Analisis Numerico 17

MHBbBb LmKû`B+Q iM +QKTH2DQ [m2 bƦHQ Tm2/ b2` HH2p/Q +#Q TQ` Ki2KiB+Qb 2bT2+BHBbibX
S2`Q bB bƦHQ b2 `2[mB2`2 mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM /2H p2`//2`Q pHQ` /2 H

TQ` C2bȹb *`MB+2` Hp`2x- 7mM+BƦM- Hb iû+MB+b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM T2`KBi2M miBHBx` HQb pHQ`2b v +QMQ+B/Qb
T` Q#i2M2` T`QtBK+BQM2b /2H pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM K2/BMi2 7Ʀ`KmHb bBKTH2b
.2TìK2MiQ /2 Ji2KiB+ THB+/- [m2 /2Kb +QMiB2M2M BM7Q`K+BƦM bQ#`2 2H iKƢQ /2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/QX
lMBp2`bB// /2 w`;Qx- /B+B2K#`2 kyRd 1H KûiQ/Q Kb bBKTH2 /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QMbBbi2 2M bmbiBimB` HQb pHQ`2b
/2 mM 7mM+BƦM f +mvQ pHQ` +QMQ+2KQb 2M /Qb TmMiQb x0 , x1 - TQ` H 7mM+BƦM
RX AMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2X TQHBMƦKB+ /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q p(x) +mv ;`}+ 2b H HőM2 `2+i [m2 mM2 HQb
TmMiQb (x0 , f (x0 )) v (x1 , f (x1 ))X
Gb iû+MB+b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`2+2M 2M Ji2KiB+b +QM Km+? 7`2+m2M+BX
1H MQK#`2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM bB;MB}+ BMb2ì` mM pHQ` Q mM TmMiQ 2Mi`2 Qi`Qb v
//Qb- 2M +QMi`bi2 +QM 2H MQK#`2 2ti`TQH+BƦM- [m2 [mB2`2 /2+B` +QHQ+`HQ Y1
7m2`X 1M ;2M2`H- 2H MHBbBb /2H 2``Q` v /2 H 2bi#BHB// MQb T2`KBi2 }`K` P1
[m2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`QTQ`+BQM `2bmHi/Qb Kb 2t+iQb [m2 H 2ti`TQH+BƦM

v [m2 HQb +H+mHQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM bQM Kb 2bi#H2b [m2 HQb +H+mHQb /2 2t@ Y P
i`TQH+BƦMX 1M Km+?Qb +bQb- b2 miBHBxM HQb KBbKQb KûiQ/Qb v 7Ʀ`KmHb
T` BMi2`TQH+BƦM v T` 2ti`TQH+BƦM- TQ` HQ [m2 MQ b2 bm2H2 2bi#H2+2` H
/BbiBM+BƦM- miBHBxM/Qb2 H TH#` BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM bB;MB}+/Q ;2Mû`B+Q- BM@ Y0
/2T2M/B2Mi2K2Mi2 /2 [m2 2H pHQ` +H+mH/Q +Q``2bTQM/ TmMiQb BMi2`BQ`2b Q P0
2ti2`BQ`2bX
GQb T`BK2`Qb KûiQ/Qb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2biM HB;/Qb H mbQ /2 i#HbX u
2M MiB;mQb i2tiQb ##BHQMBQb T`2+2M `272`2M+Bb [m2 BM/B+M [m2 HQb KûiQ/Qb
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM b2 mb#M T` +QKTH2i` i#HbX 1M H Ki2KiB+ ;`B2; H X0 X X1
`2+QK2M/+BƦM /2 bmbiBimB` 2H pHQ` 2t+iQ TQ` Qi`Q T`QtBK/Q K2/BMi2 BM@ 6B;m` RXRX AMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2H v h2Q`2K /2 h?H2bX
i2`TQH+BƦM bQM Kb 2tTHő+BibX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- H aBMitBb /2 SiQHQK2Q Km2bi`
+ƦKQ Tm2/2 +QMbi`mB`b2 mM i#H [m2 T`QTQ`+BQM H HQM;Bim/ /2 mM +m2`/ *QKQ H ;`}+ /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b mM HőM2 `2+i- Tm2/2 /2/m+B`b2 2H
c(x) = 2 sen(x/2) +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 mM /2i2`KBM/ HQM;Bim/ /2 `+Q x- [m2 pHQ` /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 y = p(x) K2/BMi2 2H h2Q`2K /2 h?H2bX a2 y0 =
Tm2/2 +QMbB/2``b2 +QKQ H i#H Kb MiB;m /2 pHQ`2b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM i`B@ f (x0 )- y1 = f (x1 ) v /2}MKQb HQb TmMiQb
;QMQKûi`B+X 1M 2H bB;HQ soAA- CQ?M LTB2` v CQbi "Ƀ`;B BMi`Q/mD2`QM 2H mbQ
/2 i#Hb /2 HQ;`BiKQb [m2 7m2`QM K2DQ`/b TQ` >2M`v "`B;;b- [m2 bm p2x P0 = (x0 , y0 ), P = (x, y), P1 = (x1 , y1 ).
BMi`Q/mDQ Mm2pb i#Hb /2 7mM+BQM2bX S` 2H +H+mHQ /2 H;mMQb pHQ`2b /2
Hb i#Hb miBHBx`QM iû+MB+b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM mbM/Q TQHBMQKBQb +m/ìB+Qb- GQb TmMiQb P0 , P, P1 2biM HBM2/Qb TQ`[m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M H ;`}+ /2 H
Q#i2MB2M/Q `2bmHi/Qb Kmv T`2+BbQbX 7mM+BƦM p(x)X a2M X0 - X v X1 Hb T`Qv2++BQM2b `2bT2+iBpb bQ#`2 2H 2D2 /2 Hb
ss^ /2 P0 , P, P1 2 Y0 - Y - Y1 Hb T`Qv2++BQM2b `2bT2+iBpb bQ#`2 2H 2D2 /2 Hb uu^X
1tBbi2M 7mM+BQM2b +mvQ +H+mHQ v i#mH+BƦM Tm2/2 b2` Kmv H#Q`BQbQX
a2;ȹM 2H h2Q`2K /2 h?H2b- HQb b2;K2MiQb P0 P v P0 P1 bQM T`QTQ`+BQMH2b
AM+HmbQ mM[m2 KM2D2KQb mM i#H Kmv +QKTH2i /2 mM 7mM+BƦM- bB2KT`2
HQb b2;K2MiQb X0 X v X0 X1 v iK#BûM HQb b2;K2MiQb Y0 Y v Y0 Y1
TQ/2KQb M2+2bBi` mM pHQ` MQ +QMi2MB/Q 2M H i#HX SQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` 2H
pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM pQHpB2M/Q `2HBx` iQ/Qb HQb +H+mHQb M2+2b`BQb +QM 2H X0 X P0 P Y0 Y
+QMbB;mB2Mi2 +QMbmKQ /2 `2+m`bQb v /2 iB2KTQX AM+HmbQ 2H +H+mHQ Tm2/2 b2` = = .
X0 X1 P0 P1 Y0 Y1
1 2
SQ` iMiQ i2M2KQb T`QTQ`+BQMHB// 2Mi`2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /2 pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM@ aB +QMQ+2KQb 2H pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM f 2M Kb /2 /Qb TmMiQb T`2+2 HƦ;B+Q
+BƦM p v /B72`2M+Bb `2bT2+iBpb /2 Hb #b+Bbb miBHBx` iQ/ 2b BM7Q`K+BƦM T` +QMbi`mB` mM 7mM+BƦM p [m2 i2M; K2DQ`2b
y y0 x x0 T`QTB2//2b /2 T`QtBK+BƦM [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ /2 T`BK2` ;`/QX
= . 1M 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 #mb+KQb mM T`QtBK+BƦM p
y1 y 0 x1 x0
+mvQb pHQ`2b +QBM+B/M +QM HQb /2 H 7mM+BƦM f 2M HQb TmMiQb //QbX
1bi `2H+BƦM /2 T`QTQ`+BQMHB// T2`KBi2 /2i2`KBM` H /B72`2M+B y y0
K2/BMi2 H `2H+BƦM S`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM G;`M;2X a2 iì /2 2M+QMi`` mM 7mM+BƦM
y1 y0
y y0 = (x x0 ), p iH [m2 p(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , n- T` xi 2 _ /BbiBMiQb- yi 2 _- i = 0, . . . , n-
x1 x0
`#Bi``BQbX
v- +QMbB/2`M/Q 2bi2 pHQ` +QKQ H +Q``2++BƦM [m2 /2#2 Ƣ/B`b2 y0 T`
+H+mH` 2H pHQ` /2 y- Q#i2M2KQb 1M 2H THMi2KB2MiQ /2H T`Q#H2K 2bi BKTHő+BiQ [m2 2H /QKBMBQ /2 /2}@
y1 y0 MB+BƦM /2 H bQHm+BƦM p /2#2 b2` mM +QMDmMiQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb
y = y0 + (x x0 ),
x1 x0 x0 , . . . , xn X *QM 7`2+m2M+B b2 2tB;2 [m2 H bQHm+BƦM b2 mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm
/2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q v 2H /QKBMBQ /2 /2}MB+BƦM /2 H bQHm+BƦM b2 mM BMi2`pHQX
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) :2QKûi`B+K2Mi2- 2H T`Q#H2K b2 i`/m+2 2M /2i2`KBM` mM +m`p /2 H
p(x) = f (x0 ) +
x1 x0
(x x0 ). 7Q`K (x, p(x))- x 2 I- [m2 Tb2 TQ` iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb (xi , yi )- i = 0, . . . , nX
Gb #b+Bbb xi /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 MQ/Qb v HQb pHQ`2b yi
ambiBimB` HQb pHQ`2b /2 f (x) TQ` HQb /2 p(x) Tm2/2 +QM/m+B`MQb ;`M/2b `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 /iQbX
2``Q`2b /2 +H+mHQ- T2`Q bB H 7mM+BƦM 2b bmp2 v HQb TmMiQb x0 - x1 - x- 2biM
1b ?#BimH [m2 HQb /iQb T`Q+2/M /2 mM 7mM+BƦM- 2b /2+B` yi = f (xi )-
bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T`ƦtBKQb- 2H 2``Q` Tm2/2 b2` Kmv T2[m2ƢQX 1M H 6B;m` RXk
i = 0, . . . , n- T` +B2ì 7mM+BƦM f X 1M 2b2 +bQ /2+BKQb [m2 H bQHm+BƦM p(x)
b2 Km2bi` 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q [m2 BMi2`TQH H 7mM+BQM log(x)
2b H 7mM+BƦM BMi2`TQH/Q` Q BMi2`TQHMi2 v [m2 f (x) 2b H 7mM+BƦM BMi2`TQH/
2M HQb TmMiQb x0 = 1- x1 = 2X 1H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q 2b #DQ 2M 2H BMi2`BQ` /2H
Q BMi2`TQHM/QX
BMi2`pHQ (1, 2) v +2`+ /2 HQb 2ti`2KQbX
S`Q#H2K /2 G;`M;2 2M mM 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b
log(x)
p(x) 1M HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 G;`M;2- 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bm2H2 2H2;B`b2 /2Mi`Q /2 HQb 2H2@
K2MiQb /2 mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH /2 7mM+BQM2b U - HHK/Q 2bT+BQ BMi2`TQH/Q`X
lbmHK2Mi2 H /BK2MbBƦM /2 U +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H MȹK2`Q /2 MQ/QbX
1M H /Bb+mbBƦM /2 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2b ȹiBH +QMbB/2``
H 2pHm+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/Qb
0 1
u(x0 )
X : u 2 U 7! @ XXX A 2 _n+1 ,
B C
u(xn )
[m2 2b mM THB++BƦM HBM2HX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 2M mM

