negative
effects on the quality and success of firms. (Fuentelzas and González, 2015).
The uncertainty faced by the initiatives means that the number of successful
ventures is reduced, however, as Vargas, Guerra, Bojórquez and Bojorquez (2014)
mention that institutions have as their main role to reduce uncertainty and
distinguish between uncertainty in a) Policy, which refers to ethnic disturbances
that can cause problems for firms, and b) economic, which are all transaction costs
that can be given by opportunism, to prevent these negative circumstances in the
firm refer that firms can make use of contracts.
7. Contextual framework
The main regulatory framework in Mexico is the political constitution of the
United Mexican States that establishes the framework of action of the authorities
and the governed, through principles, rights and obligations that govern the rest of
the national legal framework. Article 4 of the Constitution speaks of "Everyone
has the right to a healthy environment for their development and well-being”. "The
damage and environmental deterioration will generate responsibility for who
provokes it in terms of the provisions of the law" which has been added as Decree
of the Official Gazette of the Federation on February 08, 2012. In article 25, the
constitution mentions that "the State is responsible for national development to
ensure that it is comprehensive and sustainable." This demostrates its concerns
about caring for the environment.
The main law in specific terms in renewable energy is the Law on the promotion
and development of bioenergetics that in its first article mentions "to promote the
production of inputs for bioenergetics from agricultural activities, forestry, algae,
biotechnological processes and sovereignty food "its main obligation under this
law is to promote the use of bio energies in Mexico. Article 8 of this same law
mentions that "the Bioenergetics Committee is created, which will be composed
of the members of SAGARPA, SENER, SEMARNAT, the Secretary of Economy
and the Secretary of Finance and Public Credit" with which several organizations
are involved in the promotion of bioenergy production and research.
Likewise, the energy agency in Mexico, the Secretary of Energy (2017), reports
that 7 permits are granted for the production of bioenergetics, 41 bioenergy
marketing permits, 5 transport permits and 21 permit exemption notices for
Production of bioenergetics.
The National Commission for Science and Technology in February 2017 reports
that the Secretary of Energy launches a call for the creation of development
projects in sustainable energy technologies that comes with the support of the Bank
of Mexico in which the first prizes will be awarded prizes in cash of up to 2 million
dollars for the first place, from 500 thousand dollars for the second place and 100
thousand dollars for the third place. There are these types of competitions that
encourages the research and development of initiatives in alternative energy with
which firms who want to venture but lack financing. This type of competitions can
be the solution, these are not isolated situations, it is a way to encourage
development that has its opportunity year after year.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food

(SAGARPA) (2016) reports that it has promoted from 2013 to date 960 projects
for the production of biofuels in Mexico. In the last four years’ incentives have
been granted around 275 million pesos, which has generated a total investment of
529 million pesos. And on the installation of 7 biofuel plants, six of which are
dedicated for the production of biodiesel with 4 plants more than they existed in
2009.
8. Method
In the present research the qualitative method based on the literary revision is used,
based on studies applied in Mexico, Latin America and Spain, as well as data
presented by institutional organisms and comparing with the applied theories of
entrepreneurship and institutionalism, with the aim to explain and describe the
phenomenon under study.
9. Analysis of results
An attractive market such as biodiesel for its constant growth should have a
sufficiently strong regulation to encourage the consolidation of existing companies
as well as new entrepreneurs seeking to enter into competition for the market, so
that it was imminent that the State should intervene to promote economic growth.
The ventures for companies producing biodiesel in Mexico for the years 2008-
2009 that were their beginnings in the Mexican market, there was a confusion and
instability, generated uncertainty that caused that the enterprises in this sector were
not encouraged, so It was necessary an intervention of formal institutions, and the
state who can generate new regulatory frameworks in any sector.
After the review of events on how to change the landscape of institutions in
Mexico to be a first-time trial and error, it has been possible to consolidate and
strengthen entrepreneurship initiatives in biofuel companies, especially biodiesel
has been favored with a growth of twice what existed. So it can be noted that if
there is a relationship between the formalization or solids of the institutions with
the initiatives and start-up of enterprises, which supports the theoretical basis and
study that was carried out by Fuentelzas, who show how institutions are an
important factor for successful ventures in their areas.
10. Conclusions and recommendations

Because of this one of the concerns that must be had if the economy is to be more
competitive compared to countries with a faster growth rate than the Mexican, it
is necessary to be clear that formal institutions is a way in which entrepreneurs
achieve organizations that exploit available markets and do so in a sustainable
manner.
In addition, all those who seek to generate a project in the renewable energy sector
as well as any other type of industry need to look for countries with better formal
institutions, or in case of entering emerging markets that usually do not have a
solid structure in its laws, regulations and regulatory agencies, to anticipate the
failures that can be caused and the costs that this would cause to enter the market
with proactive strategies and not wait to be in unsustainable situations.
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CHAPTER - 16
Nanotechnology in the field of renewable

energy
K.D.B.B.Chary1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science,
Hyderabad, Telangana.
K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu2

Applied Engineering Department, Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology
and Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
Abstract
Nanotechnology has revealed tidal future opportunities to improve the efficiency
of non-traditional technologies for energy production. Nanotechnology has
affected all aspects of the spectrum of unconventional energy solutions. The main
effects of nanotechnologies are the use of nanomaterial’s, ranging from nano-
polymer to metal composite materials, and these materials can be tailored to
meet specific applications such as solar cells and other direct-energy conversion
technologies. Nanopolymers have revolutionized wind turbines and rotor blades.
Low unit weight and high ability to absorb stress are crucial factors that produce
high efficiency and low energy consumption. The heat conversion coefficient is
geometrically enhanced in the case of solar photovoltaic systems, which greatly
enhances electron excretion and photon transformation. The paper discusses
options, materials and technologies for direct solar use in an indirect heat
conversion system by modifying the wind energy conversion module. This also
affects the future of hydropower production and its management systems and
their modifications due to the almost superconducting metallic compounds in
nanotechnologies.
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN RENEWABLE ENERGY

Nanotechnology: - Nanotechnology is defined as the study and use of structures
between 1nanometer and 100 nanometers in size. To give you an idea of how
small that is, it would take eight hundred 100 nanometer particles side by side to
match the width of a human hair.
INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY:
Looking at Nanoparticles
Scientists have been studying and working with nanoparticles for centuries, but
the effectiveness of their work has been hampered by their inability to see the
structure of nanoparticles. In recent decades the development of microscopes
capable of displaying particles as small as atoms has allowed scientists to see
what they are working with.
Nanotechnology unbolts many doors which embrace pressing problems
associated with social and environmental issues. It provides alternative solutions
to many of the problems faced today by us. It assists by manipulating data at the
atomic and molecular level and supramolecular level.Breakthrough in
nanotechnology unfasten the probability of strolling beyond our current
alternative sources for energy supplies by broaching technologies that are more
efficient, inexpensive and environmentally sound.
In the original sense nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to construct
items from the microscopic to macroscopic level in coherence with the increase
in the efficiency. India may contribute to 25% towards the advancement of
nanotechnology
Types of Nanomaterials
The nano materials are used in various shapes and sizes and they are produced
tailor made to suit the requirement.
The main type of materials are Carbon black
 Silica fumes
 Clay
 Metal/alloys/composite
 Ceramics
 Polymer Composites;
The above materials are available in the following forms:
Nano Ceramic Powders: These are solid powders which constitute the most
important segment of the whole nano structured materials. The powders
constitute more than 50% of the total nano
Structured materials
Nano Tubes: These are the single or multilayered tubes of conductors and
semiconductors. They are strong materials and with high thermal and electrical
conductivity
Nanocomposites: Generally they are polymer based with nano sized filers used
in various applications such as bearing, gear boxes etc
Renewable Energy
Renewable energies are those generated from sources that do not have a finite
end, or those that can be recycled, typically from natural sources - like solar
power, wind power and water power.
We use energy every day of our lives - our electronic devices require electricity
for power, our streetlights need the same for lighting, our vehicles require
gasoline and diesel. We fuel our homes with domestic oil, propane or electricity
from a national or local grid for lighting, heating and for powering our devices.
The places we work use computers, phone networks, security systems and
servers, as do our shopping malls, parking lots, sports stadiums, cars, airplanes
and so on. All of these things require power from fuel.
According to a report by the International Energy Agency, the increase of
amount of electricity produced from renewable sources increased from just over
13% in 2012 to 22% the following year. They also predict that that figure should
hit 26% by 2020. In terms of total generation, renewables accounts for 19% of
our present usage. More clearly needs to be done though for the reasons stated
below, but these figures are encouraging from the perspective of the use of
renewables on its own. Most long-term forecast models predict that use will
triple between 2012 and 2040, with a greater amount should the planet hit 2⁰ of
warming.
We can break these figures down even further and look at the divide between
renewable energy types. These are:
 9% from biomass
 2% as non-biomass heat energy
 8% from hydro electricity generation
 2% of electricity generated from geothermal, biomass, wind and solar
power
There is still much to do though; between 2000 and 2012, the largest growth area
in terms of resources was coal - easily the dirtiest form of fossil fuel. The most
used resource amid fluctuating price coupled with what we now understand to
have been over-production for several years, was oil.
Domestically, the US (United States) produces just over 13% of its electricity
from renewable sources. As one of the world's largest consumers of energy (at
11.4kw per person per year) and consuming around 25% of the world's
production every year, the situation in the US is immediate. Exponential growth

of production in China, and equal exponential growth in coal mining there,
should not be permitted to outstrip renewable use and it seems we are winning
that particular battle; a UN (United Nation) report concluded in 2015 that
renewable technology is now being produced on an industrial scale.
Types of Renewable Energy.
Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun, however
alternative energy resources can be divided into more specific categories
includes:
 Solar Power.
 Wind Power.
 Biomass Energy.
 Geothermal Energy.
 Hydropower.
Now, we will see how nanotechnology works in different types of renewable
energy.
Applications of Nanotechnology in Renewable Energy
Nanotechnology in Solar Energy

Solar Energy
Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either
directly using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a
combination. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic
cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect.
Solar panels are one of the most popular forms of renewable energy. They are
increasingly being used by individual households and businesses to produce
some of their own electricity, particularly in warm countries, and more Eco
conscious countries like Germany.
At the core of commercial solar panels are photovoltaic (PV) cells - devices
which convert solar energy into an electrical voltage. These are constructed from
several layers of materials, each with a specific set of properties suited to its job.
Advances in the materials used in PV cells will push the efficiency and cost of
solar panels down, and ultimately help the application of solar panels to become
more widespread, across domestic, industrial, and grid level applications.
The main aims of R&D for PV technologies are
 Increase the light absorption rate
 Increase the efficiency of the photovoltaic effect
 Decrease the cost of manufacturing make PV cells adaptable to different
scales and localities.
Three Generations of Solar Panels
Photovoltaic technology has been categorized into three distinct generations,
which mark step shifts in the materials and manufacturing techniques used to
make the cells.
The first generation of solar cells uses very high quality crystalline silicon. These
are expensive to manufacture and have a fairly low theoretical efficiency limit of
around 33%.
Second generation PV (Photo Voltaic) cells use thin film technologies with other
semiconducting materials such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium
gallium selenide (CIGS). These materials can significantly reduce processing
costs and promise much higher theoretical efficiencies than silicon -based PV
materials.
Third generation PV is a much broader group of technologies, all of which are
emerging or in the development phases. Technologies often considered part of
this third generation include quantum dots, nanostructured semiconductors, and
amorphous silicon.
The Role of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology can help with design and manufacture second generation, thin
film PV cells. However, nanomaterials will truly come into their own in the third
generation of solar cell technologies, where novel technologies like nanowires,
quantum dots and radial junctions will begin to push the upper limits of PV
efficiency.
Nanostructures can also allow efficient solar cells to be made from cheaper, more
conventional materials, like silicon and titanium dioxide. Although there will be
cost barriers involved in developing mass production techniques for nano
-enhanced PV cells, the use of cheaper raw materials will allow the cost of
commercial solar cells to continue to decrease.
One of the biggest drawbacks with modern solar power devices is their
efficiency: even the most advanced devices only absorb a fraction of the
incoming solar radiation, and can only a fraction of that radiation is converted
into electricity (the rest is mostly lost as heat and reflected light).
Most solar power generators in use today are solar cells, which use long, thin
crystals of silicon to convert sunlight into an electric potential. These can absorb
a maximum of about 48 percent of incoming solar radiation, about half of which
can be converted into electricity.
However, recent studies have shown that nanotechnology could be able to
dramatically increase the absorptivity of solar cells, by replacing the crystalline
silicon in solar cells with nanostructured silicon.
For example, a 2008 study from Stanford University showed that solar cells
composed of silicon “nanowires” and “nanocones” can absorb approximately 90
percent of incoming solar radiation (at certain angles of incidence) — almost
twice the amount that can be absorbed by traditional thin-film solar cells.
(What’s more, the nanomaterials only used around one percent the amount of
silicon needed to build a conventional solar cell, suggesting that nano-engineered
solar cells could be significantly cheaper to produce, as well as being more
efficient.)
And a later study found that nano-engineered solar cells could be even more
efficient. The researchers constructed a prototype solar cell using nanowires,
which they found was able to absorb up to 96 percent of incoming solar
radiation. And subsequent research from NASA showed that carbon nanotubes,
when used as a coating on silicon, can absorb an astonishing 99 percent of the
ultraviolet, visible, infrared and far-infrared light that strikes it.
Devices which use liquid to absorb solar energy could benefit from a dose of
nanotechnology too. Doping a liquid with nanoparticles has been found to
significantly boost its solar absorptivity, and consequently these “nanofluids”
have attracted intense interest from solar power researchers in recent years.
Encouragingly, their findings have been overwhelmingly positive. Since the start
of the 2010s, numerous research teams have shown that by replacing the fluid
used in solar collectors (typically water) with a nanofluid, the thermal efficiency
of these devices can be increased by up to 88 percent (or by over 200 percent at

higher temperatures)
APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN WIND ENERGY

Wind Energy
Wind energy is a form of solar energy Wind energy describes the process by
which wind is used to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic
energy in the wind into mechanical power. A generator can convert mechanical
power into electricity. Mechanical power can also be utilized directly for specific
tasks such as pumping water.
Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, variations in
the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Mountains, bodies of water, and
vegetation all influence wind flow patterns. Wind turbines convert the energy in
wind to electricity by rotating propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor
turns the drive shaft, which turns an electric generator. Three key factors affect
the amount of energy a turbine can harness from the wind: wind speed, air
density, and swept area
Nanotechnology in Wind Energy Engineering

The introduction of nanotechnologies in wind energy combines different
methodologies and methods to more effectively address some of the key tasks
associated with wind science. The most important part of this result is to
stimulate the harmonious integration of scientific and technological efforts in to
next-generation wind turbine models
The main scope of nanoscale technology, is to improve the durability of the
critical energy system components and stabilize their performance during
generation, transportation and distribution with the lower maintenance cost as
well as, with significantly fewer greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the
atmosphere. In addition to that, the innovative nanomaterial’s and nanosensors
could be used to lend a helping hand for the renewable energy smart grids
integration and energy production decentralization.
Nanoscale processes, materials and devices, have already been introduced into
the wind industry and contribute to the development of new standards for wind
turbine performance, availability, operability and reliability. Nanoscale models

are being developed to prolong the lifespan of wind turbines, mitigate the fatigue
failures of structural components and lower the overall cost of energy generation.
Stronger, lighter, safe, and sustainable. The next generation wind turbine blades
with nanoscale materials.
Weight Saving
To increase the electric power produced by a wind turbine, blades must grow in
length, since the power captured by a wind machine is proportional to the square
of blade length. At the same time, blades must be kept as tight as possible.
Nanocomposite materials with excellent strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-
weight ratios are now being used to facilitate the development of next generation
high-performance blades.
Nanoparticles are used to equip other materials with new properties in order to
achieve novel functions. The synthesis of these multifunctional nanocomposites
involves the use of low molecular weight polymers (di- acetylenes) which
generally have long-term stability and excellent processability. They also have
good diffusion barrier properties and exceptional water repellency. Here are
some of their advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
1 Tensile strength up to 40%
2 Tensile modulus (elasticity) up to 68%
3 Flexural strength up to 60 %
4 Flexural modulus (bending) > 126%
5 Distortion temperature from 65% to 152%
Disadvantages
1 Recycling difficulty
2 Brittleness
3 Inadequate price / performance ratio
4 Difficult compounding requirements
Nano-Lubricants
The rotating parts of the wind turbines are experienced high static and dynamic
loads coming from the turbine blade and wind alteration. Also, because of the
unsteady operating conditions and due to the presence of debris, system failure is
accelerated.
Energy Storage and Transmission

Energy storage is considered to be one of the most important factors for the
penetration of renewable energy technologies. Nanotechnology can bridge the
gap between energy storage and production by applying innovative techniques
such as carbon nanotube hydrogen storage systems. The energy density of
hydrogen is enormously high by weight, but at the same time its low energy
density by volume, turns its storage properties and capabilities into a challenging
proposal for the future energy systems. Some other carbon-based nanoscale
particles such as aerogels, nanofibres and grapheme can be also used to reduce
the dimensions of the storage medium to nanoscale dimensions and effectively
address the energy storage challenges. Current investigation focuses on
reversible reactions between hydrogen and solid-state materials, such as

magnesium.
Concerning the power transmission and nanotechnology, a very interesting
research from 7 Scandinavian universities and several institutions, named
Nanotechnology for Energy Applications, states that the existing copper-based
grids leak electricity at about 5% per 100 miles of transmission. A special type of
carbon nanotubes, so-called armchair nanotubes, which exhibit extraordinarily
low electrical resistance (more than 10 times better conductivity than copper) and
tremendous specific tensile strength, could revolutionize electricity transmission
Nanotechnology in Biomass Energy

Biomass Energy
Biomass is a renewable energy source from living or recently living plant and
animal materials which can be used as fuel. An example of biomass is plant
material that produces electricity with steam. An example of biomass is animal
fossil fuel.
Nanotechnology for biofuel production

Concerns about decreasing petroleum supplies vs. increasing demands, and
environmental consequences of fossil fuels (e.g., greenhouse gas emission) have
motivated the research and development of renewable biofuel production in the
recent decade. The lignocellulosic biomass has been recognized as the
sustainable resource to produce biofuels with environmental benefits (less
greenhouse gas emissions), and abundant quantities without reducing food
supplies. The lignocellulosic biomass refers to plants or agricultural residues that
are majorly composed of cellulose (38-50 %), hemicellulose (23-32 %) and
lignin (15-25 %), as well as other minor components (e.g., protein, pectin's,
extractives) . Cellulose is a homo polysaccharide of glucose, linked by β-1,4
glyosidic bonds. Hydrogen bonds are formed to associate cellulose within chains
(intramolecular) and between chains (intermolecular). Hemicellulose is a Hetero
polysaccharide of pentoses (e.g., xylose, arabinose) and hexoses (e.g., glucose,
mannose, galactose). It also contains uronic acids, acetate and phenolic groups.
Lignin is a complex heteropolymer of three different polyphenolic compounds,
p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol. Three primary strategies have been
proposed and developed for biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass,
including gasification and fuel derivation, bio-oil production by fast pyrolysis or
liquefaction, as well as ethanol production by hydrolysis and fermentation.
Gasification of biomass is a process in which biomass reacts with steam, oxygen
or air to produce syn-gas (i.e., CO and H2), or producer gas (i.e., N2, CO2, CO,
H2) [26]. The syn-gas can be utilized to produce synthetic diesel, methanol or
methanol-derived fuels. Pyrolysis is thermal decomposition of feedstock without
oxygen or steam [28-30]. Fast pyrolysis (or flash pyrolysis) is usually applied at
a high temperature (400-650 °C) and moderate pressure (1-5 atm) with an
extremely short residence time (less than 2 seconds) for a high liquid yield (> 50
%).
Liquefaction is a process to liquefy the feedstock under a high pressure (50-200
atm) and a high temperature (250-325 °C). Compared with the aforementioned
two strategies, conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol requires lower
temperature and pressure, with high selectivity. Conversion of lignocellulosic
biomass to ethanol is a multistep process, in which polysaccharides are
depolymerized by either acid or specific enzymes to monomeric sugars (pentoses
or hexoses), and the resulting sugars are fermented to ethanol by yeasts.
A simultaneous scarification and fermentation (SSF) process is developed to
reduce the reactor cost and reaction time. During the advances of science and
technology in biofuel production, the nanotechnology has played a significant
role, from at least two aspects. The instrumentation with nano-scale or sub nano-
scale resolution facilitated a comprehensive understanding of the ultrastructure of
the cell wall and the microscopic investigation on cell wall deconstruction and
enzymatic mechanisms. This aspect of nanotechnology has been a long-term
contribution to the biofuel production fields and is continuing to make
contributions with the invention of more sophisticated instrumentation and
advances in sample preparation techniques.
For example, with the help of AFM, the diameter of a cellulose fibril is found to
be around 3-5 nm. With electron microscopy, AFM and other characterization
methods, a multi-scale study on visualization of lignocellulosic biomass cell wall
deconstruction during pretreatment was carried out. The highly porous cell wall
structure with a pore size from 10 to 1000 nm was formed within the plant cell
walls and found to be beneficial for enzyme accessibility to cellulose. In another
study, by applying the tapping mode of AFM, the enzymatic hydrolysis of
cellulose was visualized. The observation significantly enhanced understanding
of the mechanism of interactions between the enzyme and the cellulose fibrils.
The other aspect of the nanotechnology for biofuel production, however, is on
the processing and development of new catalysts/materials at a nano-scale. This
aspect of nanotechnology is more recent and diverse and is gaining more
attention in the scientific community. Many solid acid catalysts, including
zeolites, transition metal oxides, supported carbonaceous solid acid catalysts
have been applied. Zeolites are widely used in chemical catalysis because they
are non-toxic, easy to recover and reuse. Zhang and Zhao performed cellulose
hydrolysis with an H-zeolite catalyst in ionic liquid in a microwave reactor, and
achieved a 37 % glucose yield in 8 min. Macromolecular Lewis acid compounds
supported by zeolites are named heteropoly compounds. Heteropoly compounds
(e.g., H3PW12O40) may possess acidic strength as strong as sulfuric acid.
Therefore, with the zeolite support, they exhibited catalytic activity in cellulose
hydrolysis with thermal stability. A glucose yield of 30 % was reported under
160 °C for 6 hours of reaction time. Transition-metal oxides have been found
with catalytic activity for cellulose hydrolysis, and are also, easy to recover and
reuse. Carbonaceous solid acid catalysts are prepared by carbonizing D-glucose
or sucrose at 400 °C under N2 and then sulfonating the materials at 150 °C. The
catalyst was used to catalyze the transesterification of vegetable oil for biodiesel
production. Carbonaceous solid acid catalysts manufactured in the nano-scale
(10-100 nm) were also studied for cellulose hydrolysis. A high catalytic
performance and excellent recyclability were observed.
Nanoparticle catalysts have also been found interesting in the biofuel production
area due to its high surface area to volume ratio and recyclability. For example,
in a recent study, cellulase was immobilized on polyvinyl alcohol/Fe2O3
magnetic nanoparticles, resulting in three times improvement in glucose yield,
and a 40 % enzymatic activity after four cycles of reuse. Chang et al. used
mesoporous silica nanoparticles as scaffolds for the cellulase immobilization, the
results showed an 80 % cellulose-to-glucose conversion with excellent stability.
Synthesized hydrotalcite nanoparticles and activated it with Ca(OH)2 to
hydrolyze cellulose. A maximum yield of 47 % was achieved, with high
selectivity (85 %) and stability.
Geothermal Energy
Energy obtained by tapping underground reservoirs of heat, usually near
volcanoes or other hot spots on the surface of the Earth.
Geothermal energy forms by the radioactive decay and during the formation of
the planet. Geothermal energy is present in plenty of amount for human needs
but as this is stored inside the Earth so taking it out is very expensive process.
Hence a little of it which comes out itself from the hot springs and melting the
rocks is used by humans.
Uses of geothermal energy

• Cause the heat up of the water to 370° C.
• Cause the melting of rocks.
• Generation of hot springs which causes the space heating.
• Use in generation of electricity.
Advantages of geothermal energy

• Geothermal energy is Cost effective.
• It is reliable and sustainable
• This energy is eco friendly.
• Helps in reducing the global warming because fuel is required.
Disadvantages of geothermal energy

• Maximum energy limited to tectonic plates area.
Application of Nanotechnology in Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy from the Earth comes in the form of vapor-dominated and
liquid-dominated
Liquid dominated plants are made up near the volcanoes at pacific oceans. Their
temperature is greater than the 200° C. Vapor-dominated plants are formed
where the temperature is in the range of the 240° C – 300° C
Geothermal power plants typically tap into hot springs miles underground, where
the proximity of magma superheats water to between 302 and 698 degrees F (150
and 370 degrees C). But drilling that far down has sometimes led to scary Earth
tremors, which have halted some geothermal projects, and to fret about triggering
major earthquake faults.As a trade-off, low-temperature hot springs closer to the
surface present less of a hazard, but also provide less heat for geothermal plants
to tap. But that could change based on a $1.2-million Department of Energy
effort backing nanotech as a solution.
Nanotechnology is also used in improving the eifficency of windmills. An
epoxy-containing carbon nanotubes is now used to make stronger and lighter
windmill blades resulting longer blades which increase the amount of electricity
generated by such windmills.wind turbine life span can also be increased by
using nano paints.Geothermal energy generation is also enhanced by
nanotechnology. In conventional geothermal energy production, cold flu ds are
injected into naturally heated hot rocks usually found over 1500m below the
earth surface. e heated flu d is then extracted and used to generate electricity.
Nanotechnology is now helping to make geothermal energy more practical by
allowing efficient energy production closer to the surface and at lower
temperatures. E-Heat pertaining properties of the fluid are also being enhanced
with nanoparticles.
Hydro Energy
Hydropower (or hydroenergy) is a form of renewable energy that uses the water
stored in dams, as well as flowing in rivers to create electricity in hydropower
plants. The rotating blades spin a generator that converts the mechanical energy
of the spinning turbine into electrical energy.
Hydropower generates electricity

Hydropower is the largest renewable energy source for electricity generation in
the United States. In 2016, hydropower accounted for about 6.5% of total U.S.
utility-scale electricity generation and 44% of total utility-scale electricity
generation from all renewable energy.
Because the source of hydroelectric power is water, hydroelectric power plants
are usually located on or near a water source.
Hydropower relies on the water cycle

Understanding the water cycle is important to understanding hydropower. The
water cycle has three steps:
 Solar energy heats water on the surface of rivers, lakes, and oceans,
which causes the water to evaporate.
 Water vapor condenses into clouds and falls as precipitation (rain, snow,
etc.).
 Precipitation collects in streams and rivers, which empty into oceans and
lakes, where it evaporates and begins the cycle again.
The amount of precipitation that drains into rivers and streams in a geographic
area determines the amount of water available for producing hydropower.
Seasonal variations in precipitation and long-term changes in precipitation

patterns, such as droughts, have a big impact on hydropower production.
Hydroelectric power is produced from moving water
The volume of the water flow and the change in elevation (or fall) from one point
to another determine the amount of available energy in moving water. Swiftly
flowing water in a big river, like the Columbia River that forms the border
between Oregon and Washington, carries a great deal of energy in its flow.
Water descending rapidly from a high point, like Niagara Falls in New York,
also has substantial energy in its flow.
At both Niagara Falls and the Columbia River, water flows through a pipe, or
penstock, then pushes against and turns blades in a turbine to spin a generator to
produce electricity. In a run-of-the-river system, the force of the current applies
pressure on a turbine. In a storage system, water accumulates in reservoirs
created by dams and is released as needed to generate electricity.
History of hydropower
Hydropower is one of the oldest sources of energy for producing mechanical and
electrical energy. Hydropower was used thousands of years ago to turn paddle
wheels to help grind grain. Before steam power and then electricity were
available in the United States, grain and lumber mills were powered directly with
hydropower. The first industrial use of hydropower to generate electricity in the
United States occurred in 1880, when 16 brush-arc lamps were powered using a
water turbine at the Wolverine Chair Factory in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
The first U.S. hydroelectric power plant opened on the Fox River near Appleton,
Wisconsin, on September 30, 1882.
APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN HYDROPOWER

The use of nanotechnologies as such is not in the focus of marine energy
research. However, certain nanomaterials are increasingly important at various
points in energy production. They assume a more passive or conserving role in
protecting components from the aggressive-corrosive and degrading effect of
seawater as well as from fouling processes, and in reducing friction. Depending
on their purpose, nanoscaled and nanostructured protective coatings and
lubricants are highly water resistant (super hydrophobic), anti-microbial, frost
protecting, friction reducing, anti-corrosive, etc., and contribute substantially to
material preservation. Structure and material composition. Small demonstration

power plants exist for both methods in Norway and the Netherlands.
Electroactive polymers, for example, play an active role in terms of producing
electricity from waves. These are plastics that change shape when subject to an
electric voltage. They are also occasionally referred to as artificial muscles. In
contrast, an imposed positive or negative external strain generates an electrical
voltage, which may be used for power generation given suitable technical
provisions. The thinner an electroactive polymer film is, the stronger is the
relationship between shape change and voltage generation. A variety of research
projects are testing the use of electroactive polymer components for generating
wave energy. In Germany, the EPoSil (Electroactive Siliconbased Polymers for
Energy Generation; German: elektroaktive Polymere auf Silikonbasis zur
Energiegewinnung) research network, in which TU Darmstadt participates, is
working to develop stacks of thousands of thin polymer films. They are covered
with electrodes and amalgamated to form a generator. Attached to buoys on the
surface of the water, they are constantly deformed as a result of wave action. The
electrical voltage generated is collected by the electrodes. Other research
approaches focus on nanoscaled polymer threads, placed between flexible
electrodes.
An additional approach to energy generation from the sea is based on exploiting
differences in the water’s salt concentration. These gradients are particularly
large in river estuaries. In the pressure osmosis approach, a net water flow in the
direction of the salt water reservoir results when semipermeable membranes are
installed between the fresh water and the salt water containers. The osmotic
pressure can be used to drive a turbine. In reverse electrodialysis, alternating
series of cathode and anode exchange membranes are placed in series, each being
respectively permeable to potassium or chloride ions and separating salt and
fresh water reservoirs from each other. The chemical potential difference
between neighbouring chambers generates an electrical voltage at each
membrane. The membranes are of decisive importance in both approaches.
Nanotechnological innovations make substantial contributions to membrane
efficiency optimisation in terms of pore structure, surface.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
S.No Author Place of study year Outcomes

1. Puneet Sharma Nano technology and 2005 Nano Ventures
energy consortium
2. Pulickel ,M. Ajayan Carbon Nanotubes 2004 Care study
3 Majumdar, A Materials science 2004 Enhanced
thermoelectricity
4 Venkatasubramanian room-temperature film 2001 Thin-film
et al thermoelectric
CONCLUSION
Although nanotechnology products are costly, they greatly increase the
efficiency and effectiveness of power generation equipment. Maintenance of
energy production equipment can be minimized. The current methods are
suitable to assess the many hazards associated with products and processes
involving nanoparticles, they may not be sufficient to eliminate all risks. More
specifically, the delivery mode of the nanoparticles for the test system should be
adequately reflected in the exposure scenarios. Additional tests may be required.
Exposure dose exposure is not sufficient in mass terms alone; this should also be
done as the total area, the number of particles or the combination of them. In
addition, existing methods used to assess environmental effects are not
necessarily adequate. Therefore, the current risk assessment procedures require
changes in nanoparticles.
REFERENCES
1. Applications of nanotechnolgy in energy sector by Hessen nanotech, Hessen
Germany.
2. Carbon Nanotubes Manufacturing and Applications – A WTEC
International Study by Pulickel M. Ajayan
3. Council, N.R. 2010. Electricity from renewable resources: Status, prospects,
and impediments. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Science.
4. Dr. Thomas Abraham, Innovative Research and products (iRAP), Inc.
5. Majumdar, A. 2004. Materials science: Enhanced thermoelectricity in
semiconductor nanostructures. Science 303(5659):777

6. Puneet Sharma, Director- Reinste Nano Ventures, Nano technology and
energy consortium
7. Resign Nano Ventures
8. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Basic Energy Sciences (DOE/BES).
2005. Basic research needs for solar energy utilization. Report of the Basic
Energy Sciences Workshop on Solar Energy Utilization, 18–21 April 2004.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy Office of Basic Energy
Sciences. Available online: Venkatasubramanian, R., E. Siivola, T. Colpitts,
and B. O’Quinn. 2001. Thin-film thermoelectric devices with high room-
temperature figures of merit.
9. Wikipedia
10. www.nanotechnology.com
Authors
Mr. K.D.B.B.Chary is pursuing Post Graduation,

Department of Chemical Engineering in the Branch of
Process and Equipment Design Engineering at Birla
Institute of Technology and Science, Hyderabad,
Telangana. His areas of interest include equipment
designing and Allied Sciences.
Mr. K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu is pursuing Post

Graduation, Department of Applied Engineering in the
Branch of Farm Power and Machinery at Vignan’s
Foundation for Science Technology and Research,
Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh. His areas of interest
include Farm Machinery and Allied Sciences.
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CHAPTER - 17
Various Renewable Energy Sources and

Importance
Dr. P.Sukumar1* and S.Sharmila 2
1
Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Nandha
Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu – 638052, India.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering
College, Erode, Tamilnadu – 638052, India.
*Corresponding Author: Dr.P.Sukumar, sukumarwin@gmail.com
Abstract
The rapid increase in energy utilization particularly in the past several decades
has raised unease of exhausting the globe’s reserves of petroleum and other
resources in the near future. The huge consumption of fossil fuels has caused
visible damage to the environment in various forms. Due to industrializations
and population growth our economy and technologies today largely depend upon
natural resources, which are not replaceable. Renewable Energy is important
because of the Benefits it provides a environmental benefits renewable energy
technologies are clean sources of energy that have a much lower environmental
impact than conventional energy technologies. Renewable energy is becoming
more and more prevalent around the world, but it is still not the dominant energy
resource. The primary six types of renewable energy are solar, wind, biomass,
hydro power, geothermal and biofuels. Each of these renewable energy sources
provides an alternative to traditional energy generation and can be reproduced,
reducing our footprint on the environment.
Keywords: Environmental impact, Fossil fuels, Environment and Renewable
Energy.
INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy sources, being eco-friendly and distributed globally, offer our
planet a chance to reduce carbon emissions, clean the air, and serve as essential
input for an overall strategy of sustainable development in agriculture, animal
husbandry, industry, transportation and domestic uses. Renewable energy, also
know as 'green energy', is electricity that's powered by natural sources such as
the wind, water and sun. Most renewable energy comes either directly or
indirectly from the sun. Solar energy, can be used directly for heating and
lighting homes and other buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot water
heating, solar cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses. Switching
over to renewable-based energy systems is being increasingly considered by
various countries globally. With refinements in technology the feasibility and
cost of solar and wind power systems have become affordable.
TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

Hydropower:
Hydropower represents one of the oldest and largest renewable power sources
and accounts for close to 10% of our nation’s electricity. Existing hydropower
capacity is about 80,000 megawatts (MW – one million watts or one thousand
kilowatts). Hydropower plants convert the energy of flowing water into
electricity. This is primarily done by damming rivers to create large reservoirs
and then releasing water through turbines to produce electricity. Hydropower
results in no emissions into the atmosphere but the process of damming a river
can create significant ecological problems for water quality and for fish and
wildlife habitat. Another type of hydroelectric power plant - called a pumped
storage plant - can even store power. The power is sent from a power grid into
the electric generators. The generators then spin the turbines backward, which
causes the turbines to pump water from a river or lower reservoir to an upper
reservoir, where the power is stored. To use the power, the water is released from
the upper reservoir back down into the river or lower reservoir. This spins the
turbines forward, activating the generators to produce electricity. A small or
micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home,
farm, or ranch.
There are three main types of hydro plants:

Impoundment facilities
The most common technology which uses a dam to create a large reservoir of
water. Electricity is made when water passes through turbines in the dam.
Pumped storage facilities are similar but have a second reservoir below the dam.
Water can be pumped from the lower reservoir to the upper
reservoir, storing energy for use at a later time.
Run-of-river facilities rely more on natural water flow rates, diverting just a
portion of river water through turbines, sometimes without the use of a dam or
reservoirs. Since run-of-river hydro is subject to natural water variability, it is
more intermittent than dammed hydro.
Sizes of Hydroelectric Power Plants:

Facilities range in size from large power plants that supply many consumers with
electricity to small and micro plants that individuals operate for their own energy
needs or to sell power to utilities.
Large Hydropower:
Although definitions vary, DOE defines large hydropower as facilities that have
a capacity of more than 30 megawatts (MW).
Small Hydropower:
Although definitions vary, DOE defines small hydropower as projects that
generate 10 MW or less of power.
Micro Hydropower:
A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. A small or
micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home,
farm, ranch, or village.
BIOMASS:
Along with the rain and snow, sunlight causes plants to grow. The organic matter
that makes up those plants is known as biomass. Biomass can be used to produce
electricity, transportation fuels, or chemicals. The use of biomass for any of these
purposes is called bioenergy. Biomass is second to hydropower as a leader in

renewable energy production. Biomass has an existing capacity of over 7,000
MW. The Biomass resource is, organic matter in which the energy of sunlight is
stored in chemical bonds. When the bonds between carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen molecules are broken by digestion, combustion (or) decomposition these
substances release stored energy. Biomass energy is generated when organic
matter is converted to Energy. In alcohol fermentation, the starch in organic
matter is converted to sugar by heating. This sugar is then fermented and finally
ethanol is distiller and then blended with another fuel. An aerobic digestion
converts biomass, especially waste product such as municipal solid waste and
market waste. In this process, the facultative bacteria breakdown the organic
material in the absence of oxygen and produce methane and carbon dioxide.
Bioconversion is a nonpolluting, environmentally feasible and cost effective
process. Biomass as a fuel consists of organic matter such as industrial waste,
agricultural waste, wood, and bark. Biomass can be burned directly in specially
designed power plants, or used to replace up to15% of coal as a fuel in ordinary
power plants. Biomass burns cleaner than coal because it has less sulfur, which
means less sulfur dioxide will be emitted into the atmosphere.
GEOTHERMAL:
Geothermal power plants use high temperatures deep underground to produce
steam, which then powers turbines that produce electricity. Geothermal power
plants can draw from underground reservoirs of hot water or can heat water by
pumping it into hot, dry rock. High underground high temperatures are accessed
by drilling wells, sometimes more than a mile deep. Geothermal power taps the
Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of residual heat from
planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay
(80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between
the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal
energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. At the core of the Earth,
temperatures may reach over 5000 degrees Celsius. Geothermal energy comes
from the natural heat of the Earth primarily due to the decay of the naturally
radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium. Geothermal power
plants have minimal land and freshwater requirements unlike for instance solar
energy which needs large area and plenty of water for cooling. Geothermal plants
use only 3.5 square kilometers (1.4 sq mi) per GW of electrical production and
require just 20 liters of freshwater per MW/h.