+QMDmMiQ /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H THB++BƦM
2pHm+BƦM X, T` mM +QMDmMiQ /2 /iQb (y0 , . . . , yn ) 2 _n+1 - #mb+KQb
6B;m` RXkX 1H HQ;`BiKQ M2T2`BMQ v bm BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H 2M x0 = 1- x1 = 2X u 2 U iH [m2 Xu = (y0 , . . . , yn )X
3 4
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 mM BMi2`TQHMi2 BMi2`TQHMi2 T` +mH@ G Ki`Bx /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H bBbi2K Mi2`BQ` b2 HHK Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ+@
[mB2` +QMDmMiQ /2 /iQb (y0 , . . . , yn ) 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 X 2b mM THB+@ +BƦM Q Ki`Bx /2 oM/2`KQM/2 /2 H #b2 (u0 , . . . , un ) 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb
+BƦM bmT`v2+iBpX G mMB+B// /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M U 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 (x0 , . . . , xn ) v b2 /2MQi TQ`
H THB++BƦM X 2b BMv2+iBpX ⇣u , . . . , u ⌘
1b #B2M +QMQ+B/Q [m2 mM THB++BƦM HBM2H 2Mi`2 /Qb 2bT+BQb p2+iQ`BH2b M
0 n
= (uj (xi ))i,j=0,...,n .
/2 H KBbK /BK2MbBƦM }MBi 2b BMv2+iBp bB v bƦHQ bB 2b bmT`v2+iBpX SQ` 2HHQ- x0 , . . . , x n
bB dim U = n + 1- 2b /2+B`- H /BK2MbBƦM /2H 2bT+BQ U +QBM+B/ +QM 2H MȹK2`Q
/2 MQ/Qb- 2MiQM+2b H 2tBbi2M+B /2 bQHm+BƦM /2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM S`QTQbB+BƦM RXkX a2 U mM 2bT+BQ /2 /BK2MbBƦM n + 1 v (u0 , . . . , un ) mM
/2 G;`M;2 2[mBpH2 H mMB+B//X _2bmKBKQb 2bi +QM+HmbBƦM 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 #b2 +mH[mB2` /2 /B+?Q 2bT+BQX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2
`2bmHi/QX 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+ T` +mH[mB2` +QMDmMiQ
/2 /iQb y0 , . . . , yn bB v bƦHQ bB H Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM
S`QTQbB+BƦM RXRX a2 U mM 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b /2}MB/b 2M mM BMi2`pHQ
⇣u , . . . , u ⌘
[m2 +QMiB2M2 x0 , . . . , xn +QM dim U = n + 1X aQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b M
0 n
UV G ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , x n

x0 , . . . , xn v /iQb MmHQb 2M 2H 2bT+BQ U 2b H 7mM+BƦM MmHX
2b MQ bBM;mH`X
U#V aB2KT`2 2tBbi2 H K2MQb mM bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 G;`M;2 +QM MQ/Qb
x0 , . . . , xn v /iQb y0 , . . . , yn +mH2b[mB2` 2M 2H 2bT+BQ U X .2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ (u0 , . . . , un ) mM
Pn#b2 /2H 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH U - iQ/
U+V 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn 2b mMB@ 7mM+BƦM u 2 U - 2b /2 H 7Q`K u(x) = j=0 cj uj (x)X aB u p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B@
bQHp2Mi2 2M U - 2b /2+B`- T` +mH[mB2` +QMDmMiQ /2 /iQb- bB2KT`2 2tBbi2 +BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M U X
u(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n,
o2KQb [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 2M n + 1 MQ/Qb
2M mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH U +QM dim U = n + 1 b2 `2/m+2 `2bQHp2` mM bBbi2K 2MiQM+2b 2H p2+iQ` /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b (c0 , . . . , cn ) p2`B}+
/2 n + 1 2+m+BQM2b v n + 1 BM+Ʀ;MBibX S` 2HHQ- +QMbB/2`KQb (u0 , . . . , un )
mM #b2 /2H 2bT+BQ
Pn p2+iQ`BH U X 1MiQM+2b iQ/ 7mM+BƦM u 2 U - 2b /2 H 0 1 0 1
c0 y0
7Q`K u(x) = j=0 cj uj (x)X H BKTQM2` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M ⇣ u , . . . , u ⌘ B c 1 C B y1 C
x0 , . . . , xn i2M2KQb M
0 n B
X C = B X C.
x0 , . . . , xn @ XX A @ XX A
n
X cn yn
cj uj (xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n,
j=0 _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2-
Pn bB (c0 , . . . , cn ) 2b bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K HBM2H Mi2`BQ`- 2MiQM+2b
u(x) = j=0 cj uj (x) p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/Qb
Q 2M 7Q`K Ki`B+BH u(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , nX SQ` iMiQ- H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H
0 u (x ) T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2[mBpH2M H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H
u1 (x0 ) ··· un (x0 ) 1 0 c0 1 0 y0 1
0 0
bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2X
B u0 (x1 ) u1 (x1 ) ··· un (x1 ) C B c1 C B y1 C
B X XX XX XX CB X C = B X C.
@ X X A @ XX A @ X A G T`QTQbB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` T`2+2 BM/B+` [m2 2H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 H Ki`Bx
X X X X
u0 (xn ) u1 (xn ) ··· un (xn ) cn yn /2 +QHQ++BƦM b2 MQ bBM;mH` MQ /2T2M/2 /2 H #b2 2H2;B/X aBM 2K#`;Q- H
5 6
Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 /2T2M/2 /2 H #b2 2H2;B/X *QMbB/2`2KQb 1M 2b2 +bQ i2M2KQb
n
X
(v0 , . . . , vn ) Qi` #b2 /2 U v b2 P H Ki`Bx /2 +K#BQ 2Mi`2 Hb #b2b
t(x) = ck exp(ikx).
(v0 , . . . , vn ) = (u0 , . . . , un )P. k= n
/QM/2 c0 = a0 /2 v
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
⇣v ,...,v ⌘ ⇣u , . . . , u ⌘ ak + ibk ak ibk
M
0 n
=M
0 n
P. c k = , ck = , k = 1, . . . , n.
x0 , . . . , x n x0 , . . . , x n 2 2
AMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb 2tTQM2M+BH2bX a2 2HB;2 +QKQ 2bT@
*QKQ H Ki`Bx /2 +K#BQ /2 #b2 P 2b MQ bBM;mH`- p2KQb [m2 2H ?2+?Q /2
+BQ BMi2`TQH/Q` 2H 2bT+BQ E ;2M2`/Q TQ` Hb 7mM+BQM2b
[m2 H Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM b2 MQ bBM;mH` MQ /2T2M/2 /2 H #b2 2H2;B/X
.2b+`B#BKQb +QMiBMm+BƦM H;mMQb 2bT+BQb /2 7mM+BQM2b 2M HQb [m2 bm`;2 exp( 0 x), . . . , exp( n x), 0 < ··· < n.
H M2+2bB// /2 #mb+` BMi2`TQHMi2b T` Q#i2M2` T`QtBK+BQM2b /2 mM 7mM@
+BƦMX aB /KBiBKQb pHQ`2b +QKTH2DQb T` HQb T`K2i`Qb - Q#i2M2KQb HQb TQHBMQ@
KBQb i`B;QMQKûi`B+Qb +QKQ +bQ TìB+mH`X
AMi2`TQH+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+X a2 2HB;2 +QKQ 2bT+BQ BMi2`TQH/Q` 2H 2bT+BQ Pn
/2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q AMi2`TQH+BƦM TQ` 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2X a2 2HB;2 +QKQ 2bT+BQ BMi2`TQH/Q`
Pn K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n- /2 KQ/Q [m2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 mM 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2X ./Qb TmMiQb /2 mM BMi2`pHQ
2b /2 H 7Q`K p(x) = i=0 ci xi X G Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2K
`2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 Ki`Bx /2 oM/2`KQM/2 a = ⌧0 < ⌧1 < · · · < ⌧n = b,
0 1 x · · · xn 1
⇣ 1, x, . . . , xn ⌘ B 1
0 0 HHK/Qb Mm/Qb- [m2/ BM/m+B/ mM TìB+BƦM /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] 2M n bm#BM@
x1 ··· xn1 C
=B i2`pHQb [⌧i , ⌧i+1 ]- i = 0, . . . , n 1X lM 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 2b mM 7mM+BƦM s :
V (x0 , . . . , xn ) = M @ XX XX XX XX C
A.
x0 , x 1 , . . . , x n X X X X [a, b] ! _ [m2 +QBM+B/2 +QM mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M +/ bm#BMi2`pHQ /2 H TìB@
1 xn ··· xnn +BƦMX 1biQb BMi2`TQHMi2b b2 miBHBxM T` T`Q#H2Kb +QM mM ;`M MȹK2`Q /2
/iQb- v [m2 T`2b2MiM #m2Mb T`QTB2//2b /2 2bi#BHB//X
AMi2`TQH+BƦM i`B;QMQKûi`B+X a2 2HB;2 +QKQ 2bT+BQ BMi2`TQH/Q` 2H 2b@
T+BQ Tn /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb i`B;QMQKûi`B+Qb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n- AMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b `+BQMH2bX a2 2HB;2M +QKQ BMi2`TQ@
;2M2`/Q TQ` HMi2b 7mM+BQM2b `+BQMH2b
p(x)
1, cos x, sen x, cos 2x, sen 2x, . . . , cos nx, sen nx. r(x) = , p 2 Pn , q 2 Pm .
q(x)
hQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ i`B;QMQKûi`B+Q /KBi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM 1H ;`/Q /2H /2MQKBM/Q` MQ iB2M2 TQ` [mû +QBM+B/B` +QM 2H ;`/Q /2H Mm@
n
X K2`/Q`X aB 2H /2MQKBM/Q` 2b }DQ- b2 Tm2/2 7Q`K` mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH /2
a0 BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 /BK2MbBƦM T`QTB/X aB +QMbB/2`KQb H TQbB#BHB// /2 i2M2`
t(x) = + (ak cos(kx) + bk sen(kx)).
2
k=1 /2MQKBM/Q`2b p`B#H2b- 2MiQM+2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b +QMbB/2`/Qb
Tm2/2 MQ b2` mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH- /M/Q Hm;` mM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH@
S` /2i2`KBM/Qb T`QTƦbBiQb Tm2/2 b2` +QMp2MB2Mi2 2tT`2b` mM TQHBMQKBQ +BƦM MQ HBM2HX 1M /B+?Q +bQ- H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM `2[mB2`2M
i`B;QMQKûi`B+Q `2bT2+iQ H #b2 +QKTH2D mM MHBbBb Kb +QKTHB+/Q- v [m2 H bQHm+BƦM MQ b2 Q#iB2M2 bBKTH2K2Mi2
`2bQHpB2M/Q mM bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b HBM2H2bX
exp(ikx) = cos kx + i sen kx, k= n, . . . , 1, 0, 1, . . . , n.
7 8
G `2;H /2 _m77BMB Q H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` SQ/2KQb BMi2`T`2i` Hb `2H+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b +QKQ mM bBbi2K i`BM;mH` bm@
./Qb /Qb TQHBMQKBQb p(x) v d(x) +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b UQ +QKTH2DQbV iH2b T2`BQ` +mvQ p2+iQ` /2 BM+Ʀ;MBib 2b (r, b0 , . . . , bn 1 )X G `2bQHm+BƦM /2 /B+?Q
[m2 d(x) MQ 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ MmHQ- 2tBbi2M /Qb TQHBMQKBQb q(x) v r(x) +QM bBbi2K TQ` bmbiBim+BƦM `2;`2bBp / Hm;` Hb `2H+BQM2b /2 `2+m``2M+B URXkVX
+Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b UQ +QKTH2DQbV iH2b [m2 1M 272+iQ- /2 H ȹHiBK 2+m+BƦM Q#i2M2KQb 2H pHQ` /2 bn 1 = an X S`Q+2@
/B2M/Q +QM H bmbiBim+BƦM `2;`2bBp Q#i2M2KQb bm+2bBpK2Mi2 HQb pHQ`2b
p(x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x),
bi 1 = a i + x 0 bi , i=n 1, . . . , 2, 1.
/QM/2 grad q = grad p grad d- grad r < grad dX 1H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) `2+B#2 2H 6BMHK2Mi2 H T`BK2` 2+m+BƦM b2 miBHBx T` Q#i2M2` r = a0 + x0 b0 X
MQK#`2 /2 /BpB/2M/Q- d(x) /BpBbQ`- v /2i2`KBMM mMőpQ+K2Mi2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb
aB p 6= 0- 2HBKBMM/Q HQb iû`KBMQb }MH2b +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 MmHQ- TQ/2KQb
q(x) +Q+B2Mi2 v r(x) `2biQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM 2m+Hő/2X 1M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` /2 [m2
2tT`2b` p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn - +QM an 6= 0X .2 H `2H+BƦM bn 1 = an -
grad d(x) = 1- b2 iB2M2 [m2 grad q(x) = grad p(x) 1 v 2H `2biQ r 2b mM
/2/m+BKQb [m2 bn 1 6= 0 v grad q = n 1 = grad p 1X
+QMbiMi2X /2Kb 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 /2 7Q`K
bBMiûiB+ K2/BMi2 mM b2M+BHH `2+m``2M+BX Gb `2H+BQM2b URXkV ȹMB+K2Mi2 BMpQHm+`M bmKb v KmHiBTHB++BQM2b /2
HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b a0 , . . . , an v x0 X SQ` iMiQ bB 2H TQHBMQKBQ p iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b
h2Q`2K RXj UH;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2`VX a2 p(x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an x - mM n
`2H2b v x0 2 _ 2MiQM+2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ +Q+B2Mi2 q iK#BûM iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b
TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2DQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n v x0 2 *X
`2H2b v 2H `2biQ r iK#BûM 2b mM +QMbiMi2 `2HX
UV 1tBbi2 mM TQHBMQKBQ q(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn 1 xn 1
/2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q
Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb URXkV bBKTHB}+M +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 2H +H+mHQ /2H +Q+B2Mi2
B;mH [m2 n 1 v mM +QMbiMi2 r 2 * iH2b [m2
v /2H `2biQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM /M/Q Hm;` H HHK/ `2;H /2 _m{MB- [m2 2M bm
p(x) = (x x0 )q(x) + r (1.1) p2`bBƦM H;Q`őiKB+ `2+B#2
Pn 2H MQK#`2 /2 H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2`X S` 2pHm`
mM TQHBMQKBQ p(x) = i=0 ai xi 2M x = x0 - TQ/2KQb 2pHm` b2T`/K2Mi2
aB p 6= 0- 2MiQM+2b grad q = grad p 1X +/ mMQ /2 HQb bmKM/Qb
U#V GQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H +Q+B2Mi2 q(x) v 2H `2biQ r 2biM /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` p(x) p(x0 ) = a0 + a1 x0 + a2 x20 + · · · + an xn0 .
v x0 v Tm2/2M +H+mH`b2 K2/BMi2 H `2+m``2M+B
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 2H bmKM/Q i@ûbBKQ ai xi0 +QMiB2M2 i T`Q/m+iQb- b2
bn 1 := an , `2[mB2`2M 0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2 T`Q/m+iQb v n bmKb 2M iQiHX
bi 1 := ai + x0 bi , i=n 1, . . . , 2, 1, (1.2) SQ/2KQb 2+QMQKBx` KmHiBTHB++BQM2b 2M H 2pHm+BƦM /2 Hb TQi2M+Bb ⇡i :=
r := a0 + x0 b0 xi0 - i = 1, . . . , n- HK+2MM/Q HQb `2bmHi/Qb T`2pBK2Mi2 +H+mH/Qb
⇡1 := x0
.2KQbi`+BƦMX aB /2b``QHHKQb URXRV Q#i2M2KQb ⇡i := x0 ⇡i 1, i = 2, . . . , n,
n n 1 p(x0 ) = a0 + a1 ⇡1 + · · · + an ⇡n
a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x = (x x0 )(b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn 1x )+r =
(r x0 b0 ) + (b0 x0 b1 )x + · · · + (bn 2 x 0 bn 1 )x
n 1
+ bn 1x
n
. v miBHBx` 2n 1 T`Q/m+iQb v n bmKbX 1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` URXkV T`QTQ`@
+BQM 2H pHQ` /2 r = p(x0 ) miBHBxM/Q bQHK2Mi2 n T`Q/m+iQb v n bmKbX SQ`
A/2MiB}+M/Q HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 2bi2 TQHBMQKBQ +QM HQb /2H TQHBMQKBQ p Q#i2@ bm KvQ` 2+QMQKő- b2 `2+QKB2M/ mb` 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` 2M Hm;` /2 bm@
M2KQb K` HQb pHQ`2b /2 +/ KQMQKBQX 1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2
r x 0 b0 = a 0
+QKQ 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 2pHm+BƦM +Q``2bTQM/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH MB//
bi 1 x 0 bi = a i , i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1, ⇣ ⌘
bn 1 = an . p(x0 ) = a0 + x0 a1 + x0 a2 + · · · + x0 (an 1 + x0 an ) .
9 10
GQb TbQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` +Q``2bTQM/2M 2pHm` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb 2Mi`2 1D2KTHQX a2 [mB2`2 `2HBx` H /BpBbBƦM /2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) = x4 +3x3 2x2 +5
T`ûMi2bBb- +QK2MxM/Q TQ` HQb T`ûMi2bBb Kb BMi2`MQb v i2`KBMM/Q +QM 2H T` x + 2X S` Q#i2M2` 2H `2biQ- TQ/2KQb THB+` 2H h2Q`2K /2H `2biQ
Kb 2ti2`BQ`X SìB2M/Q /2 H B/2MiB}++BƦM bn 1 = an - 2H T`ûMi2bBb BMi2`BQ` r = p( 2) v 2H T`Q#H2K b2 `2/m+2 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQX ambiBimv2M/Q
2b bn 2 = an 1 + x0 bn 1 X 1H pHQ` /2H T`ûMi2bBb [m2 HQ +QMiB2M2 2b bn 3 = /B`2+iK2Mi2 x = 2 i2M2KQb
an 2 + x0 bn 2 v bő bm+2bBpK2Mi2- ?bi i2M2` 2H +QMi2MB/Q /2H T`ûMi2bBb
r = p( 2) = 16 24 8+5= 11.
2ti2`BQ` b0 = a1 + x0 b1 X 6BMHK2Mi2 2H pHQ` /2H TQHBMQKBQ 2b r = a0 + x0 b0 X
1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` miBHBx K2MQb QT2`+BQM2b v T`Qp2+? HQb TbQb BMi2`@
1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` Tm2/2 miBHBx`b2 T` 2pHm` Hb /2`Bp/b bm+2@
K2/BQb T` T`QTQ`+BQM` BM7Q`K+BƦM bQ#`2 2H +Q+B2Mi2X aB;mB2M/Q HQb TbQb
bBpb /2 pX 1M 272+iQ- /2`BpM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH URXRV Q#i2M2KQb
/2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` Q#i2M2KQb
p0 (x) = (x x0 )q 0 (x) + q(x) b3 = 1, b2 = 3 + ( 2) = 1, b1 = 2 + ( 2) = 4, b0 = ( 2)( 4) = 8,