Geothermal Energy Technologies:
Geothermal Electricity Production - Generating electricity from the earth's heat.
Geothermal Direct Use- Producing heat directly from hot water within the earth.
Geothermal Heat Pumps-Using the shallow ground to heat and cool buildings.
SOLAR ENERGY:
The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. The sun, an average star,
is a fusion reactor that has been burning over 4 billion years. It provides enough
energy in one minute to supply the world's energy needs for one year. In one day,
it provides more energy than our current population would consume in 27 years.
In fact, "The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day period
is equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy sources."
Solar energy comes directly from the power of the sun and is used to produce
electricity, to produce heat, and for light. Our sun is a natural nuclear reactor. It
releases tiny packets of energy called photons, which travel the 93 million miles
from the sun to Earth in about 8.5 minutes. Every hour, enough photons impact
our planet to generate enough solar energy to theoretically satisfy global energy
needs for an entire year. Solar's contribution to heating and lighting is much
larger. Solar-electric power can be produced either by power plants using the
sun’s heat or by photovoltaic (PV) technology, which converts sunlight directly
to electricity using solar cells. One of the many benefits to manufacturing solar
cells is that their basic building block is centered around silicon, one of the most
abundant elements on earth. Silicon is also the main substance found in beach
sand.
Solar Panel Work:
When photons hit a solar cell, they knock electrons loose from their atoms. If
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides of a cell, it forms an
electrical circuit. When electrons flow through such a circuit, they generate
electricity. Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and multiple panels (modules)
can be wired together to form a solar array. The more panels you can deploy, the
more energy you can expect to generate.
Solar Panels Generate Electricity

Photovoltaic (Pv) Solar Panels are made up of many solar cells. Solar cells are
made of silicon, like semiconductors. They are constructed with a positive layer
and a negative layer, which together create an electric field, just like in a battery.
PV solar panels generate direct current (DC) electricity. With DC electricity,
electrons flow in one direction around a circuit. This example shows a battery
powering a light bulb. The electrons move from the negative side of the battery,
through the lamp, and return to the positive side of the battery. With AC
(alternating current) electricity, electrons are pushed and pulled, periodically
reversing direction, much like the cylinder of a car’s engine. Generators create
AC electricity when a coil of wire is spun next to a magnet. Many different
energy sources can “turn the handle” of this generator, such as gas or diesel fuel,
hydroelectricity, nuclear, coal, wind, or solar.
Solar Inverter:
A solar inverter takes the DC electricity from the solar array and uses that to
create AC electricity. Inverters are like the brains of the system. Along with
inverting DC to AC power, they also provide ground fault protection and system
stats, including voltage and current on AC and DC circuits, energy production
and maximum power point tracking.
WIND POWER:
Wind power is produced by the energy of the wind turning aerodynamic blades
mounted to a hub. The hub is connected to a shaft that turns a generator. Large
utility-scale wind turbines range in size from 50 kilowatts to over four
megawatts. Smaller wind towers (under 50 kW) are suitable for residential and
agricultural use.
The conversion of wind into electricity:
Wind power is converted into electricity by magnets moving past stationary coils
of wire known as the stator. As the magnets pass the stator, AC electricity is
produced. It is then converted into DC electricity which can be used to charge
batteries which store the electrical energy or can also be fed into a grid
interactive inverter for feeding power into the electricity grid. Wind power is a
clean energy source that can be relied on for the long-term future. Wind power
involves converting wind energy into electricity by using wind turbines. A wind
turbine is composed of 3 propellers-like blades called a rotor. The rotor is

attached to a tall tower. On average wind towers in residential settings are about
20m high. The reason why the tower is so tall is because winds are stronger
higher from the ground and there’s less of a buffeting effect. A wind turbine
creates reliable, cost-effective, pollution free energy. It is affordable, clean and
sustainable. One wind turbine can be sufficient to generate energy for a
household. Because wind is a source of energy which is non-polluting and
renewable, wind turbines create power without using fossil fuels, without
producing greenhouse gases or radioactive or toxic waste.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind-Generated Electricity:
A Renewable Non-Polluting Resource:
Wind energy is a free, renewable resource, so no matter how much is used today,
there will still be the same supply in the future. Wind energy is also a source
of clean, non-polluting, electricity. Unlike conventional power plants, wind
plants emit no air pollutants or greenhouse gases.
Cost Issues:
Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10
years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled
generators. Roughly 80% of the cost is the machinery, with the balance being site
preparation and installation. If wind generating systems are compared with
fossil-fueled systems on a "life-cycle" cost basis
Environmental Concerns:
Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment
compared to fossil fuel power plants, there is some concern over
the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and birds and
bats having been killed (avian/bat mortality) by flying into the rotors. Most of
these problems have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological
development or by properly siting wind plants.
Supply and Transport Issues:
The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that it
is intermittent and does not always blow when electricity is needed. Wind cannot
be stored (although wind-generated electricity can be stored, if batteries are
used), and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity
demands. Further, good wind sites are often located in remote locations far from
areas of electric power demand (such as cities). Finally, wind resource

development may compete with other uses for the land, and those alternative
uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation. However, wind
turbines can be located on land that is also used for grazing or even farming.
TIDAL ENERGY:
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the
energy of tides (periodic rise and fall of the water level of the sea due to the
attraction of sea water by the moon) into useful forms of power - mainly
electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future
electricity generation. Benefits of tidal energy are it is reliable and predictable
well into the future. Water is 800 times denser than air, which gives it huge
potential for power extraction. It is a renewable energy source with no harmful
greenhouse emissions. These tides can be used to produce electrical power which
is known as tidal power. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called
flood tide and when the level is below the mean level, it is called ebb tide. A dam
is constructed in such a way that a basin gets separated from the sea and a
difference in the water level is obtained between the basin and sea.
Tidal Energy Generation:
The position of the earth and the moon with respect to the sun changes
throughout the year, we can utilise the potential energy of the water contained in
the daily movement of the rising and falling sea levels to generate electricity. The
generation of electricity from tides is similar in many ways to hydro-electric
generation we looked at in the hydro energy tutorials. The difference this time is
that the water flows in and out of the turbines in both directions instead of in just
one forward direction.
Tidal energy, just like hydro energy transforms water in motion into a clean
energy. The motion of the tidal water, driven by the pull of gravity, contains
large amounts of kinetic energy in the form of strong tidal currents called tidal
streams. The daily ebbing and flowing, back and forth of the oceans tides along a
coastline and into and out of small inlets, bays or coastal basins, is little different
to the water flowing down a river or stream.
The movement of the sea water is harnessed in a similar way using waterwheels
and turbines to that used to generate hydro electricity. But because the sea water
can flow in both directions in a tidal energy system, it can generate power when
the water is flowing in and also when it is ebbing out. Therefore, tidal generators
are designed to produce power when the rotor blades are turning in either
direction. However, the cost of reversible electrical generators are more
expensive than single direction generators.
Advantages of Tidal Energy:
Tidal energy is a renewable energy resource because the energy it produces is
free and clean as no fuel is needed and no waste bi-products are produced. Tidal
energy has the potential to produce a great deal of free and green energy. Tidal
energy is not expensive to operate and maintain compared to other forms of
renewable energies. Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not
totally submerged beneath the water. Low noise pollution as any sound generated
is transmitted through the water. High predictability as high and low tides can be
predicted years in advance, unlike wind. Tidal barrages provide protection
against flooding and land damage. Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and
can create recreational lakes and areas where before there were none.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy:
Tidal energy is not always a constant energy source as it depends on the strength
and flow of the tides which themselves are effected by the gravitational effects of
the moon and the sun. Tidal Energy requires a suitable site, where the tides and
tidal streams are consistently strong. Must be able to withstand forces of nature
resulting in high capital, construction and maintenance costs.
High power distribution costs to send the generated power from the submerged
devices to the land using long underwater cables.
HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS:

A fuel cell is an alternative energy device, but it is not necessarily a renewable
energy device. It is only renewable if the source of the fuel used is renewable. A
fuel cell is an electrochemical device, like a battery in that it converts the energy
from a chemical reaction directly into electricity and heat. But unlike a battery,
which is limited to the stored chemicals within, a fuel cell has the capability of
generating energy as long as fuel is supplied. These are also not strictly
renewable energy resources but are very abundant in availability and are very
low in pollution when utilized. Hydrogen can be burned as a fuel, typically in a
vehicle, with only water as the combustion product. This clean burning fuel can
mean a significant reduction of pollution in cities. Or the hydrogen can be used
in fuel cells, which are similar to batteries, to power an electric motor. In either
case significant production of hydrogen requires abundant power. Due to the
need for energy to produce the initial hydrogen gas, the result is the relocation of
pollution from the cities to the power plants. There are several promising
methods to produce hydrogen, such as solar power, that may alter this picture
drastically. Hydrogen is the simplest (comprised of one proton and one electron)
and most abundant element in the universe, yet it does not occur naturally as a
gas on earth. Instead, it is found in organic compounds (hydrocarbons such as
gasoline, natural gas, methanol and propane) and water (H2O). Hydrogen can
also be produced under certain conditions by some algae and bacteria using
sunlight as an energy source. Hydrogen is high in energy yet produces little or no
pollution when burned. Liquid hydrogen has been used to launch space shuttles
and other rockets into orbit since the 1950s. Hydrogen fuel cells convert the
potential chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity, with pure water and heat
as the only byproducts. However, commercialization of these fuel cells as a
practical source of green energy will likely be limited until costs come down and
durability improves. There are also currently a few hundred hydrogen-powered
vehicles operating in lesser nation, a number that could increase as the cost of
fuel cell production drops and the number of refueling stations increases. Other
practical applications for this type of renewable energy include large fuel cells
providing emergency electricity for buildings and remote locations, electric
motor vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells and marine vessels powered by
hydrogen fuel cells.
CONCLUSION:
The Sun is by far the most important source of natural energy on Earth. The solar
radiation that reaches the Earth contributes to winds, waves, atmospheric water
circulation, atmospheric heating and surface water evaporation, and to organic
activity. The gravitational attractions of the Sun and the Moon combine to
produce tides, and rocks in the Earth's interior also generate heat by the decay of
radioactive isotopes in them. These are small but potentially exploitable sources
of energy. Fossil fuels are ultimately derived from solar radiation,
through photosynthesis and the carbon cycle. Most of the world's carbon is
locked within carbonate rocks. A large amount of carbon also exists as preserved
organic carbon, which includes fossil fuels. Green plants use solar radiation to
build carbohydrates and plant tissue from carbon dioxide and water in the
atmosphere and dissolved in the oceans, in a process known
as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere and
oceans. When they respire, organisms use oxygen to generate energy from food,
releasing carbon dioxide and water vapour back into the atmosphere and oceans.
These respiratory reactions are the reverse of photosynthesis. Renewable energy
systems can provide a viable way to energize rural areas of developing countries
and to build up rural economic units that are vital to the stability and wellbeing
of developing nations and, in a way, of the entire world.
REFERENCES
1. A Kumar ,A Garg et al., “Utilization of Geothermal Energy Resources for
Power generation in India: A Review”, 7th International conference and
exposition on petroleum geophysics, Hyderabad 2008, p-290
2. Mehebub Alam, SK Mohammad Yasin et al. “Renewable Energy Sources
(RES): An Overview with Indian Context”, International Journal Of
Engineering And Computer Science, Volume 3, Issue 10 , Oct , 2014, Page
No. 8871-8878.
3. Nada Kh. M. A. Alrikabi, “Renewable Energy Types”, Journal of Clean
Energy Technologies, Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2014, Page No.61 – 74
4. ww.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-
technology/science/environmentalscience/energy-resources-introduction-
energy-resources/content-section-8
5. http://www.altenergy.org/renewables/solar/the-right-solar-photovoltaic-
system.html
6. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/geothermal-energy/tech.html
7. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=hydropower_home
8. https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/types-hydropower-plants
CHAPTER - 18
Wind, Geothermal, Small hydro & Water

energy, Ocean energy
Dr.P.Sukumar1* and S.Sharmila 2

1
Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Nandha Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu - 638052, India.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Kongu Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu – 638052, India.
Ocean Energy:
Ocean energy is one of the renewable energy sources. Ocean thermal energy is
the most abundant in marine energy, so it has a good development prospect. At
present, the main way to use ocean energy is power generation. However, it has
disadvantages: low efficiency and high energy consumption
Two types of ocean energy:

Thermal energy from the sun's heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and
waves.
Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the world's largest
solar collectors. The sun's heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep
ocean water, and this temperature difference creates thermal energy. Just a small
portion of the heat trapped in the ocean could power the world.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity
generation. There are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle,
open-cycle, and hybrid. Closed-cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface
water to vaporize a working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as
ammonia. The vapor expands and turns a turbine. The turbine then activates a
generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater
by operating at low pressures. This produces steam that passes through a
turbine/generator. And hybrid systems combine both closed-cycle and open-
cycle systems.
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy. Even
though the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the
gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven primarily by the winds. As a
result, tides and waves are intermittent sources of energy, while ocean thermal
energy is fairly constant. Also, unlike thermal energy, the electricity conversion
of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical devices.
A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by
forcing the water through turbines, activating a generator. For wave energy
conversion, there are three basic systems: channel systems that funnel the waves
into reservoirs; float systems that drive hydraulic pumps; and oscillating water
column systems that use the waves to compress air within a container. The
mechanical power created from these systems either directly activates a generator
or transfers to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a
turbine/generator.
Advantages
By using renewable energies like ocean and tidal energies, it could greatly
benefit us and the health of our earth. All renewable energies are inexhaustible
sources, meaning humans would never run out of these renewable energies to
create power. Unlike fuels we have been using recently which can and will
eventually run out. More advantages of using ocean energies include:
 Doesn't require any fuels to create

 Tidal energy power plants last a long time. They don’t require much
maintenance, and will last longer than tradition power plants.
 Once the technology is built, it doesn’t require and more costs.
 If using tidal energy, it is very predictable thanks to the tidal charts we
use daily.
 It does not have a big environmental impact.

 It does not produce green house gases or waste products.
Disadvantages
Using ocean generated energy sounds like an amazing advance for the human
race and a great environmental help for the earth. Ocean energy would help but
there are also some drawbacks to using this type of renewable energy. Some of
these disadvantages include:
 If using tidal energy, it can only supply power for about 10 hours a day
because of the pattern of the tides.
 Machines and technologies used to create ocean energy are expensive.
 If using tidal energy, the technology that is often used is tidal barrages.
There are very few locations to build these barrages.
 Intense waves may result in the damage of some technologies used to
create ocean energy.
 Frozen ocean areas limit locations for machinery.
Wind Energy:
Modern wind turbines tower above one of their ancestors-an old windmill used
for pumping water.
Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the most
energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more aboveground, they can take advantage of
the faster and less turbulent wind. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their
propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form
a rotor.
A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-
pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air
pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift.
The force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force against the
front side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag
causes the rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to
make electricity.
Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be connected
to a utility power grid or even combined with a photovoltaic (solar cell) system.
For utility-scale sources of wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are
usually built close together to form a wind plant. Several electricity providers
today use wind plants to supply power to their customers.
Stand-alone wind turbines are typically used for water pumping or
communications. However, homeowners, farmers, and ranchers in windy areas
can also use wind turbines as a way to cut their electric bills.
Small wind systems also have potential as distributed energy resources.
Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small, modular power-
generating technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of the
electricity delivery system.
Advantages of Wind Energy

Wind energy has numerous benefits in helping to provide a source of clean and
renewable electricity for countries all over the world. This section takes a look at
the many different advantages of wind energy.
1. Renewable & Sustainable
Wind energy itself is both renewable and sustainable. The wind will never run
out, unlike the earth’s fossil fuel reserves (such as coal, oil and gas), making it
the ideal energy source for a sustainable power supply.
2. Environmentally Friendly
Wind energy is one of the most environmentally friendly energy sources
available today. After the manufacture and installation of wind turbines, there
will be little to no pollution generated as a result of the wind turbines themselves.
Wind turbines produce no greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or
methane (CH4) which are both known to contribute towards global warming.
It should be noted that noise and visual pollution are both environmental factors,
but they don’t have a negative effect on the earth, water table or the quality of the
air we breathe.
3. Reduces Fossil Fuel Consumption
Generating electricity from wind energy reduces the need to burn fossil fuel
alternatives such as coal, oil and gas. This can help to conserve dwindling
supplies of the earth’s natural resources, allowing them to last longer and help to
support future generations.

4. Wind Energy is Free
Unlike some other energy sources, wind energy is completely free. There’s no
market for the supply and demand of wind energy, it’s there to be used by
anyone and will never run out. This makes wind energy a viable option for
generating cheap electricity.
5. Small Footprint
Wind turbines have a relatively small land footprint. Although they can tower
high above the ground, the impact on the land at the base is minimal. The area
around the base of a wind turbine can often be used for other purposes such as
agriculture.
6. Industrial & Domestic Installations
Wind turbines aren’t just limited to industrial-scale installations such as wind
farms. They can also be installed on a domestic scale, with many landowners
opting to install smaller, less powerful wind turbines in order to provide part of a
domestic electricity supply. Domestic wind turbines are often coupled with other
renewable energy technologies such as solar panels or geothermal heating
systems.
7. Remote Power Solution
Wind turbines can play a key role in helping to bring power to remote locations.
This can help to benefit everything from a small off-grid village to a remote
research station.
8. Wind Technology Becoming Cheaper
The first ever electricity-generating wind turbine was invented in 1888. Since
then, wind turbines have improved significantly and nowadays the technology is
beginning to come down in price, making it much more accessible.
Government subsidies are also helping to reduce the cost of a wind turbine
installation, with many governments across the world providing incentives for
not only the installation of such technologies, but also for the ongoing supply of
environmentally friendly electricity.
9. Low Maintenance
Wind turbines are considered relatively low maintenance. A new wind turbine
can be expected to last some time prior to any maintenance work needing to be
carried out. Although older wind turbines can come up against reliability issues,
each new generation of wind turbine is helping to improve reliability.
10. Low Running Costs
As wind energy is free, running costs are considered to be low. The only ongoing
cost associated with wind energy is for the maintenance of wind turbines, which
are considered low maintenance in nature anyway.
11. Huge Potential
Wind energy has huge potential. It’s both renewable and sustainable and is
present in a wide variety of places. Although a significant level of wind energy is
required to make a wind turbine installation cost effective, the technology isn’t
limited to just a handful of locations such as is the case for geothermal power
stations.
12. Increases Energy Security
By using wind energy to generate electricity, we are helping to reduce our
dependency on fossil fuel alternatives such as coal, oil and gas. In many cases,
these natural resources are often sourced from other countries.
War, politics and overall demand often dictate the price for natural resources,
which can fluctuate and cause serious economic problems or supply shortages for
some countries. By using renewable energy sources a country can help to reduce
its dependency on global markets and thus increase its energy security.
13. Job Creation
The wind energy industry has boomed since wind turbines first became available
on the market. This has helped to create jobs all over the world. Jobs have been
created for the manufacture of wind turbines, the installation and maintenance of
wind turbines and also in wind energy consulting, where specialist consultants
will determine whether or not a wind turbine installation will provide a return on
investment.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy

So, we’ve seen the advantages, now it’s time to take a look at the main
disadvantages of wind energy. Wind energy has a number of drawbacks, with the
NIMBY (not in my back yard) factor playing a large role.

1. The Wind Fluctuates
Wind energy has a similar drawback to solar energy in that it is not a constant
energy source. Although wind energy is sustainable and will never run out, the
wind isn’t always blowing. This can cause serious problems for wind turbine
developers who will often spend significant time and money investigating
whether or not a particular site is suitable for the generation of wind power.
For a wind turbine to be efficient, the location where it is built needs to have an
adequate supply of wind energy. This is why we often see wind turbines built on
top of hills or out at sea, where there are less land obstacles to reduce the
intensity of wind energy.
2. Installation is Expensive
Although costs are reducing over time, the installation of a wind turbine is
considered expensive. First, a site survey will need to be carried out which may
involve having to erect a sample turbine to measure wind speeds over a
significant period of time. If deemed adequate, the wind turbine will need to be
manufactured, transported and erected on top of a pre-built foundation. All of
these processes contribute to the overall cost of installing a wind turbine.
When the above is taken into account for offshore wind farms, costs become
much greater. It’s much harder to install wind turbines out at sea than it is on
land, and some companies have even commissioned bespoke ships capable of
transporting and installing wind turbines at sea.
3. Threat to Wildlife
It’s widely reported that wind turbines pose a threat to wildlife, primarily birds
and bats. It is however believed that wind turbines pose less of a threat to wildlife
than other manmade structures such as cell phone masts and radio towers.
Nevertheless, wind turbines are contributing to mortality rates among bird and
bat populations.
4. Noise Pollution
One of the most popular disadvantages of wind turbines is the noise pollution
that they generate. A single wind turbine can be heard from hundreds of meters
away. Combine multiple wind turbines and the audible effects can be much
greater.
Noise pollution from wind turbines has ruined the lives of some homeowners.
Although steps are often taken to site wind turbines away from dwellings, they
do sometimes get built too close to where people live and this is why new wind
farms often come up against strong public objection.
5. Visual Pollution
Another widely reported disadvantage of wind turbines is visual pollution.
Although many people actually like the look of wind turbines, others do not and
see them as a blot on the landscape. This tends to come down to personal
opinion, and as more wind farms are built, public acceptance is becoming
commonplace.
Geothermal:
The Earth's heat-called geothermal energy-escapes as steam at a hot springs.
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable.
Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and
hot rock found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even deeper to
the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma.
Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or upper 10 feet of the Earth's surface
maintains a nearly constant temperature between 50° and 60°F (10° and 16°C).
Geothermal heat pumps can tap into this resource to heat and cool buildings. A
geothermal heat pump system consists of a heat pump, an air delivery system
(ductwork), and a heat exchanger-a system of pipes buried in the shallow ground
near the building. In the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat
exchanger and pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the
process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the
heat exchanger. The heat removed from the indoor air during the summer can
also be used to provide a free source of hot water.
Wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs for the generation of electricity.
Some geothermal power plants use the steam from a reservoir to power a
turbine/generator, while others use the hot water to boil a working fluid that
vaporizes and then turns a turbine. Hot water near the surface of Earth can be
used directly for heat. Direct-use applications include heating buildings, growing
plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at fish farms, and several
industrial processes such as pasteurizing milk.

Hot dry rock resources occur at depths of 3 to 5 miles everywhere beneath the
Earth's surface and at lesser depths in certain areas. Access to these resources
involves injecting cold water down one well, circulating it through hot fractured
rock, and drawing off the heated water from another well. Currently, there are no
commercial applications of this technology. Existing technology also does not
yet allow recovery of heat directly from magma, the very deep and most
powerful resource of geothermal energy.
Many technologies have been developed to take advantage of geothermal energy
- the heat from the earth.
Geothermal power and electricity production:

Most power plants need steam to generate electricity. The steam rotates a turbine
that activates a generator, which produces electricity. Many power plants still use
fossil fuels to boil water for steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam
produced from reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or more below the
Earth's surface. There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam,
flash steam, and binary cycle.
Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The steam is
piped directly from underground wells to the power plant, where it is directed
into a turbine/generator unit.
Flash steam power plants are the most common. They use geothermal reservoirs
of water with temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C). This very hot water
flows up through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward,
the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is
then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any
leftover water and condensed steam are injected back into the reservoir, making
this a sustainable resource.
Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225°-
360°F (107°-182°C). These plants use the heat from the hot water to boil
a working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The
working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The
water is then injected back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the
working fluid are kept separated during the whole process, so there are little or
no air emissions.
Small-scale geothermal power plants (under 5 megawatts) have the potential for
widespread application in rural areas, possibly even as distributed energy
resources. Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small, modular
power-generating technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of
the electricity delivery system.
Geothermal direct use:

Geothermal reservoirs of hot water, which are found a couple of miles or more
beneath the Earth's surface, can also be used to provide heat directly. This is
called the direct use of geothermal energy.
Geothermal direct use dates back thousands of years, when people began using
hot springs for bathing, cooking food, and loosening feathers and skin from
game. Today, hot springs are still used as spas. But there are now more
sophisticated ways of using this geothermal resource.
In modern direct-use systems, a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir to
provide a steady stream of hot water. The water is brought up through the well,
and a mechanical system - piping, a heat exchanger, and controls - delivers the
heat directly for its intended use. A disposal system then either injects the cooled
water underground or disposes of it on the surface.
Geothermal hot water can be used for many applications that require heat. Its
current uses include heating buildings (either individually or whole towns),
raising plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at fish farms, and
several industrial processes, such as pasteurizing milk. With some applications,
researchers are exploring ways to effectively use the geothermal fluid for
generating electricity as well.
Geothermal heating from heat pumps:

The shallow ground, the upper 10 feet of the Earth, maintains a nearly constant
temperature between 50° and 60°F (10°-16°C). Like a cave, this ground
temperature is warmer than the air above it in the winter and cooler than the air
in the summer. Geothermal heat pumps take advantage of this resource to heat
and cool buildings.
Geothermal heat pump systems consist of basically three parts: the ground heat
exchanger, the heat pump unit, and the air delivery system (ductwork). The heat
exchanger is basically a system of pipes called a loop, which is buried in the
shallow ground near the building. A fluid (usually water or a mixture of water
and antifreeze) circulates through the pipes to absorb or relinquish heat within
the ground.
In the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and pumps it
into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the process is reversed, and
the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the heat exchanger. The heat
removed from the indoor air during the summer can also be used to heat water,
providing a free source of hot water.
Geothermal heat pumps use much less energy than conventional heating systems,
since they draw heat from the ground. They are also more efficient when cooling
your home. Not only does this save energy and money, it reduces air pollution.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy

There are numerous benefits associated with the use of geothermal energy, many
of which are explained below.
1. Renewable and Sustainable
Geothermal energy is both renewable and sustainable. The thermal resources of
the Earth will never run out and will be around for as long as the Earth is
inhabitable.
2. Environmentally Friendly
Geothermal energy is an environmentally friendly energy source when compared
with fossil fuel alternatives such as coal, oil and gas. The process of producing
electricity from geothermal energy has a much lower impact on the environment
than these alternatives.
3. Constant Supply
Unlike other renewable energy technologies (such as solar and wind power),
geothermal power can provide a constant, uninterrupted supply of electricity.
Solar panels can only produce electricity during the day and wind turbines only
produce power when there is enough wind.
The benefit of constant supply makes Geothermal energy a far more predictable
means of generating electricity when compared to its renewable energy rivals.
4. Small Footprint
Compared with more mainstream power plants (such as coal, oil and nuclear
power plants), geothermal power plants require a relatively small amount of
space. Although a geothermal power plant will reach depths where a sufficient
level of geothermal energy is stored, its land footprint will be small.
Geothermal power is considered to have one of the smallest surface land
footprints per kilowatt (kW) of all the power generating technologies in use
today.
5. Cost Effective
Although geothermal power can only be generated in specific areas, installations
in those areas are considered highly cost effective. Electricity generated by
geothermal power stations is considered to be one of the cheapest power sources
in use today.
6. Low Maintenance
Although the initial cost of geothermal power plants is considerably high when
taking into account the investment required for exploration, drilling wells and
plant installation, once these plants are built, they are considered to be very low
maintenance when compared with other mainstream power plants that produce
their electricity from other sources (such as coal, oil and nuclear.)
7. Low Noise
Generating electricity from geothermal energy is a relatively low noise process.
Once a geothermal power plant is built, the main source of noise comes from
fans contained in its cooling systems. Generator houses will often feature noise
dampening materials to minimize exterior noise.
8. Reduces Fossil Fuel Dependency and Increases Energy Security
Geothermal energy cuts our dependency on fossil fuel alternatives, helping to
provide stable electricity costs that are unaffected by fluctuations in the price of
fossil fuel reserves. This advantage is also associated with most other renewable
energy sources.
In addition to helping to reduce fossil fuel dependency, geothermal energy can
also help to increase energy security for some nations. In countries where
geothermal energy is a viable means of generating electricity, a significant
proportion of that country’s energy demands can often be met by the use of
geothermal technologies. This reduces the need to obtain electricity or natural
resources from other countries, thus helping to increase energy security.
9. Job Creation
Geothermal energy not only provides a source of clean and renewable electricity,
it can also provide numerous benefits to the economy of a particular country,
through aspects such as job creation.
According to a 2014 report from the International Renewable Energy Agency
(IRENA), the geothermal industry supported 35,000 American jobs between
2012-2013 (both direct and indirectly.)
10. Huge Potential
Although geographical limitations exist when it comes to geothermal energy
technologies, this power source has massive potential. A recent study by the
Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) estimated that just 6.5% of global
geothermal energy potential has been tapped so far. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) have even estimated total global geothermal power
potential to be in the range of 35 gigawatts (GW) to 2 terawatts (TW.)
Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

Although the advantages of geothermal energy are considered to greatly
outweigh the disadvantages, geothermal energy still has its drawbacks, many of
which are explained below.
1. Geographical Limitations
Geothermal energy is arguably the most location specific energy source known
to man. Geothermal activity is at its greatest along tectonic fault lines within the
earth’s crust and it is in these areas where geothermal power plants are
considered to be most effective.
The United States, Iceland, Kenya, Indonesia, Philippines and Mexico have all
found success in generating significant levels of electricity from geothermal
energy resources.
2. Large Investment Needed