r = 5 + ( 2)8 = 11
v- 2pHmM/Q 2M x = x0 - HH2;KQb H +QM+HmbBƦM /2 [m2 p0 (x0 ) = q(x0 )X Gm2;Q GQb +H+mHQb Mi2`BQ`2b Tm2/2M T`2b2Mi`b2 2M mM i#H /2 _m{MB
T` 2pHm` H /2`Bp/ /2 p 2M 2H TmMiQ x0 #bi +QM 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQ 1 3 2 0 5
+Q+B2Mi2 2M x0 - 2pHm+BƦM [m2 Tm2/2 `2HBx`b2 TQ` 2H KûiQ/Q /2 >Q`M2`X 2 2 2 8 16
aB [m2`2KQb Q#i2M2` /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M bmT2`BQ`- 2b M2+2b`BQ THB+` 2H 1 1 4 8 b 11
H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` `2Bi2`/K2Mi2X .2MQiM/Q TQ` qj (x) H +Q+B2Mi2 /2 H
/BpBbBƦM /2 p(x) T` (x x0 )j - j = 0, . . . , n- i2M2KQb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
p(x) = 11 + (x + 2)(x3 + x2 4x + 8).
qj (x) = (x x0 )qj+1 (x) + qj (x0 ), j = 0, . . . , n 1.
aB [m2`2KQb +H+mH` Hb /2`Bp/b bm+2bBpb 2M x = 2 THB+`2KQb `2Bi2`/@
K2Mi2 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2`- [m2 TQ/2KQb `2T`2b2Mi` K2/BMi2 Hb i#Hb
THB+M/Q H /2`Bp/ k@ûbBK K#Qb KB2K#`Qb 1  k  n j Q#i2M2KQb
2M+/2M/b
Hb `2H+BQM2b
1 3 2 0 5
(k) (k) (k 1) 2 2 2 8 16
qj (x) = (x x0 )qj+1 (x) + kqj 1 (x), j = 0, . . . , n 1,
1 1 4 8 b 11
v 2pHmM/Q 2M x0 - b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2 2 2 4
1 1 2 b12
(k) (k 1) 2 2 6
qj (x0 ) = kqj+1 (x0 ), j = 0, . . . , n 1,
1 3 b4
THB+M/Q `2Bi2`/K2Mi2 Hb `2H+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b 2 2
(k) (k 1) (k 2)
1 b 5
p(k) (x0 ) = q0 (x0 ) = kq1 (x0 ) = k(k 1)q2 (x0 ) = · · · = k!qk (x0 ),
Q#i2MB2M/Q HQb pHQ`2b
b2 /2/m+2 [m2 H `2Bi2`+BƦM /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` k + 1 p2+2b +QM/m+2 H p0 ( 2) = 12, p00 ( 2) = 8, p000 ( 2) = 30, p(4) ( 2) = 24.
+H+mHQ /2H pHQ` qk (x0 ) = p(k) (x0 )/k!X
11 12
1H i2Q`2K /2H `2biQ v 2H h2Q`2K 6mM/K2MiH /2H zH;2#` 1H Tì/Q U#V /2H h2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` `2+B#2 p2+2b 2H MQK#`2 /2 Teorema
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 +mH[mB2` ⇠ 2 * iH [m2 p(⇠) = 0 `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 `őx /2H del factor 2MmM+B/Q v miBHBx/Q TQ` _2Mû .2b+ì2b 2M Rejd 2M bm Q#` G
TQHBMQKBQ pX 1H +QMQ+BKB2MiQ /2 `ő+2b /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ T2`KBi2 7+iQ`Bx`HQ :ûQKûi`B2X *QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B- i2M2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q [m2 b2 i`B#mv2
+QKQ Km2bi` 2H bB;mB2Mi2 i2Q`2KX C2M H2 _QM/ /^H2K#2ìX
h2Q`2K RX9 Uh2Q`2K /2H `2biQVX a2 p mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b *Q`QH`BQ RX8X 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 Hb `ő+2b +QKTH2Db /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ MQ MmHQ
+QKTH2DQbX 2b }MBiQX 1H MȹK2`Q /2 `ő+2b +QKTH2Db /BbiBMib /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q
UV 1H `2biQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM /2 p(x) T` x x0 - +QM x0 2 * 2b T`2+BbK2Mi2 n 2b K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX
p(x0 )
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 2tBbi2M k `ő+2b /BbiBMib x1 , . . . , xk 2 *X
U#V x0 2 * 2b mM `őx /2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) bB v bƦHQ bB x x0 /BpB/2 p(x)X SQ` 2H h2Q`2K RXj U+V- i2M2KQb
U+V aB x0 , . . . , xn 2 * bQM `ő+2b /BbiBMib /2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x)- 2MiQM+2b 2H
TQHBMQKBQ (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) /BpB/2 p(x)X p(x) = q(x)(x x1 ) · · · (x xk ).
.2KQbi`+BƦMX UV a2 q 2H TQHBMQKBQ +Q+B2Mi2 v r 2H `2biQ /2 H /BpBbBQMX aB p 2b MQ MmHQ 2MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2
1pHmM/Q 2M x = x0 H `2H+BƦM p(x) = (x x0 )q(x)+r- Q#i2M2KQb r = p(x0 )X
U#V aB x0 2b `őx /2H TQHBMQKBQ r = p(x0 ) = 0 v H `2H+BƦM p(x) = grad p = grad q + k,
(x x0 )q(x) + r b2 `2/m+2
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
p(x) = (x x0 )q(x). (1.3)
k  grad p.
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2 bB x x0 /BpB/2 p(x) 2MiQM+2b b2 p2`B}+ URXjV v 2pHmM/Q
2M x = x0 /2/m+BKQb [m2 p(x0 ) = 0X SQ` iMiQ 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 `ő+2b 2b }MBiQ v 2H MȹK2`Q /2 `ő+2b /BbiBMib /2#2
b2` K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 grad pX
U+V SQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX aB n = 0- 2H `2bmHi/Q b2 bB;m2 /2 U#VX am@
TQMB2M/Q +B2ìQ 2H `2bmHi/Q T` n 1- p2KQbHQ T` nX *QKQ p(xn ) = 0-
i2M2KQb TQ` U#V [m2 p(x) = (x xn )qn (x)X 1pHmM/Q 2M xi - i = 0, . . . , n 1- 6Ơ`KmH /2 G;`M;2
i2M2KQb lM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM Tm2/2 `2bQHp2`b2 K2/BMi2 Hb HHK/b 7mM@
(xi xn )qn (xi ) = p(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n 1. +BQM2b /2 G;`M;2 UQ bQHm+BQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2bV- +`+i2`Bx/b TQ` b2` Hb
ȹMB+b 7mM+BQM2b li (x) [m2 pH2M R 2M 2H MQ/Q xi v y 2M HQb MQ/Qb `2biMi2b- 2b
*QKQ HQb TmMiQb bQM /BbiBMiQb- xi xn 6= 0- i = 0, . . . , n 1 v /2/m+BKQb [m2
/2+B` iH2b [m2
qn (xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n 1. li (xj ) = ij , i = 0, 1, . . . , n,
THB+M/Q H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM H TQHBMQKBQ qn - 2tBbi2 mM TQHBMQKBQ q0 bB2M/Q ij 2H bőK#QHQ /2Hi /2 E`QM2+F2` +QM pHQ` 1 bB i = j v pHQ` MmHQ bB
iH [m2 i 6= jX
qn (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 )q0 (x), lM p2x /2i2`KBM/b Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 G;`M;2- H HHK/ 7Ʀ`KmH /2
/2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H `2H+BƦM G;`M;2 T`QTQ`+BQM mM 2tT`2bBƦM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2
p(x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn )q0 (x), n

X
p(x) = yi li (x). U6Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2V
[m2 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) /BpB/2 p(x)X i=0
13 14
G /2/m++BƦM /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` H 2tBbi2M+B /2
1.5
bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QMbB/2`/QX

G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ 7m2 1
Tm#HB+/ TQ` T`BK2` p2x 2M RddN TQ` 1X q`BM; v T`QTm2bi TQ` CX GX
G;`M;2 Re ƢQb Kb i`/2X
S` /2/m+B` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 TQHBMƦKB+- Q#b2`p2KQb [m2 HQb 0.5
TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b li 2 Pn - i = 0, . . . , n- Tm2/2M /2i2`KBM`b2 i`pûb
/2H h2Q`2K /2H `2biQX *QKQ HQb MQ/Qb xj bQM `ő+2b /2 li (x)- j 6= i- /2/m+BKQb
[m2 Y 0
li (x) = ⇢i (x xj ),
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
bB2M/Q ⇢i mM +QMbiMi2 [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 HQb TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn X .2 H +QM/B+BƦM