The upfront investment that is needed for a geothermal power plant is
considerably high when compared with the investment required for power plants
that produce electricity from other resources such as coal and oil.
A large proportion of this cost is associated with the exploration and drilling for
geothermal energy resources, two processes that don’t affect traditional power
stations. However, it is quite safe to say that if we take into account the
exploration and mining costs of fossil fuels (required for traditional power
stations to function), then geothermal power would be considered the cheaper
option.
3. Environmental Impacts
When looking at the disadvantages of geothermal energy, there are various
environmental impacts that should be noted.
Below the earth’s surface lies an abundance of gases that are harmful to the
environment and our atmosphere. During the production of geothermal power,
gases can be released into the atmosphere. These gases include; hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), and boron (B),
some of which can contribute to global warming.
Water quality is also considered an environmental impact of geothermal energy.
Chemicals used at some geothermal power plants have the potential to pollute the
water table should any leakage occur. Although technology exists for the safe,
nonpolluting use of geothermal fluids, there is always the potential for leakage to
occur.
Although there are numerous environmental factors to consider, when compared
with fossil fuel alternatives, geothermal energy is one of the most
environmentally friendly energy sources available today.
4. Sustainability Concerns
Although geothermal energy itself is considered highly sustainable, there exists a
sustainability concern associated with how we use it. Studies show that without
careful management of geothermal reservoirs, they can become depleted,
rendering a geothermal power plant useless until the reservoir recovers.
With the advancement in geothermal energy technologies, this sustainability
concern is becoming less of an issue. Efforts are now made to inject geothermal
fluids back into reservoirs as soon as the thermal energy has been utilized, thus
reducing the chance of a well becoming depleted.
5. Seismic Instability
Earth tremors have been linked to the use of geothermal energy technologies in
various parts of the world. Although often minor, these earthquakes have been
known to cause damage to buildings.
Hydro Power:
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity.
This is called hydroelectric power or hydropower.
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to
store water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a
turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce electricity. But
hydroelectric power doesn't necessarily require a large dam. Some hydroelectric
power plants just use a small canal to channel the river water through a turbine.
Another type of hydroelectric power plant - called a pumped storage plant - can
even store power. The power is sent from a power grid into the electric
generators. The generators then spin the turbines backward, which causes the
turbines to pump water from a river or lower reservoir to an upper reservoir,
where the power is stored. To use the power, the water is released from the upper
reservoir back down into the river or lower reservoir. This spins the turbines
forward, activating the generators to produce electricity.A small or micro-
hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm, or
ranch.
Typically, a flowing river, stream or canal is blocked (dam) at a strategic point,
usually at a waterfall point, with the intention of holding the water back and
storing the water in a reservioir. The weight of the water that is held by the dam
increases to a certain level, and then released by opening the gates (Sluice gate).
The high pressure water flowing downwards is used to turn a series of blades or
shafts in a generator made of coils and magnets. Electricity is generated. The
amount of power generated depends on how high the water is help upstream, the
amount of water turning the shafts and the general efficiency of the turbines.
Hydropower installations come in various sizes, but classified in 3 major sizes:

1. Micro Hydro Power:
Capacity of up to 100kilowatts, usually installed to power homes or farms
2. Small Hydro Power:

Capacity of 100kilowatts up to 30 megawats.
3. Large Hydro Power:
Capacity of more than 30 megawatts
Hydro energy is renewable in the sense that the water will not run out as long as
water cycle exists. It is also renewable because if has no carbon emissions in its
production. However, it is known to have some negative impact on water life and
plants in the water, and also, there are specific places along the river that can be
dammed. Unlike solar energy, water energy installations may not be available to
countries with no fast flowing water.
It is worth noting that not all dams generate power. Dams may be built for
various reasons such as recreation, farm ponds, irrigation or water supply.On a
global scale, leading hydro-power generation countries include China, Brazil,
USA, Canada and Russia, and together they hold about more than half to the
world's hydro power capacity.
Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy:

A Renewable form of Energy:
Hydroelectric power is run by water that is recycled back to the earth through the
process of the water cycle. Though it is evident that water is gradually depleting
to some other place due to environmental and weather conditions, countries with
an enormous source of water make the hydropower a reliable source of energy.
The China, for instance, has its highest source of energy through the
hydroelectric power plant.
Clean and safe energy:
Unlike the use of fossil fuel, biomass, and nuclear as a source of energy,
hydroelectric energy does not have waste products. No emission and radiation
are harmful to the environment and people, making it a clean and a green source.
A Reliable source of energy:

Hydroelectric power is a reliable source of energy. In fact, it has been the
greatest source of energy to many countries such as China, India, Columbia,
United States, and Canada. Hydroelectric energy has a little instability with
regards to the supply of electricity as long as there is water available on earth.
Moreover, the construction of dams is long-lasting, therefore, there will be a
reliable source of hydroelectric energy.
Flexible energy:
The use of hydroelectric energy can be controlled according to the requirements
of energy. If the energy required is less, the flow of water from the dam is also
reduced, otherwise, it will be maximized by uncovering the water tunnels when
the required energy is huge. The adjustment, therefore, is necessary in order to
save more energy for the future use.
Low Operating Cost:
The hydroelectric energy requires a low cost of maintenance and operation. Since
hydroelectric power has few parts, replacement may be in less necessary.
Moreover, the dams are for long term use, therefore, the supply of energy is also
for long time durations, and a long term for the saving.
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy:

Environmental intervention:
The creation of big reservoirs of water or dams intervenes not only in reshaping
and changing the condition of the bodies of water but also to the condition of the
fish species. The fish in the river can be affected by the draining of the water
from the dam as well as the fish that is in the dam. It should be noted that fish
habitat depends on the physical and biological components such as the water
current, the water level, and its access to food. Creating dams would, therefore,
affects the fish habitats.
References:
1. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/ocean-energy/tech.html
2. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/wind-power/tech.html
3. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/geothermal-
energy/tech/geoelectricity.html
4. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/hydropower/tech.html
5. http://enviropol.com/index.php/hydro-energy
6. https://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/wind/wind-energy/advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-wind-energy
7. https://www.eartheclipse.com/energy/advantages-disadvantages-
hydroelectric-energy.html
8. https://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/geothermal/geothermal-
energy/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-geothermal-energy
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CHAPTER - 19
Need for implementing renewable energy

sources

1
Nandha Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu - 638052
2
Kongu Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu – 638052
Introduction:
Energy is an essential and dominant component in achieving the interrelated
economic and sustainable development of any country. Global energy demand is
increasing at an exponential rate as a result of the exponential growth of world
population. Increases in global energy demand combined with fossil fuel
depletion and the concern over environmental degradation put renewable energy
sources as future energy supply. Projections over the horizon of 2050 indicate
that world energy demand increase dramatically, with most of this increasing
taking place in developing countries. It is feared that not only these levels of
energy production and use from current energy sources is difficult to achieve but
also un-sustainable. Therefore energy use efficiently needs to be increased to
moderate the growth of energy while contribution from clean energy sources to
be increased to reduce adverse environmental impact of energy usage.
Renewable energy is considered one of the potential measures to meet the
challenges of ever increasing energy use and related environmental concerns.
Renewable Energy sources and technology:

Hydro Power:
Archaeologists confirm that the history of the storage dam goes back to 5000
years to 3000 BC. Vitruvius was the first architect to explain a water wheel
which could generate power. Then Barbegal from France in the 4th century AD
worked on water wheels and generated a system of sixteen water wheels which
followed the principle of kinetic energy into mechanical energy.
India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world. As of 30
April 2017, India's installed utility-scale hydroelectric capacity was 44,594 MW,
or 13.5% of its total utility power generation capacity. Additional smaller
hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,380 MW (1.3% of its total
utility power generation capacity) have been installed. India's hydroelectric
power potential is estimated at 148,700 MW at 60% load factor. In the fiscal
year 2016-17, the total hydroelectric power generated in India was
122.31 TWh (excluding small hydro) with an average capacity factor of 33%.
Strengths of Hydro Power is Environmental friendly, clean renewable and High
degree of flexibility. Weakness of hydro power is Mainly depends on
rainfall/snowmelt and Run of river not for peaking. Opportunities of Hydro
Power is Vast potential untapped ,Requirement for power peaking. Threats Of
Hydro Power is Ambitious plan for thermal/nuclear programme for power and
Growing concern of environment.
Hydro Power source potential:
India’s economically exploitable and viable hydroelectric potential is estimated
to be 148,701 MW. An additional 6,780 MW from smaller hydro schemes (with
capacities of less than 25 MW) is estimated as exploitable. 56 sites for pumped
storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have also
been identified. Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), a state-owned
enterprise in north India. BBMB reservoirs also supply water for the irrigation of
12.5 million acres (51,000 km2; 19,500 sq mi) of agricultural land in partner
states, enabling the green revolution in the northern India.
Components of Hydro electric power plant:
1) Dam
The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. The dam
is built on a large river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. It
should be built at a location where the height of the river is sufficient to get the
maximum possible potential energy from water
2) Water Reservoir
The water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water
in the reservoir is located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of
water in the reservoir decides how much potential energy the water possesses.
The higher the height of water, the more its potential energy. The high position
of water in the reservoir also enables it to move downwards effortlessly.
3) Intake or Control Gates
These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is
released and controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because
water enters the power generation unit through these gates. When the control
gates are opened the water flows due to gravity through the penstock and towards
the turbines. The water flowing through the gates possesses potential as well as
kinetic energy.
5) Water Turbines
Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit,
which houses the turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the
turbine the kinetic and potential energy of water is converted into the rotational
motion of the blades of the turbine. The rotating blades causes the shaft of the
turbine to also rotate. The turbine shaft is enclosed inside the generator. In most
hydroelectric power plants there is more than one power generation unit.
6) Generators
It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water
turbine rotates in the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of
the generator. It is the rotation of the shaft inside the generator that produces
magnetic field which is converted into electricity by electromagnetic field
induction. Hence the rotation of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for the
production of electricity and this is achieved by the kinetic and potential energy
of water. Thus in hydroelectricity power plants potential energy of water is
converted into electricity.
Pumped Storage Units:
Pumped storage units can also be used as pumping stations to supply river water
for upland irrigation, industrial needs, and drinking water. In a tropical country
like India, abundant water for agriculture is needed due to a very high
annual evaporation rate. The amount of water necessary to meet this demand can
be harnessed from India's rivers via pumped storage units. Food security in India
is improved with water security which in turn is possible from the energy
security to supply the power needed for the pumped storage
BioMass:
Electricity production from biomass has been found to be a promising method in
the near future. The world production of biomass is estimated at 146 billion
metric tons a year, mostly wild plant growth. Biomass accounts for 35% of
primary energy consumption in developing countries, raising the world total to
14% of primary energy consumption. In the future, biomass has the potential to
provide a cost-effective and sustainable supply of energy, while at the same time
aiding countries in meeting their greenhouse gas reduction targets.
Components of Bio Mass Power Plant:

Fuel Storage Area:
Wood waste fuel would typically be stored in an outdoor pile in quantities
adequate to fuel the power plant anywhere from 60 days to several
years. Agricultural waste fuel would be stored in silos. Agricultural products
such as switchgrass, hybrid poplars, or cottonwood trees would be stored in barns
or storage domes on site. Municipal solid waste is deposited into pits where
cranes mix the refuse and remove any large, non-combustible items; sometimes,
it is further processed to remove ferrous materials, glass, and other non-
combustible materials. In a fluidized bed boiler, the fuel is suspended on high-
pressure jets of air during the combustion process. This not only allows
combustion at relatively low temperatures and higher efficiency, but it also
decreases the production of nitrogen oxide, an air pollutant.
Conveyer Belt:
Depending upon the type of boiler, the fuel is either transported directly to the
powerhouse via a belt conveyor.
Combustion
 Typically works well beyond 5 MW
 Well established technology works on the regular rankine cycle

 Comprises over 85% of installed capacity for biomass based power
production in
 India (excluding biomass cogeneration)
 Works well for most types of biomass
Co-firing – This is a sub-set of combustion based power production. Some of the
modern coalfired power plants use biomass for co-firing along with coal. It is
quite efficient, cost-effective and requires moderate additional investment. In
general, combustion efficiency of biomass can be 10 percentage points lower
than for coal at the same installation, but co-firing efficiency in large-scale coal
plants (35%-45%) is higher than the efficiency of biomass-dedicated plants. In
the case of co-combustion of up to 5%-10% of biomass (in energy terms) only
minor changes in the handling equipment are needed and the boiler is not
noticeably de-rated.
Cogeneration – When bagasse is also used as a feedstock for steam generation
in boilers in sugar mills, the main objective is process heating, and thus power
production is only an ancillary benefit (which is why the term cogeneration –
generation of both heat and power). As a result, the capacity of the power
production is set based on the heating requirements. Thus, during the cane
season, these mills have enough bagasse to be used for both heating and power
production. During the non-cane season, typically coal is used for power
production, as there are no heating requirements.
Biomass gasification
Biomass Gasification refers to the incomplete combustion of biomass resulting in
production of combustible gases consisting of Carbon monoxide (CO), Hydrogen
(H2) and traces of Methane (CH4). This mixture is called producer gas. Producer
gas can be used to run internal combustion engines (both compression and spark
ignition) for power production, or can be used as substitute for furnace oil in
direct heat applications.
Gasifiers can work at low scales – as low as 20 kW, and works well up to 2 MW,
with current technology.
Technology uses a combination of gasifier and gas engines. The technology has
been in vogue for decades, but is still evolving. Currently, less than 125 MW of
cumulative installed capacity in India (less than 15% of total biomass power,
excluding biomass cogeneration). Works best for woody biomass, but latest
gasifiers also work reasonably well with non-woody (including fine biomass).
Anaerobic Digestion:
In the absence of air, organic matter such as animal manures, organic wastes and
green energy crops (e.g. grass) can be converted by bacteria-induced
fermentation into biogas (a 40%-75% methane-rich gas with CO2 and a small
amount of hydrogen sulphide and ammonia). Anaerobic digestion is also the
basic process for landfill gas production from municipal green waste. It has
significant potential in India as well as worldwide. Anaerobic digestion is
increasingly used in small size, rural and off-grid applications at the domestic
and farm-scale. The rising cost of waste disposal may improve its economic
attractiveness. Anaerobic digesters are used both at small-scale and large-scale
levels. Small scale biogas for household use is a simple, low-cost, low-
maintenance technology, which has been used for decades. It usually concerns
rural areas and communities without connection to the grid.
Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis as a method for power production is not well established currently in
India or elsewhere in the world.The two main methods of pyrolysis are “fast”
pyrolysis and “slow” pyrolysis. Fast pyrolysis yields 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar,
and 20% syngas, and can be done in seconds, whereas slow pyrolysis can be
optimized to produce substantially more char (~50%) along with organic gases,
but takes on the order of hours to complete. In either case, the gas or oil can be
used as a fuel for firing the boiler for steam production and subsequent power
production.
Solar Power Plant:
Solar power systems derive clean, pure energy from the sun. Traditional
electricity is sourced from fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. When fossil
fuels are burned to produce electricity, they emit harmful gases that are the
primary cause of air pollution and global warming. Solar carbon footprint per
unit of energy production is 95% lower than that of fossil fuel power plants. Not
only are fossil fuels bad for the environment, they're a finite resource. Installing
solar panels on your home helps combat greenhouse gas emissions and reduces
our collective dependence on fossil fuel.
Components of Solar Power Plant:

Panels
Solar panels contain solar cells. Solar cells, sometimes called photovoltaic cells,
convert the energy of the sun into electricity. Most solar cells are made of some
form of silicon. Panels also contain metal conductor strips and antireflective
coating.
Inverters
Solar panels generate Direct Current (DC). But almost all home appliances – TV,
computer, refrigerator and such – runs on Alternating Current (AC). That’s why
solar systems require an inverter. Inverters convert DC power generated by solar
panels into AC power that fuels your house.
Meters
Solar systems utilize two types of meters. Solar meter to collect and upload your
system’s production data. Utility company will provide a net meter to measure
both the energy you consume and send back to the electric grid. This give-and-
take relationship between solar system and the utility grid is called net metering.
Tidal power plant:
Tidal energy is renewable source of hydro energy which is available due to rise
and fall of tides which occurs twice a day. The tides are caused due to the
gravitational attraction of moon and sun upon the rotating earth.The higgest level
of tidal water is known as flood tide or high tide and the lowest level of tidal
water is known as ebb tide or low tide. The level difference between high and
low tide is called tidal range.The tidal range varies from time to time, season to
season and its location. The maximum tidal range occurs at the time of new and
full moon called spring tides. The total tidal energy of the world is estimated to
be 3x106MW.In case of power generation by tides , the water during high tide is
first trapped in an artificial basin and then it is allowed to escape during the
period of low tide. The water while escaping is utilized to run a hydraulic turbine
coupled to a generator.
Barrage
The major component of a barrage is a dam across an inlet or estuary that creates
a basin to contain the seawater when the tide comes in and the sluice gates are
closed. The remaining components are similar to those of a low-
head hydropower plant. The powerhouse contains the turbines, generators, and
other mechanical and electrical equipment. The turbines convert the energy of
the water flowing from the basin during ebb tide into mechanical energy.
Tidal Turbine Facilities
The major component of a tidal energy farm is the turbine that captures the
kinetic energy of the ocean current. Each device may be weighted to sit on the
seafloor, attached to a monopole foundation, or anchored and allowed to float in
the tidal stream. The turbines and generators produce the electrical energy.
Power Cables
Generated electrical energy is brought to shore via a standard submarine
electrical cable, which is normally installed in a trench in the seafloor and under
the beach at the shore. The cable runs to an interconnection substation that might
be as small as 225 ft2 (25 m2).
References:
1. Baraka Kichonge, Iddi S. N. Mkilaha ,The Economics of Renewable
Energy Sources into Electricity Generation in Tanzania, Journal of
Energy,Hindawi, Volume 2016 (2016), Article Id 5837154, 8 Pages.
2. Mustafa Balat & Gunhan Ayar, Biomass Energy in the world, Use of
Biomass and Potential trends, Journal of Energy Sources(Taylor &
Francis), Volume 27, Issue 10, Pages 931-940 | Received 02 Oct 2003,
Accepted 05 Nov 2003, Published online: 17 Aug 2006.
3. Vineet Kumar Singh, Neha Singh Chauhan and Deepti Kushwaha, An
Overview of Hydro-Electric Power Plant, ISST Journal of Mechanical
Engineering, Vol. 6 No. 1, (January - June 2015), p.p. 59-62.
4. https://www.brighthubengineering.com/fluid-mechanics-hydraulics/7120-
components-of-hydroelectric-power-plants-part-one
5. http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/bio/bppm/ad/anaerobic_digestion.html
6. https://www.ques10.com/p/22845/what-are-the-components-of-tidal-
power-plant-or-ut
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectric_power_in_India
CHAPTER - 20
Conventional energy sources and their

limitations

1
Nandha Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu - 638052
2
Kongu Engineering College, Erode, Tamilnadu – 638052
Introduction:
Energy is a crucial component of economic infrastructure as it is the basic input
that is required to sustain the economic growth. There is a powerful relationship
between the economic development and energy consumption. Conventional
sources of energy can be described as non-renewable sources of energy that have
been used since a long time.
Conventional sources of energy are used extensively by mankind and the
magnitude of usage is so high that the reserves have got depleted to a great
extent. But at the same time, it has become very difficult to discover and use
their new deposits. It is now feared that the known deposits of petroleum in our
country will get exhausted very soon, probably in a few decades and coal
reserves will only last for another hundred years.
Conventional sources of energy have been in use for a long time. example:
petroleum, coal, water power and natural gases. They also lead to pollution as
they emit smoke and ash when they are used. They are high-maintenance and
expensive.
The preservation cost is very high as they need to be stored and then converted
because they are sent through transmission lines and grid. The Sources of Energy
Classification are Conventional Energy Sources Commercial, Coal, Petroleum
and Electricity. For Non Commercial Fire wood, Straw and Dried dung. Non
Conventional Energy Sources are Bio energy, Solar energy, Tidal energy, Wind
energy, tidal energy and Energy from urban waste.
Thermal Power Plant:
Thermal power plant: Thermal power generation is the largest contributor to
electric power generated in India. The fuels used in thermal power plants are
Coal, Natural Gas and Diesel etc.In the thermal power plant the steam is used to
drive a steam turbine. This turbine is connected to an electrical generator.
Coal is the most important source of energy for generation of electricity in
thermal plants. Use of conventional energy produces air pollution, which is a
major source of health problems worldwide. Thermal power plants cause
greenhouse gas emission such as CO2, SO2 and NO2 which contribute to global
warming directly. The other problems in thermal power plants include obtaining
fuels from mines, using the fuels and dealing with the wastes.
Working Principle:
The water is boiled and made into steam. The steam is kept on heating till it
becomes superheated. (A steam can only attain a particular temperature at a
particular pressure. Heating it above that temperature but keeping the pressure
constant is called superheating the steam).
The superheated steam has a lot of energy and it is allowed to pass through the
blades of a turbine. The pressure exerted by the steam on the turbine rotates the
turbine. This makes the steam lose its energy and expand as the pressure drops
rapidly and volume expands. The steam, after expanding is cooled down at a
constant pressure to water and then pumped back into the boiler for use again.
The turbine which was rotating was coupled with the generator.
The generator rotates along with the turbine. And thus produces electricity by the
principle of Lenz’s Law. This turbine is connected to alternator which generates
electricity.
Limitations:
1. The fuel (coal) needed may be exhausted by gradual use.
2. Efficiency of the plant decreases with time.
3. It cannot be used as peak load plant, as its part load efficiency decreases
very rapidly with decreasing load.
4. Transportation of fuel is one of the major difficulties for the plants
located away from coal fields.
5. Power generation cost is considerably high compared with hydro plant.
6. Air pollution causing smoke in the surrounding atmosphere is a major
problem with thermal plant.
7. Life of the plant is hardly 3 to 4 decades compared with hydro-plant (1 to
2 centuries)
Nuclear Power Plant:

A nuclear power plant or nuclear power station is a thermal power station in
which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical in all conventional
thermal power stations the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam
turbine connected to an electric generator which produces electricity. The
amount of fuel required is very less when compared to conventional thermal
power plant and operational cost is also cheaper. Nuclear plants are usually
considered to be base load stations since fuel is a small part of the cost of
production. Their operations and maintenance and fuel costs are, along with
hydropower stations, at the low end of the spectrum and make them suitable as
base-load power suppliers. Nuclear power plant does not emit greenhouse gases
into atmosphere. The major disadvantage of the nuclear power plant is that the
nuclear fuel itself is highly dangerous and disposal of radioactive waste is very
expensive.
Components of nuclear power plants:

i) Moderators
In any chain reaction, the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These are
less effective in causing fission of U235 and they try to escape from the reactor. It
is thus implicit that speed of these neutrons must be reduced if their effectiveness
is carrying out fission is to be increased. This is done by making these neutrons
collide with lighter nuclei of other materials, which does not absorb these
neutrons but simply scatter them. Each collision causes loss of energy and thus
the speed of neutrons is reduced. Such a material is called a ‘Moderator’. The
neutrons thus slowed down are easily captured by the fuel element at the chain
reaction proceeds slowly.
ii) Reflectors
Some of the neutrons produced during fission will be partly absorbed by the fuel
elements, moderator, coolant and other materials. The remaining neutrons will
try to escape from the reactor and will be lost. Such losses are minimized by
surrounding (lining) the reactor core with a material called a reflector which will
reflect the neutrons back to the core. They improve the neutron economy.
Economy: Graphite, Beryllium.
iii) Shielding
During Nuclear fission gamma particles and neutrons are also produced. They
are harmful to human life. Therefore it is necessary to shield the reactor with
thick layers of lead, or concrete to protect both the operating personnel as well as
environment from radiation hazards.
iv) Cladding
In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by fission products, the fuel
element is covered with a protective coating. This is known as cladding. Control
rods are used to control the reaction to prevent it from becoming violent. They
control the reaction by absorbing neutrons.
v) Coolant
The main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is to transfer the heat produced
inside the reactor. The same heat carried by the coolant is used in the heat
exchanger for further utilization in the power generation
Working Principle:
The conversion to electrical energy takes place indirectly, as in conventional
thermal power stations. The fission in a nuclear reactor heats the reactor coolant.
The coolant may be water or gas or even liquid metal depending on the type of
reactor. The reactor coolant then goes to a steam generator and heats water to
produce steam. The pressurized steam is then usually fed to a multi-stage steam
turbine. After the steam turbine has expanded and partially condensed the steam,
the remaining vapour is condensed in a condenser. The condenser is a heat
exchanger which is connected to a secondary side such as a river or a cooling
tower. The water is then pumped back into the steam generator and the cycle
begins again. The water-steam cycle corresponds to the Rankine cycle.
Limitations:
1. Raw Material : The uranium used in the process of fission is a naturally
unstable element. In other words, it means that the people working in
mining, transporting, and storing of uranium must take special
precautions. The same goes for the storing of any waste product
resulting from the fission process.

2. Fuel availability: Fossil fuels can be found and mined in many countries.
However, the same cannot be said about uranium, which is a very scarce
resource. Only a few countries have uranium ores, which means that a
tiresome process of getting the approval of several international
authorities is required before anyone can build a nuclear power plant.
3. High Cost: Even if you do get permission to build a plant that uses
nuclear energy, you stumble upon another disadvantage: the massive
investment required to set up a functional nuclear power station.
Developing countries can rarely afford to use nuclear energy because
it’s such a costly source of alternative energy.
4. Nuclear waste: After the uranium splits to generate heat, the resulting
byproducts are radioactive, which means they need to be removed in a
safe way. Even though power plants have undergone recycling efforts of
this waste product in recent years
5. Water Pollutant: The chambers where nuclear fission takes place need to
be cooled down by water. Then, this water is turned into steam, which
powers the massive turbines. After the water cools down and changes
back into liquid form, the plant pumps it outside into nearby wetlands.
While measures ensure radiation does not leak into the environment,
other heavy metals and pollutants often escape the chambers.
6. Nuclear Leaks: The design of a nuclear reactor is created with several
safety systems in mind that will contain the radiation emitted in the
fission process. But these safety systems function adequately only when
they are properly installed and maintained.
Conclusion:
Modern fuels have significantly replaced bio fuels in urban areas. The
consumption of electricity and LPG is rapidly increasing. Growing population in
urban areas, escalating cost of petroleum based products, the limitations on
distribution of commercial energy sources and lack of purchasing power among
vast majority of people, make it unlikely that urban household situation will
change substantially in near future.
References:
1. https://www.toppr.com/bytes/conventional-sources-of-energy/
2. http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/notes/conventional-and-non-
conventional-sources-of-energy/2177
3. Hina Fathima.A, Priya. K,”Problems in Conventional Energy Sources
and Subsequent shift to Green Energy”, International Conference on
Engineering Technology and Science-(ICETS’14)
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant
5. https://www.greenandgrowing.org/disadvantages-of-nuclear-energy
CHAPTER - 21
Life without Energy “A Thought”

& Its Quick Fix
Saurabh Mitra1, Dr. Jayati Chatterjee Mitra2

Associate Prof. Dept. of ECE1, Associate Prof. Dept. of Chemistry2
Dr. C.V.Raman
University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India.
1
saurabh.mit1000@gmail.com , 2jc.bilaspur@gmail.com
Abstract
Energy is the ability to do work
Energy comes in different forms:
 Heat (thermal)
 Light (radiant)
 Motion (kinetic)
 Electrical
 Chemical
 Nuclear energy
 Gravitational
People use energy for everything from making a jump shot to sending astronauts
into space.
There are two types of energy:
 Stored (potential) energy
 Working (kinetic) energy
For example, the food a person eats contains chemical energy, and a person's
body stores this energy until he or she uses it as kinetic energy during work or
play.
Energy sources can be categorized as renewable or nonrenewable

When people use electricity in their homes, the electrical power was probably
generated by burning coal, by a nuclear reaction, or by a hydroelectric plant on
a river, to name just a few sources. Therefore, coal, nuclear, and hydro are
called energy sources. When people fill up a gas tank, the source might be
petroleum refined from crude oil or ethanol made by growing and processing
corn.
Energy sources are divided into two groups:
 Renewable (an energy source that can be easily replenished)
 Nonrenewable (an energy source that cannot be easily replenished)
Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used as primary energy
sources to produce useful energy such as heat or used to produce secondary
energy sources such as electricity.
When people use electricity in their homes, the electrical power was probably
generated from burning coal or natural gas, a nuclear reaction, or a
hydroelectric plant on a river, to name a few possible energy sources. The
gasoline people use to fuel their cars is made from crude oil (nonrenewable
energy) and may contain a biofuel (renewable energy) like ethanol, which is
made from processed corn.
The chart below shows the energy sources used in the United States.
Nonrenewable energy sources accounted for about 90% of all energy used.
Biomass, which includes wood, biofuels, and biomass waste, is the largest
renewable energy source, and it accounted for about half of all renewable
energy and about 5% of total U.S. energy consumption.
Renewable energy
There are five main renewable energy sources:
 Solar energy from the sun
 Geothermal energy from heat inside the earth
 Wind energy
 Biomass from plants
 Hydropower from flowing water
INTRODUCTION:
Energy resources are very much important in the context of economic
development of the country. With the growing industrialisation, mechanisation of
agriculture, and the development of transportation sector, the demand for energy
resources is increasing day by day.
Thus a positive correlation exists between economic growth and demand for
energy. Moreover, consumption of energy for domestic uses and public lighting
has also been increasing.
In India between 1952-53 to 1987-88 the GDP had increased annually at the rate
of 3.7 per cent while the energy consumption had increased at the rate of 6.2 per
cent per annum. Inspite of this, the per capita consumption of energy in India is
low in comparison to that of developed countries. In India, more than half of the
population does not possess the capacity to purchase commercial energy.
Again out of the total energy consumed, about half of it is obtained from non-
commercial energy. In India the noncommercial sources of energy, mostly used
by rural poor, are obtained from firewood, dung cakes and agricultural waste.
But the commercial energy is obtained from oil and natural gas, coal, hydro-
electricity and a little volume of nuclear energy.
In India the consumption of commercial energy is too much dependent on oil and
coal. About 47 per cent of the demand for commercial energy is met through
petroleum oil. With the growing oil crisis, the importance of coal has also been
realised in the country. Coal has an advantage over other fuels as it can be
suitably converted into other types of energy like electricity, oil and gas.
In India, the coal is the principal source of electricity, at present with the
significant development of thermal power projects based on coal. About 60 per
cent of the total electricity generated in India is available from these coal based
thermal power projects.
Power or electricity is considered as one of the major sources of commercial
energy. Power contributed about 28.7 per cent of the total commercial energy
consumption of the country in 1987-88. In India, the development of power is
progressing at a considerable scale.
If we look at the installed capacity then the total installed generating capacity in
India has increased from 2,300 M.W. in 1950 to 2,55,000 MW in 2015 (March).
Out of this total power generation in India about 60 per cent of it is generated
through coal-based thermal power projects. The remaining 40 per cent of

electricity is generated through hydro-electricity and atomic energy.
Considering the present power scenario of the country and the present energy
crisis, proper steps should be taken for the proper utilisation of huge hydro-
power potential of the country, which according to C.E.A. is equivalent to 75,400
M.W., along-with the development of non-conventional energy in the country.
The following elements are incorporated in the new energy strategy of the
country:
(i) Accelerated exploitation of domestic conventional energy resources—
oil, natural gas, coal, hydro, and nuclear power;
(ii) Proper management of oil demand;
(iii) Substitution of natural gas for oil products;
(iv) Conservation of energy;
(v) Exploitation of renewable sources of energy such as energy forestry and
bio-gas, specially for meeting the energy requirements of the rural
people; and
(vi) Intensify research and development on the emerging energy
technologies.
In India, the shortage of energy is presently working as a major constraint of the
industrial development. In view of the serious oil crisis faced at present due to
soaring oil price, steps be taken for sustained increase in the production of coal.
Hydro-power potential should also be developed with a sense of urgency.
Nuclear power, which is at present contributing a little more than 2 per cent of
the total power generated, will have to be exploited with great vigour and
urgency.
Moreover, in order to supplement the commercial energy produced in the country
through the development of non-conventional energy, the Seventh Plan puts
emphasis on “The development and accelerated utilisation of renewable energy
sources wherever they are technically and economically viable, to improve the
access to and availability of, renewable decentralised energy sources, particularly
for the rural population and to reduce environment degradation resulting from
deforestation.”
In order to realise these above mentioned objectives, the following efforts

should be undertaken:
1. A large number of demonstration projects should be undertaken to
popularise these new and renewable sources of non-conventional energy
like wind, solar, bio-gas and bio-mass.
2. For developing indigenous technologies in this connection, the
Government should support intensive R&D (Research and
Development).
3. Attempts have to be made to create demand for this system through
government intervention along with appropriate financial incentives as
the initial cost of this system of renewable energy is very high.
4. An appropriate infrastructure for manufacturing, installation and
servicing of this renewable energy system should be developed for its
proper utilisation.
5. A large scale awareness programme should be undertaken to educate the
people about the new technologies developed for the efficient utilisation
of this system.
6. Lastly, substitution of non-commercial energy sources by commercial
fuels should be discouraged and for that energy forestry should be
developed.
It is important to look at the present energy scenario of the country vis-a-vis
other countries.
Latest finding from the Emerging Economy Report prepared by research and
consultancy firm, Center for Knowledge Societies (CKS) shows that emerging
economies could play pivotal roles in reducing the growing environmental
anxieties worldwide. The report shows that most emerging economies remain for
below the energy consumption as well as carbon emission levels of industrialised
countries.
India’s per capita energy consumption of 12.6 million BTU and Indonesia’s
(21.5) are almost negligible when compared to more economically developed
nations like South Korea (170.2 m BTU per capita) and Taiwan (181.5 m BTU).
China’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emission of 2.6 thousand metric tonnes per 1000
people is far below the 10.16 thousand metric tonnes per 1000 people in
Germany.
The report has also identified several new energy paradigms that can
fundamentally alter the ways in which end consumers access and use energy.
Therefore, the new paradigm can dramatically change the adverse environmental
effects of increased energy demand in the emerging economies.
The report highlighted that energy scarcity can lead to energy efficiency. To
some extent the outstanding and latent demand for energy of most emerging
economies, which is never met, can contribute to energy efficiency, at least in
economic terms.
It is to the credit of India’s growth process that its energy intensity has fallen
over time. In comparison to the rest of the world, particularly the emerging
economies of Brazil and China, the use of energy per capita in India remained
moderate and it increased at a slower pace.
PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED WITH THE ENERGY:

India is the world’s fourth largest energy consumer. Its energy needs continue to
increase, but national energy shortages and an inadequate energy infrastructure
could perpetuate national energy poverty.
On March 12, 2014, India and the United States renewed talks regarding
cooperation on clean energy. The talks concluded positively with memorandums
of understanding for the two countries to cooperate on research and development,
more extensive use of environmentally friendly technologies, and greater
coordination on scientific development.
The dialogue between the two countries included six working groups on areas
such as coal, oil and gas, sustainable development, new technologies and
renewable energies, and power and energy efficiency. The objective goal of the
talks is to increase business-to-business cooperation, expand trade, and create a
better regulatory framework. The talks follow the Partnership to Advance Clean
Energy (PACE) established in 2009.
It is a positive development that the United States (and many others) is paying
attention to India’s energy needs. With a growing middle class and a population
of 1.27 billion people, 50 percent of whom are under age 25, India is expected to
have some of the fastest growing energy needs that are certain to dramatically
impact the global economy and its energy market. With this in mind, here are 5
key things to know about energy in India.
1. Coal production remains key to energy mix

India produced 557 million tonnes (metric tons) of coal in 2012-13, and India’s
rapidly growing power industry consumed the majority of it. Coal production has
steadily increased since the industry was nationalized in the 1970s. The trend is
likely to continue, with production goals aiming for an increase to 795 million
tonnes by 2016-2017.Owing to summer heat, frequent labor strikes, and natural
disasters, India has had a harder time meeting growing market demands and
faces the likelihood of growing coal imports. Coal remains an essential staple to
India’s energy needs and will remain so for the foreseeable future.
2. Fourth largest consumer of oil and petroleum in the world

A trend almost certain to accelerate as the country faces growing urbanization
and an expanding middle class, India has a high dependence on imports for its
petroleum needs and is the world’s fourth largest importer of crude oil. Most
imports come from the Middle East, but growing investments in South America,
the Caspian Sea, and elsewhere look to diversify and potentially increase oil to
India.
The oil industry has slowly but steadily opened up since major reforms were
enacted in 1991. Subsequent reforms are ongoing. Two state-owned companies,
Oil India Limited (OIL) and Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), have
long dominated the production and refining in the sector. However, reforms in
the last decade have increased competition and exhibit potential signs of growing
foreign investment in a sector long dominated by domestic players.
3. Relies on imports to meet growing demand for gas

Perhaps more so than other areas in the energy sector, attempts to meet demand
with gas have been greatly influenced by geopolitical issues. Various plans for
pipelines with Myanmar, Iran and Pakistan, and Turkmenistan and Afghanistan
have fallen apart over border disputes and other issues.
Domestic natural gas production has fallen in recent years, with further drop-offs
expected in 2014-15. Given the growing demand and reliance on natural gas for
power, issues with obtaining natural gas from other countries, and its own falling
production, satisfying natural gas needs is one of India’s the most urgent
challenges.
4. Electricity shortages hurt industrial output

India meets its electricity demands with 65 percent
use of non-renewables, 19 percent of that demand
is met with hydropower, 12 percent from
renewables, and 2 percent from nuclear power.
Demand is far outpacing supply in meeting the
rapidly growing electricity needs of the country.
Electricity shortages have resulted in loss of profits for many companies, loss in
productivity as plants and businesses have been forced to shut down for a few
days a month or slow down manufacturing, and added operational costs as some
businesses have been forced to pay for power back up units.
While growing demand is part of the problem, poor infrastructure equally
contributes to electricity shortfalls that have hindered recovery in India’s
industrial sector and hurt its overall economic growth.
5. Energy poverty and inequality spreads
Access to energy is a tremendous problem in India and major inequalities of
access plague the subcontinent. According to one census, 77 million households
in India still use kerosene for lighting. The problem is even more acute in rural
India where up to 44 percent of households lack access to electricity.
While India has undertaken various programs and initiatives to address energy
poverty, they have been faced with logistical problems and inadequate
implementation locally. In the case of rural villages, access issues and
geographical hindrances make addressing the issue extremely costly and
difficult.
India faces exploding demand and insufficient supply. As the country’s
population and needs continue to grow rapidly, it will also need major reforms in
infrastructure and efficiency.
While many analysts point to developing solar and nuclear capabilities as
essential, India will need greater capacity and efficiency in all sectors to meet
India’s energy needs. How and if India chooses to confront this pressing problem
will have ramifications for the country and the world. Starting a dialogue and
drawing greater attention are a good start.
RENEWABLE AND NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

We use energy for everything we do, whether it is heating
our homes, cooking a meal, charging our phones or taking
a shower. Since the Industrial Revolution, which began in
around 1760, the majority of this energy has come from a
dense, energy rich resource known collectively as fossil
fuels.
Fossil fuels are energy sources which form over billions of
years from the remains of living organisms. Because fossil
fuels take such a long time to form and are being used up at a much faster rate
than they can be replaced, they are a non-renewable resource: a resource which
once consumed cannot be replaced. This means they will one day run out.
Burning fossil fuels also produces greenhouse gases and are the main cause of
man-made climate change. Relying on them for energy generation is therefore
unsustainable.
Because of this, we need to find more renewable, sustainable ways of generating
energy. Renewable energy resources are sources of power that quickly replenish
themselves and can be used again and again. Not only will renewable energy
sources not run out, but they also generate clean energy which does not release
greenhouse gas emissions in the process. Renewable energy sources include
wind, solar, tidal, wave, and hydroelectric power.
In the UK, we have a target for 15% of our energy to come from renewable
energy sources by 2020. According to government statistics, only 7% of UK
energy consumed in 2014 to provide heat, electricity and transport came from
renewable sources, so we still have a long way to go. Renewable energy sources
are currently mainly used to generate electricity – electricity generated from
renewable sources reached 19% in 2014. Figure 1 below shows the UK energy
mix for electricity generation and the contribution made by different non-
renewable and renewable energy sources.
Fossil fuels are energy sources which form over billions of
years from the remains of living organisms. Remains of
living organisms become fossil fuels when they are
compacted in the Earth's crust over billions of years, which
is the reason why fossil fuels are so energy dense. There is a
finite amount of fossil fuels left in the Earth's sub-surface
and these reserves will eventually run out.

There are three types of fossil fuels:
1. Coal is a solid fuel which is mined from seams sandwiched between
layers of rock in theEarth. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel and
supplies are expected to last longer than for other fossil fuels.
2. Oil is a carbon-based liquid formed from fossilised animals.
Reservoirs of oil are foundsandwiched between seams of rock in the
Earth. Pipes are sunk down to the reservoirs to pump the oil out.
3. Natural gas comes in the form of methane and some other gases
which are trappedbetween seams of rock under the Earth's surface.
Pipes are sunk into the ground to release the gas. Natural gas is the
most efficient, cheap and clean fossil fuel to convert to energy.
Below outlines the advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels as an energy

source.
Advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Ready-made fuels. 1. They are non renewable. Once you
burn them, they are gone
2. They give a large amount of 2. Burning a fossil fuel emits carbon
energy from a small amount of dioxide, which contributes to
fuel. climate change
3. Relatively cheap to extract and 3. Burning of fossil fuel can produce
convert to energy. sulphur dioxide and smoke, which
4. Readily available and reliable. If cause pollution and acid rain
you need more enrgy, you just
burn more fuel their availability
is not affected by climate
condition.
Peak oil
Peak oil is the idea that oil production may be at or near its limit. It is based on
the work of M King Hubbert, a geophysicist who worked for the oil industry in
the USA during the 1950s. Hubbert proposed that the amount of oil being
discovered was reducing, and made a prediction that oil production for the US
would slow, “peak” and then drop off, following a bell shaped curve graph as
shown in Figure 3 below. He predicted that world oil supplies would peak in the
early 2000s.
The Hubbert Curve
Source: Wikipedia (Author: Hankwang)
The Hubbert Curve has been used specifically for oil, but all production of fossil
fuels follows a similar curve, leading to peak coal and peak natural gas. The
same principle also applies to all other mined minerals, such as uranium, copper,
etc. Views on when fossil fuel production will peak (reach its maximum possible
production, after which production will drop off) vary, but the estimated length
of time left for coal, oil and natural gas production is set out.
Estimated length of time left for fossil fuels

Fossil fuel Estimated time left
Oil 40 years
Natural gas 60 years
Coal 250 years
The peak isn't the time when the resources actually run out, but the point at
which the rate we can find new reserves, extract the resources and produce
energy from them slows down. Fossil fuel reserves which are easiest and
cheapest to extract will be used up first, leaving only the more difficult and
costly resources to exploit. As fossil fuels become harder to obtain, the energy
required to mine them becomes greater, making them more expensive to
extract. This will make energy produced from fossil fuels more expensive for us
to buy.
World demand for fossil fuels is increasing at the same time as we are
approaching peak production. When the demand for energy from fossil fuels is
greater than the supply, this will also make prices go up. There will come a
point when energy from fossil fuels becomes too expensive for most people to
use and other energy sources, such as renewables, will become a cheaper
alternative. How near we are to this point is unclear.
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable energy resources are sources of power that quickly
replenish themselves and can be used again and again. Not only
will renewable energy sources not run out, but they also
generate clean energy which does not release greenhouse gas
emissions in the process.
Renewables can be used to generate electricity, heat or sometimes both. As
explained earlier, the most common use of renewable energy sources is to
produce electricity.
Outlines the advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy sources.
Advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy sources
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Won’t run out and can be 1. Currently difficult to generate quantities of
used again and again. energy as large as those produced by
traditional fossil fuel generators. This may
mean we need to reduce the amount of
energy we use or to develop more energy
facilities. It also indicates that the best
solution to our energy problems may be to
have a mix of different energy sources.
2. 2. Produce clean energy 2. Often rely on the weather to provide
that does not pollute the power. Hydro generators need rain to fill
environment or contribute dams to supply flowing water. Wind
to climate change. turbines need wind to turn blades and solar
panels need clear skies and sunshine to
collect heat and make electricity. When
these sources are unavailable, so is the
capacity to make energy from them. This
can be unpredicted and inconsistent.
3. 3. Renewable energy 3. Currently renewable energy technologies
facilities generally are a lot more expensive than traditional
require less maintenance fossil fuel generators. This is because they
than traditional fossil fuel are new technologies and therefore
generators. involve large capital costs. However, as the
technologies become better established, the
costs involved should fall.
4. Renewable energy is
derived from natural and
available resources. This
reduces the costs of
production, as the
resources used to produce
the energy often don’t
need to be purchased or
can be obtained more
cheapily and easily than
fossil fuels.
Outlines most of the major renewable energy sources available and a

description of the technologies that implement them.
Renewable energy sources and technologies
1 Solar Solar photovoltaic Solar panels convert the radiation energy

(PV) from the sun into electricity through silicon
cells.
2 Solar Solar thermal Heat from the sun is used to heat water for
domestic use in houses
3 Solar Concentrated Solar Large scale solar farms focus the sun’s
Power (CSP) energy to produce high temperatures that
run a steam engine to produce electricity
4 Wind Wind turbine Wind power is converted to rotational
energy by aerodynamic blades which turn
an alternator to produce electricity
5 Biomass Biomass space Wood is burned efficiently to heat buildings
heating
6 Biomass Biofuels for Energy crops are grown and processed to
transport produce fuel to run vehicles
7 Biomass Biomass electrical Wood is burned to produce steam to run a
power production generator to produce electricity in a similar
way that large scale coal-fired power plants
operate
8 Biomass Anaerobic Organic matter decomposes under water to
digestion produce methane which is burned to
produce electricity
9 Tidal Tidal power plants As the tide comes in the water is held and
released through a turbine to produce
electricity
10 Waves Wave power The motion of the waves are used to turn
generators to produce electricity
11 Rivers/Stre Hydro power The flow of water down a hill is sent
ams through a penstock to an impellor which
turns a generator to produce electricity
12 Heat from Geothermal power In place where the Earth's crust is thin, heat
Earth's from the Earth’s core is used to produce
core steam which turns a generator to produce
electricity
13 Burning Landfill gas Decomposing waste produces methane
Waste which is burned to produce electricity
REMEDIES (QUICK FIX) OF THE PROBLEM IDENIFIED:

There are two major categories of resources -- namely renewable and non-
renewable. As opposed to non-renewable resources, which diminish with their
constant use, renewable resources do not. Non-renewable resources, if not
managed properly might become non-existent. This is because the rate at which
they are used is much higher than the rate at which they are replaced. Renewable
resources include water, geothermal energy and wind energy. Non-renewable
resources include coal, natural gas and oil.
Managing Water
Water is the most abundant natural resource in the world. In fact, it covers up to
70.9 percent of the Earth’s surface. However, it is important to note that only
about 3 percent of water is fresh and out of this, only about less than 1 percent is
available for direct human use. It is therefore important to manage water
efficiently. Proper management of water is achieved by water treatment both in
small and large scale. Black and gray water, industrial effluents and storm water
can undergo treatment. The treatment of the water returns it into its original state
both for domestic and industrial use or for safe disposal. Water treatment is
essential since it ensures that there is sufficient water for human use.
Management of water is also achieved by a change in lifestyle. Using only the
amount of water you require and not leaving taps running will go a long way in
conserving water.
Reduce, Recycle and Re-use
Recycling and reusing are better alternatives to disposing of some items. For
better management and efficient utilization of resources, reduction in the amount
of usage is important. Better efficiency constitutes a change of lifestyle which
will in turn mean less waste. Not only are recycling and reuse ways of managing
resources, but they are also important in preventing pollution. Careless disposal
of substances such as plastics glassware, ceramic, oil, porcelain and metals have
devastating effects on soil and water. In addition, these hazardous wastes could
have serious effects on both land and aquatic life forms. These materials are
inorganic, implying that bacteria cannot break them down. Instead of disposing,
recycling and reusing these substances are much better options. When oils, for
instance, are recycled, they generate different grades of oil which have different
applications. Waste paper that is also not biodegradable is recycled into different
uses, such as tissue paper.
Laws and Regulations

Implementation of laws and regulations to curb waste of resources is important in
the management of resources. These laws and regulations enlighten people on the
need to conserve the resources for the future generations. Invoking of heavy
penalties for individuals who do not adhere to the laws and regulations will make
people avoid waste of resources. The government and private institutions alike
are expected to advertise on the media and any other platform on the importance
of proper management of resources.
Mass Transport and Hybrid Vehicles
Nearly all vehicles use fossil fuels to move from one place to another.
Discouraging individuals from using individual cars goes a long way in reducing
the amount of fuel consumed on the global scene. Buses and trains are
alternatives to personal vehicles because they have a lower person-to-fuel ratio.
This ensures that the few available fossil fuel deposits in the world are not
exhausted, while at the same time curbing excessive pollution of the atmosphere.
For individuals who do not prefer mass transport, hybrid vehicles that use
alternative sources of energy, such as butanol and ethanol, are a viable option.
Ethanol and butanol are readily available since they are derived from agricultural
produce such as corn.
REFERENCES:
1. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained
2. http://www.economicsdiscussion.net
3. https://globalriskinsights.com/2014/03/5-energy-problems-confronting-
india/
4. http://www.energyenvoys.org.uk/sites/default/files/Nonrenewable%20an
d%20renewable%20resources_0.pdf
5. https://sciencing.com/ways-manage-nonrenewable-renewable-resources-
23595.html
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CHAPTER - 22
Ecological Psychology: Introductory Review
Mukkala Pradeep Kumar1, K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu2,

Sirisha Adamala3
1,2,3
Abstract
Unlike many other sciences, psychology does not have a genuine basic
knowledge to run a coherent research program. However, he has an ecological
approach to the visual perception of James J Gibson, which we recommend
should be used as an example for the benefit of good theory to psychological
research. Here, we focus on the example of how the ecological approach served
as a guide to discover, simulate and limit the recent hypothesis of how people
make coherent rhythmic movements. The first experiments of this task were
developed in a dynamic model approach. This phenomenological and
behavioural structure classifies the behaviour of complex operation systems in
terms of the parameters of the main orders and describes the system's dynamic
stability in response to disturbances. However, dynamic systems, although they
are a valuable set of tools, are not behavioural, and this research style cannot
successfully predict data that is not explicitly designed to fit. Bingheima and
colleagues’ latest work has used dynamic systems to formalize the hypotheses
derived from Gibson's eco-approach to perception and behaviour, focusing on
perceptual information. The resulting model has achieved great success with
both the phenomena that have been developed to explain both the broad
spectrum of empirical results from a task version that is not specifically designed
to explain (in particular, by acquiring new coordination). This model and the
research program developed by it are an example of a theory-oriented study, and
we use it to illustrate the significance of today’s eco-approach psychology.
Introduction
The modern roots of psychology can be traced back to the 17th century when the
idea of an immaterial “mind” (or spirit or “thinking I”), immune from the laws of
physics, was advanced by Descartes as part of the dualistic world view that
gained ascendancy along with the Scientific Revolution. At the point of this
conceptual origin, psychology can thus be seen as the study of all that is not
physical. Because the "matter" of the physical world was taken by Descartes to
be composed of purposeless, reversible, analytically continuous, and quality-less
particles (without color, taste, or smell) governed by deterministic law, the lion's
share of worldly properties was clearly left to the immaterial or "mental" portion
of the world. Although philosophy became historically separated from
psychology as the discipline whose job it was to address ontological and
epistemo logical problems (generated, largely, by the inherent
incommensurability of the Cartesian schem’e itself), this separation has always
been fuzzy at best because from the time of Descartes psychological arguments
(in particular, theories of perception) were almost invariably used, or assumed, as
the starting point for epistemological and ontological claims. While Descartes
saw the entire natural world, including “organic nature” (with the exception of
the immaterial mind of humans), as a giant deterministic machine, Kant
(1790/1929), taking the view that it was impossible for the purposiveness of
living things to be described in mechanical terms, argued for the "autonomy of
biology" from physics (Cassirer, 1940/1950). Although, like Descartes, Kant had
formulated his argument to serve his own transcendental doctrine, his criticism of
mechanism was entirely correct. The consequence of his “autonomy of biology”
argument, however, was the establishment of a new dualism-a dualism of life
versus physics (living vs. nonliving or organism vs. environment). This same
argument, of the incommensurability of physics and the characteristic properties
of living things (to strive, perceive, and act purposively), is still used in
contemporary science to back the case for a biology largely indifferent to the
general principles of physics.
History of Ecological Psychology

The roots of Gibson’s ecological psychology can be found in some of his earliest
writings, which grow out of formative influences on him. The broader reference
to “an ecological approach” appears only in the title of his final book. Gibson
(1967), a contribution to the series The History of Psychology in Autobiography,
offers his reflections on his early influences and on the state of psychology circa
1960, and it foreshadows the ecological approach that soon begins to take shape.
Gibson (2002), a memoir by Eleanor Gibson, traces the development of
ecological psychology in the context of the Gibsons’ life together. Reed 1988
examines the development of Gibson’s ideas over the entirety of his career
considered against the backdrop of 20th century psychology and American
history. Heft (2001) clarifies the foundations of Gibson’s mature thought by
tracing it back through the New Realist E. B. Holt to William James’s Radical
Empiricism as well as the Gestalt psychologists. Lombardo (1987) examines the
arc of Gibson’s thinking in relation to a much wider, if selective, scope of
Western philosophical traditions.
The Distinctiveness of Environmental Psychology

Most psychologists examine the relations between environmental stimuli and
human responses in one way or another. However, what sets environmental
psychology apart is its commitment to research and practice that subscribe to
these goals and principles:
a) Improve the built environment and stewardship of natural resources,
b) Study everyday settings (or close simulations of them),
c) Consider person and setting as a holistic entity,
d) Recognize that individuals actively cope with and shape environments;
they do not passively respond to environmental forces,
e) Work in conjunction with other disciplines.
Theoretical Bases
Seven major theoretical approaches guide environmental psychologists, although
many focused theories deal with specific issues.
 Stimulation theories conceptual- size the physical environment as a
crucial source of sensory information. The adaptation-level approach
begins with the assumption that people adapt to a certain level of
environmental stimulation. Too much or too little stimulation is the focus
of arousal, overload, restricted environmental stimulation, and stress
theories.
 Control theories emphasize the importance of an individual’s real,

perceived, or desired control over stimulation, and boundary regulation
theories.
 Ecological psychology asserts the importance of behaviour settings,
naturally occurring small-scale social-physical units consisting of regular
patterns of person–environment behaviour.
 Integral approaches such as interactionism, transactionalism, and
organismic theory attempt to describe the full, complex interrelationship
of persons and setting.
 Operant approaches downplay abstract principles, instead adopting a
direct problem-solving approach that employs behaviour modification
techniques.
 Environment centered theories such as the spiritual–instrumental model
and ecopsychology raise the issue of the environment’s own welfare and
its ability to support our own well-being.
 Social psychology-based theories explain which factors affect
proenvironmental behaviour and how they can be encouraged.
Encouraging Pro-environmental Behaviour

Many environmental problems are rooted in human behaviour, and can thus be
managed by promoting proenvironmental behaviour. Attempts to improve
environmental quality via behaviour changes will be more effective when one
(1) Selects behaviour that significantly affects environmental quality,
(2) Examines which factors cause those behaviours,
(3) Applies and evaluates interventions that change these antecedents and the
behavior.
Factors Influence Behaviours with Environmental Impact

In order to decide which factors should be targeted to encourage pro-
environmental actions, one needs to understand which factors promote or inhibit
pro-environmental behavior. Below, we discuss two types of individual
motivations to engage in environmental behaviour: perceived cost and benefits,
and normative concerns. We indicate how these perspectives may be integrated
into a coherent framework.
Motivational factors
Cost-benefit Deliberations and Normative Concerns
The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) assumes that individuals choose
alternatives with highest benefits against lowest costs (e.g., in terms of money,
effort, and/or social approval). The TPB proposes that behaviour follows from an
individual’s intention. Intentions depend on attitudes towards the behaviour (the
degree to which engagement in behaviour is positively valued), social norms
(social pressure from important others to engage in a particular behaviour), and
perceived behavioural control (beliefs on whether one is capable of performing
the behaviour). The TPB was successful in explaining various types of
environmental behaviour, including travel mode choice, household recycling,
waste composting, water use, meat consumption, and general pro-environmental
behaviour.
Acting pro-environmentally is often associated with higher costs. Therefore,
moral and normative concerns are believed to play an important role in
environmental behaviour. Indeed, people are more likely to engage in pro-
environmental actions when they subscribe to values beyond their immediate
own interests, that is, self-transcendent, altruistic, or bio-spheric values, while
egoistic or self-enhancement values are negatively related to environmental
behaviour. Also, stronger environmental concern is associated with acting more
pro-environmentally, although relationships are generally weak. Environmental
concern is less predictive of behaviour-specific beliefs than are values, probably
because values reflect a wider range of motivations.
The norm-activation model and the value-belief-norm theory assume that people
act pro-environmentally when they feel a moral obligation to do so, which
depends on the extent to which people are aware of the problems caused by their
behaviour, and feel responsible for these problems and their solution. VBN
theory further proposes that problem awareness is rooted in environmental
concern and values. The NAM and VBN theories are reasonably successful in
explaining low-cost environmental behaviour and “good intentions” such as
willingness to change behaviour, political behaviour, environmental citizenship,
or policy acceptability. However, in situations characterized by high behavioural
costs or strong constraints on behaviour, such as reducing car use, their
explanatory power is generally low. In such settings, the TPB appears to be more
powerful in explaining behaviour, probably because the TPB also considers non-
environmental motivations and perceived behavioural control.
Cialdini et al (1991) distinguish two types of social norms: injunctive norms (the
extent to which behaviour is supposed to be commonly approved or disapproved)
and descriptive norms (the extent to which behaviour is perceived as common
practice). The most salient norm influences behaviour most. Indeed, people are
more likely to violate a particular norm when others do so as well. Moreover,
norm violations spread, that is, when people see that a particular norm is being
violated, they are more likely to violate other norms as well, suggesting that
perceptions of norm violations reduce the likelihood of normative behaviour in
general.
Various scholars have integrated concepts and variables from different
theoretical frameworks, showing that behaviour results from multiple
motivations. Goal-framing theory explicitly acknowledges that behaviour results
from multiple motivations. This theory distinguishes three goals that “frame” the
way people process information and act upon it: a hedonic goal-frame “to feel
better right now,” a gain goal-frame “to guard and improve one’s resources,” and
a normative goal-frame “to act appropriately.” In a given situation, one of these
goals is presumed to be focal (it is the goal-frame), while other goals are in the
background and increase or decrease the strength of the focal goal.
Contextual Factors
Many contextual factors may facilitate or constrain environmental behaviour and
influence individual motivations, such as the availability of recycling facilities,
or the quality of public transport. Only a few scholars in this field have included
contextual factors in their studies, and surprisingly, contextual factors are not
typically included in theories to explain environmental behaviour. When
environmental psychology aims to study transactions between humans and their
environments, effects of contextual factors on behaviour should be studied more
extensively. This may reveal whether important barriers for proenvironmental
action should be removed.
Habit
The theoretical frameworks discussed above generally imply that individuals
make reasoned choices. However, in many cases, environmental behaviour (e.g.,
car use) is habitual and guided by automated cognitive processes. Temporarily
forcing car drivers to use alternative travel modes appeared to induce long-term
reductions in car use, especially among habitual car drivers. This suggests that
habitual drivers have inaccurate and modifiable perceptions of the pros and cons
of different transport modes.
Interventions
Various strategies for behaviour change have been identified, each focusing on a
different set of behavioural determinants. A distinction can be made between
informational strategies that aim to change prevalent motivations, perceptions,
cognitions and norms, and structural strategies that aim to change the context in
which behavioural choices are made. Informational and structural strategies are
described next, but their effectiveness in promoting different types of
environmental behaviour in detail is not, because this has been extensively
reviewed elsewhere.
Informational strategies
Informational strategies target motivational factors, without actually changing
the external context in which choices are made. First, informational strategies
can be aimed to increase actors’ awareness of environmental problems and of the
environmental impacts of their behaviour, and/or to increase their knowledge of
behavioural alternatives and their pros and cons. Information campaigns hardly
result in behaviour changes.
Second, persuasion strategies may be employed, for example, to influence actors’
attitudes, strengthen their altruistic and ecological values, and/or strengthen their
commitment to act proenvironmentally. Commitment strategies appeared to be
successful in encouraging proenvironmental behaviour. Eliciting implementation
intentions in which people not only indicate that they intend to change their
behaviour, but also how they plan to do so, appeared to be effective as well.
Furthermore, promising results have been found with individualized social
marketing approaches, in which information is tailored to the needs, wants and
perceived barriers of individual segments of the population.

Third, social support and role models can be provided to strengthen social norms,
and to inform individuals about the perceptions, efficacy, and behaviour of
others. Modeling and providing information about the behaviour of others
appeared to be successful in supporting proenvironmental behaviour. However,
comparative feedback can be counterproductive when people take the behaviour
of others as a reference point for which to strive. This boomerang effect can be
neutralized by adding injunctive norm information, which conveys social
approval. Informational strategies in themselves are especially effective when the
pro-environmental behaviour is not very costly, and when individuals do not face
severe external constraints on behaviour. Furthermore, they are an important
element in the implementation of structural strategies that force individuals to
change their behaviour.
Structural Strategies
When acting pro-environmentally is rather costly or difficult because of external
barriers to pro-environmental actions, the circumstances under which
behavioural choices are made need to be changed as to make pro-environmental
actions more attractive, and to reduce the attractiveness of environmental
harmful actions? First, the availability and quality of products and services may
be altered via changes in physical, technical, and/or organizational systems (e.g.,
provision of recycling bins). Second, legal regulations can be implemented (e.g.,
prohibiting the use of harmful propellants in spray cans). Third, prices of
different behaviour options may be changed (e.g., road pricing, CO2 taxes).
Structural strategies either aim to reward approved behaviour, or punish
disapproved behaviour. When rewards and penalties are strong, people can
attribute their behaviour change to the incentive and not to their personal
convictions. As a result, attitudes may not change and behaviour changes will
only last for as long as the incentive is in place. Rewards will be not be effective
if they fail to make pro-environmental behaviour more attractive than
environmentally harmful options, to activate goals to change behaviour, and to
facilitate the implementation of such goals.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Interventions

Studies aimed at evaluating an intervention’s effectiveness should follow
experimental research designs that reveal the effectiveness of single as well as
combinations of interventions for one or more “treatment” groups and a
comparable control group. Because an intervention may have only short-lived
effects, whether it has lasting long-term effects needs study. First, it is important
to monitor (changes in) behavioural determinants in order to understand why
intervention programs were successful or not. Moreover, it allows change agents
to adapt interventions to increase its effectiveness. Second, changes in
environmental impact should be monitored, because this is the ultimate goal of
behavioural interventions in the environmental domain. Based on this, feedback
can be provided to the target population so as to inform members about the
effects of their efforts on environmental quality. This may strengthen their
commitment to change behaviour, and to maintain the changes realized. Third,
one also would need to know about changes in people’s quality of life, which is
an important component of the more general notion of sustainable development.
Besides studying the actual effects of interventions, environmental psychologists
have studied the perceived effectiveness and acceptability of environmental
policies before such policies are implemented, particularly in the travel domain.
These studies reveal, among other things, that policies are more acceptable when
they are believed to be fairer, when they are effective in reducing relevant
problems, and when they do not seriously affect individual freedom. Moreover,
policies are more acceptable to people who have strong environmental values,
who are highly aware of the problem, and who feel a strong moral obligation to
reduce the problems. Policies that increase the attractiveness of pro-
environmental behaviour are evaluated as more effective and acceptable than
policies aimed at decreasing the attractiveness of environmentally harmful
behaviour, and people prefer policies aimed at promoting the adoption of energy-
efficient equipment to policies aimed at reducing the use of existing equipment.
The Psychology of Resource Management

Energy conservation, recycling, fresh water, and pollution are instances of
everyday commons dilemmas. The choices people make sometimes to take (as in
fishing) and sometimes to give (as in greenhouse gases) influence the fate of
many desirable resources. People in commons dilemmas must decide whether to
try to serve their own interest quickly, which risks total failure for self, others,
and the resource, or, through restraint, to benefit all participants more
moderately, with the crucial consequence that the resource is preserved for the
future. Many characteristics of the resource, individuals, and proximate
constraints that influence these choices have been identified.
For example, conservation often (but not always) improves when the resource
becomes scarce. Uncertainty about the resource almost always leads to
overharvesting. Narcissistic or egocentric harvesters take more than others.
When more harvesters have access to a resource, each tends to take more, but if
they have a sense of community, cooperation is greater. Regulations do not
govern harvesting absolutely, but of course they have an influence. For example,
when harvests are publicly known, cooperation is greater and when the resources
are partitioned into zones that each harvester controls, the commons is managed
more sustainably.
Residential Environmental Psychology

Home is the most important physical setting for most people. Environmental
psychologists distinguish the physical structure (house, apartment) from its
meaning structure (home). Individuals normally called homeless might more
properly be called houseless, although if their last residence loses its meaning,
they truly are homeless. Residential satisfaction depends on many determinants,
including stage of life, socioeconomic status, personality and values, hopes for
the future, norms for one’s peers, and relationships with neighbours. Of course,
physical features of the residence such as its form, architectural style, floor plan,
colours, outdoor areas around the residence, as well as cultural background affect
residential preferences, choices, and satisfaction. Poor-quality housing affects the
socio emotional health of children and adults.
People arrange their residential interiors in fairly predictable patterns that are
related to lifestyle, social class, and culture. Adapting to new residences can be
stressful, depending on whether a person has some choice in doing so, prefers to
explore new settings in general, or represents a downgrading. In relation to the
amount of time people spend in their residences, and their psychological
importance, this aspect of environmental psychology is under-researched. This is
partly because conducting research in residences usually is, understandably, seen
as an intrusion of privacy.
Educational Environmental Psychology

The physical features of schools and other learning settings as a whole affect
student and teacher outcomes. For example, many learning experiences are
affected by school size. Students in larger schools have an edge in the variety of
things they can learn about. Yet, partly because time at school is limited, students
in large schools do not actually participate in more activities than students in
small schools. Students in large schools more often learn and enjoy as spectators;
students in small schools more often learn and enjoy as participants. In most
areas of learning, students in small schools achieve more because they develop
competence through direct involvement in activities.
Interior school design has a variety of influences on students and teachers.
Temporary or low walls increase distractibility. Acquisition, maintenance, and
dynamic walls can be strategically used to match students’ normal viewing
patterns with current versus background educational information. When students
learn in a given setting, that material is better recalled in the same setting or
when a vivid memory of that setting is evoked.
Evidence strongly suggests that noise interferes with learning both while it
occurs and, if the learner is subjected to noise for long periods, even after the
noise is gone. To combat noise, instructors have changed their methods
sometimes sacrificing a good pedagogical technique for a quiet one and
successfully employed behaviour modification techniques such as sound-
activated electrical relays that control reinforces such as music and extra recess
time.
Incandescent lighting is preferred by many, but it is more expensive than
fluorescent lighting, which has not been shown to have dramatic negative effects
on the performance or health of most students. Despite the inadequate
methodology in some studies, and the lack of significant differences in others, it
appears that light does affect some kinds of performance, such as basic cognitive
and motor activities. Short exposures to the different kinds of light in many
studies may have led to incorrect conclusions that light has no effects. As with
noise, the important effects may be on specific subgroups of individuals; when
studies of whole classes or schools are done, large effects on a few learners may
be obscured by the absence of effects on most learners.
Few simple, direct relations exist between indoor climate and educational
behaviour. Perhaps the best-supported conclusion is that performance is best in
slightly cool but not humid classrooms. The amount, arrangement, and design of
space in educational settings is very important for classroom performance and
related behaviours. High density may affect learning when the activity involves
physical movement around the classroom, when learning depends on some
classroom resource that is not increasing as fast as the number of learners, when
a particular situation seems crowded to a learner, and when the concept to be
learned is complex. Among preschoolers, high density alters the child’s choice of
activities and time spent on off-task activities. Numerous classroom arrangement
features have been linked to educational performance. All such findings depend
in part on grade level, type of tasks, and teaching style.
High density may affect learning. Space in classrooms affects student and teacher
feelings. Most students and teachers prefer lower-density classrooms, because
lower densities usually feel less crowded. Providing satisfying physical
arrangements within schools is best accomplished by furnishing a variety of
layouts. Softer, more home-like classrooms appear to improve student learning,
but will not become common until the attitudes of authorities, teachers, and
students change. In terms of social behaviour, increased social density leads to
increased aggression and withdrawal when other resources, architectural features,
and teaching style do not counteract it.
Environmental competence involves learning about the environment. Three kinds
of it include
1) Personal style, attitudes and awareness of physical setting.
2) Knowledge of physical settings, including technical knowledge, how to
unearth new information, knowledge about how social systems control
space, knowledge of person–environment relations.
3) Practical environmental skills such as scouting, matching,
personalization, and creative custodianship. Programs in and out of
school teach many different facets of environmental competence, from
basic environmental ethics to campfire starting to architectural design.
Although some subareas of environmental competence have received
attention, the concept as a whole so far has not received as much as the
concept deserves.
Natural Environmental
Psychology The natural environment has been approached within environmental
psychology in a variety of ways, with some appreciation of the fact that the
natural environment was and remains the encompassing environment of which
humans are an integral and adaptive part, notwithstanding some 30,000 years of
extensive human alteration. The natural environment has been seen
a) As a complex stimulus environment for which we have hard-wired and
functional sensitivities, preferences, and aversions,
b) As the source of aesthetic appreciation and creative and spiritual
inspiration,
c) As part of fondly remembered and formative childhoods for many,
d) As the basis of our planet’s and our species’ life support systems and the
critical object of conservation initiatives,
e) As a restorative and therapeutic venue and refuge from the overload and
stresses of modern life,
f) As an important design and planning criterion and set of principles for
creating beautiful, comfortable, and life-enhancing human structures and
settings, and
g) As moral compass and existential and aesthetic touchstone.
Nature has both awesome power to disrupt lives or to act as a restorative agent.
People have always believed that nature is restorative. The various ways in
which it is restorative include facilitating cognitive freedom, ecosystem
connectedness, escape, challenge, growth, guidance, a renewed social life, and
health. Being in nature, and even merely viewing nature, has restorative effects,
although some researchers maintain that the same effects might be gained by
features of nature that also may be found in civilization. The two main
mechanisms by which nature restores us are through refreshing attentional
capacity and improving mood.
The natural environment continues to be a very diverse domain of applied
environmental psychological work, both in the context of designing ‘nature’ into
human settings and in the context of designing with nature in mind. The
importance of acknowledging and incorporating the natural environment in
planning and design is particularly salient in the context of health, well-being,
and restoration benefit, with an extensive evidence base spanning three decades
and myriad institutional and urban applications and settings. These restoration
benefits and indeed more fundamental psychological needs and processes have
also been more widely acknowledged and embraced in clinical and counselling
practice.
The Social Construction of Nature, the Environment, and Environmental