-0.5
li (xi ) = 1- b2 /2/m+2 [m2

-1
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
⇢i = Q ,
j2{0,...,n}\{i} (xi xj ) 6B;m` RXjX SQHBMQKBQb #bB+Qb /2 G;`M;2 /2 ;`/Q 8
Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 H 2tT`2bBƦM 2tTHő+Bi /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 .2KQbi`+BƦMX S` /2KQbi`` H mMB+B//- bmTQM;KQb [m2 p1 , p2 bQM /Qb
Y bQHm+BQM2b /2H T`Q#H2KX 1MiQM+2b p1 p2 b2 MmH 2M x0 , . . . , xn X .2H h2Q`2K
x xj /2H `2biQ- b2 /2/m+2 [m2
li (x) = , i = 0, . . . , n.
xi xj
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
p2 (x) p1 (x) = q(x)(x x0 ) · · · (x xn ),
G 6B;m` RXj Km2bi` H ;`}+ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 /2 ;`/Q
8 2M HQb MQ/Qb y- R- k- j- 9 v 8X *QM mM +ő`+mHQ 2biM K`+/Qb HQb TmMiQb TQ` +QM grad(p2 p1 )  n v grad(x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) = n + 1X a2 /2/m+2 [m2
HQb [m2 iB2M2M [m2 Tb` Hb ;`}+b /2 2biQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 +m2`/Q +QM Hb q = 0- v p1 = p2 X
+QM/B+BQM2b li (xj ) = ij X S` H 2tBbi2M+B- i2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2
G +QMbi`m++BƦM Mi2`BQ` /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` p2`B}+M
Pn li (xj ) = ij T` iQ/Q i, j 2 {0, 1, . . . , n}X 1pHmM/Q p(x) :=
H 2tBbi2M+B /2 bQHm+BƦM /2 +mH[mB2` T`Q#H2K /2 G;`M;2 2M Pn +QKQ b2 i=0 yi li (x) 2M 2H MQ/Q xj - Q#i2M2KQb
/2Km2bi` 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/QX n n
X X
p(xj ) = yi li (xj ) = yi = yj , j = 0, . . . , n,
h2Q`2K RXeX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2- /KBi2 bB2KT`2 ij
mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M Pn - 2H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH

i=0 i=0
[m2 nX /2Kb H bQHm+BƦM pB2M2 // TQ` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 q`BM;ĜG;`M;2 HQ [m2 /2Km2bi` [m2 p 2 Pn 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX
n
X Y x xj
p(x) = yi li (x), li (x) = , i = 0, . . . , n. LQiX S`2bmTQM2` [m2 HQb /iQb y0 , . . . , yn T`QpB2M2M /2 mM 7mM+BƦM MQ 2b
i=0
xi xj MBM;mM `2bi`B++BƦM- v [m2 TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 /iQb +QKQ
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
15 16
HQb pHQ`2b yi = f (xi ) [m2 iQK mM 7mM+BƦM f : D ! _ /2}MB/ 2M 2H 6Ơ`KmH #`B+öMi`B+
/QKBMBQ /Bb+`2iQ D := {x0 , . . . , xn }X /2Kb- 2H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 bB2KT`2 2tBbi AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n + 1-
mM BMi2`TQHMi2 TQHBMƦKB+Q- v TQ` iMiQ- C 1 (_) MQb T2`KBi2 bmTQM2`- bBM
!n+1 (x) := (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ),
Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB//- [m2 H 7mM+BƦM f [m2 b2 Dmbi HQb /iQb 2bi /2}MB/
2M mM BMi2`pHQ bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 KTHBQ v [m2 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 bmp2 T` i2M2KQb [m2 Y
Mm2bi`Qb T`QTƦbBiQbX 0
!n+1 (xi ) = (xi xj ) 6= 0,
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
.2MQi`2KQb K2/BMi2
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 2M H 7Q`K
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) !n+1 (x)
li (x) = 0 , i = 0, . . . , n. (1.5)
!n+1 (xi )(x xi )
H TQHBMQKBQ /2 Pn [m2 BMi2`TQH H 7mM+BƦM f 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb ambiBimv2M/Q URX8V 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 v 2ti`v2M/Q 2H 7+iQ` +QKȹM
x0 , . . . , xn - 2b /2+B`- P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2b 2H ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ [m2 p2`B}+ !n+1 (x)- Q#i2M2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH /2H BMi2`TQHMi2
Xn
f (xi )
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2 Pn , P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(xi ) = f (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n. P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = !n+1 (x) 0 . (1.6)
! (x
i=0 n+1 i
)(x xi )
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 MQb T`QTQ`+BQM mM 2tT`2bBƦM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M G 7Ʀ`KmH URXeV `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+- v [m2 2b 2H
iû`KBMQb /2 HQb pHQ`2b f (xi )- i = 0, . . . , n- TmMiQ /2 TìB/ T` /2/m+B` H 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ T`QTBK2Mi2 /B+?- iK@
#BûM HHK/ b2;mM/ 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+X G T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+
b2 mb +QM 7`2+m2M+B T` 2+QMQKBx` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQM2b M2+2b`Bb
n
X
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = f (xi )li (x). T` 2pHm` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2X
i=0
1H +H+mHQ /2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b
Y
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H mMB+B// /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 BKTHB+ [m2- bB f 2b mM TQ@ 0
!n+1 (xi ) = (xi xj ), i = 0, . . . , n,
HBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n- f /2#2 b2` bm BMi2`TQHMi2X SQ` iMiQ- j2{0,...,n}\{i}
i2M2KQb 2b BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2H TmMiQ x 2M 2H [m2 2pHmKQbX S` /2/m+B` 7Ʀ`KmHb [m2
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = f, 8f 2 Pn , MQb T2`KBiM +H+mH` TQ` `2+m``2M+B !n+1 (x) v HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b !n+1
0
(xi )-
v 2tT`2bM/Q 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 /2}MBKQb HQb TQHBMQKBQb KƦMB+Qb /2 ;`/Q k + 1 [m2 b2 MmHM 2M HQb MQ/Qb
x0 , . . . , x k
n k
Y
X
f (xi )li (x) = f (x), x 2 _, f 2 Pn . !k+1 (x) := (x xi ), k = 0, . . . , n.
i=0 i=0
1biQb TQHBMQKBQb Tm2/2M 2pHm`b2 TQ` `2+m``2M+B 2M +mH[mB2` TmMiQ
1M TìB+mH`- bB THB+KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` H 7mM+BƦM +QMbiMi2 f (x) = 1- !1 (x) := x x0 ,
i2M2KQb (1.7)
Xn !k+1 (x) := (x xk )!k (x), k = 1, . . . , n.
li (x) = 1, (1.4)
1H bB;mB2Mi2 H;Q`BiKQ T`QTQM2 +H+mH` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b !n+1
0
(xi )- Q#i2@
i=0
MB2M/Q +QKQ `2bmHi/Qb BMi2`K2/BQb HQb pHQ`2b !k+1 (xi )- i = 0, . . . , k- T`
0
2b /2+B`- HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 bmKM RX k = 1, . . . , n-
17 18
H;Q`BiKQX *H+mHQ /2 !k+1
0
(xi )- i = 0, . . . , k- k = 1, . . . , nX QT2`+BƦM +Qbi2 }DQ +Qbi2 TQ` 2pHm+BƦM iQiH
+ 0 n n
!10 (x0 ) := 1,
n(n + 1)/2 n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)/2
S` k = 1, 2, . . . , n
S` i = 0, 1, . . . , k 1 ⇥ n2 n + 1 n2 + n + 1
0
!k+1 (xi ) := (xk xi ) !k0 (xi ), (1.8) / n + 1 n + 1 2n + 2
kY1
0 iQiH 3 2
2n + 3
2n +1 4n + 3 3 2
2n + 11
2 n +4
!k+1 (xk ) := (xk xj )
j=0 *Qbi2 +QKTmi+BQMH /2 H T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+
MHB+2KQb 2H +Qbi2 +QKTmi+BQMH /2 H T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+X lbM/Q H T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ +QMb2;mBKQb mM MQi#H2 ?Q@
1t+HmBKQb 2H +H+mHQ /2 HQb f (xi )- i = 0, . . . , n- v [m2 MQ`KHK2Mi2 bQM /iQb ``Q TQ` +/ 2pHm+BƦM `2bT2+iQ H +H+mHQ K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 q`BM;@
/2H T`Q#H2KX 1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 i2M;KQb [m2 2pHm` f 2M HQb MQ/Qb- 2H G;`M;2
n
MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQM2b /2T2M/2` /2 H 7mM+BƦM f X X f (xi ) Y
0 (x xj ).
! (x )
1H +H+mHQ /2 !k+1 0
(xi )- i = 0, . . . , k 1- `2[mB2`2 k /B72`2M+Bb v k T`Q/m+@ i=0 n+1 i j2{0,...,n}\{i}
iQb- k = 1, . . . , n- v 2H /2 !k+10
(xk ) = !k (xk ) `2[mB2`2 iK#BûM k /B72`2M+Bb
v k 1 T`Q/m+iQbX bő [m2 2H MȹK2`Q iQiH /2 QT2`+BQM2b T` +H+mH` .2 Mm2pQ TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` [m2 HQb +Q+B2Mi2b f (xi )/!n+1
0
(xi ) b2 ?M +H+m@
0
!n+1 (xi )- i = 0, . . . , n- 2b n(n + 1) /B72`2M+Bb v n2 T`Q/m+iQbX 1M 2H H;Q@ H/Q T`2pBK2Mi2X aB MQ b2;mBKQb mM 2biì2;B 2bT2+BHQ /2 +H+mHQ [m2 i2M;
`BiKQ Mi2`BQ` ?2KQb 2tT`2b/Q xi xk 2M H 7Q`K (xk xi ) +QM Q#D2iQ /2 2M +m2Mi HQb 7+iQ`2b +QKmM2b 2M iQ/Qb HQb T`Q/m+iQb j2{0,...,n}\{i} (x xj )-
`2/m+B` H KBi/- n(n + 1)/2- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 /B72`2M+Bb +H+mH/bX i = 0, . . . , n- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 T`Q/m+iQb [m2 ?v [m2 +H+mH` TQ` +/ 2pHm@
+BƦM b2 2H2p (n + 1)n- 2M Hm;` /2 Hb 2n + 2 QT2`+BQM2b /2 KmHiBTB++BƦM
aB 2pHmKQb 2M Km+?Qb TmMiQb x- b2` +QMp2MB2Mi2 i2M2` T`2pBK2Mi2 v /BpBbBƦM 2M H T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+X
+H+mH/Qb HQb +Q+B2Mi2b f (xi )/!n+1
0
(xi )- HQ [m2 bmTQM2 n + 1 /BpBbBQM2b /B@
+BQMH2bX QT2`+BƦM "`B+ûMi`B+ G;`M;2
S` +/ TmMiQ x 2M 2H [m2 2pHm2KQb- /2#2KQb +H+mH` n + 1 /B72`2M@ + n n
+Bb x xi - i = 0, . . . , nX S` 2H +H+mHQ /2 !n+1 (x) M2+2bBiKQb /2Kb n n + 1 n + 1
T`Q/m+iQb v T` 2H +H+mHQ /2 H bmK
⇥ n + 1 n2 + n
n
X 0
f (xi )/!n+1 (xi ) / n + 1 0
x xi
i=0 iQiH 4n + 3 2
n + 3n + 1
*QKT`+BƦM /2H +Qbi2 2ti` TQ` +/ 2pHm+BƦM
M2+2bBiKQb +H+mH` n bmKb v n + 1 /BpBbBQM2b /B+BQMH2bX L2+2bBiKQb mM
KmHiBTHB++BƦM }MH T` Q#i2M2` 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 H bmK Mi2`BQ` TQ` !n+1 (x)X G T`BM+BTH /2bp2MiD /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ 2b H +QKTH2DB// 2ti`
1M `2bmK2M- T` +/ TmMiQ x /2 2pHm+BƦM H 7Ʀ`KmH miBHBx 2M iQiH 4n+3 [m2 bmTQM2 i2M2` [m2 +QMbB/2`` 2H +bQ 2t+2T+BQMH 2M 2H [m2 mM /2MQKBM/Q`
QT2`+BQM2b, n bmKb- n + 1 `2bib- n + 1 T`Q/m+iQb v n + 1 +Q+B2Mi2bX b2 MmH TQ` +QBM+B/B` 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM +QM mMQ /2 HQb MQ/QbX
19 20
>2KQb pBbiQ 2M URX9V [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 bmKM RX ambiBim@ *QK#BMM/Q H `2H+BƦM Mi2`BQ` +QM H 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ Q#i2M2KQb
v2M/Q li (x) TQ` H 2tT`2bBƦM Q#i2MB/ 2M URX8V- Q#i2M2KQb H `2H+BƦM ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
X n
n x 1 xi
X 1 = Pn wi (x) ,
1 = !n+1 (x) 0 , x 2 _. p(x) w
i=0 i (x) i=0
f (xi )
i=0
!n+1 (xi )(x xi )
AMb2ìM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 2b /2+B`- +/ TmMiQ (x, p(x)) /2 H ;`}+ /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
BMi2`TQH+BƦM URXeV- Q#i2M2KQb H HHK/ b2;mM/ 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ /2H p(x) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) 2b mM #`B+2Mi`Q /2 HQb TmMiQb /2H THMQ (xi , f (xi ))-
TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb [m2 ?2KQb bBim/Q mM T2bQ UiH p2x M2;iBpQ Q BM}MBiQV wi (x)- i =
Pn 0, . . . , n- [m2 /2T2M/2 /2H TmMiQ xX
w (x)f (xi )
Pn i
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = i=0 , *QQ`/2M/b #`B+öMi`B+b
i=0 wi (x)
1 S` [m2 2H +2Mi`Q /2 ;`p2// /2 /Qb T2bQb 0 (x; x0 , x1 ) v 1 (x; x0 , x1 )
wi (x) := 0 , i = 0, . . . , n. bBim/Qb 2M x0 - x1 b2 2t+iK2Mi2 x 2 (x0 , x1 )- /2#2 p2`B}+`b2
!n+1 (xi )(x xi )
0 (x; x0 , x1 )x0 + 1 (x; x0 , x1 )x1