Problems
“The environment,” “nature” and other constructs used for referring to places,
landscapes, homelands, and human settings are simultaneously constructions and
idealized places as well as objective environments. However, environmental
psychologists have mainly focused on physical environments as the objectified
research setting, with less consideration given to perceptual, cognitive, affective,
social, cultural, and symbolic processes that are integrally involved in how we
experience, understand, respond to, and transact with “objective” and “meaning-
full” environments. Rich literatures exist on place meaning and attachment,
phenomenological ecology and environmental psychology, the conceptual and
symbolic domain of place and placelessness, landscape and meaning, and the
status and implications of constructed spaces, places, and worlds, but this
important work is not well reflected in current urban and regional planning and
environmental impact assessment, where dramatic changes to important places
continue to exact appreciable human distress and costs. Individual and
sociocultural constructions of place and environment pose multiple challenges
when issues related to risk, beauty, place meaning, environmental values,
concerns, and behavioural intentions are involved. This is because the way we
think about environmental risks, problems, and environmental quality profoundly
influences the decisions we make, the environments we design and build, the
intervention strategies and solutions we initiate in the face of perceived threats,
and how we experience, respond, and adapt to our objectively ‘real’ natural and
built environments.
Environmental Psychology and Architectural Design

Some buildings are human disasters; others are merely persistent nuisances to
those who use them. Social design is a way of creating buildings that fit
occupants and users better by involving them in the planning process. Social
design is a remedy for the malady in which architects see themselves primarily as
artists, ignoring the basic needs and activities of occupants. This is now widely
recognized, yet many buildings are still constructed without significant user
involvement.
Social design has numerous goals, problems and advantages. It aims to match
settings to their occupants, to satisfy a variety of principal players’ needs, to
promote personal control in the building, and to encourage social support
(Gifford). Under some circumstances, other goals may be to increase
productivity or to change behaviour. The problems include a frequent lack of
communication between those who pay for a building and those who use or
occupy it, resistance to the extra effort of involving users and occupants,
unrealistic expectations that socially designed buildings will directly cure various
evils, conflict among principal players, and the false beliefs that some designers
hold about those who will use a Social design usually means serving the needs of
building occupants first, but it also offers benefits to architects and paying
clients.
The design process includes programming, design, construction, use and
adaptation, and post occupancy evaluation. Programming consists of three
phases: understanding the needs of building users, involving them in the
possibilities of design, and translating their needs into design guidelines. Turning
these guidelines into plans and reality is the job of architects and construction
companies. The environmental psychologist returns later to conduct a post
occupancy evaluation, which examines the effectiveness of the program and
design.
Changing Contexts, Horizons and Challenges

Environmental psychology has been from its inception a moving target and
enterprise, with reviews and characterizations often out of step with current
involvements and applications, and ongoing changes. Of the many myriad
strands to this, a number of transitions and challenges appear to be particularly
noteworthy:
• Dramatically changing information technologies and information
environments are fundamentally altering our transactions with the larger
world—and with each other.
• Ecological psychology continues to challenge environmental psychology
with respect to the nature and status of direct perception and experience,
particularly in a world increasingly characterized by indirect and virtual
experience and mediated “realities”.
• Environmental psychology’s increasing interest in the challenges and

paradoxes of the local and global finds itself in a quandary, where
thinking globally, acting locally, and responding personally are
prerequisite for a sustainable existence, but are compromised by a
convergent set of perceptual, media coverage, and information and
communication technology biases.
• Problems related to distinctions between the physical and social
environment have never been adequately resolved, but the changing
nature of human settings and virtual “physical” and “social
environments,” and the intertwined nature of the biophysical and
psychosocial underscores the fundamental importance of adequately
conceptualizing “environmental” contexts to understanding human
behaviour. Some believe that we need to reconsider alternative ways of
understanding people-environment transactions.
Review of Literature
Authors Target Year Outcomes

Wagenmakers Analysing data 2011 Why psychologists must
et al change the way they analyze
their data
Wilson AD & Visual perception 2008 Identifying the information for
Bingham GP the visual perception of relative
phase.
De Groot JIM Value orientations 2007 Validity of an instrument to
& Steg L and environmental measure egoistic, altruistic and
beliefs biospheric value orientations
Gifford R & Automobile traffic 2007 Threats from car traffic to the
Steg L on quality of life quality of urban life: Problems,
causes, and solutions
Abrahamse W Intervention 2005 Household energy conservation
et al studies
Bamberg S Effects of 2002 Results of two field
implementation experiments
intentions
Authors Target Year Outcomes

Wenderoth N Learning a new 2002 Existing attractors
et al bimanual
coordination
Aarts H et al Predicting 1998 Repeated decision making or a
behaviour from matter of habit
actions in the past
Turvey M Affordances and 1992 Ontology Ecological
Prospective Psychology
Control
Altman I & World views in 1987 Trait, interactional, organismic
Rogoff B psychology and and transactional perspectives
environmental
psychology
Creekmore Classroom walls 1987 Effective use of classroom
WN walls
Ahola SE Towards a social 1983 Environmental perception and
psychology of urban experience
recreational travel.
Appleyard D Planning a pluralist 1976 Successful planning
city
Conclusion
Sciences need theories, to guide discovery and constrain explanation. Gibson’s
ecological approach has shown itself capable of supporting productive and
successful empirical research across a wide range of tasks and serves as a model
for what a theory driven psychology could achieve. We have focused here on
Bingham’s perception action model as an exemplar of this research and how the
ecological theory underpinning the model successfully guided discovery and
ruled out alternative explanations for phenomena. In addition, while the
ecological approach is not a complete theory of behaviour, it is a successful
theory of perception, and this must therefore be the starting point of any analysis
of behaviour. By beginning that analysis at the right place (in the opportunities
for behaviour in the environment and the information about those opportunities)
the ecological approach will inform, enrich and (most importantly) constrain our
explanations of behaviour in a principled manner. Gibson’s ecological approach
therefore continues to have much to offer contemporary psychology, but it
remains to be seen if psychologists can accept and work within the constraints of
a real theory as they attempt to explain more complex cognition and behaviour.
The beauty of such a period of theoretically motivated, hypothesis driven
‘normal’ psychological science is that if we invest some serious time pushing the
theory, looking for cracks, and resisting the temptation to jump ship at the first
sign of trouble, psychology will end up in a better place no matter how it pans
out. If the theory breaks, it will have been broken honestly, and for good reasons.
If the theory holds up, we will have achieved a lot of progress and begun to act
like a real science for a change. Either way, psychology will be a stronger
science for the experience.
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70(3): 465-476.
Authors:
Mr. Mukkala Pradeep Kumar is pursuing Post Graduation,
Department of Applied Engineering in the Branch of Farm Power
and Machinery at Vignan’s Foundation for Science Technology and
Research, Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh. His areas of interest
include Mechanization and Research in Farm Machinery.
Mr. K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu is persuing Post Graduation,

Dr. Sirisha Adamala is working as Assistant Professor at Vignan’s

Foundation for Science, Technology and Research, Vadlamudi,
Andhra Pradesh. She is the author of about 15 publications in
international journals and 5 in national journals. Her area of
interest includes Remote sensing and GIS applications in water
resources engineering, Soft computing modelling in hydrology,
and climate change.
CHAPTER - 23
An Overview of Environmental Chemistry
K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu1, Mukkala Pradeep Kumar2, Sirisha Adamala3

1,2,3
Abstract
Environmental chemistry is a study of the chemical processes occurring in the
environment and influenced by human activities. These impacts can be felt
locally due to urban pollution or toxic substances occurring in the form of
chemical waste, or globally, as a result of the depletion of stratospheric ozone or
global warming. In order to predict the outcomes of persistent organic pollutants
in the environment, the various aspects related to their physical and chemical
properties, distribution, transportation between and between compartments, the
biotic and abiotic transformation process and the impact on living organisms,
including humans, should be carefully assessed. This document deals with the
origin, transport, reactions, exposure and fate of chemical species in the
environment.
Introduction
The world has achieved brilliance without wisdom, power without conscience.
Our world is the military and ethical children of nuclear energy. Environmental
research covers all social, economic, biological, physical and chemical links with
the environment. Environmental chemistry deals with the origin, transport,
reaction, exposure and fate of chemical species in the environment. The ability to
predict the activity of a chemical in an organic or environmental system depends
to a large extent on the knowledge of the physicochemical properties and
reactivity of the compound or closely related compounds. Chemical properties
commonly used in the environmental assessment include temperature at melting /

boiling temperature, vapour pressure, various distribution factors, water
solubility, Henry's law constant, absorption coefficient, bio concentration
coefficient and diffusion properties. Detailed knowledge of process mechanisms,
such as biodegradation, hydrolysis, photolysis and oxidation / reduction, is also
an essential determinant of experimental and theoretical environmental studies.
This information is useful in assessing which industry is most likely to find a
chemical, which type of transformation may be most important, and therefore
which laboratory studies should be taken into account more. For a successful risk
assessment, it is essential to improve the ability to extrapolate laboratory results
and to predict accurate, quantitative degradation, transformation, accumulation
and transport in this area. An assessment of all data permits the determination of
the activity of pollutants in soil, water and air, the potential for absorption of
plants or animals and the potential of bioaccumulation in organisms.
Environmental pollution
Environmental pollution is the impact of unwanted changes on our environment,
which has a detrimental effect on plants, animals and humans. The substance
causing contamination is known as a pollutant. Pollutants may be solid, liquid or
gaseous substances with a concentration greater than a natural abundance and
produced by human activities or natural events. An ordinary person requires
about 12-15 times more air than food. Therefore, even small amounts of air
pollutants become relevant in comparison to similar foods. Pollutants can
degrade, for example, vegetables that break down and quickly decompose into
natural processes. On the other hand, slowly degrading pollutants remain in the
unchanged environment for many decades. For example, substances such as
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), plastics, heavy metals, many chemicals
and nuclear waste, etc. Once released in the environment, it is difficult to remove
them. These pollutants cannot be destroyed by natural processes and they are
harmful to living organisms. In the process of contamination of the environment,
pollutants come from a source and transported by air or water or people in the
county.
Air pollution
The Earth's atmosphere does not have the same thickness at all heights. There are
concentric layers in the air or regions, and each layer has different densities. The
lower atmosphere of the area, inhabited by people and other organisms, is called
the "troposphere". It stretches to a height of 10 km from the sea level. Above the
troposphere, between 10 and 50 km above sea level, there is a "stratosphere".
The troposphere is a restless and dusty area that contains air, lots of water vapor
and clouds. It is a region of strong air movement and cloud formation. On the
other hand, the stratosphere contains dinitrogene, dioxygen, ozone and little
water vapor. Air pollution is usually studied as a tropospheric and stratospheric
contamination. The presence of ozone in the stratosphere eliminates about 99.5%
of the harmful Ultra Violet (UV) radiation that the sun reaches to the surface of
the earth, thus protecting humans and other animals from its effects.
Tropospheric Pollution
Tropospheric pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous
particles in the air. The following are the major gaseous and particulate
pollutants present in the troposphere:
1. Gaseous air pollutants: These are oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon,
hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
2. Particulate pollutants: These are dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc
1. Gaseous air pollutants

(a) Oxides of Sulphur: Oxides of sulphur are produced when sulphur containing
fossil fuel is burnt. The most common species, sulphur dioxide, is a gas that is
poisonous to both the animals and plants. It has been reported that even a low
concentration of sulphur dioxide causes respiratory diseases e.g., asthma,
bronchitis, emphysema in human beings. Sulphur dioxide causes irritation to the
eyes, resulting in tears and redness. High concentration of SO2 leads to stiffness
of flower buds which eventually fall off from plants. Uncatalysed oxidation of
sulphur dioxide is slow. However, the presence of particulate matter in polluted
air catalyses the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 (g) +O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
The reaction can also be promoted by ozone and hydrogen peroxide.

SO2 (g) +O3 (g) → SO3 (g) + O2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2O2 (l) → H2SO4 (aq)
(b) Oxides of Nitrogen: Dinitrogen and dioxygen are the main constituents of
air. These gases do not react with each other at a normal temperature. At high
altitudes when lightning strikes, they combine to form oxides of nitrogen. NO2 is
oxidised to nitrate ion, NO3− which is washed into soil, where it serves as a
fertilizer. In an automobile engine, (at high temperature) when fossil fuel is
burnt, dinitrogen and dioxygen combine to yield significant quantities of nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) as given below:
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 1483K → 2NO (g)
NO reacts instantly with oxygen to give NO2
2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
Rate of production of NO2 is faster when nitric oxide reacts with ozone in the
stratosphere.
NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
The irritant red haze in the traffic and congested places is due to oxides of
nitrogen. Higher concentrations of NO2 damage the leaves of plants and retard
the rate of photosynthesis. Nitrogen dioxide is a lung irritant that can lead to an
acute respiratory disease in children. It is toxic to living tissues also. Nitrogen
dioxide is also harmful to various textile fibres and metals.
(c) Oxides of Carbon

(i) Carbon Monoxide (CO): It is one of the most serious air pollutants. It is a
colourless and odourless gas, highly poisonous to living beings because of its
ability to block the delivery of oxygen to the organs and tissues. It is produced as
a result of incomplete combustion of carbon. Carbon monoxide is mainly
released into the air by automobile exhaust. Other sources, which produce CO
involve incomplete combustion of coal, firewood, petrol, etc. The number of
vehicles has been increasing over the years all over the world. Many vehicles are
poorly maintained and several have inadequate pollution control equipment’s
resulting in the release of greater amount of carbon monoxide and other polluting
gases. Carbon monoxide is poisonous because it binds to haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin, which is about 300 times more stable than the oxygen-
haemoglobin complex. In blood, when the concentration of carboxyhaemoglobin
reaches about 3–4 per cent, the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is greatly
reduced. This oxygen deficiency, results into headache, weak eyesight,
nervousness and cardiovascular disorder. This is the reason why people are
advised not to smoke. In pregnant women who have the habit of smoking the
increased CO level in blood may induce premature birth, spontaneous abortions
and deformed babies.
(ii) Carbon Dioxide (CO2): It is released into the atmosphere by respiration,
burning of fossil fuels for energy, and by decomposition of limestone during the
manufacture of cement. It is also emitted during volcanic eruptions. Carbon
dioxide gas is confined to troposphere only. Normally it forms about 0.03 per
cent by volume of the atmosphere. With the increased use of fossil fuels, a large
amount of carbon dioxide gets released into the atmosphere. Excess of CO2 in the
air is removed by green plants and this maintains an appropriate level of CO 2 in
the atmosphere. Green plants require CO2 for photosynthesis and they, in turn,
emit oxygen, thus maintaining the delicate balance. As you know, deforestation
and burning of fossil fuel increases the CO2 level and disturb the balance in the
atmosphere. The increased amount of CO2 in the air is mainly responsible for
global warming.
Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect

About 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth’s
surface, which increases its temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the
atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water vapour in the
atmosphere. Thus, they add to the heating of the atmosphere. This causes global
warming. In cold places flowers, vegetables and fruits are grown in glass covered
areas called greenhouse. Do you know that we humans also live in a greenhouse?
Of course, we are not surrounded by glass but a blanket of air called the
atmosphere, which has kept the temperature on earth constant for centuries. But
it is now undergoing change, though slowly. Just as the glass in a greenhouse
holds the sun’s warmth inside, atmosphere traps the sun’s heat near the earth’s
surface and keeps it warm. This is called natural greenhouse effect because it
maintains the temperature and makes the earth perfect for life. In a greenhouse,
solar radiations pass through the transparent glass and heat up the soil and the
plants. The warm soil and plants emit infrared radiations. Since glass is opaque
to infrared radiations (thermal region), it partly reflects and partly absorbs these
radiations. This mechanism keeps the energy of the sun trapped in the
greenhouse. Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules also trap heat as they are
transparent to sunlight but not to the heat radiation. If the amount of carbon
dioxide crosses the delicate proportion of 0.03 per cent, the natural greenhouse
balance may get disturbed. Carbon dioxide is the major contributor to global
warming.
Acid rain
Normally rain water has a pH of 5.6 due to the presence of H+ ions formed by
the reaction of rain water with carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → H2CO3 (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) → H + (aq) + HCO3 – (aq)
When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is called ‘acid rain’. Acid rain
refers to the ways in which acid from the atmosphere is deposited on the earth’s
surface. Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are acidic in nature can be blown
by wind along with solid particles in the atmosphere and finally settle down
either on the ground as dry deposition or in water, fog and snow as wet
deposition. Acid rain is a by-product of a variety of human activities that emit the
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Burning of fossil fuels (which
contain sulphur and nitrogenous matter) such as coal and oil in power stations
and furnaces or petrol and diesel in motor engines produce sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. SO2 and NO2 after oxidation and reaction with water are major
contributors to acid rain, because polluted air usually contains particulate matter
that catalyses the oxidation.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
Ammonium salts are also formed and can be seen as an atmospheric haze
(aerosol of fine particles). Aerosol particles of oxides or ammonium salts in rain
drops result in wet deposition. SO2 is also absorbed directly on both solid and
liquid ground surfaces and is thus deposited as dry-deposit.
Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology

Managing compliance with environmental chemistry and toxicology regulations
in the highly regulated areas of Research, Development and Manufacturing is a
major undertaking. Failure of an organization to adequately manage this process
can lead to environmental mishaps, severely damaging the company’s brand,
damaging the environment and costing millions in fines. Environmental chemists
must be able to accurately model and predict what a facility is contributing to the
environment, the environmental toxicity risks of that output, and the optimum set
of actions for mitigating or managing those risks. To effectively manage
regulatory compliance, an organization must be able to leverage data and
analysis from multiple sources to ensure that standards are met consistently and
effectively across manufacturing sites, an endeavour complicated by
requirements that can frequently change and vary from one jurisdiction to
another. Many R&D manufacturing companies’ regulatory compliance processes
are often hindered by:
 Reliance upon a series of manual, error-prone tasks that disjointedly
incorporate multiple disparate data sources and analytical tools.
 Loss of productivity from the lack of an efficient automated method to carry
out the necessary multiple repetitive tasks that inherently require in-depth
scientific knowledge.
 Results those are not well-documented or repeatable, prohibiting the
organization from capturing the critical knowledge and decision-making
practices accumulated over time.
The Accelrys Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology (ECT) Solution

The Accelrys ECT solution is a customizable “scientifically-aware” platform to
streamline monitoring, analysis, and reporting of chemical by-products for the
purposes of regulatory compliance. This scientifically-aware solution inherently
allows for Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship (QSAR) analysis,
chemical similarity searching and other read-across techniques to maximize the
value of all data. The scientific platform can easily be configured to
automatically predict biodegradation products, physical properties, ADME
(Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion) and Toxicology properties
and many other descriptors. The solution can also be configured to automatically
compare any of these properties to codified business rules specific for each
facility.
Real Results in the Real World

One of the top five pharmaceutical companies in the world recently deployed a
new toolset for managing its EHS (Environmental Health and Safety)
requirements. Although its track record was good, the company did not have
enterprise-wide, repeatable, documented processes for managing all the data
related to its manufacturing processes. Working side-by-side with the company’s
environmental chemists, Accelrys consultants were able to capture their existing
(though mostly informal) EHS processes and deploy a dashboard system tailored
to support those processes and integrate existing tool sets and data sources. The
pharmaceutical company now has the capacity to integrate multiple datasets into
reliable and trusted information. Its processes are systematized; its policy and
regulatory changes can be rapidly incorporated into the automated business
processes and rolled out to dozens of manufacturing plants simultaneously.
A Solution for Near and Long Term

Before making a capital investment in any chemical production, organizations
must carry out a comprehensive analysis of all potential options, risks, and
strategies. The power and flexibility of the Accelrys platform enable companies
to incorporate all relevant factors into their long-term decisions, including careful
calculations of solubility, toxicity, and breakdown characteristics of the material,
as well as external location factors such as slope, stream-flow, and proximity to
wetlands. But the platform can also be deployed for much more tactical decision-
making as well. Real-time data regarding weather, stream levels, soil conditions,
and other factors may drive decisions about which products are manufactured on
a given day, based on the characteristics of the by-products that the
manufacturing process releases into the environment. With the Accelrys
platform, well-informed decisions can be made on an ongoing basis so that plant
capacity is optimized without violating regulatory requirements or suffering
environmental mishaps.
Environmental Chemistry of Metals

Metals and metalloids in the environment are of concern to almost all
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) programs. The Safe Drinking Water
Act mandates maximum contaminant levels and maximum contaminant level
goals for a variety of metals; the Clean Water Act mandates the development of
ambient water quality criteria for the protection of human health and aquatic life
against the potential toxic effects of metals; Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) requires that hazardous
metals released into the environment be remediated to levels which do not pose
an unacceptable risk to human health or the environment; and Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the management of waste
containing metals and metal compounds. To varying degrees, each of these
programs relies on scientific information regarding the metals. For example,
toxicity, bioavailability, bioaccumulation, and environmental fate and transport
are all significant characteristics of metals that should be considered by EPA risk
managers.
The term “speciation” as used by many environmental chemists is poorly defined
it refers to speciation as those aspects of metal chemistry including precipitation
dissolution, adsorption-desorption, and complex formation in relation to pH;
redox conditions; and the content of soluble chelating agents. Identifying a group
of properties or processes that are important for the environmental behaviour of
metals, including volatilization, photolysis, sorption, atmospheric deposition,
acid/base equilibria, polymerization, complexation, electron-transfer reaction,
solubility and precipitation equilibria, microbial transformation, and diffusivity.
For regulatory purposes, a functional definition might be more useful. Speciation
may be defined functionally as those properties of an element that determine its
environmental mobility, persistence, toxicity, bioavailability, bioaccumulation
potential, or characterization as a regulated material.
Metals of Concern
Because of their abundance at contaminated sites and potential toxicity to plants
or animals, the elements of concern are aluminium, antimony, arsenic, barium,
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, strontium, thallium, vanadium, and zinc.
Considering all of these elements to be metals, with the exception of arsenic and
selenium, which are non-metals. Webster’s New World Dictionary (1968)

defines a metal as an element that acts as action in chemical reactions, forms a
base with the hydroxyl radical, and can replace the hydrogen of an acid to form a
salt. Unlike the other elements listed, antimony, arsenic, molybdenum, selenium,
and vanadium generally occur as oxyanions in waters and soils, and not as
cations. These elements are sometimes described as metalloids. Regardless, in
following discussion for simplicity all of the elements listed above are termed
metals.
Natural Occurrence of Metals in the Environment

For reasons that may be unrelated to human activity, many surface and ground
waters contain natural concentrations of metals that exceed the EPA drinking
water standards. Soils can also contain naturally elevated levels of metals. When
a regulatory decision is made to restore affected waters or soils to a presumed
earlier state, it is obviously unrealistic to assign clean-up goals that are below
pre-existent metal levels. It is critically important therefore, to attempt to
distinguish between metal amounts that were naturally present and amounts
added as a result of human activities.
Mean and Median Metal Concentrations

Though metal concentrations in the environment can range widely, it is still
useful to consider their mean and median values in waters and soils and the
Earth’s crust. It is often assumed that species present in water at less than 1
milligram per liter (mg/L) but more than 1 microgram per liter are minor species,
while those present at below 1 mg/L are termed trace species. Based on these
definitions, most of the metals of concern are minor species and some are trace
species, particularly in surface waters which are in general more dilute than soil
or ground waters.
General Sources of Metals Data and Maps

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Geological Survey of the
Department of Interior, and the Department of Energy have all compiled
extensive databases of chemical analyses of various environmental media that are
readily available on CD-ROM or for downloading from the World Wide Web.
EPA’s STORET (STOrage and RETrieval) data system, which can accessed at
contains 200 million water sample observations from about 700,000 sampling
sites for both surface and ground waters. Reported data include stream flow
information and measured concentrations for most of the metals of concern.
There is no requirement that the data in STORET be evaluated using quality
assurance procedures, however. For the data from STORET, or from the other
sources listed below, it is important that prospective users be aware that such
data may or may not have been screened for accuracy. The U.S. Geological
Survey Water Web site provides access to chemical and physical records for 1.5
million sampling sites in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
as part of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA). A stated
goal of NAWQA is “to describe the status and trends in the quality of a large
representative part of the Nation’s surface and ground-water resources and to
identify the natural and human factors that affect their quality.” Available
through the Web site are chemical analyses and physical data for streams, stream
sediments, lakes, springs, and wells that include their metals concentrations. As
part of the NAWQA program, reported on the concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu,
Pb, Hg, Ni, Se, and Zn in 541 streambed samples obtained from across the
conterminous United States. In the analysis it takes into account background and
baseline metal concentrations.
Sources of Metal Pollution

Natural and anthropogenic both the sources are responsible for environmental
pollution which are hazardous to environment. Some of the natural sources
include volcanoes, forest fires; seepage from rocks into water, sea-salt sprays etc.
These are significant but it is human activities that are more responsible for an
increase in the metals into the environment. Some of such activities include:
 Mining: If land is not properly managed during mining, it becomes useless
for other purposes due to high metal levels.
 Fossil-fuel combustion: Metals are emitted during the fossil fuels
combustion. Metal particulates contaminate land by settling onto it.
 Municipal and Industrial waste-water treatment plants are another sources of
metal pollutants to water.
 Metal containing wastes from industries like electroplating, tanneries,
textiles etc disposed of on the land and water are another source of metal
pollution.
 Fertilizers, pesticides, sewage sludge, and animal wastes applied to the soil
also have higher metal concentrations than natural soil levels, thereby
causing metal pollution.
Health Effects of Arsenic Exposure

Arsenic is said to be a ‘slow killer’. The allergy (blisters) on hands and feet are
symptoms of arsenic exposure, which can be even turn into gangrenous and
cancerous level. Its exposure can also attack the internal organs of the body like
the lungs and kidneys, which can result in cancer. Signs of arsenic intoxication
also include nausea, headache and several abdominal pains due to damage to the
gastro-intestinal mucous membranes, violent vomiting and diarrhoea caused by
paralysis of the capillary control in the intestinal tract. Eventually, the
gastrointestinal epithelium may be sloughed off, followed by a decreased blood
volume, decreased blood pressure, disturbed heart action, failure of vital
cardiovascular and brain functions and ultimately death.
Prevention and Control

The pollution caused by heavy metals is critical because it is extremely
expensive and difficult to clean the soil contaminated by it. Traditional
Remediation of Contaminated Soil the metals that contaminate the environment
cannot be easily removed as they do not degrade like organic molecules. But
microorganism can be used to transform mercury and selenium. Traditional
treatments are expensive when the concentration of contaminated soil is large.
Treatments can be done in situ or ex situ. Some of them are:
1. Treatments under high temperature conditions
2. Solidifying agents
3. Washing process
Plants for Environmental Clean-up

It is observed that plants can help in cleaning up of contaminated soil. This
process of removing soil pollutants e.g. pesticides, heavy metals, solvents,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, crude oil and landfill leacheates by plants is known
as phytoremediation. In the recent study in Kuwait, it is seen that Wildflowers

helps in degration of hydrocarbons from an oil spill. Pesticides, ammunition
compounds such as trinitrotoluene (TNT) can be removed by hybrid poplars.
A Solution for Near and Long Term

Before making a capital investment in any chemical production, organizations
must carry out a comprehensive analysis of all potential options, risks, and
strategies. The power and flexibility of the Accelrys platform enable companies
to incorporate all relevant factors into their long-term decisions, including careful
calculations of solubility, toxicity, and breakdown characteristics of the material,
as well as external location factors such as slope, stream flow, and proximity to
wetlands. But the platform can also be deployed for much more tactical decision-
making as well. Real-time data regarding weather, stream levels, soil conditions,
and other factors may drive decisions about which products are manufactured on
a given day, based on the characteristics of the by-products that the
manufacturing process releases into the environment. With the Accelrys
platform, well-informed decisions can be made on an ongoing basis so that plant
capacity is optimized without violating regulatory requirements or suffering
environmental mishaps.
Review of Literature
Sl. Authors Place of work Year Outcomes

No.
1 FX Gamelin et Heart rate 2009 Effect of high intensity
al. variability intermittent training on
heart rate variability in
prepubescent children
2 Poole SK, Poole Separation 2003 Water partition
CF methods for coefficients
estimation octanol
3 Dunnivant FM, Environmental 2002 Laboratory for the
Kettel J chemistry determination of a
distribution coefficient
4 Book South J, Modern genomics 2001 The future of modern
Blass B genomics
5 Brown B, Aaron Politics of nature 2001 The rise of modern

M genomics
6 MM Cooper et al Environmental 2000 Experiments and
chemistry demonstrations
7 Slifka MK, Clinical 2000 Dysregulated cytokine
Whitton JL implications production
8 Wania F Differences, 1999 Modelling of
similarities, and Atmospheric Transport
complementarity and deposition of
of various persistent organic
approaches pollutants and heavy
metals
9 Boethling RS, Property 1998 Property estimation of
Mackay D estimation environmental and health
methods for sciences
chemicals
10 A Finizio et al Determination of 1997 Pesticide critical review
N-octanol/water and comparison of
partition methods
coefficient
11 MG Ondrus Environmental 1996 Experiments and
chemistry demonstrations
12 BF Air-water 1996 An environmental
Ramachandran partitioning of chemistry or integrated
et al environmentally laboratory experiment
important organic
compounds
13 RL Chaney et al Potential effects 1983 Land treatment of
of waste hazardous wastes
constituents on
the food chain
Conclusion
Scientists are worried about the negative effects of toxic chemicals used in the
production of plastic materials on humans and the environment. Adequate
knowledge of the risks is a prerequisite for the use of plastics, and the burden of
proof is passed on to the bidder / producer, to phase out hazardous additives and
monomers used in the plastic industry. All chemicals in a group with similar
properties should be regulated, even if only one substance in this group is defined
as hazardous and very problematic. A high priority should be given to ban
phthalates, which are mainly used in consumer products or products that are in
contact with children. Biphenyl should be banned from using materials that come
in contact with food and drink and children and, in the long term, also in other
consumer products such as receiving heat. Businesses should take responsibility
for reducing unnecessary plastic consumption as it can reduce the exposure of
potentially hazardous chemicals. First of all, it is possible to reduce the
consumption of disposable packaging materials. Plastic recycling needs to be
improved. The recyclable plastic part will increase if there is no hazardous
chemical in the plastic; provide all information on all existing chemical
substances in consumer products.
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19. Smith J, Jones M Jr, Houghton L et al (1999). Future of health insurance. N
Engl J Med 965: 325-329.
20. South J, Blass B (2001). The future of modern genomics. Blackwell,
London.
21. Trent JW (1975). Experimental acute renal failure. Dissertation, University
of California.
22. Wania F (1999). Differences, similarities and complementarity of various
approaches to modelling persistent organic pollutant distribution in the
environment. In: WMO/EMEP/ UNEP Workshop on Modelling of
Atmospheric Transport and Deposition of Persistent Organic Pollutants and
Heavy Metals, Geneva, Switzerland.
Authors:
Mr. K. Ravi Chandra Charyulu is persuing Post Graduation,
Mr. Mukkala Pradeep Kumar is pursuing Post Graduation,

include Mechanization and Research in Farm Machinery.
Dr. Sirisha Adamala is working as Assistant Professor at Vignan’s

Foundation for Science, Technology and Research, Vadlamudi,
Andhra Pradesh. She is the author of about 15 publications in
international journals and 5 in national journals. Her area of
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resources engineering, Soft computing modelling in hydrology,
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CHAPTER - 24
Laccase-Oxidoreductase Enzyme and