AMi2`T`2i+BƠM 7ŌM /2 H 7Ơ`KmH #`B+öMi`B+ = x,
0 (x; x0 , x1 ) + 1 (x; x0 , x1 )
1H MQK#`2 /2 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ T`QpB2M2 /2 H bBKBHBim/ 7Q`KH 2Mi`2 H b2@
;mM/ 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ v H [m2 2tT`2b H TQbB+BƦM /2H +2Mi`Q /2 ;`p2// /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2b M2+2b`BQ +QHQ+` 2M +/ 2ti`2KQ T2bQb BMp2`b@
G /2 p`BQb T2bQb w0 , . . . , wn - bBim/Qb 2M TmMiQb X0 , . . . , Xn - K2Mi2 T`QTQ`+BQMH2b Hb /BbiM+Bb /2 x +/ 2ti`2KQ
n
X
1
G = Pn w i Xi . (x x0 ) 0 (x; x0 , x1 ) = (x1 x) 1 (x; x0 , x1 )
i=0 wi i=0
S` TQ/2` BMi2`T`2i` H 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ +mM/Q x +QBM+B/2 +QM mMQ /2 1H +2Mi`Q /2 ;`p2// MQ +K#B bB +K#BKQb HQb T2bQb KMi2MB2M/Q bm
HQb MQ/Qb- i2M2KQb [m2 2ti2M/2` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 #`B+2Mi`Q H +bQ /2 T2bQb T`QTQ`+BƦM `2HiBpX AKTQMB2M/Q H +QM/B+BƦM /2 MQ`KHBx+BƦM
BM}MBiQbX aB 2H T2bQ wi 2b BM}MBiQ v HQb /2Kb bQM }MBiQb- +QMbB/2`KQb [m2 2H
#`B+2Mi`Q 2bi #B2M /2}MB/Q v b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2H TmMiQ Xi X 0 (x; x0 , x1 ) + 1 (x; x0 , x1 ) = 1,
G i2`KBMQHQ;ő i`/B+BQMH `2H+BQM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 +QM H TQbB@
Q#i2M2KQb
+BƦM /2 mM +2Mi`Q /2 ;`p2// Q +2Mi`Q /2 KbbX aBM 2K#`;Q- Hb 7mM+BQM2b
wi (x) iB2M2M bB;MQ QTm2biQ +/ H/Q /2H MQ/Q xi X SQ` iMiQ- MQ TQ/2KQb x1 x x x0
+QMbB/2`` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ /2b+`B# mM #`B+2Mi`Q T`QTBK2Mi2 /B@ 0 (x; x0 , x1 ) = , 1 (x; x0 , x1 ) = ,
x1 x0 x1 x0
+?Q T` iQ/Q x- v [m2 b2`ő M2+2b`BQ [m2 iQ/Qb HQb T2bQb iQK`M pHQ`2b MQ
M2;iBpQbX a2`ő Kb T`QTB/Q 2bi#H2+2` H +QKT`+BƦM +QM mM +2Mi`Q /2 /2 KQ/Q [m2
+`;b 2Hû+i`B+b- v [m2 Hb +`;b 2Hû+i`B+b Tm2/2M b2` TQbBiBpb Q M2;iBpbX 0 (x; x0 , x1 )x0 + 1 (x; x0 , x1 )x1 = x.
aB n 1- H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x +QBM+B/2 +QM bm T`QTBQ TQHBMQKBQ /2 GQb T2bQb MQ`KHBx/Qb 0 (x; x0 , x1 )- 1 (x; x0 , x1 ) `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 +QQ`@
BMi2`TQH+BƦM v- mbM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+- /2/m+BKQb /2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b /2H TmMiQ x 2M 2H b2;K2MiQ [x0 , x1 ]X
Pn
wi (x)xi Gb +QQ`/2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b bQM `xQM2b bBKTH2b v- TQ` iMiQ- BMp`BM@
x = Pi=0 .
n
i=0 wi (x)
i2b }M2bX SQ` 2HHQ- H BMi`Q/m++BƦM /2 +QQ`/2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b b2 miBHBx
21 22
+QM 7`2+m2M+B T` MHBx` +ƦKQ b2 i`Mb7Q`KM /2i2`KBM/b 7Ʀ`KmHb H 2H h2Q`2K RXe BKTHB+ [m2 det V (x0 , . . . , xn ) 6= 0- +mM/Q HQb TmMiQb bQM
`2HBx` mM +K#BQ 7őM T` v /2/m+B` mM 7Ʀ`KmH MHQ; 2M Qi`Q BMi2`pHQX /BbiBMiQbX
G ;`}+ /2H b2;K2MiQ [m2 mM2 (x0 , f (x0 )) +QM (x1 , f (x1 )) 1H pHQ` /2H /2i2`KBMMi2 /2 oM/2`KQM/2 iB2M2 +B2ìQ BMi2`ûb 2M i2Q`ő
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQ` HQ [m2 pKQb BM/B+` +ƦKQ b2 +H+mHX 1M T`BK2`
0 (x; x 0 , x 1 )
x0
+ 1 (x; x 0 , x 1 )
x1
, x 2 (x0 , x1 ), Hm;`- Q#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB /2b``QHHKQb det V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 , x) TQ` H ȹHiBK
f (x0 ) f (x1 ) }H- /2/m+BKQb [m2 T` x0 , . . . , xn 1 }DQb- H 7mM+BƦM
Tm2/2 p2`b2 +QKQ 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 iQ/Qb HQb TQbB#H2b +2Mi`Qb /2 ;`p2// +mM/Q q(x) := det V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 , x), x2_
bBimKQb 2M (x0 , f (x0 )) v 2M (x1 , f (x1 )) T2bQb +mH2b[mB2`X *QKQ H ;`}+
(x, p(x)) /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM p(x) = P (f ; x0 , x1 )(x) 2b mM HőM2 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M H p`B#H2 x /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n +mvQ +Q2}+B2Mi2
`2+i- +QM+HmBKQb [m2 2M xn 2b det V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 )X
amTQM;KQb T`BK2`Q [m2 x0 , . . . xn 1 bQM /BbiBMiQbX aB x = xi - H Ki`Bx
p(x) = 0 (x; x0 , x1 )f (x0 ) + 1 (x; x0 , x1 )f (x1 ). V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 , x) iB2M2 /Qb }Hb B;mH2b v
lM bBKTH2 +QKT`+BƦM +QM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2- T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 q(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n 1.
x1 x x x0
l0 (x) = 0 (x; x0 , x1 ) = , l1 (x) = 1 (x; x0 , x1 ) = . SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2H `2biQ- 2H TQHBMQKBQ !n (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1) /BpB/2
x1 x0 x1 x0
q(x)- v b2 /2/m+2 H `2H+BƦM
SQ` HQ iMiQ- Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 G;`M;2 /2 ;`/Q mMQ +QBM+B/2M +QM Hb +QQ`/2@
det V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 , x) = det V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 )!n (x).
M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b- 2b /2+B`- bQM HQb T2bQb MQ`KHBx/Qb [m2 ?v [m2 +QHQ+`
2M x0 - x1 - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2 T` [m2 2H #`B+2Mi`Q b2 2M+m2Mi`2 2M x 2 (x0 , x1 )X 1bi `2H+BƦM 2b pHB/ mM[m2 ?v MQ/Qb +QBM+B/2Mi2b 2Mi`2 HQb x0 , . . . , xn 1-
1H /2i2`KBMMi2 /2 oM/2`KQM/2 HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` TQ` BM/m++BƦM

_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 H Ki`Bx /2 oM/2`KQM/2 2b H Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM /2H n iY
Y 1
T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 TQHBMƦKB+- +mM/Q 2tT`2bKQb mM det V (x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ) = !1 (x1 ) · · · !n (xn ) = (xi xj ).
TQHBMQKBQ `2bT2+iQ H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb i=1 j=0
0 1 x · · · xn 1 Gb 7mM+BQM2b #bB+b /2 G;`M;2 /KBi2M H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M

0 0
B1 x1 ··· xn1 C iû`KBMQb /2 /2i2`KBMMi2b /2 oM/2`KQM/2
V (x0 , . . . , xn ) = B
@ XX XX XX XX C
A.
X X X X det V (x0 , . . . , xi 1 , x, xi+1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )
li (x) = .
1 xn ··· xnn det V (x0 , . . . , xn )
Pn
Sm2biQ [m2 H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 BMi2`TQHMi2 p(x) = i=0 ci x +QM
i 1M 272+iQ- 2H KB2K#`Q /2 H /2`2+? /2 H B;mH// Mi2`BQ` 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 G;`M;2 p(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , n- 2[mBpH2 H 2tBbi2M+B v ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n- +QKQ b2 2pB/2M+B H /2b``QHH` 2H /2i2`KBMMi2
mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K HBM2H /2H MmK2`/Q` TQ` H +QHmKM [m2 +QMiB2M2 Hb TQi2M+Bb /2 xX *H`K2Mi2
0 1 0 1 li (xi ) = 1 TQ`[m2- H bmbiBimB` x TQ` xi +QBM+B/2M MmK2`/Q` v /2MQKBM/Q`-
c0 y0 v bB i 6= j i2M2KQb }Hb `2T2iB/b 2M 2H MmK2`/Q` TQ` HQ [m2 2H pHQ` 2b MmHQX
X
V (x0 , . . . , xn ) @ XX A = @ XXX A ,
B C
.2 H mMB+B// /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2/m+BKQb [m2 2H KB2K#`Q /2
cn yn H /2`2+? /2#2 b2` 2H i@ûbBKQ TQHBMQKBQ /2 G;`M;2X
23 24
AMi2`TQH+BƠM TQ` `2+m``2M+B H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2X
1H H /û+/ /2 HQb ƢQb jy /2H bB;HQ ss- H2tM/2` *`B; BiF2M v 1`B+ S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n
>`QH/ L2pBHH2 Q#impB2`QM `2H+BQM2b /2 `2+m``2M+B [m2 T2`KBiőM 2tT`2b` 2H pi,0 (x) := f (xi )
TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M mM +QMDmMiQ /2 MQ/Qb 2M iû`KBMQb /2 TQHBMQKBQb
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM [m2 mbM mM MQ/Q K2MQbX S` k = 1, 2 . . . , n
S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n k
h2Q`2K RXd U6Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2VX xi+k x x xi
pi,k (x) := pi,k 1 (x) + pi+1,k 1 (x)
xi+k xi xi+k xi
P (f ; x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )(x) =
xn x x x0 1M 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2 Q#i2M2KQb HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b
P (f ; x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 )(x) + P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )(x)
xn x0 xn x0 pi,k := P (f ; xi , . . . , xi+k ), i = 0, . . . , n k, k = 1, . . . , n.
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 1H TQHBMQKBQ p0,n (x) +H+mH/Q 2M 2H ȹHiBKQ TbQ /2H H;Q`BiKQ 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X
xn x x x0
p(x) := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x) + P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn )(x) 1H pHQ` /2 pi,k (x) 2M +/ TbQ /2H H;Q`BiKQ Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ 2H
xn x0 xn x0
pHQ` 2M x /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q R [m2 2M xi iQK 2H pHQ`
*H`K2Mi2 p 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX ambiBimv2M/Q x pi,k 1 (x) v 2M xi+k iQK 2H pHQ` pi+1,k 1 X *QKQ H ;`}+ /2H TQHBMQKBQ
TQ` x0 v xn Q#i2M2KQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q R 2b H ;`}+ /2 H `2+i [m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb
(xi , pi,k 1 (x)) v (xi+k , pi+1,k 1 )- TQ/2KQb +QMbi`mB` 2H pHQ` /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2
p(x0 ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x0 ) = f (x0 ), BMi2`TQH+BƦM ;`}+K2Mi2 K2/BMi2 2H i`x/Q /2 p`Bb HőM2b `2+ib +QKQ
p(xn ) = P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn )(xn ) = f (xn ). b2 Km2bi` 2M H 6B;m` RX9X
(x2,y2)
hQKM/Q ?Q` x = xi +QM 0 < i < n Q#i2M2KQb
xn xi xi x0
p(xi ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(xi ) + P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn )(xi )
xn x0 xn x0 (x0,y0)
xn xi xi x0
= f (xi ) + f (xi ) = f (xi ). (x,p01(x))
xn x0 xn x0 (x0,p01(x))
(x1,y1)
(x,p02(x))
SQ` iMiQ p(x) BMi2`TQH H 7mM+BƦM f 2M x0 , . . . , xn X .2 H mMB+B// /2H
TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2/m+BKQb [m2 p = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )X
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2 T2`KBi2 +QMbi`mB` v 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x,p11(x)) (x2,p11(x))
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQ` `2+m``2M+BX >v p`Bb 7Q`Kb /2 2tT`2b` 2bib `2+m@

``2M+Bb TìB2M/Q /2b/2 HQb /iQb BMB+BH2b +QMbB/2`M/Q Hb +QMbiMi2b +QKQ
TQHBMQKBQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q +2`Q v +QMbi`mv2M/Qb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2
;`/Q +/ p2x KvQ` #b/Qb 2M bm#+QMDmMiQb /2 HQb MQ/QbX S`2b2MiKQb 2M
T`BK2` Hm;` 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2 [m2 +QMbi`mv2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 BMi2`TQ@
x0 x x1 x2
H+BƦM pi,k 2M MQ/Qb +QM őM/B+2b +QMb2+miBpQb, xi , xi+1 , . . . , xi+k X 6B;m` RX9X AMi2`T`2i+BƦM ;`}+ /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2X
25 26
Pi` `2+m``2M+B [m2 +QM/m+2 H +H+mHQ /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 b2 /2#2 BiF2M 6BMHK2Mi2- T` k = 3 i2M2KQb
v +QMbi`mv2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM qi,k +QM MQ/Qb BMB+BH2b 2t+2TiQ 2H 1 5 91
ȹHiBKQ, x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xi X p0,3 (1/2) =
6
p0,1 (1/2) + p1,1 (1/2) =
6 64
.
H;Q`BiKQ /2 BiF2MX v 91
64 = 1.421875 2b H T`QtBK+BƦM #mb+/X
S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n SQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` /2 7Q`K `2bmKB/ HQb TbQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ K2/BMi2
qi,0 (x) := f (xi ) 2H 2b[m2K
S` k = 1, 2 . . . , n xi pi,0 pi,1 ( 12 ) pi,2 ( 12 ) pi,3 ( 12 )
S` i = k, k + 1, . . . , n
1 7 43 91
xi x x xk 2 4 ⇥ 2
3
! 8 ⇥ 4
1
! 32 ⇥ 16 ! 64
1
qi,k (x) := qk 1,k 1 (x) + qi,k 1 (x) ⇥ 52 % ⇥ 54 % ⇥ 56 %
xi xk 1 xi xk 1
1 5 23
1 2 ⇥ 21 ! 4 ⇥ 14 ! 16
1M 2bi2 H;Q`BiKQ ⇥ 32 % ⇥ 34 %
3
qi,k := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xi ), i = k, . . . , n, k = 1, . . . , n. 0 1 ⇥ 12 ! 2
⇥ 12 %
Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 +QKQ `2bmHi/Q }MH 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 ;`/Q n 2M iQ/Qb HQb 1 2
MQ/Qb qn,n X
v T`2b2Mi` HQb `2bmHi/Qb 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H
1D2KTHQX hQKM/Q HQb MQ/Qb x0 = 2- x1 = p 1- x2 = 0- x3 = 1 v
f (x) = 2x /2b2KQb +H+mH` mM T`QtBK+BƦM 2 ⇡ 1.4142135623731 xi pi,0 pi,1 ( 12 ) pi,2 ( 12 ) pi,3 ( 12 )
K2/BMi2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +ȹ#B+ miBHBxM/Q 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2X p a2 pi,k := 1 7 43 91
2
P (f ; xi , . . . , xi+k )- i = 0, . . . , 3 k- k = 0, . . . , 3X *QKQ 2 = f (1/2)- H 4 8 32 64
T`QtBK+BƦM #mb+/ b2` 2H pHQ` /2 p0,3 (1/2)X SìB2M/Q /2 HQb pHQ`2b