It’s Application in Bioremediation
Priyanka Ghosh1, Uma Ghosh1*

1
Food Technology & Biochemical Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata-700032, India.
*corresponding author’s Email: ughoshftbe@yahoo.co.in
Abstract:
Environmental pollution caused by different organochlorine pesticides, toxic
chemicals and dyes has received increasing attention worldwide. The
recalcitrant and persistent nature of these materials leads to severe threat to
numerous aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals, including humans.
Majority of these chemicals reach to non-target organisms or locations through
point or diffuse sources. Traditional methods to cleanup or decontaminate the
soil are expensive, labour intensive, do not always ensure that pollutants are
completely removed or destroyed and often result in abrupt changes to the
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the treated soil. So
understanding conditions for their degradation is therefore important. The field
of bioremediation has experienced a dynamic evolution and remarkable
development over the past decades. Bioremediation is measured as one of the
safer, cleaner, cost operative and environmental friendly innovative technology
that has the potential to alleviate the toxic contamination. The term
bioremediation has been introduced to describe the process of using biological
agents to remove toxic waste from environment. Bioremediation is the most
effective management tool to manage the polluted environment and recover
contaminated soil and water. Numerous bacteria, yeast, fungi, algae and higher
plants are being used as main tools in Bioremediation. A constant search for the
new biological forms is essential to mitigate the increasing pollution and

environmental problems caused by these toxic materials. Use of microorganism
and their enzyme systems have shown promises in remediation of soil
contaminated with heavy metals and radionuclide, organic compounds including
chlorinated solvents like TCE; explosives such as TNT, RDX; petroleum
hydrocarbons including PAHs; PCBs and pesticides such as atrazine and
organophosphates. The review focuses on an overview of bioremediation process
and the roles of microbes and microbial enzymes specially laccase along with
their limitations in treating these types of pollutants present in the environment.
Introduction:
In the current era, the global urbanization, industrialization as well as population
lifestyle have created pressure on the limited natural resources. As a result, due
to various anthropogenic activities, pollution in soil and water has been occurred
and it is a severe problem towards the society. Phenolic compounds play a major
fraction of the pollutants entering the environment every day. This large group of
pollutants are widely expanded throughout the medical, food and environmental
matrices (Daughton, 2016; Tchounwou et al, 2012; Ebele et al, 2017; Raikwar et
al, 2008). Phenolic compounds are gradually applied in the manufacture of
products, including coal conversion, petroleum refining, pharmaceuticals,
production of dyes, pesticides, surfactants, resins, and plastics and thus readily
release into the ground and surface water and soil ( Basha et al, 2010; Roy
Choudhury, 2013; Saha, 2011). In paper and pulp industry, chlorinated phenolic
compounds are produced upon the partial degradation of lignin during pulp
bleaching process, which are among the most abundant recalcitrant wastes found
in the effluents. Poor solubility and biodegradability of these compounds cause
long term ecological damage and highly toxic to our environments (Kalderis et
al., 2011). Intensification of agriculture and expansion of industries also has
resulted in increased release of a wide range of xenobiotics. These contaminants
render harm to humans, livestock, wildlife, crops, or native plants causing
ecological problems leading to imbalance in nature. Diverse physical, chemical
and thermal approaches have employed to remove different contaminants from
the environment. But unfortunately, those methods are expensive, labour
intensive, do not always ensure the pollutants are completely removed or
destroyed. To treat these xenobiotic compounds, currently specialized
biotechnological applications called bioremediation is being carried out at
ambient temperature and pressure with less energy requirements than the
conventional physico-chemical treatment technology. Bioremediation is an
option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various
contaminants using natural biological activity. Bioremediation is defined as the
process by which microorganisms are stimulated to rapidly degrade hazardous
organic pollutants present in soils, sediments, substances, materials and ground
water and to mitigate toxic heavy metals, by altering them into elements with
little or no toxicity, henceforth forming innocuous products (Gupta et al,2016;
Ojuederie and Babalola, 2017). This process for the treatment for hazardous
waste under controlled environmental conditions have been found cost–effective
by means of reducing the pollution potential of waste water, leading to enhanced
public acceptance and compliance with environmental legislation (Fulekar,
2009). Environmental pollution such as contaminated soil or surface/ground
water can be solved by bioremediation by use of biological living organisms and
green plants. The microorganisms with the genetic capacity to transform
compounds of interest must be present in the contaminant to occur in a
bioremediation process. Two important approaches, namely bio-stimulation and
bio augmentation are globally adapted for this purpose. In bio-stimulation,
nutrients are added in order at the polluted site, which encourage the growth of
indigenous microorganisms. As a consequence, the rate of in situ
biodegradation/bioremediation can be amplified. In bio augmentation process,
selective or genetically modified microorganisms are added in places where there
is an inadequacy of indigenous microorganisms or they fail to compete.
Bioremediation offers the possibility of degrading, removing, altering,
immobilising, or otherwise detoxifying various chemicals from the environment
through the action of bacteria (Gkorezis et al, 2016 ), fungi (Deshmukh et al,
2016; Hossain and Ismail, 2015) and plants (Gkorezis et al, 2016; Coleman et al,
1997; Kumar et al, 2017). Contaminated compounds are transferred by
microorganisms through reactions that take place as a part of their metabolic
processes. They enzymatically attack these organic chemicals and helps in the
biotransformation. Presence of the contaminants in the environment either
induces or depresses the enzymatic function of microorganisms. This induction
or depression largely depends upon the selective microbial community as well as
on the structural and functional groups of toxic compounds. Biodegradation of a
compound is not the function of only one type of microorganism, but often a
result of the actions of microbial consortia. Today, metabolic pathways for the
degradation of compounds previously considered as non-degradable have been
identified. Laboratory and field techniques for assessing the applicability of

biological processes for the degradation of the pollutants that are present at
specific sites have become available (Kumar et al, 2011; Azubuike et al, 2016).
Basically bioremediation process is very slow process. Only certain species of
bacteria and fungi have proven their ability as potent pollutant degraders. Many
of them are effective only under laboratory conditions. Although microorganisms
can exist in extreme environments, during bioremediation process, microbial
growth can be hindered due to the change in pH, temperature, oxygen, structure
of the soil, appropriate moisture and nutrients level and presence of other toxic
compounds. Many fungal species like Trametes versicolor, Coriolopsis gallica,
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatus are considered to be suitable
for the removal of chlorinated phenolic compounds from the contaminated
environments. The detoxification of toxic organic compounds is generally
achieved by the mutual action of several extracellular enzymes like
monooxygenases, dioxygenases, laccases, lignin peroxidases and manganese
proxidases which are released from fungal mycelium into their nearby
environment. Among these, laccases play crucial roles in the bioremediation
processes. The oxidoreductases producing microorganisms extract energy via
energy yielding biochemical reactions mediated by these enzymes to cleave
chemical bonds and to assist the transfer of electrons from a reduced organic
substrate to another chemical compound. Due to such oxidation-reduction
reactions, the toxic contaminants are finally oxidized to harmless compounds.
During decomposition of lignin in soil environment, various phenolic substances
are produced which are humified by the action of microbial laccase. In the same
way, laccase can detoxify toxic xenobiotics, such as phenolic or anilinic
compounds, through polymerization, copolymerization with other substrates, or
binding to humic substances.
Laccase:
Laccase (benzenediol: oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.10.3.2) is a multi-copper-
containing phenol oxidase enzyme which performs one-electron oxidation of
various electron-rich substrates such as ortho and paradiphenols, methoxy-
substituted monophenols, aminophenols, polyphenols, as well as non-phenolic
aromatic and aliphatic amines to form radicals with a concomitant reduction of
molecular oxygen to water through a radical catalyzed reaction mechanism. In
the nineteenth century, Yoshida (1883) first discovered laccases after observing
that latex from the Japanese lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera) hardened in the
presence of air ( Fu et al, 2012; Strong and Claus, 2011). Since then, laccase
activity has been found in different prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Although
laccases are present in higher plants, fungi, bacteria, and insects, the most studied
group of enzymes is from fungal origin. Over 60 fungal strains belonging to
Ascomycetes, Deuteromycetes and especially Basidiomycetes show laccase
activities. Among the latter group, white-rot basidiomycetes such as Trametes
versicolor, T. villosa, T. hirsuta, T. ochracea, T. gallica, Phlebia radiata,
Coriolopsis polyzona, Lentinus edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Coprinus cinereus,
Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, etc., are most frequently described and reported as
laccase producer. The white-rot fungi are a physiological group of those fungi
that are capable of degrade lignin extensively within lignocellulosic substrates
and the lignin removal results in a bleached appearance to the substrate. Besides
oxidizing phenolic and methoxyphenolic acids, laccases also decarboxylate them
and help in demethylation process. Laccases are involved in the
depolymerization of lignin, as a results variety of phenols are formed. These
phenolic compounds are utilized as nutrients for microorganisms or
repolymerized to humic materials by laccase. Laccases are typically monomeric
extracellular enzymes which contain four copper atoms in their active site, which
mediate the redox process. These copper atoms are classified in three groups
namely type 1 (T1) or blue copper center, type 2 (T2) or normal copper, and type
3 (T3) or coupled binuclear copper centers according to their magnetic and
spectroscopic properties. Type 1 copper, coordinated with one cysteine, one
methionine, and two histidine molecules, contributes to the greenish-blue colour
of laccase its oxidized resting state with a strong electron adsorption at 600 nm.
It is responsible for the oxidation of the reducing substrate and redox potential of
laccase. The trinuclear cluster (containing one Cu T2 and two Cu T3) is located
approx. 12 Å away from the T1 site. This tri-nuclear center catalyzes the fixation
and it is the place where molecular oxygen is reduced to water. Type 2 copper is
colorless with no absorption in the visible spectrum and it coordinates with two
histidines and a water molecule. Each type 3 copper atom is attached with three
histidines as ligands, with anti-ferromagnetic coupling and a hydroxyl bridge
between the copper pair which shows a weak UV absorbance at 330nm (Piontek
et al., 2002).The hydrogen bonding and salt bridges that exist between the copper
atoms are the major influencing factors for laccase stability. Since laccases
catalyze one-electron substrate oxidation coupled to the four-electron transfer,
via the type 1 copper to the tri-nuclear center with oxygen as the final electron
acceptor represents one catalytic cycle of substrate oxidation and oxygen

reduction. Laccases have relatively low redox potentials (0.45- 0.80 V), so it was
initially thought that laccases were only able to oxidise phenolic substrates
(Morozova, 2007). However, The combination of the laccase with low molecular
weight molecules such as 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline- 6-sulphonic
acid) (ABTS) or 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) not only oxidise phenolic
substrates but also add new oxidative reactions to the laccase towards substrates
in which the enzyme alone had no or only marginal activity. These low-
molecular weight compounds, called redox mediators are easily oxidised by
laccases, in some cases, very unstable and reactive cationic radicals, which can
oxidise more complex substrates before returning to their original state. The
electrons taken by laccases are finally transferred back to oxygen to form water.
Laccases occur as monomeric and polymeric glycoproteins, with most fungal
laccases being reported as monomers, dimers, or tetramers. The molecular mass
of a monomeric laccase is typically in the range 60–110 kDa with 10–50%
glycosylation. The high carbohydrate content in the protein molecule exerts
thermostability to laccases. In addition, glycosylation impacts enzyme secretion
and activity. Laccases are known to occur in multiple isoenzyme forms each of
which is encoded by a separate gene (Giardina et al, 1995), and in, some cases,
the genes have been expressed differently depending upon the nature of the
inducer. Among the biological agents, laccases represent an interesting group of
ubiquitous, oxidoreductase enzymes which exhibit an extraordinary natural
substrate range which is the major reason for their attractiveness for
biotechnological and bioremediation applications.
Bioremediation:
Today, biotechnology is being considered as emerging science for environmental
protection. Bioremediation refers to the use of microbial consortia or microbial
processes to degrade and detoxify environmental contaminants that pose
environmental and human risks. Biotechnological innovations for treatment for
hazardous waste under controlled environmental conditions have been found
cost–effective means of reducing the pollution potential of waste water, leading
to enhanced public acceptance and compliance with environmental legislation
(Fulekar, 2010). This is a new and fast growing promising technique increasingly
being studied and applied in practical use for pollutant clean-up.
Bioremediation uses biological agents, mainly microorganisms to clean up
contaminated soil and water. This technology relies on promoting the growth of
specific microflora or microbial consortia that are indigenous to the contaminated
sites that are able to perform desired activities (Agarwal, 1998). Establishment of
such microbial consortia can be done in several ways e.g. by promoting growth
through addition of nutrients, by adding terminal electron acceptor or by
controlling moisture and temperature conditions. Different microbes like
Acinethobacter, Actinobacter, Acaligenes, Arthrobacter, Bacillins, Berijerinckia,
Flavobacterium, Methylosinus, Mycrobacterium, Mycococcus, Nitrosomonas,
Nocardia, Penicillium, Phanerochaete, Pseudomonas, Rhizoctomia, Serratio,
Trametes, Xanthofacter, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium have
often been reported to degrade pesticides alkanes and polyaromatic compounds.
Many of them use the contaminant as the sole source of carbon and energy.
Methylotrophs are aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and
energy. Individually microorganisms cannot mineralize most hazardous
compounds. Complete mineralization results in a sequential degradation by a
microbial consortium which involves synergism and co metabolism actions.
Natural microbial communities in various habitats are able to metabolize and
often mineralize an enormous number of organic molecules. Most
bioremediation systems are run under aerobic conditions, but anaerobic
conditions may permit microbial organisms to degrade otherwise recalcitrant
molecules (Lewis et al., 2004). Bioremediation techniques have been used for
decontamination of surface and subsurface soils, contaminated land ecosystems,
freshwater groundwater and marine systems. However, the bioremediation
technologies were initially developed to immobilize petroleum hydrocarbon
contamination or to transform them to chemical products no longer hazardous to
human health and the environment.
Intrinsic bioremediation, utilizing existing microbial communities, is often the
most cost effective method available for land decontamination; sometimes
indigenous microbial activity can be enough to clean the soil effectively. Often,
bioremediation can be done on site, thereby eliminating transportation costs and
liabilities. The microorganisms capable of utilizing or surviving toxic
contamination can serve as the predominant communities in the soil ecosystem.
Soil remediation in association with microbes has reduced the established
technologies of excavation followed by either incineration or landfilling. Finally,
bioremediation can be coupled (i.e., integrated) with other treatment technologies
into a treatment chain allowing for the treatment of mixed and complex wastes
(Goel et al. 2010; McMahon et al. 2008). Beside numerous advantages,
bioremediation also has its limitations and disadvantages. Highly chlorinated

compounds and heavy metals are not readily accessible to biological degradation
and stabilization. Sometimes microbial degradation may lead to the production of
more toxic or mobile substances than the parent compound(s). For example,
under anaerobic conditions, TCE undergoes a series of microbiologically
mediated reactions resulting in the sequential removal of chlorine atoms from the
molecule and finally vinyl chloride is formed which is known as a potent
carcinogen. Thus, without a proper understanding of the microbial processes
involved and the metabolic and chemical pathways, it could actually lead to a
worse situation than already exists in some cases. Further, there is also the need
for extensive monitoring of the site during implementation of bioremediation to
assess the effectiveness of the technique in its clean-up performance. Several
remediation techniques have been reported during the past two decades, but very
few of them have been accepted by some industries. Certain perilous compounds,
such as pentachlorophenols (PCP), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl) ethane
(DDT), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) as well as
trinitrotoluene (TNT), are persistent in the environment and known to have
carcinogenic and/or mutagenic effects.
PAH degradation
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are benzene homologues formed from
the fusion of four or more benzene rings. These ubiquitous compounds present
huge problems of toxicity and persistence in the environment. A considerable
number of PAH have arisen from natural oil deposits and vegetation
decomposition, in addition to considerable anthropogenic production during the
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, wood burning, vehicular transport, runoff
from bitumen roads, waste incineration, and industrial processes. There have
been many studies on the biodegradation of various aromatic hydrocarbons, but
their low water solubility and subsequent low degradation rates interrupt the
bioremediation of PHA polluted environments. Therefore, the knowledge of
microorganisms having high PAH degrading capabilities is essential for the
efficient remediation of PAH contamination. There is substantial and conclusive
evidence that ligninolytic enzymes are involved in PAH mineralization by white-
rot fungi. Significantly, the white-rot fungi are the only organisms capable of
significant PAH mineralization. They produce extracellular laccase enzyme,
which oxidizes PAHs to corresponding PAH quinones, and subsequently

degrades the material further to CO2. Purified Lac from Trametes versicolor has
been shown to oxidize a range of 3–5 ring PAH in the presence of the chemical
mediators HBT and ABTS. A similar PAH substrate range was found for
purified Lac of Coriolopsis gallica (Pickard et al. 1999). Several taxa, including
P. chrysosporium, Pleurotus sp. and Trametes versicolor are notable for their
significant PAH-mineralizing capabilities. Extracellular preparations of LiP from
P. chrysosporium were among the first to be shown as capable of PAH oxidation
(Haemmerli et al. 1986, Bumpus 1989). More recently, the purified LiP of
Nematoloma forwardii has been shown to oxidize anthracene and pyrene. LiP-
mediated PAH metabolism is thought to occur via an one-electron oxidation to
yield quinone products. The purified MnP of P. chrysosporium has been shown
to oxidize twelve 3–6 ring PAH (Bogan and Lamar 1995) but PAH
transformation by MnP has been shown to be limited by Mn2+ availability.
Further evidence of lipid-peroxidation-coupled MnP-mediated PAH oxidation
was observed for Phanerochaete laevis, which produced predominantly polar
products, with no significant quinone accumulation (Bogan and Lamar 1996).
Polychlorinated biphenyls
A wide variety of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and pentachlorophenols
(PCP) are of environmental concern due to their toxicity and slow and partial
biodegradation under aerobic (e.g. activated sludge process, fluidized bed
bioreactors, aerobic lagoons) as well as anaerobic conditions (e.g. upflow
anaerobic sludge blanket, fluidized bed). With the increase in number of chlorine
substituents on the phenolic ring, the recalcitrance of these compounds increases
while the position of the chlorine substituents affects the biodegradability
(Kulkarni and Chaudhari 2007). Polychlorinated biphenyls have a variety of
industrial uses including voltage regulators, switches, re-closers, bushings, and
electromagnets, dielectric fluids, flame retardants, heat-transfer fluids, hydraulic
fluids, organic diluents, plasticizers and solvent extenders. PCBs have been
demonstrated to exert adverse health effects, which include cancer in animals,
effects on the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, endocrine
system and other health effects. However, limited research has been done on
biodegradation of PCBs and related compounds. Alleman et al. (1992, 1995)
found T. versicolor to be the best choice for degrading PCP in fungal biofilm
reactors (rotating tube bioreactors). Pallerla and Chambers (1998) also found
polyurethane-immobilized T. versicolor intracellularly degraded more than 99%

PCP after 12 hours. Hydroxypolychlorinated biphenyls (hydroxy-PCBs) are toxic
metabolites of PCBs. Aerobic bacteria are known to attack less-chlorinated (1–6
Cl substitutions) congeners via a dioxygenase, although more highly chlorinated
congeners are not transformed. The tetra- to hexa-chloro hydroxyl-PCBs were
only degraded by laccase in the presence of the mediator 2,2,6,6-
tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxy radical (Keum and Li, 2004). Numerous studies
have shown that white-rot fungi including Coriolopsis polyzona, P.
chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Trametes versicolor are all capable of
significant PCB removal in vivo. Studies using 14C-radiolabeled PCBs show
that Coriolopsis polyzona (Vyas et al. 1994), P. chrysosporium (Dietrich et al.
1995), and Trametes versicolor (Beaudette et al. 2000) are capable of
mineralizing PCBs. The ability to transform PCBs has also been recorded for
some non-ligninolytic taxa including ectomycorrhizal and mitosporic fungi
(Meharg et al., 1997).
Dye degradation
The textile industry accounts for two-thirds of the total dyestuff market and
consumes large volumes of water and chemicals for wet processing of textiles.
Synthetic dyes are chemically diverse, with those commonly used in industry
divided into those of azo, triphenylmethane or heterocyclic/polymeric structure.
The effluent contains different recalcitrant aromatic amines with diverse
chemical composition which are toxic or carcinogenic intermediates. Poots et al.
(1976) reported that commercially there are about 1,00,000 available dyes with
over 7× 105 tonnes of dyestuff produced annually. Synthetic dyes share a
common feature in that they are usually resistant on exposure to light, water and
also to various chemicals due to their complex chemical structure, and most of
them are not readily biodegradable; when discharged to the environment they are
therefore persistent and many are also toxic. Laccase and related enzymes in this
field have received particular attention because of its ability to catalyze the
oxidation of a wide spectrum of pollutants. Lignin peroxidase and manganese
peroxidase (MnP) from P. chrysosporium are traditionally being used for dye
decolourization. Recently laccase are being used for dye degradation. White-rot
fungi have been shown as superior dye decolorizers, particularly in comparison
to prokaryotes which are generally poor or non-decolorizers. Crude enzyme
obtained from various white-rot fungi including Phlebia sp have been effectively
employed for bio-decolorization of several synthetic and industrial dyes. Two

Lac isoenzymes purified from Trametes hispida were able to catalyze
decolorization of several synthetic dyes (Rodriguez et al. 1999). LiP of P.
chrysosporium has been shown to decolorize azo, triphenylmethane, and
heterocyclic dyes in the presence of veratryl alcohol and H2O2. Laccase from G.
lucidum was able to successfully transform Malachite green (Murugesan et al,
2009). Laccase has been reported to prevent back staining of dyed or printed
textiles. Laccase could quickly bleach released dye stuff, thus resulting in the
reduction of processing time, energy, and water needed to achieve satisfactory
quality of the textile. Replacing conventional chemical oxidants (e.g.,
hypochlorite), a laccase-based system has been shown to be capable of bleaching
indigo dye in denim and achieving various bleached appearances on the fabric.
Laccases potential of acting on chromophore compounds such as azo,
anthraquinone, heterocyclic, indigo dyes, polymeric dyes, remazol brilliant blue
R, triarylmethane and triphenylmethane leads to the suggestion that they can be a
valid alternative in industrial decolourization processes.
Herbicides and pesticides degradation

Phenyl-urea-based herbicides, which are commonly used for control of grasses
and weeds, are potential pollutants of soil and cause oxidation reactions like N-
dealkylation, aryl, or ring substituent hydroxylation in soil, plant, as well as
microbial systems. Isoxaflutole is an herbicide which forms diketonitrile
derivative, the active form of the herbicide. Mougin et al. (2000) found that
laccase enzymes from P. chrysosporium and T. versicolor were able to convert
the diketonitrile derivative to less active benzoic acid analogue in liquid cultures.
White-rot fungus T. versicolor was able to transform the herbicide N,N′-
dimethyl- N-(hydroxyphenyl) urea into less active insoluble purple phenolic
compounds, p-benzoquinone. Another herbicide, 2,4,6-trichlorophenyl p-
nitrophenyl can be degraded by white-rot fungus Phlebia brevispora. Khadrani et
al. (1999) found Bjerkandera adusta to degrade different herbicides like
chlortoluron, isoproturon, and diuron. Pesticides are the chemicals introduced
directly into the environment, which are intentionally made to be toxic and are
extremely resistant to biodegradation by native micro-organisms. Very small
amount of pesticides reach the target organism while the rest runs off into water
or dissipates in the soil or air. Organochlorine insecticides such as 1,1,1-
trichloro-2,2- bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT), lindane, and the aldrins (aldrin,
dieldrin, endosulfan) have been manufactured and applied in vast quantities since
the 1940s. Organochlorine herbicides such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
(2,4-D), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), and 2-methyl-4,6-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) have also been widely used. Exposure to
organochlorines, among many others pesticides, has toxic effects on human
health such as eye or skin irritation, and allergic sensitization, chronic immune
suppression, disruption of endocrine hormone physiology or reproductive
abnormalities. At cellular scale, nuclear abnormalities, induction of pro-apoptotic
signaling, high mutagenic rates and overall decrease of cellular proliferation have
been reported after pesticide exposure. Other classes of pesticide, including
organophosphorous, methylcarbamate, and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides that
were developed to replace organochlorines also present problems of toxicity and
persistence. Zhao et al (2010) reduced the concentration of
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in soils using laccase from white rot
fungi. It has been reported that P. chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatus, Phellinus
weirii, and Polyporus versicolor were able to mineralize 14C-radiolabeled DDT,
dicofol, methoxychlor, chloropyrifos, fonofos, and terbufos over 15-30 days
under ligninolytic growth conditions. Furthermore, fungal laccases have been
used as potential degraders of chlorophen (CP) and dichlorophen (DCP) in water.
Ahn et al., (2002) reported marked reduction in toxicity of chlorophen (oxCP)
and dichlorophen (oxDCP) sub-products, when oxidized by laccase. Jolivalt et al
(2006) reported that laccase from Trametes versicolor oxidized
Hydroxyphenylurea to quinones or polyaromatic oligomer under sightly acidic
conditions. The chlorinated triazine herbicide 2-chloro-4-ethylamine-6-
isopropylamino- 1,3,4-triazine (atrazine) is recalcitrant in the environment,
although the white-rot fungi P. chrysosporium and Pleurotus pulmonarius have
both been demonstrated to transform atrazine, yielding hydroxylated and N-
dealkylated metabolites.
Bleach-plant effluent
Currently pulp bleaching for the production of high-quality paper relays on
chlorine based bleaching process to remove color associated with the 5–10%
residual lignin. As a result, large volumes of toxic, low molecular mass,
chlorinated aliphatic and aromatic compounds are released into the environment
from bleach-plants. These include chlorolignins, chloro-phenols, chloro-
guaiacols, chloro-catechols, and chloro-aliphatics that could be carcinogenic,
mutagenic and toxic. In the recent years, intensive studies have been performed
to develop enzymatic, environmentally benign, bleaching technologies. Laccases
can depolymerize lignin and delignify wood pulps. Firstly laccase acts on small
phenolic lignin fragments that react with the lignin polymer, and which then
results into its degradation. Moreover, pretreatment of wood chips with
ligninolytic fungi increases the pulp strength while energy requirement for
mechanical pulping is decreased. White-rot fungi have been reported to
mineralize halogenated organic compounds which offer exciting prospects for
oxidative bioremediation treatments. Oxidative demethylation and dechlorination
of bleach-plant effluent, with associated decolorization, has been demonstrated
for P. chrysosporium (Singhal et al., 2005). Different studies have showed that
MnP was responsible for most decolorizing activity, with minor involvement of
LiP. High decolorization efficiencies by Lac of Trametes versicolor have also
been demonstrated (Blánquez et al.,2004).
Waste Effluent Treatment

Phenol and related phenolics are the common aromatic xenobiotics and
pollutants abundant in industrial wastewater of industries like steel, metals, high
temperature coal conversion, petroleum refining, plastic, resin, pulp, paper,
wood, agrochemicals, dye industries, pharmaceuticals, alcohol distilleries, etc.
and are mostly responsible for imparting colour to the wastewater and toxicity to
mammals and fishes. Concentrations of these pollutants generally lie between
100 and 1,000 mg l-1 (Faust and Aly 1983). These compounds are able to induce
severe toxicity and health hazards which includes renal diseases, cardiac
arrhythmias, skin cancer and even death, whenever they enter into living body
system (Adeyemi et al. 2009). Different physical, chemical and biological
methods have been useful for the removal of such toxic contaminants from
industrial wastewater. Recently applied physical method includes quick sorption
on the activated sludge, adsorption by carbon blacks, powdered activated carbon
and pyrolysed rice husk etc. Pulsed high-voltage discharge system is also is in
practice to remove organic contaminants. Among chemical method, Photo-
Fenton reaction for the removal of natural or synthetic aromatic compounds and
solvent-impregnated resin system for the removal of phenols and thiophenols
from water are significant. In spite of applicability, these conventional treatment
methods are expensive, so alternative biotreatment processes are now being
considered. Biodegradation of phenol mainly includes Phytoremediation and
Microbiological removal process. In phytoremediation, plant and some plant

associating bacteria (symbiotic and asymbiotic) involve in the biodegradation of
phenols from contaminated wastewater or industrial leachate. Algae are also
reported to have phenol degrading activity. Microbial removal is another
biological approach towards bioremediation of phenolic contaminants of
industrial wastewater and effluent. White-rot fungi that produce lignin-degrading
enzymes are reported to be the most efficient in detoxification and decolorization
of such effluents (Aggelis et al, 2002). Laccase and peroxidase mediated
bioremediation processes include oxidization of phenolics to aryl-oxy radical
insoluble complexes, polymerization among pollutants themselves or
copolymerization with other nontoxic substances such as humic materials, thus
enabling easy removal by means as adsorption, sedimentation, or filtration
(Bollag and Myers, 1992).
Laccase mediator system was also successfully applied in the treatment of paper
mill effluent (Camarero et al, 2004) and detoxification of olive mill residue and
its wastewater effluents (Jaouani et al, 2005). Immobilized laccase onto the
surface of silica nanoparticles has been successfully used for the removal of
recalcitrant pollutants or micropollutants like endocrine disrupting chemicals
from wastewater in bioreactor.
TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) degradation

2,4,6 trinitrotoluene (TNT) is one of the most widely used highly energetic
polynitroorganic compounds in the 20th century. Presently, groundwater and soil
contamination by explosives is a global problem that started after World War I.
Since TNT shows high toxicity and mutagenicity, degradation of TNT is very
important to environmental safety. Several processes like incineration,
composting, chemical oxidation, and adsorption have been evaluated for treating
TNT-contaminated soil, but they have shown certain limitations. Incineration is a
widely used process, but it is an expensive method due to costs associated with
soil excavation, transport and energy incineration. Composting has been found
less efficient because it requires large amounts of compost materials to treat
about 10% wastes. Therefore, recent research has focused on biotreatment
process, which is less expensive alternative process. Although TNT is persistent
in the environment, it is susceptible to microbial attack. For the last several years,
many researchers have devoted their efforts on microbial metabolization and
mineralization of TNT by means of different genera of aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria and fungi of various taxonomic groups (Chien et al., 2014). Oxidative
enzymes from bacterial species like Pseudomonas, Bacillus cereuses, Salmonella
typhimurium, Clavibacter agropyi, Achromobacter and fungal species belonging
to Agaricus aestivalis, Agrocybe praecox, Clitocybeodora, Phanerochaete
chrysosporium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma etc. have
shown their potential role in biodegradation of TNT-contaminated soil and
aquatic sediments (Nyanhongo et al., 2006, Khan et al., 2013). TNT itself is not a
substrate for the oxidative enzymes. Claus, 2007 has reported that nitroreductases
and laccases are the main types of enzymes involved in TNT transformation
catalyzing the initial and secondary TNT transformation respectively. After
conversion by nitroreductases, the reduced metabolites, like
aminodinitrotoluenes (ADNT), azoxy-compounds and diaminonitrotoluenes are
formed which are efficiently oxidized by laccase to polymeric products. Wang et
al. (2002) reported that laccase from Trametes villosa efficiently transformed 4-
ADNT and TNT in the presence of catechol. Hodgson et al. (2000) reported that
addition of the Tween-80 to ligninolytic cultures of P. chrysosporium enhanced
two-fold TNT mineralization.
Conclusion:
The present review focused on i) the extent of toxicity of different pollutants like
pentachlorophenols (PCP), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT),
benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) as well as trinitrotoluene
(TNT) in soil and aquatic environments ii) the microbial bioremediation
technologies in use, iii) bioremediation and biotransformation of these toxic
materials to less harmful end products by means of microbial enzymes specially
laccase and (iv) the challenges encountered during the bioremediation process.
For the purpose of biodegradation and biotransformation of waste pollutants,
laccase should have broad substrate specificity with high redox potential, high
enzyme activity and stability, high tolerance to inactivation by radicals, organic
solvents, should be able to work with a large number of mediators, broad pH and
temperature optima and low production costs. Although different enzymes with
improved and novel properties have been obtained, at present there is no such
laccase that fulfils all above criteria. Strategies for further improvements of
laccase may include generic engineering and cloning in suitable heterologous
hosts for enzyme overproduction, protein engineering to enhance enzyme
kinetics and substrate binding, and directed evolution to improve enzyme activity
and stability, etc. To overcome this problem, different strategies like generic
engineering, enzyme overproduction by cloning in suitable hosts, protein
engineering etc. are recently being used. However, still more and more research
is required to attain the best achievable in situ bioremediation practices and to
explore appropriate technologies to address the concerns that still exist and to
completely eradicate this recalcitrant.
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CHAPTER - 25
Smart City and Sustainability
R K Jena
Institute of Management Technology,
Nagpur, India
Abstract
The smart city is a complex ecosystem of people, processes, policies, technology
and other enablers working together to deliver a set of outcomes. Successful and
sustainable smart cities take a programmatic approach to engage its stakeholders
across the ecosystem. Now-a-days environmental change due to global warming
is affecting cities and their inhabitants more regularly. This brings new challenges
for smart city planners, such as the need to improve air and water quality, control
noise pollution, transport management, and waste management etc to create a
healthy and enjoyable environment for city inhabitants. This chapter discusses
different measures require to make smart city environment friendly and
sustainable.
Key-words: Smart City, Sustainability, waste management, Transport
management, Noise Control
1. Introduction
The concept of smart city is relatively new and can be seen as a successor of
information city, digital city and sustainable city (Yigitcanlar 2006). Despite the
discussion about its concept in recent years, there is a lack of consensus on what a
smart city is (Angelidou 2015; Hortz 2016). Although a number of authors have
the difficulty of conceptualization the smart city definition, these definitions are
not contradictory but partially overlapping (Scheel and Rivera 2013; Cocchia
2014). In general, however, it is understood that smart cities make use of
information and communication technology (ICT) extensively to help cities to

build their competitive advantages (Caragliu et al. 2011), or that it is a conceptual
model where urban development is achieved through the use of human, collective
and technological capital (Angelidou 2014). The term smart city is, therefore, an
umbrella concept that contains a number of sub-themes such as smart urbanism,
smart economy, sustainable and smart environment, smart technology, smart
energy, smart mobility, smart health, and so on (Gudes et al. 2010; Cocchia 2014;
Lara et al. 2016).
In other words, a smart city is one where capital, resources and knowledge are
managed in a wise manner, with a focus on innovation, sustainability, efficiency
and quality of life. This requires a clear vision and long term planning with
innovative, practical and effective approaches. Smart city needs to forge the way
towards socially inclusive communities with a low ecological footprint. People
within smart cities will enjoy a quality of life in a clean, green living environment
where public and open spaces are pristine and waterways and water features
including natural/artificial lakes, wetlands, ponds and rivers are lifestyle
attractions for all. This definition of “smart city sustainability” overlooks key
facets of a city’s ecological footprint (such as food systems, resource consumption,
production related greenhouse gas emissions, air quality, and the urban heat island
effect). It also ignores the ability of non-state actors to contribute meaningfully to
the design and implementation of urban policies and programs. But that doesn’t
need not be the case. In fact, if employed properly, new technologies seem like
ideal tools to address some of smart city sustainability’s most persistent
challenges.
The smart cities will demarcate themselves by their individual signature. They
need to be futuristic but sustainable in all dimensions. The thrust of the smart city
will be to:
 Enhance and valorize the intrinsic environmental asset of the area such as
lake/river/wetland/forests amongst others and use it as a center of
attraction within the master plan;
 Promote socially inclusive development around the valorized asset which
may become a vibrant focal point for communities enjoyment of the area
through recreational, sports, open air, social, cultural and entertainment
activities;
 Develop each smart city around a specific theme for it to have its own
identity and character that will valorize the environmental assets of the
area (forest, natural park, beach, mountain, wind, viewpoint);

 Create working, living and leisure space that will be environment-friendly
and socially inclusive;
 Promote environmental ethics, code and conduct for citizens to have a
green culture and attitude;
 Promote people enjoyment and appreciation of a pleasant, clean living
environment free from any pollution and nuisances such as odor, noise,
dust, pests, stray dogs, eyesores, litters and bare lands;
 Generate its own resources in terms of energy and water;
 Promote storm water harvesting and storage into natural or artificial
lakes/wetlands/reservoirs/ponds. As a water conservation measure to
reduce pressures on our surface and groundwater resources. Capitalize on
rainwater harvesting for the creation of landscape architectural water
features to further enhance the Centre of attraction and/or focal point
within the master plan for communities’ enjoyment;
 Create and maintain continuous green belts with parks and endemic
gardens/open spaces to promote biodiversity corridors with health and/or
the art connectivity;

 Promote energy conservation in buildings in a way so as to protect the
environment and be more sustainable;
 Promote smart, modern and sustainable mobility and reduce traffic
congestion across the city;
 Adopt sustainable lifestyles and sustainable consumption patterns through
waste minimization, composting, rooftop rainwater harvesting and
modern communication technologies. Integrate people of all social fabrics
including those within the surrounding areas through job creation
 Consider green agriculture and organic farming.

Based on the above underline guidelines/features, since the early 2000s, many
cities around the world have undertaken initiatives to position themselves as
"smart cities". Indeed, in the era of globalization and postmodernism, the smart
city concept is well recognized as a means to increase the attractiveness of cities
and the quality of life of citizens (Boes et al., 2015). In their efforts to engage in
this initiative, cities generally seek to promote a dynamic of innovation that drives
the development of products and the delivery of services through technology.
Indeed, some researchers consider the emergence of innovation to be highly

dependent on the type of organizational dynamics at play (Enz & Siguaw, 2003;
Jones, 1996). It appears, then, that the main challenge for smart cities today is to
develop and implement models of collaboration between the different
stakeholders. This challenge involves mediating between many actors, including
those who are in competition against each other, in order to arrive at an
organizational culture that represents the common interest as much as possible.
This challenge also calls on the stakeholders of a smart city to think of new ways
of collaborating.
On the other hand, since its early days, the discourse around “smart cities” has
included environmental sustainability as one of its core principles. The application
of new digital technologies to urban spaces and processes is celebrated for its
ability to increase the well-being of citizens while reducing their environmental
impacts. But this engagement with sustainability has been limited to a technocratic
focus on energy systems, building efficiency, and transportation. It has also
privileged top-down interventions by local government actors. For all its novelty,
the smart cities discussion is operating with a vision of urban sustainability that
dates from the 1990s, and an approach to planning from the 1950s.
2. The Smart City Ecosystem Framework

Figure -1 shows framework for a smart city ecosystem (Benson Chan and Renil
Paramel ,2017). A vibrant and sustainable city is an ecosystem comprised of
people, organizations and businesses, policies, laws and processes integrated
together to create the desired outcomes shown in Figure 1. This city is adaptive,
responsive and always relevant to all those who live, work in and visit the city. A
smart city integrates technology to accelerate, facilitate, and transform this
ecosystem.
Figure-1. The smart city ecosystem framework.
3. Smart City Sustainability Parameters

The effective implementation of the smart cities requires an integrated and
interdisciplinary approach to sustainable development. To ensure a low carbon, a
low water and low ecological footprint with infrastructure designed to adapt to the
present and future impacts of climate change, developers need to consider the
following at the very design and planning stage of the project:
1. Green Buildings and Energy Conservation
2. Disaster Risk Reduction
3. Water efficiency, re-use and recycling
4. Waste Management
5. Sustainable Transport
6. Greening and Biodiversity
3.1 Green Buildings and Energy Conservation

The main objective is to minimize use of fossil fuels and decrease CO2 emissions.
Sustainable buildings have the highest contribution towards lowering GHG
emission. With buildings being responsible for 40% of our carbon emissions,
promoting sustainable buildings is a central challenge in meeting climate change
targets.
In order to encourage the use of renewable energy within a Smart City, the
following measures can be adopted:
 Buildings must be fitted with solar water heating system.
 Solar panels and/or photo-voltaic panels may be encouraged for
residential and commercial areas, bus stop, traffic light,
advertisement/road signage and street lighting.
 Renewable energy systems may be installed on various parts of buildings
including the roof, walls and windows to ensure that it does not affect the
townscape and aesthetic value of the building.
3.2 Disaster Risk Reduction

The main objective is to ensure that sites and developments take into consideration
the cyclone and flood risk and appropriate measures to mitigate the risk of flooding
on adjacent areas of land and all areas lower down or higher up the watershed. The
risk of flash flooding may be taken into account in drainage arrangements for
development. Fire safety measures will have to be taken within the smart city.
Measures to be implemented for Risk Reduction:
 Storm water harvesting and water storage into natural or artificial
lakes/wetlands/ponds present opportunity to adapt to climate change for
disaster risk reduction by reducing floods and damage to infrastructure
through reduced peak flows. Reduced run off and soil erosion lead to
reduced sedimentation of our water bodies including our lagoons thus
protecting biodiversity, corals and white sandy beaches.
 Sustainable drainage measures such as porous surfaces (grass-Crete,
gravel), grass swales and attenuation ponds may be used so as to manage
the rates of surface water runoff within the curtilage of the development
and to minimize the proportion of impervious surface.
 Waste waters can be canalized to onsite treatment plants.
 The treated water can may be used for irrigation of common areas.
 A minimum of 20% of the plot may be under soft landscaped areas,
particularly where situated on slopes.
 Drainage channels may be provided with soak-ways at regular intervals
where the porosity of the ground permits aquifer recharge.
 Existing natural drains across the site may be maintained or re-routed as
appropriate. They must not be simply filled in.
3.3 Water Autonomy, Efficiency, Re-use and Recycling

The objective is to manage water resources sustainably for future generations
through reducing the overall consumption of clean water for non-potable uses and
to manage the run off of rain water from the site. The following water efficient
measures can be taken into consideration within the Smart Cities
Water Efficiency:
Buildings may be fitted with water efficient plumbing and appliance such as
faucet water aerators.
 Water meters may be installed in buildings;
 Provision may be made of leak detection facilities and monitoring for
early detection of leaks within water infrastructure.
 Native/indigenous species with low water requirement can be planted so
to form at least 50% of the vegetated area.
Water Re-use and Recycling:
 Storm water harvesting and storage into natural or artificial
lakes/wetlands/reservoirs/ponds may be considered;
 Rainwater harvesting systems can be integrated in the design of buildings
to collect rainwater from roof as well as site runoff. The water collected
may be used to supply water for flushing of toilets, car washing, garden
watering and washing of surfaces.
 Rainwater harvesting and the overflowing water from storm water ponds
may be recuperated in an underground tank for re-use.
 Grey water recycling: Water from baths, showers, washing machines and
wash hand basins may be captured and recycled within a building.
 The treated water may be reused for non-potable use such as toilet
flushing or garden irrigation.
3.4 Waste Management

The Smart cities must focus on reducing the volume of waste directed to landfills
based on the 3’Rs’ (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) approach, involving a complete
shift in the mindset of users from simple waste disposal to waste avoidance and
prevention. In order to ensure sustainable waste management practices within the

Smart Cities, the following specific measures are recommended:
 Provision for waste segregation at source, down to household and
commercial levels by providing separate bins for recycling and
composting purposes.
 Composting of organic wastes may be encouraged both at household and
community level by providing separate collection for organic waste.
Facilities for a centralized composting may be provided at community
level.
 Various eco-points (collection points) may be provided for the centralized
storage and collection of recyclables within a community or where
appropriate within a Smart City. A centralized collection facility may also
be provided for e-wastes such as batteries, electronic appliances and
computers.
 For commercial developments, provision may be made for the collection,
segregation and safe storage of hazardous wastes as well as the
containment of spillages through the use of oil separators and grease traps.
 As far as practicable, the adoption of PET bottles free and plastic bags free
policies need to be adopted within the smart cities.
3.5 Sustainable Transport

The Smart cities must require sustainable transport that will improve access and
mobility while decreasing congestion and increasing productivity. The Smart
Cities can be structured in such a way so as to avoid or reduce trips through
integrated land-use and transport planning. These integrated networks may be
planned comprehensively to link together the numerous public facilities, social
amenities and commercial center’s with the residential areas in the cities.
Planning towards the Smart Cities requires the following sustainable
transportation measures:
 Walking and cycling can be encouraged as a mode of travelling by
providing the necessary facilities
 Provision may be made for an integrated and safe network of pedestrian
and cycling paths within and between developments;
 A bike sharing system using electric bicycles to provide a practical, easy
to use, sustainable service for short everyday journeys around the city can
be introduced.
 Dropped curbs will have to be provided at crossing points to facilitate
access for the elderly, disabled and pushchairs. Bicycle and pedestrian
paths will have to be accessible to persons with reduced mobility.
 The safety and security of pedestrian and cyclist must be a priority in order
to encourage users to shift from automobile usage to walking or cycling
around the community.
 Switching from fossil fuel to renewable energy source is one of the
effective actions to be adopted in the smart cities. The use of electric
vehicles and hybrid vehicles may be promoted by planning supporting
facilities such as service station.
 An Integrated Public Transportation System may be designed to
economically move people on time. It is important to have a good network
to connect public transportation within the cities in order to ensure a better
connection from one location to another and reduce the time spent for
waiting.
 To reduce reliance on private transportation through promotion of “ hop
on hop off” LPG or electric driven public transportation covering strategic
places of residence, work, and commercial areas within the smart city.
3.6 Greening and Biodiversity

Biodiversity provides us with life-sustaining systems such as clean air and
ecosystems. The residents of smart cities must be provided with the
opportunity to experience greenery, nature at their door steps. These green
areas help to reduce heat islands effect, provide carbon offset, conserve
biodiversity and enhance the aesthetics of development. The overall objective
would be to ensure that there is no reduction in biodiversity due to
development and wherever possible, a net gain. The following measures can
be taken:
 The ecological value of a development site may be conserved and
enhanced, maintaining biodiversity and protecting existing habitats,
which contribute to and enhance the amenity of a particular area.
 Capitalize on storm water harvesting to allow for the creation of
artificial lakes/wetlands/reservoirs/ponds to give way to greeneries for
communities enjoyment of same and nature;
 Continuous green belts, parks, open space, endemic gardens, health
and/or bicycle tracks and biodiversity corridors may be created and

maintained for human enjoyment of nature, open air activities and
sports.
 Capitalize on views of natural features and landscaped open spaces
and greeneries as a form of value creation within the master plan to
reinforce and enhance the development character for citizens.
 Development impacting on Environmentally Sensitive Areas must be
in accordance with the requirements of the national policy on ESAs
based on the level of ESA classification.
 The development may be based on the Garden City Concept having
planned urban green areas in the form of parks and green spaces.
4. Conclusion
Cities are responsible for as much as 70% of global greenhouse gas emissions and
consume 75 percent of the world’s energy. These figures are often repeated. But
taking action at that scale requires both technological and socio-institutional
innovations. Efforts to reduce urban emissions are challenged by the complexity
of coordinating broad coalitions of action across governmental, private, and civil-
society actors, and the need to effectively collect, share, and analyze new and
existing data from across these traditionally sectors. These complexities have
played an important role in limiting actual urban emissions reductions far below
what is needed to stabilize global emissions within a safe range. Interestingly,
these complexities are also the very strengths of emerging information and
communications technologies (ICT) tools and Geoweb enabled approaches to
urban planning and implementation. Currently, the use of “smart” approaches to
address the urban climate challenge has been limited to narrow and technocratic
initiatives. But much more is possible. If effective bridges can be built between
the technology and Urban Sustainability sectors, a profound shift in approaches to
the urban governance of climate change could be possible. It is important to
increase both sustainability and digital literacy among those involved. Only then
will innovations in urban sustainability benefit from a deep understanding of both
the new tools at our disposal, and the complex challenge to which we hope to apply
them.
References
Angelidou, M. (2014). Smart city policies: A spatial approach. Cities, 41, S3–
S11.
Boes, K., Buhalis, D., & Inversini, A. (2015). Conceptualising Smart Tourism
Destination Dimensions. In L. Tussyadiah & A. Inversini (Eds.),
Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and
Communication Technologies in Tourism: 391–404. Switzerland:
Springer International Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
319-14343-9_29
Benson Chan and Renil Paramel (2017). The Smart City Ecosystem Framework
– A Model for Planning Smart Cities. http://iiot-world.com/smart-
cities/the-smart-city-ecosystem-framework-a-model-for-planning-
smart-cities/
Caragliu, A., Del Bo, C., & Nijkamp, P. (2011). Smart cities in Europe. Journal
of Urban Technology, 18(2), 65–82.
Cocchia, A. (2014). Smart and digital city: A systematic literature review. In
Smart city (pp. 13–43). Berlin: Springer.
Enz, C. A., & Siguaw, J. A. ( 2003), Innovations in Hotel Practice. Cornell Hotels
and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 44(4/5, 115–
123.http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001088040304400516
Gudes, O., Kendall, E., Yigitcanlar, T., Pathak, V., & Baum, S. (2010). Rethinking
health planning: a framework for organising information to underpin
collaborative health planning. Health Information Management
Journal, 39(2), 18–29.
Hortz, T. (2016). The smart state test: A critical review of the smart state strategy
2005-2015’s knowledge-based urban development. International
Journal of Knowledge-Based Development, 7(1), 75–101.
Jones, P. (1996). Managing Hospitality Innovation. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant
Administration Quarterly, 37(5): 86–95.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001088049603700528
Lara, A., Costa, E., Furlani, T., & Yigitcanlar, T. (2016). Smartness that matters:
Comprehensive and human-centred characterisation of smart cities.
Journal of Open Innovation, 2(8), 1–13.
Scheel, C., & Rivera, A. (2013). Innovative cities: In search of their disruptive
characteristics. International Journal of Knowledge-Based
Development, 4(1), 79–101.
Yigitcanlar, T. (2006). Australian local governments’ practice and prospects with
online planning. URISA Journal, 18(2), 7–17.
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CHAPTER - 26
Efficiency Enhancement of Solar Panel
*Kusumika Krori Dutta

Kumaraswamy H, Kotresh V, Kiranganesh S, Shivanand B M,
*Assistant Professor, Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-54, India.
**Student, EEE, RIT, Bangalore-54, India.
Abstract
With the growth of demand for electric power, renewable energy sources like
solar, wind and so on, plays a vital role. Among all renewable sources , solar
energy is used at almost because of it’s availability in plenty and also easy to
convert from solar to electricity using PV panel, etc. But, the main drawback is
the very low efficiency of the PV cells , which makes it very costly and unusable by
all. Here aim is to enhance PV panel efficiency using different methods i.e., using
reflectors, water cooling, coating on panel and water immersed methods, to make
it economical.
Keywords: PV panel, efficiency enhancement
I. Introduction
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources which are
replenished such as wind, wave, solar, biomass and tidal power. Governments and
companies around the world are investing heavily in developing technologies to
harness the power of clean renewable energy sources because of their potential to
produce large quantities of energy without generating greenhouse gases which can
contribute to climate change and major problem global warming.
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy,
solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.[1] [2]. It is an important source of
renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive
solar or active solar depending on the way they capture and distribute solar energy
or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of
photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness
the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Solar power is the conversion of
sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly
using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts
light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. Solar power is anticipated
to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar
photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the
global overall consumption, respectively.[3]. The first solar cell was constructed
by Charles Fritts in the 1880s.[4]. Researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and
Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954.[5]. These early solar
cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%.[6]. By 2012 available
efficiencies exceed 20% and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics is
over 40%.
This paper starts with different types of cells available (in section II) followed by
different efficiency enhancement techniques and it’s performance in section III
and IV.
II Different types of Solar Cells:

Hundreds of solar cells (also called photovoltaic cells) make up a solar
photovoltaic (PV) array. Solar cells are the components of solar arrays that convert
radiant light from the sun into electricity that is then used to power electrical
devices and heat and cool homes and businesses. Solar cells contain materials with
semiconducting properties in which their electrons become excited and turned into
an electrical current when struck by sunlight. While there are dozens of variations
of solar cells, the two most common types are those made of crystalline silicon
(both monocrystalline and polycrystalline) and those made with what is called thin
film technology.
The majority of the solar cells on the market today are made of some type of silicon
- by some estimates, 90% of all solar cells are made of silicon. However, silicon
can take many different forms. Variations are most distinguished by the purity of
the silicon; purity in this sense is the way in which the silicon modules are aligned.
The greater the purity of the silicon molecules, the more efficient the solar cell is
at converting sunlight into electricity. The majority of silicon based solar cells on
the market - about 95% - are comprised of crystalline silicon, making this the most
common type of solar cell. But there are two types of crystalline - monocrystalline
and polycrystalline.
a) Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Monocrystalline solar cells, also called "single crystalline" cells are easily
recognizable by their coloring. But what makes them most unique is that they are
considered to be made from a very pure type of silicon. In the silicon world, the
more pure the alignment of the molecules, the more efficient the material is at
converting sunlight into electricity. In fact, monocrystalline solar cells are the most
efficient of all; efficiencies have been documented at upwards of 20%.
b) Polycrystalline Solar Cells

Polycrystalline solar cells, also known as polysilicon and multisilicon cells, were
the first solar cells ever introduced to the industry, in 1981. Polycrystalline cells
do not go through the cutting process used for monocrystalline cells. Instead, the
silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, hence the square shape of
polycrystalline. In this way, they're much more affordable since hardly any silicon
is wasted during the manufacturing process.
However, polycrystalline is less efficient than its monocrystalline cousin.
Typically, polycrystalline solar PV system operated at a 13-16% efficiency - again,
this is due to the fact that the material has a lower purity. Due to this reality,
polycrystalline is less space-efficient, as well. One other drawback of
polycrystalline is that has a lower heat tolerance than monocrystalline, which
means they don't perform as efficiently in high temperatures.
Some other solar cells which are used for special purpose in satellite and in
laboratories are mentioned below.
i) Thin Film Solar Cells, ii) Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells, iii) Cadmium
Telluride Solar Cells, iv) Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cells.
But main drawback is, these solar cells have very low efficiency. Main reason for
poor efficiency is power loss, unhealthy illumination and insufficient knowledge

in semiconductor materials science Due to these three components solar cell is not
able to provide good efficiency.
a) Types of power loss : There are mainly two major losses are present in
solar panel they are mentioned below,
i) Thermal loss: Thermal losses increases temperature of the cell.
Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) depends on the temperature. Voc
depends on the temperature. Increased ni increases reverse saturation
current IO and hence Voc.
ii) Reflection loss: It occurs on the top surface of the cell. Light gets
reflected due to reflectivity of Si (~0.35).
b) Healthy illumination
Due to change in atmospheric condition light intensity always changes due to
which output power decreases whenever light intensity decreases i.e., current and
voltage.
c) Semiconductor material science
As of now industries has a limited knowledge in semiconductor materials still lots
of inventions and modifications research has to be done in future. The material
which is not observing whole visible light spectrum and it is producing heat while
absorbing light. Hence η of solar cell is poor.
III. Methodologies of different types of efficiency enhancement

techniques
To improve the η of solar PV panel there are some modifications have to do those
are first reducing the losses of panel and second one is by providing healthy
illumination i.e., by providing healthy input to the panel.
These methods will not give instantaneously improved efficiency they are time
based methods in our experiments we tested for 25 to 30 minutes of each
experiments in a constant source i.e., halogen lamp of 1KW to avoid complications
of weathered conditions.
1) Water cooling method

Since the start of the energy crisis, there has been a growing interest in renewable
energy sources. The efficiency of existing panels is overall rather low and goes
down even further when the panel heats up. Since the warming up would generally
happen at those points in time when sun-light is most intense, the overall output
decreases. Considering that the overall efficiency drops by about 0.38 % per ◦C,
and considering that a panel can easily reach temperatures of 40 to 60 ◦C in full
sun on a warm day, cooling could provide significant improvements in efficiency.
Currently, most panels rely on passive cooling due to air flow along top and bottom
of the panels. This passive cooling would however be the least effective at the time
when most required, since the ambient temperature is already higher. On the other
hand, active cooling systems have been proposed. The problem with these active
cooling systems is that they require energy to run, considering that most active
cooling systems target large installations, one can more easily ignore the power
consumption required to pump the water around. Applying these active cooling
principles to a smaller system, often results in large overheads, which are generally
larger than the actual gains achieved. The block diagram of water cooling method
is shown in fig 1a and schematic diagram is in fig1b.
fig a: Block diagram

fig b: Scematic diagram

Fig 1: Water cooling method
When the temperature exceeds beyond 35OC of solar panel, temperature sensor
senses the temperature and send signal to valve to open, then valve opens water
will flow on the solar panel, that water is again collected in collector tank, the
water level sensor is used to sense the water level in the water tank. If the water in
Main tank becomes low, that is sensed by the water level sensor then collector tank
water is pumped to the main tank by the pump. The easiest way to clean a panel
as well as cool it down is ensuring that there is a significant volume of water
running over the panel. This could be achieved by sprinkling water onto the panel
at the top and then collecting it again at the bottom. The collection of water at the
bottom allows for it to be reused, but requires the water to be pumped up again to
the top of the panel. Initial estimates quickly showed that when using a
conventional water pump the pump’s power consumption would be much higher
than the efficiency gains obtained. If one is to pursue such a system, then it is
important that the pumping mechanism consumes as little energy as possible. fig2
a-d shows temperature control Block diagram and it’s different components,
decribes as follows:
Fig a: Block diagram Fig b: 12V voltage regulator
Fig d: Step down

Fig c: Bridge rectifier Transformer: 230V to 12V
Fig 2: Temperature control Block diagram and it’s different components
a) In the above circuit, used step down transformer, this used to step down
high voltages i.e. from 230V to 12V.
b) A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four or more diodes in a bridge
circuit configuration which provides the same output polarity for either
input polarity. It is used for converting an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave
rectification from a two-wire AC input.
c) A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or
more AC or DC voltages. In this circuit we used 12V voltage regulator to
maintain the 12V constant output voltage.
d) Temperature circuit: In the circuit shown in fig 3,temperature status is
displayed using four LEDs. A green LED, indicating that the temperature
is in the desirable level and two yellow LEDs are included to indicate that
the temperature is higher than normal, and the situation is unsafe. A red
LED warning status tells that the temperature is very high and must be
acted upon quickly.
Specifications:R1=10KΩ , Thermistor R10=10KΩ, R2, R3, R4, R5,
R6=5KΩ, R7, R8, R9, R11=220Ω
The circuit is executed using four comparators inside the IC LM324 (as shown in
fig 4). This is an outstanding chip which has four operational amplifiers on par
with 741 type together in one package. The first stage of the diagram shows a
voltage divider network formed with the help of R2, R3, R4, R5 and R6 resistors.
Here the voltages are fixed referenced at 2.4V, 4.8V, 7.2V, 9.6V. Each of these
voltages is connected directly to the non-inverting pinout (+) of the operational
amplifiers which is being used as comparators. The upper lead of the thermistor
(R10) connects directly with all inverting (-) terminals of the op-amp. If the
subjected temperature varies, the voltage also proportionately varies at the upper
pin of the thermistor. This induced responsive voltage is compared with the op-
amp comparators across their non-inverting terminals and in response to lesser
voltages sends correspondingly high voltage comparator output activating the
relevant LED. As the temperature rises, conditions across the thermistor begins
getting lower illuminating the LEDs in sequence.
Fig 3: Temperature indicator circuit fig 4: Pin diagram of LM324
e) Driver Circuit :A driver is an electrical circuit as shown in fig 5, or

other electronic component used to control another circuit or component. They
are usually used to regulate current flowing through a circuit or is used to
control the other factors such as other components, some devices in the circuit.
Fig 5: Relay driver circuit Fig 6: 5V Relay
Fig 7: Solenoid Valve
f) Relay: A relay is an electrically operated switch as shown in fig 6. Many

relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other
operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. In the above
circuit we used 5v relay for the operation.
g) Solenoid Valve: A solenoid valve is an electromechanical device used (as
shown in fig 7), for controlling liquid or gas flow. The solenoid valve is
controlled by electrical current, which is run through a coil. When the coil
is energized, a magnetic field is created, causing a plunger inside the coil
to move. Depending on the design of the valve, the plunger will either
open or close the valve. When electrical current is removed from the coil,
the valve will return to its de-energized state. Solenoid valves are found in
many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high
reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials

used, low control power and compact design.
The second method ie water immersion technique is described below:
(2) Water immersion method
Photovoltaic solar energy (PV) is one of the renewable sources of energy. It has
undergone a huge research and development in the recent past and is still
developing. As it is known, the photovoltaic solar cell is a semiconductor device
that generates electricity when light falls on it. A photovoltaic cell converts only a
small fraction of the irradiance into electrical energy. . The balance is converted
into heating of the cell. The infrared light portion of the solar spectrum attributes
to this heat loss thus increasing the cell temperature. Also the photon having
higher energy than the band gap will only contribute to the output electrical energy.
One of the important parameters that affect the energy output of the PV module or
system is the operating temperature. As the operating temperature increases the
electrical cell efficiency decreases. This is due to the shrinkage of band gap as
temperature increases, thus the open circuit voltage will drop .During this time,
energy charge carriers from valence band to conduction band increase since more
incidents light have been absorbed.
The Module temperature could be up to 20OC to 35OC higher than the ambient
temperature, depending on the conditions such as radiation intensity, wind speed,
etc. Thus in noon conditions, where the ambient temperature is about 35OC, the
module temperature will be about 55OC to 65OC. The higher temperature of the
module is due to the use of glass cover of the module, which traps the infrared
radiation and increases the module temperature. The following empirical
relationship can be written for estimation of the module temperature (Tmod).
Tmod = Tamb + KPin ………………………………………………..(1)
Where Tamb is the ambient temperature in degree Celsius
Pin is the radiation intensity in W/m2, K is the constant with value varying between
0.02 and 0.03 depending on the wind speed, humidity, etc. Higher wind speed
will give lower values of K
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature.
Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting
most of the semiconductor material parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a
semiconductor with increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy
of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the
bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor band gap, reduction in the bond
energy also reduces the band gap. Therefore increasing the temperature reduces
the band gap. In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in
temperature is the open-circuit voltage.
The increased cell temperature results in an increases in the short circuit current
(Isc) and decreases in the open circuit voltage (Voc). Decreases in the open circuit
voltage is more prominent than the increases in the short circuit current. Therefore
overall the power and efficiency of solar and module decrease with the increasing
in its operating temperature. The current increase with temperature is due to the
decreases in the band gap of silicon and voltage decreases with temperature due to
the increase in the carrier recombination. Any electron which exists in the
conduction band is in a meta-stable state and will eventually stabilize to a lower
energy position in the valence band. When this occurs, it must move into an empty
valence band state. Therefore, when the electron stabilizes back down into the
valence band, it also effectively removes a hole. This process is called
recombination. The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the fig 8. The
electrical efficiency of PV cells decreases with temperature increase cooling can
improve the electrical production of standard flat panel PV modules, since cooling
keeps the PV cells from reaching temperatures at which irreversible damage
occurs. It has been found that the efficiency and output power of PV module is
inversely proportional to its temperature. A typical value for PV efficiency loss
with temperature is 0.5% / C though this varies with the type of cell. Find an
efficient cooling technology by analyzing the performance of solar cells using
different technologies and various cooling liquids. One such technique is
immersion cooling using water as the coolant. Submerging the photovoltaic
module has been one of the significant methods to overcome the heat generated by
the PV module. Cooling method needs to ensure that the operating temperature
does not exceed the point at which irreversible degradation occurs in the cell.
Fig8: Temperature effect on solar panel
Fig 9: Reflection of radiation
There are two main effects increase the efficiency of a commercial panel placed in
water.
i. Reduction of light reflection (due to lower refraction index)
ii. Absence of thermal drift
The reflection of a silicon surface is over 30% due to its high refractive index.
Reflection loss occurs on a solar cell which results in part of the radiation being
reflected back to the source. The impact of reflected radiations is shown in the fig
9. There are number of ways to reduce the reflection losses.
i) Top contact coverage of the cell surface can be minimized (although this
may result in increased series resistance).
ii) Anti-reflection coatings can be used on the top surface of the cell
iii) Reflection can be reduced by surface texturing
iv) The optical path length in the solar cell may be increased by a combination
of surface texturing and light trapping
v) The solar cell can be made thicker to increase absorption (although light
that is absorbed more than a diffusion length from the junction has a low
collection probability and will not contribute to the short circuit current)
Most PV materials have a negative temperature drift and this implies a lower
efficiency when weather conditions are optimal for energy production. Thermal
effect are much more important and characterized by a set of temperature
coefficients. In general 5 basic parameters are given:
1. Short-circuit current (Isc), 2. Maximum power current (Imp), 3. Open-circuit
voltage (Voc) 4. Maximum power voltage (Vmp), 5. Maximum power Pmax =
Imp * Vmp
In the present work, water immersion technique was used to improve the
performance and the electrical efficiency of polycrystalline silicon panel. The I-V
characteristics of a PV module under different depths of water have been tested.
The solar PV monocrystalline silicon solar panel rated at 1.3 W was tested. The
area of the panel is 0.0162 sq. m. which is placed inside a plastic box of depth of
9 cm in which water is used as an immersed fluid water. Water act as a source of
heat dissipation which maintains the surface temperature of solar cell. Table 1
shows the technical specifications of the panel and fluid used for cooling. Fig 10
and fig 11 shows the immersion of monocrystalline solar panel of the area 0.0162
m2 in water. Solar panel is fitted in plastic box and placed at the bottom of it.Total
Instantaneous Global Solar irradiance was measured by using portable solar lux
meter. The surface temperature of the panel was measured by using IR
Thermometer. The electrical parameters and characteristics of solar panel were
measured by using digital Multimeter.
Table 1: Technical specification of the solar PV panel system

1 Solar module type Monocrystalline
2 Maximum power 1.3 W (STC)
3 Voltage at max. power (Vm) 7.5 V (STC)
4 Current at max. power (Im) 0.173 A (STC)
5 Short circuit current (Isc) 0.14 A (STC)
6 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 10 V (STC)
7 Module area 0.0162 m2
8 Fluid Water
Fig 10: 1.3W solar panel

Fig 11: Panel immersed in water
The experiments were carried out under the halogen lamp conditions. After the
installation of experimental setup, the measurements of solar irradiance, surface
temperature, water temperature, short circuit current (Isc), open circuit voltage
(Voc), maximum voltage (Vm), maximum current (Im) corresponding to maximum
power (P), fill factor, electrical efficiency of solar panel were carried out for 20
minutes without immersing it in water i.e. d is equal to 0 cm. After measurement
of the mentioned parameters without the water (liquid coolant), the vessel was
filled up with water and measurements were carried out again under different
depths of water taking each depth constant and measuring the parameters every 5
minutes.
Considering the properties of the solar cells and the cooling requirement, the liquid
selected should meet the below requirements.
i. The liquid should have good heat transfer performance
ii. The absorption of the sunlight by the liquids should match with
the spectral
Response of the solar cells

i. The liquid should be nontoxic and have good chemical stability
ii. The liquid should be economic
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance
of one solar panel to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output
from the solar panel to input energy from the sun. In addition to reflecting the
performance of the solar panel itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and
intensity of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell.
Efficiency of a solar cell is calculated by applying the following relation.
Efficiency= (V*I*100) / (I*A) …………………………………………………(2)
(3) Reflection method

Photovoltaic solar energy (PV) is one of the renewable sources of energy. It has
undergone a huge research and development in the recent past and is still
developing. As it is known, the photovoltaic solar cell is a semiconductor device
that generates electricity when light falls on it. Solar electricity is the promising
energy technology for the future, and by using the reflectors for concentrating solar
radiation on to photovoltaic cells, the cost per produced kWh can be significantly
reduced. In developing photovoltaic (PV) technology, it is crucial to provide low
cost PV power. One of the useful methods is to increase the power output of
conventional PV modules since the major cost (module manufacturing, mounts,
wiring, installation labor, etc.) tends to scale with system area. Increased power
output, due to improved light harvesting, will produce more power per unit area.
The use of PV modules, which have been augmented by the addition of low-cost
solar mirrors, provides the opportunity to improve light harvesting of PV modules
while reducing the cost of power. In order to harvest more incident solar
irradiance, an optimized design configuration between a flat-panel module and
mirror is necessary. One solution to make solar energy more competitive is to
combine reflectors with the PV modules in the system. Using solar mirrors to
harvest more of the incident solar irradiance and direct sunlight to qualified PV
modules increases the electricity produced from a given area of PV panels.
The power incident on a PV module depends not only on the power contained in
the sunlight, but also on the angle between the module and the sun. When the
absorbing surface and the sunlight are perpendicular to each other, the power
density on the surface is equal to that of the sunlight (in other words, the power
density will always be at its maximum when the PV module is perpendicular to
the sun). However, as the angle between the sun and a fixed surface is continually
changing, the power density on a fixed PV module is less than that of the incident
sunlight. The amount of solar radiation incident on a tilted module surface is the
component of the incident solar radiation which is perpendicular to the module
surface.The solar PV system is constructed using 10W mono crystalline silicon
solar panel. The size of the panel is 30X30 cm and a flat mirror of size 40X30 is
used. Table 2 shows the technical specifications of the panel and mirror used for
Reflection. Fig.13 shows the experimental set up for the reflection method and
mirror is placed in front of solar panel.
Table 2: Technical specification of the solar panel Reflection system
1 Solar module type Mono crystalline

2 Maximum power 10W
3 Voltage at max. power (Vmp) 17V
4 Current at max. power (Imp) 0.3 A
5 Short circuit current (Isc) 0.5A
6 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 21V
7 Module area 300X300 mm
8 Mirror type Flat mirror
Fig 12: Characteristics of Solar panel

The experiments were carried out under the sun light conditions. After the
installation of experimental setup, the measurements of solar irradiance, surface
temperature, short circuit current (Isc), open circuit voltage (Voc), maximum
voltage (Vm), maximum current (Im) corresponding to maximum power (Pm), fill
factor, electrical efficiency of solar panel were carried out for 30 minutes without
keeping the mirror .After measurement of the mentioned parameters without the
mirror the solar panel installed with mirror at angle 380 and measurements were
carried out again by keeping mirror and measuring the parameters every after 5
minutes.
The solar panel is tilted at an angle of 450 with vertical reference as it is the best
angle for getting good efficiency. Although the 900 tilt angle of solar panel will get
maximum ill at peak points when compared to 450 but with this tilt the temperature
of solar panel will increase rapidly. This in turn will increase the heat loss and also
the life of solar panel reduces hence the 450 tilt is the best angle. In this method
two times the experiment results are tabulated, one was without mirror and other
one was with mirror. By using the mirror ill will increases so with increase in
illumination voltage and current increases.
Ideally solar panels should be facing as close to true north as possible to reduce
the impact that the winter seasons have on efficiency. A directly East or West
facing panel will never operate at better than 85% of its rated output. The Panel is
being placed such that it faces the North direction and mirror is kept in front of it.
Another major advantage of this set up is maximum illumination is being obtained.
The experiment was performed with and without mirror. This set up was conducted
under sun light. The load was increased in steps and the corresponding V and I
readings are tabulated with and without mirror and IV characteristics of with and
without mirror are plotted.
Fig 13: Solar panel with mirror.
Efficiency of a solar panel is calculated by applying the following relation.

Efficiency= (V*I*100) / (Ill*A), Where V - Voltage in V, I - current in A, Ill-
illumination in W/m2, A-area of the panel in m2
IV. Results and Discussion

In this chapter results of conducted experiments using methodologies such as
Water cooling method, water immersion method and Reflection method are
tabulated and also plotted graphs for all methods Water cooling and water
immersion methods are conducted in constant source i.e., halogen lamp(1KW).
And reflection method is conducted under direct sunlight.
a) Water cooling method
By using first methodology i.e. water cooling method, we have conducted
experiment on 10W solar PV panel. And the readings are tabulated below and also
plotted graph time versus various parameters voltage, current, power and
efficiency. This experiment is conducted for 30 minutes and the each reading taken
at 5 minutes duration.
Table 3. Normal panel
Normal panel ( Illumination=460W/m2)

Time in Temperature in Voltage in current in Power in Efficiency in
o
minutes C volts amps watts %
0 33 18.67 0.12 2.29 5.5468

5 42.5 17.9 0.12 2.29 5.5343
10 49 17.18 0.13 2.23 5.3946
15 51.6 17.06 0.13 2.22 5.3776
20 54.2 16.88 0.13 2.19 5.3004
25 57 16.77 0.13 2.21 5.3469
Average values 17.53 0.12 2.24 5.4168
Table 4. Water cooled panel
Water cooled panel (Illumination=460W/m2)

Time in Temperature in Voltage in current in Power in Efficiency in
o
minutes C volts amps watts %
0 32.2 18.6 0.12 2.362 5.7058

5 39 18.5 0.12 2.368 5.7198
10 38 18.46 0.12 2.362 5.7074
15 38 18.39 0.12 2.372 5.7302
20 38 18.35 0.12 2.367 5.7177
25 39 18.3 0.12 2.360 5.7021
Average values 18.46 0.12 2.368 5.7138
The energy production efficiency of solar panels drops when the panel reaches
high temperatures. The high temperatures are undesirable for the solar panals.so
we have maintain the solar panel temperature using water cooling method.
Variation of efficiency with normal and water cooling method is shown in fig 14.a
from the water cooling method we got 0.297% increase in efficiency.
From the water cooling method we got 0.297% increase in efficiency and we
observed that temperature will have more effect on the solar panels. The results
shows that as the temperature increases the panel efficiency decreases.
EFFICIENCY
5.8
5.7
5.6
EFFICIENCY IN %
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5
0 5 10 15 20 25
TIME IN MINUTES
Normal panel Water cooled panel
(a) Efficiency variation
AVERAGE INCRESED EFFICIENCY

5.8
5.713
5.7
EFFICIENCY IN %
5.6
5.5
5.416
5.4
5.3
5.2
Normal panel Water cooled panel
b) Average increased efficiency

Fig 14: Variation of average efficiency of the solar panel w.r.t. time
b) Water immersion method

By the second methodology i.e. water immersion method, we have conducted
experiment on 1.3W solar PV panel at various depth of water i.e., 0cm, 0.5cm,
1cm, 2cm,3cm.and the readings are tabulated below and also plotted graph time
versus various parameters voltage, current, power and efficiency.
Table 5: Depth 0cm
Illumination=920W/m2
Time in Voltage in current in Power in Efficiency in
minutes volts amps watts %
0 9.23 0.106 0.978 6.564
5 8.48 0.107 0.907 6.088
10 8.11 0.108 0.876 5.882
15 7.9 0.109 0.864 5.798
20 7.13 0.110 0.788 5.291
Avg. Values 8.17 0.108 0.880 5.924%
Table 6: Depth 0.5cm
Time in Voltage current Power Efficiency
minutes in volts in amps in watts in %
0 9.27 0.098 0.955 6.410
5 9.52 0.099 0.946 6.349
10 9.38 0.101 0.947 6.356
15 9.27 0.102 0.945 6.344
20 9.18 0.104 0.954 6.405
Avg 9.41 0.100 0.949 6.373%
Values
Table 7: Depth 1cm
Time Voltage current Power Efficiency
in minutes in volts in amps in watts in %
0 9.73 0.095 0.924 6.202
5 9.58 0.097 0.932 6.254
10 9.42 0.098 0.927 6.255
15 9.31 0.099 0.921 6.184
20 9.21 0.099 0.915 6.142
Avg 9.45 0.097 0.924 6.201%
Values
Table 8: Depth 2cm
0 9.66 0.084 0.817 5.483
5 9.59 0.086 0.826 5.546
10 9.48 0.086 0.819 5.495
15 9.4 0.087 0.824 5.531
20 9.29 0.088 0.817 5.485
Avg 9.48 0.086 0.820 5.508%
Values
Table 9: Depth 3cm
0 9.69 0.079 0.770 5.168
5 9.64 0.081 0.785 5.271
10 9.56 0.082 0.788 5.291
15 9.48 0.083 0.791 5.311
20 9.45 0.084 0.797 5.351
AvgValues 9.564 0.082 0.786 5.278%
EFFICIENCY
7
6
EFFICIENCY IN %
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20
TIME IN MINUTES
d=0 cm d=0.5 cm d= 1 cm d=2 cm d=3 cm
AVERAGE INCREASED EFFICIENCY

7
6.373293076
6.201714976
5.924944981
6 5.508408481
5.278951959
5
EFFICIENCY IN%
d= 0 cm d= 0.5 cm d= 1 cm d= 2 cm d= 3 cm

Variation of panel efficiency after with time at different depths in water is

indicated in Fig. 15. From the figure it is seen that the electrical efficiency of the
solar panel also decreases with time, increases at a particular value and then
decreases. Also it depends effectively on the immersion depth of the panel in
water. It increases with depth, attains a maximum value and then starts decreasing.
This increase in efficiency may be related to change in the band gap of the
corresponding absorber material in the PV cell, since the value of temperature
coefficient is correlated to the band gap. It was found that when the depth of water
is more than 1 cm, the efficiency for the PV panel started to decrease.
The output voltage, power output and efficiency of the solar panel increases with
immersion in water. Without water the output voltage, power output and electrical
efficiency after the 20 minutes were obtained was 7.13 volts, 0.788578 watts and
5.29105% respectively. Whereas the maximum increase in output voltage with
immersion in water is observed at depth d = 3 cm with the value after the 20
minutes was 9.45 volts and power output , electrical efficiency were observed at
depth d = 0.5cm and the values were obtained after the 20 minutes are 0.95472
watts and 6.4058% respectively.
This work comprises of a 1.3W monocrystalline silicon solar panel kept in a 9 cm
deep plastic box which works as submerged photovoltaic system. The concept of
this work is to improve the performance of a solar panel using immersion cooling
technique with water as the coolant. The work aims at increasing the electrical
efficiency of the panel by submerging it in water. The analysis of the test results
show that there is a maximum average increase in electrical efficiency of
0.44835% at depth d = 0.5 cm which clearly indicates that the performance of the
solar panel is improved. The electrical efficiency depends on the surface
temperature of the panel, water temperature, and the submerging depth of water.
This technique can also be used in bigger water bodies like rivers, oceans, lakes,
canals etc(as shown in fig 16). Many of the reports talk about the requirement of
large land area for the installation of solar photovoltaic system. This work is very
useful in such conditions in which both the problems of land requirement and
efficiency are solved. The PV panels are set on big floating frames, a few tens of
square meters in size which can handle groups of panels. The panels are a few cm
underwater, and installed close to the shore. They have minimal environmental
impact, hence are highly efficient power generation. They can be controlled by
bringing the structure deep down for maintenance and sea rough conditions.
Fig. 16: A strip of submerged photovoltaic panels
This method has presented electrical performance of the solar photovoltaic using
water immersion cooling technique. The maximum average efficiency of 6.37329
% was obtained under 0.5cm depth of water with the proposed design and
operating conditions. The results show that as the depth increases, the surface
temperature of the panel decreases and the electrical efficiency increases till a
particular depth after which it begins to fall. A maximum increase in electrical
efficiency of the panel was observed, which clearly depicts the improvement in the
performance of the panel and encourages the use of water immersion cooling
technique in Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) systems where the cell temperature
increases and results in the decrease of electrical efficiency of the cell.
c) Reflection method
In this method the experimented is conducted on the solar panel 0f 10W with and
without mirror and the results are tabulated below and also plotted graph time
versus parameters such as voltage, current, power and efficiency.
Table 10: Without mirror solar PV panel readings
Normal solar panel

Time in Voltage in Current in Power in Illumi nation Temp η in %
min volts amp watts in W/m2 in oC
0 17.87 0.1747 3.12 298 35 11.640
5 17.29 0.1756 3.03 295 37.5 11.435
10 17.22 0.1757 3.02 281 38.5 11.963
15 17.04 0.1743 2.97 249 39.6 13.253
20 16.8 0.1742 2.92 239 40.7 13.605
avg power 3.01 % avg efficiency 12.379%
Table 11: with mirror solar PV panel readings
Solar panel with Flat mirror

Time in Voltage in Current in Power in Illumi nation in Temp in η in %
min volts amp watts W/m2 o
C
0 19.77 0.37 7.314 550 36 14.777
5 19.6 0.34 6.664 534 38 13.866
10 19.55 0.35 6.842 530 39 14.344
15 19.46 0.35 6.88 489 40.1 15.476
20 19.35 0.33 6.385 450 41.2 15.766
avg power 6.803 % avg efficiency 14.846
%
EFFICIENCY
20
EFFICIENCY IN %
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
TIME IN MINUTES
Normal panel Solar panel with Flat mirror
AVERAGE INCREASED EFFICIENCY

15.5
14.8458
15
14.5
EFFICIENCY IN %
14
13.5
13
12.3792
12.5
12
11.5
11
Normal panel Solar panel with Flat mirror

The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance
of one solar panel to another. Variation of solar panel efficiency after certain time
with and without mirror is shown in Fig. 17 from the figure it is seen that the
efficiency of the solar panel increases with time when the mirror is placed.
The output voltage, output current, output power and efficiency of the solar panel
increases with mirror .Without mirror the output voltage, output current, output
power and efficiency after the 25 minutes were obtained was 16.8 volts, 0.1742
Amps, 2.926 Watts and 13.605% respectively. When the mirror is placed in front
of the panel the corresponding values are 19.35volts, 0.33 Amps, 6.385 watts,
15.766% respectively. So from the above comparison it concludes that efficiency
of solar panel increases when the mirror is placed.
This method concludes that by using the flat mirror the solar panel efficiency can
be increased. By the above tabulated readings the panel efficiency without keeping
the mirror was 12.3792% and the panel with keeping mirror was 14.8458%. So
overall increased efficiency was 2.46%. This method costs less when compared
tracking system. In this method the temperature of the panel increases rapidly
because by keeping the mirror the ill increases in turn it increases the temperature
by that output power decreases in order to avoid decrease in output power the
temperature of the panel should be decreased in this situation the water cooling
method can be applied.
V. CONCLUSION
Now a days, energy-related aspects are becoming extremely important. Power
generation is a leading cause of air pollution and the largest source of global
warming emission. The demand for energy is increasing day by day due to heavy
industrialization and commercial use all around the world. But conventional
energy sources are falling to meet with this heavy requirement in the power sector.
So there is a pressing need to accelerate the development of advanced clean energy
technologies. The option is renewable resource i.e. solar energy. The world will
need greatly increased energy supply in the next 25 years, especially cleanly
generated electricity. The reasonable and effective utilization of solar energy is an
important path which can deal with the global energy crisis at present. In order to
reduce the cost of solar energy, study on improving the efficiency of solar power
is very necessary. Solar cells or panels is the core component of photovoltaic
power generation system. The photoelectric conversion efficiency of a solar cell is
about 5-15% in commercial application. Most of the radiation has been converted
into heat, which results in high temperature of the solar cell and low efficiency
even in efficiency. The Standard Test Condition (STC) which specifies the module
surface temperature to be 25OC is not practically possible in the real time
implementation of solar projects. Temperature reduction is one among the
available options for performance improvement of a solar module. Various
methods for reducing the temperature are being implemented for the same. And
for a crystalline solar cell, the electrical output voltage is a function of the
temperature. Due to cooling, the module operating temperatures were significantly
reduced in comparison with the module without cooling. Water cooling, water
immersion and reflection methods are used to enhance the efficiency solar panel
in this project. The results indicates that under water cooling and water immersion
the temperature can be reduced to effectively increase the photovoltaic efficiency
of solar panel.
Water cooling method

In order to improve the output of solar panels, this method is used to clean the
panels as well as cool them down. Both of these tasks are achieved by running
water over the top of the panel for which an energy efficient method is proposed.
A control system was designed to take care of flowing water over the panel in hot
weather. The control system also measures the panel temperature and running
water over the panels when the temperature of the panels has increased, in order
to cool them back down. The average temperature and efficiency of normal solar
panel was obtained 47.883OC and 5.416% respectively. The average temperature
and efficiency of water cooling solar panel was obtained 37.366OC and 5.713%
respectively.
Water immersion method

This method examined the performance of a 1.3W monocrystalline silicon
photovoltaic panel fitted in a 9cm deep plastic box which works as submerged
photovoltaic system. The concept of this project is to improve the performance of
a solar panel using immersion cooling technique with water as the coolant. The
project aims at increasing the electrical efficiency of the panel by submerging it in
water. The analysis of the test results show that there is a maximum efficiency of
normal panel is 5.924% at depth d is equal to 0cm and increase in maximum
efficiency of water immersion panel is 6.373% at depth d is equal to 0.5cm which
clearly indicates that the performance of the solar panel is improved.
Reflection method
Solar energy has vast potential, but its contribution to the world’s energy market
is still very limited. In accordance with previous works, it is shown that the non-
uniform illumination decreases the electric production of the solar cells.
i. Reduce the dependency on silicon cell.
ii. Increase the intensity of solar irradiance, hence increase the cell
efficiency.
iii. Reduce the total cost of the whole system
The average temperature and efficiency of normal solar panel is 38.26OC and
12.379% respectively. Similarly average temperature and efficiency of solar panel
with flat mirror is 38.86OC and 14.845% respectively.
REFERENCES
[1] "Solar Energy Perspectives: Executive Summary". International Energy
Agency. 2011. Archived from the original
[2] International Energy Agency (2014). "Technology Roadmap: Solar
Photovoltaic Energy" (PDF). http://www.iea.org. IEA. Archived from the
original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
[3] Furkn dincer, Mehmat Emin M, “Critical factors that affencting efficiency
of solar cells” Smart grid and renewable energy, Van, Turkey, May 08
2010
[4] Wim J.C, Sajib K. Mallick, Phillip Relf “Increasing Solar Panel Efficiency
In A Sustainable Manner” Energycon, Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 2014
[5] Sayaran A, Omar S, Kamil M. “Improving the Efficiency of
Polycrystalline Solar Panel Via Water Immersion Method” International
Journal Of Innovation Research In Science, Engineering And Technology,
January 2014
[6] Saurabha Mehrotra, Pratisha R, Debbarma, Sudhakar, “Performance of
Solar Panel With Water Immersion Cooling Technique” International
Journal Of Science Environment and Technology, Madhya Pradesh, June
02 2014.
[7] "Nichia Unveils LED with 150 lm/W Luminous Efficiency". Tech-On!.
December 21, 2006. Retrieved August 13, 2007.
CHAPTER - 27
Controlling Air Pollution in India:

Potentialities and Prospects for Environment
Protection
Dr. Ashok G. Matani
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Govt. College of Engineering, Amravati-444604 [M.S.] India.
Email: dragmatani@gmail.com, ashokgm333@rediffmail.com
Dr. S. K. Doifode
HOD-Chemistry Department,
Government College of Engineering, Amravati-444 604 [M.S.] India.
Email: shamal_doifode123@gmail.com
Abstract
The 2016 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ranked India 141 out of 180
countries surveyed. EPI is unique in its approach because it incorporates many
high-priority environmental issues, including resource consumption, depletion of
environmental assets, pollution, and species loss among other important topics.
The EPI typically ranks countries on performance indicators tracked across
policy categories that include both environmental public health (protection of
human health) and ecosystem vitality (protection of ecosystems). Within these
two policy objectives, the EPI scores national performance in nine issue areas
comprised of about 19 indicators. Environment health, being the first policy
objective, is given 50% weightage and it comprises 3 categories viz. health
impacts, air quality and water and sanitation, each given 33% weightage in the
score within; whereas ecosystem vitality, being the second policy objective, is
again given 50% and it comprises 6 categories viz. water resources (25%),
agriculture (10%), forests (10%), fisheries (5%), biodiversity, habitat (25%) and
climate energy (25%). A very interesting observation is that China and India,
despite having high GDP per PPP, have received low scores on the EPI.
Keywords: Fossil fuels and renewable, ecosystem vitality, mass emission limits,
environment compensation charge, higher import duty on diesel cars.
HEALTH COSTS OF POLLUTION IN INDIA: ALARMING SIGNALS

According to the reports of The Health & Environmental Alliance (HEAL), India
spent $16.9 billion on oil, gas & coal subsidies in 2013 & 2014 but the health
costs to meet the burden of air pollution-linked diseases was eight times more of
$40.7 billion. The report highlights G-20 governments spent about $444 billion
in subsidies to fossil fuel companies in 2014, but the health costs of these
subsidies in the form of respiratory & cardiovascular diseases as well as
premature deaths were as high as $2.76 trillion – six times the subsidy amount.
The report highlights reallocation of fossil fuel subsidies because they increase
the price gap between fossil fuels and renewable which makes fossil fuels seem
cheaper and discourages investment in green energy. HEAL has used a
combination of data provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and Oil Change International (OCI) to
arrive at their findings. For subsidy estimates, data from ODI and OCI were used
for 2013 and 2014 which includes national subsidies delivered through direct
spending and tax breaks, investments by state owned enterprises and public
finance from government owned banks.
Table-1: Worldwide scenario of fossil fuel subsidies & premature deaths from
air pollution
SN Country Worldwide scenario of fossil fuel Premature deaths

subsidies (Billion $ a year) from air pollution
1 China 96.5 1,62,564
2 India 16.5 1,40,346
3 UK 6.5 19,803
4 South Africa 5.9 19,802
5 Germany 5.4 41,485
6 Turkey 1.9 28,881
Poland 1.5 23,295
Source: Hidden price Tags report, The Times of India – Nagpur , 2nd August 2017 edition news report
PROGRESS OF EURO NORMS IN INDIAN ECONOMY

The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became
effective in 1989. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass
emission limits for both gasoline (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were
gradually tightened during the 1990s. Since the year 2000, India started adopting
European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for
heavy-duty vehicles. India’s own emission regulations still apply to two- and
three-wheeled vehicles.
The foundation for automotive emission standards in India since the early 2000s
is contained in two reports from the Indian Planning Commission. The National
Auto Fuel Policy, announced on October 6, 2003, envisioned a phased program
for introducing Euro 2-4 emission and fuel regulations by 2010. In order to
establish limits beyond Bharat Stage IV, the Indian Planning Commission
established an Expert Committee in 2013 to draft an updated Auto Fuel Policy,
Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025, that was published in May 2014. While
legislators are not required to adhere strictly to the recommendations contained
in these reports, they serve as a starting point for subsequent legislative action to
establish the implementation schedule and other details of automotive emission
standards.
The above standards apply to all new 4-wheel vehicles sold and registered in the
respective regions. In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy 2003 introduced
certain emission requirements for interstate buses with routes originating or
terminating in Delhi or the other mentioned cities. For 2-and 3-wheelers, Bharat
Stage - II applied from April 1, 2005 and Stage III standards came into force in
April 1, 2010. Bharat Stage IV standards for gasoline fuelled 2-wheelers came
into force April 1, 2016. Bharat Stage VI standards for SI and CI 2- and 3-
wheelers were proposed in February 2016. Potential solutions that have been
suggested include deregulation of diesel prices, an environment compensation
charge on diesel vehicles and an additional levy on diesel fuel.
PROGRESS OF EMISSION STANDARDS - BS-I TO BS-III

Vehicular emission norms in India was first introduced in 1991 and tightened
thereafter in 1996, when most vehicle manufacturers had to incorporate
technology up-gradation such as catalytic converter to reduce exhaust emission.
This necessitated the use of lead free and low sulphur fuels. Initially, refineries
were enjoined to supply lead free gasoline to National Capital Region (NCR) and
major cities and subsequently in the rest of the country.
Fuel specifications based on environmental consideration were for the first time
notified in the country by the Ministry of Environment & Forests in April 1996
for achievement by 2000. These norms were incorporated in the BIS 2000
standards.
 Based on the Supreme Court order of April 1999, Ministry of Surface Transport
(MoST) notified Bharat Stage-I (BIS 2000) and Bharat Stage-II vehicle emission
norms broadly equivalent to Euro I and Euro II for introduction in entire India
and NCR respectively.
 In line with the Auto Fuel Policy (2003), starting from 2005, fuel conforming to
BS-III norms was introduced in 13 major cities, while BS II fuel was made
available elsewhere in the country and BS I quality fuel phased out.
 From April 2010, BS-IV fuel was implemented in 13 major cities (Delhi/NCR,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmadabad, Pune, Surat,
Kanpur and Agra including Lucknow and Sholapur) and BS III fuel made
available in the rest of the country from September 2010. BS IV has since been
expanded to cover 26 cities. Besides this, MoP&NG has decided to expand BS
IV auto fuels to 50 more cities by March 2015.
Emission Standards - BS-IV to BS-V
 In this way, the transition in the first phase scheduled for 1 April 2015 will cover
the whole of North India – Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal, Haryana,
Uttarakhand, western Uttar Pradesh and several bordering districts of Rajasthan.
In the next phase scheduled for 1 April 2016, Kerala, Karnataka, Telangana,
Odisha, Goa, several Union Territories and parts of Maharashtra will be
converted entirely to BS-IV. Finally on 1 April 2017, the entire country will
move to BS IV.
Then on April 2019, the whole of North India and on April 2020 the rest of the
country will switch to BS-V automotive fuel and emission regime.
CHALLENGES FOR INDIAN CITIES

Even in cities with Bharat Stage IV limits, there have been challenges ensuring
the dominance of compliant vehicles. Some of these challenges include: --
** Exemptions granted to some specialty vehicle (e.g., taxis) manufacturers,

** Registration of Bharat Stage III vehicles by vehicle owners outside of their
place residence due to loopholes in residential proof,
** Registration of commercial vehicles outside of the Bharat Stage IV zones and
insufficient availability of some specialty vehicles (e.g., garbage trucks) in
Bharat Stage IV configurations.
PROBLEM WITH EURO – V

According to ICCT, several shortcomings in emissions regulations were revealed
since Euro - V standards were adopted in 2009 in the EU. For heavy-duty
vehicles, Euro - V standards have not achieved the hoped-for reductions for NOX
[nitrogen oxides] emissions. While Euro V standards have resulted in dramatic
reduction in particulate matter (PM), emissions from light-duty diesel and real-
world diesel NOX emissions have continued to far exceed certification limits.
Countries following the European emission standard with Euro - IV have
suggested that they should directly switch over to Euro- VI. This will be binding
on vehicles in Europe from September 1, 2015. The Euro - VI norms were
notified on September 1, 2014. As an emission standard, it did not take into
account real world emissions of NOx and even that of particulate matter.
According to the briefing, Euro - V standards did not make it mandatory for
heavy-duty diesel vehicles to have diesel particulate filters (DPF).
ADVANTAGE EURO – VI
On the other hand, Euro - VI has set a limit for particulate matter emanating out
of a heavy-duty vehicle. Euro - VI lowers both NOx and PM limits . The
standard also overhauls the testing procedures to better represent real-world
driving conditions, broadens the set of pollutants considered and strengthens
durability. A new pilot standard for emission was being tested, which would take
into account real-world driving experience. By fixing portable emissions
measurement system (PEMS) in cars, there is a move to find ‘normal’ conditions.
According to experts Euro - VI can be compared to Low Emission Vehicle 2
norms of the United States of America
NEW GUIDELINES - BS-VI

The Auto Fuel Policy has recommended implementation of BS-VI norms by
2024. A draft notification by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRTH) advanced the date to 1 April 2021. Currently, only 50 cities in India
get BS-IV fuel, while the rest still use BS-III fuel. By switching to BS-VI, India
will join the league of the US, Japan and the European Union, which follow Euro
Stage VI emission norms. It is estimated the oil PSUs will invest INR 287 billion
(US$ 4.4 billion) for the transition and auto companies may have to invest INR
500 billion (US$ 7.5 billion). The Euro – VI , according to The European
Commission would significantly lower NOx emissions. The European
Commission has considered NOx emission limit for diesel cars at 80 milligram
per kilometre (mg/km) for assessing the impact of this measure on air quality and
health. With this move, Europe can join leading countries like the US and Japan
in setting tighter emission.
RISING INDUSTRIAL AND VEHICULAR AIR POLLUTION - AN ISSUE

OF SOCIAL CONCERN WORLDWIDE
Many countries have already adopted a number of measures to control air
pollution caused by diesel vehicles. In Brazil, such cars are not allowed at all
because taxes are kept low for public transport. In China, less than 1 per cent of
cars are diesel ones. Beijing has stopped the plying of diesel cars since 2003. Sri
Lanka has imposed several times higher import duty on diesel cars which has
reduced sales. Several European countries like Denmark and Germany have a
higher tax for diesel as compared to petrol. Paris does not allow diesel cars when
pollution levels increase like when there is smog. It has even announced a
gradual phase-out of diesel cars by 2020 as part of its anti-pollution drive. The
UK has vehicle-targeted incentives. In 1998-99, the country reduced vehicle
excise duty for heavy-duty diesel vehicles with particulate filters and other
technologies to cut down on pollution. Japan gives incentives to refineries for
reducing sulphur content in diesel while Hong Kong gives tax differential
(difference between tax on petrol and diesel cars) in favour of clean fuel.
PREVENTION USING AIR PURIFIERS AND AIR MASKS

Air purifiers come in various sizes and varieties based on the places they are
going to be used at and their capabilities. They can be installed at home, in the
car or in office to filter out the access of few of these pollutants. Filter-based
purifiers are the most common types of affordable purifiers available in the
market. They contain High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters that
physically stop the particulate matter of varying size from entering from the
filter. They are able to stop up-to 99% of the particles of 0.3 micro meters or
above sizes. Activated carbon filters which use the principle of adsorption to be
able to stop particles on a molecular level. These filters are often used with the
HEPA filters to increase the purifying capability of the filters. Thermodynamic
sterilisation (TSS) method uses heat to purify the air. It uses a ceramic core that
can be heated up to 200 degree Celsius, the air is passed through the heated core.
The process kills microbiological particles including bacteria and viruses. The
third type of purifier uses ultraviolet particles to clean the germs present in air.
This technology is also used in water purifiers. Air Masks are another option to
protect oneself in the outdoor conditions. Air masks can be used while
commuting or while one is exposed to a polluted area. Air mask protect us from
suspended air particles and particulate matter up to the size of 2.5 microns and
above. Their usage is limited to some days and should be disposed off after their
prescribed duration of usage. Some of these masks also include a layer of
Activated carbon to filter the air.
The open burning of waste is a large source of toxic air pollutants such as
particulates, carbon monoxide, black carbon, dioxins, furans, and mercury. Air
pollution in India is caused by fuel wood and biomass burning, burning of crop
residue in agriculture fields on a large scale, use of adulterated fuel, emission
from vehicles and traffic congestion. India is the third largest in the emission of
greenhouse gases after China and the United States. The severity of air pollution
is so much that life expectancy among Indians on an average reduces by 3.4
years while among the residents of Delhi it reduces by almost 6.3 years.
CONCLUSIONS
Air quality is an issue of social concern worldwide in the backdrop of rising
industrial and vehicular air pollution. In Global Burden of Disease 2010 (GBD),
outdoor air pollution is among top 10 risks worldwide and among the top five or
six risks in the developing countries of Asia. The air quality level in India is also
reached alarming stage and it requires some urgent measures at policy levels. In
view of the severe pollution issue, Government of India has decided to shift to
Bharat Stage - VI (is equivalent to Euro-VI) emission standard for various
category vehicles by 2020 directly. This is a great move and showing the
commitment of Government of India to curb air pollution. A number of
countries in the world are in the process or have prohibited diesel vehicles or are
in the process of doing away with them by imposing very heavy taxes.
REFERENCES
[1] Alberini, A and A. Krupnick (2000), Cost of illness and willingness to
pay estimates of the benefits of improved air quality: evidence from
Taiwan, Land Economics, 76 (3), pp. 37-53.
[2] Dr. A.G. Matani, Swapnil A. Dahake (2013), Experimental study of heat
transfer enhancement in a pipe using twisted tapes and wire coils,
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 4(2),
pp.100-113.
[3] Dr. A.G. Matani ( 2013), Curricula Challenges of Technical and
Management Education Institution, International Journal of Management
(IJM), 4(1), pp. 56-60
[4] Dr. A.G. Matani (1998), Fly ash from thermal power stations:
Utilization and disposal techniques, research Joiurnal of chemistry &
environment, (91), 1998,pp. 71-73.
[5] Dr. A.G. Matani, Mukesh K. Agrawal (2013), Effect of capillary
diameter on the power consumption of VCRS using different
refrigerants, International Journal of Application or Innovation in
Engineering & Management, 4(3), pp. 21-26.
[6] Dr Ashok G Matani SK Doifode (2015), Effective industrial waste
utilization technologies towards cleaner environment, International
Journal of Chemical and Physical Sciences, 4(1), pp. 536-540.
[7] Dr. A.G. Matani, Swapnil A Dahake,(2013), Experimental study on heat
transfer enhancement in a tube using counter / co-swirl generation,
International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering &
Management, 2(3), pp.12-19.
[8] Dr. S.K. Doifode, Dr. A.G. Matani, (2013), Advanced environment
protection techniques by industries: Potential for corporate social
responsibility activities, International Journal of Civil Engineering, 7(2),
pp. 14-18.
[9] Gauderman, W J, et al.,(2002), Association between air pollution and
lung function growth in southern California children: results from a
second cohort, American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine,
166 (1), pp. 74-84.
[10] Kumar, S. and D. N. Rao (2001), Valuing benefits of air pollution
abatement using health production function: a case study of Panipat
thermal power station, India, Journal of Environmental & Resource
Economics, 20 (2), pp. 91-102
[11] Keiko Hirota, Shogo Sakamoto, Satoshi Shibuya and Shigeru Kashima,
(2017), A Methodology of health effects estimation from air pollution in
large Asian cities, Environments,4( 60), pp. 1-19
[12] Murty , M. N., A.J. James and Smita Misra (1999), Economics of water
pollution: the Indian experience, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
[13] Murty , M N and Surender Kumar (2003), Environmental and economic
accounting for industry, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
[14] Various reports published in The Times of India Nagpur edition 2017,
2018.
[15] https://www.thehindubusinessline.com
[16] http://www.tribuneindia.com
[17] http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in
[18] http://www.financialexpress.com
[19] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com
[20] https://auto.ndtv.com
[21] https://www.dieselnet.com
[22] http://www.downtoearth.org.in
[23] http://www.downtoearth.org.in
[24] https://www.embitel.com
[25] https://www.youthkiawaaz.com
[26] http://envfor.nic.in
[27] https://www.firstpost.com
[28] https://www.unicef.org
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Renewable energy power generation has grown as a result of clean energy

Dr. Shamal K. Doifode

S. No. Title/Authors Name Page No.

1. Ecological Psychology 1-7

2. Sources of clean energy: Solar and Hydropower 9-23

3. Potent bioremediators of environmental Polycyclic Aromatic 25-45

4. An Overview of Smart Grid System 47-66

5. Eco-Friendly Marketing 67-78

6. A Review of Thin Film Chalcogenide Photovoltaic 79-91

7. Linkage Between Global Co2 Emission And World 93-120

8. Climate Change and Its Impact on Environment 121-135

9. Novel method for the fabrication of nano composite of 137-157

10. The Importance of Environmental Ethics 159-167

11. Quantum dots diameter correlated with optical 169-189

12. Nano-technology in renewable energy 191-208

13. The influence of Mortality Rate for Prey on A Three 209-225

14. Global Stability Analysis On A Two Species Monad 227-238

15. Overview of the entrepreneurship of biodiesel 239-252

16. Nanotechnology in the field of renewable energy 253-273

17. Various Renewable Energy Sources and Importance 275-285

18. Wind, Geothermal, Small hydro & Water 287-304

19. Need for Implementing Renewable Energy Sources 305-312

20. Conventional energy sources and their limitations 313-319

22. Ecological Psychology: Introductory Review 337-356

23. An Overview of Environmental Chemistry 357-373

24. Laccase-Oxidoreductase Enzyme and It’s Application 375-396

25. Smart City and Sustainability 397-408

26. Efficiency Enhancment of Solar Panel 409-438

27. Controlling Air Pollution in India: Potentialities and 439-448

Dr. Prashanthkumar T.M.

Rationale of the Ecological Psychology

Meaning and Definitions of Ecology and Psychology

environment into five different levels.

1.The Micro System

2. The Meso System

3. The Exo System

4) The Macro System

The Psychological Tradition and the Ecological Perspective

a role in determining individual behavior equal to that of personal factors. Barker

Behavior Setting and Ecological Psychology

The Ecological Approach to Perception

Gibson’s theory of perception is information based rather than sensation based

Sources of clean energy: Solar and

Ho Soonmin1*, Sumit Wagh2, Abudukeremu Kadier3

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of hydropower energy

required to run a HP station, as most of construct a large HP project can

World installed hydropower capacity indicates that the hydropower sector is

Figure 1: Global total of installed hydropower capacity (GW) by country at the

extracting heat from the sun and producing green electricity.

•In case of cloudy climate, there would be no sign of sun which is

Photovoltaic generation is gaining an increased importance as renewable energy

Table 3: The voltage and current output from solar panel.

Day Time Solar radiation (W/m2) Voltage (V) Current (A)