1 5 23
1 2 4 16
3
p0,0 = 1/4, p1,0 = 1/2, p2,0 = 1, p3,0 = 2, 0 1 2
1 2
+H+mHKQb T` k = 1
3 5 7 GQb +H+mHQb BMi2`K2/BQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 BiF2M bQM /B72`2Mi2bX .2}MB@
p0,1 (1/2) = p0,0 + p1,0 = , KQb qi,k := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xi )- T` i = k, . . . , 3- k = 1, . . . , 3- v- TìB2M/Q
2 2 8
1 3 5 /2 HQb /iQb BMB+BH2b-
p1,1 (1/2) = p1,0 + p2,0 = ,
2 2 4 q0,0 = 1/4, q1,0 = 1/2, q2,0 = 1, q3,0 = 2,
1 1 3
p2,1 (1/2) = p2,0 + p3,0 = . i2M2KQb T` k = 1
2 2 2
hQKKQb k = 2- v miBHBxM/Q HQb pHQ`2b Q#i2MB/Qb 2M 2H TbQ Mi2`BQ`- Q#i2@ 3 5 7
q1,1 (1/2) = q0,0 + q1,0 = ,
M2KQb 2 2 8
1 5 43 1 5 19
p0,2 (1/2) = p0,1 (1/2) + p1,1 (1/2) = , q2,1 (1/2) = q0,0 + q2,0 = ,
4 4 32 4 4 16
1 3 23 1 5 41
p1,2 (1/2) = p1,1 (1/2) + p2,1 (1/2) = . q3,1 (1/2) = q0,0 + q3,0 = ,
4 4 16 6 6 24
27 28
T` k = 2 JQbi`KQb +QMiBMm+BƦM mM /2}MB+BƦM /2 H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ BMb@
q2,2 (1/2) =
1 3
q1,1 (1/2) + q2,1 (1/2) =
43
, TB`/ 2M 2H KûiQ/Q T`QTm2biQ TQ` L2riQM T` 2H +H+mHQ /2 TQHBMQKBQ /2
2 2 32 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX 1bi /2}MB+BƦM TQ` `2+m``2M+B iB2M2 2H BM+QMp2MB2Mi2 /2 [m2
1 5
q3,2 (1/2) = q1,1 (1/2) + q3,1 (1/2) = ,
3 H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ iK#BûM Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 TìB` /2 Qi`b `2H+BQM2b /2
6 6 2 `2+m``2M+BX 1M 2H +TőimHQ bB;mB2Mi2 miBHBx`2KQb H /2}MB+BƦM T`QTm2bi TQ`
v- T` k = 3 :X EQrH2pbFB 2M RNjk- [m2 2pBi H /2HB+/ +m2biBƦM /2 /2KQbi`` [m2 H
/B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2bi #B2M /2}MB/X
1 1 91
q3,3 (1/2) = q2,2 (1/2) + q3,2 (1/2) = . .2}MB+BƦM RX3X G /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ [x0 , . . . , xn ]f /2 f 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2
2 2 64 TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb x0 , . . . , xn b2 /2}M2 T` n = 0 K2/BMi2
GQb +H+mHQb b2 Km2bi`M #`2pB/K2Mi2 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H [x0 ]f := f (x0 ),
xi qi,0 qi,1 ( 12 ) qi,2 ( 12 ) qi,3 ( 12 ) v T` n > 0 K2/BMi2 H `2H+BƦM `2+m``2M+B
2 1 [x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f [x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 ]f
4 [x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f := .
1 7 xn x0
1 2 8
19 43 1H Q`/2M /2 mM /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2b n- bB 2bi #b/ 2M mM bm+2bBƦM /2
0 1 16 32 n + 1 TmMiQbX
41 3 91
1 2 24 2 64
S`QTQbB+BƦM RXN US`QTB2//2b /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bVX
UV [x0 , . . . , xn ]f 2b 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xn /2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )X
.B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b v 7Ơ`KmH /2 L2riQM
U#V 1H pHQ` /2 H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2b BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2H Q`/2M /2 HQb `;m@
G /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2M /Qb TmMiQb
K2MiQbX
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) U+V
[x0 , x1 ]f = n
X f (xi )
x1 x0 [x0 , . . . , xn ]f = Q . (1.9)
i=0 j2{0,...,n}\{i} (xi xj )
2b H T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H `2+i b2+Mi2 [m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb (xi , f (xi ))- i = 0, 1X
1M HQb +H+mHQb /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 KvQ` ;`/Q T`2+2M Mm2pb /B72`2M+Bb .2KQbi`+BƦMX UV b2 /2/m+2 TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 n /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@
/BpB/B/b /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bX 1bi2 ?2+?Q v 7m2 Q#b2`p/Q TQ` Ab+ L2r@ L2pBHH2- U#V 2b +QMb2+m2M+B /2 H mMB+B// /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM-
iQM 2M bm iì/Q J2i?Q/mb .Bz2`2MiBHBb- Tm#HB+/Q 2M RdRRX a2;ȹM `2p2H H BM/2T2M/B2Mi2K2Mi2 /2H Q`/2M 2M [m2 b2 T`2b2Mi2M HQb /iQb- U+V b2 Q#iB2M2
+Q``2bTQM/2M+B 2TBbiQH` /2 Ab+ L2riQM- J2i?Q/mb .Bz2`2MiBHBb b2 `2/+iƦ- H iQK` 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 KvQ` ;`/Q 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G@
H K2MQb- QM+2 ƢQb Mi2b /2 H Tm#HB++BƦM 2M Re3d /2 H T`BK2` 2/B+BƦM /2 ;`M;2X
S?BHQbQT?B2 Mim`HBb T`BM+BTB Ki?2KiB+X 1M 2H G2K o /2H GB#`Q AAA
lM +QMb2+m2M+B /2 [m2 2H pHQ` /2 mM /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ b2 BM/2@
/2 HQb S?BHQbQT?B2 Mim`HBb T`BM+BTB Ki?2KiB+- L2riQM Km2bi` +ƦKQ
T2M/B2Mi2 /2H Q`/2M /2 HQb `;mK2MiQb 2b [m2 H `2+m``2M+B [m2 /2}M2 H
2M+QMi`` mM +m`p T`#ƦHB+ [m2 Tb2 TQ` TmMiQb //Qb +mH2b[mB2`X 1M H
/B72`2M+B /BpB/B/- Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2 2M H 7Q`K
i2`KBMQHQ;ő /2 L2riQM- mM +m`p T`#ƦHB+ 2b H ;2M2`HBx+BƦM /2 mM T@
`#QH 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 [m2 BM+HmBKQb Hb ;`}+b /2 mM 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b [x0 , . . . , xn 2 , xn ]f [x0 , . . . , xn 2 , xn 1 ]f
[x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f = ,
+mH2b[mB2` v MQ bQHK2Mi2 +m/ìB+bX xn xn 1
29 30
2b /2+B`- Tm2/2 +H+mH`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb pHQ`2b yi,1 - Q#i2MB/Qb 2M 2H TbQ Mi2`BQ`X
aB ?Q` bmTQM2KQb +H+mH/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ qk - k < n- /2 ;`/Q n k-
[x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f = [xn 1 , xn ]g, +QM g(x) := [x0 , . . . , xn 2 , x]f.
TQ/2KQb /2}MB` 2H TQHBMQKBQ
SQ` iMiQ- mM /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ /2 Q`/2M n Tm2/2 p2`b2 +QKQ mM /B72`2M+B
/BpB/B/ /2 T`BK2` Q`/2M /2 mM /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ /2 Q`/2M n 1 +QM mM qk (x) qk (xk )
qk+1 (x) := [xk , x]qk = .
`;mK2MiQ p`B#H2X x xk
1M 2H KûiQ/Q /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`QTm2biQ TQ` L2riQM 2bi T`2b2Mi2 H
SQ/2KQb B/2MiB}+` qk+1 +QM H ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M Pn /2H T`Q#H2K /2
B/2 /2 [m2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b T2`KBi2M `2/m+B` 2H ;`/Q /2H T`Q#H2K k 1
BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX 1H KûiQ/Q /2 L2riQM T2`KBi2 /2i2`KBM` 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2
BMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 mM B;mH// 2Mi`2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M nX
a2 p = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f 2M qk+1 (xi ) = yi,k+1 , i = k + 1, . . . , n,
HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X SìB2M/Q /2 q0 (x) := p(x)- +QMbi`mBKQb
/QM/2
p(x) f (x0 )
q1 (x) := [x0 , x]q0 = yi,k yk,k
x x0 yi,k+1 := = [x0 , . . . , xk , xi ]f, i = k + 1, . . . , n.
xi xk
*QKQ p(x) f (x0 ) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n [m2 b2 MmH 2M x = x0 -
b2 /2/m+2 /2H i2Q`2K /2H `2biQ [m2 p(x) f (x0 ) 2b /BpBbB#H2 T` x x0 X h`b n TbQb- b2 Q#iB2M2 mM TQHBMQKBQ qn +QMbiMi2
SQ` iMiQ q1 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n 1X SQ/2KQb
/2i2`KBM` q1 +QKQ H bQHm+BƦM /2 mM ȹMB+Q T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +mvQb qn = yn,n = [x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ]f.
/iQb bQM
q1 (xi ) = yi,1 , i = 1, . . . , n, S` Q#i2M2` mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2tTHő+Bi /2H BMi2`TQHMi2- i2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2
/QM/2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb qk Tm2/2M Q#i2M2`b2 bm+2bBpK2Mi2 K2/BMi2
f (xi ) f (x0 )
yi,1 := [x0 , xi ]f = , i = 1, . . . , n.
xi x0 qk (x) = yk,k + (x xk )qk+1 (x), k=n 1, . . . , 1, 0,
1bi B/2 Tm2/2 THB+`b2 bm p2x q1 X .2}MB2M/Q
/2 KQ/Q [m2 p = q0 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
q1 (x) q1 (x1 )
q2 (x) := [x1 , x]q1 = ,
x x1 p(x) = y0,0 + y1,1 (x x0 ) + · · · + yn,n (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 ),
b2 iB2M2 [m2 q2 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n 2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2

BMi2`TQH+BƦM /QM/2 y0,0 := f (x0 )X
q2 (xi ) = yi,2 , i = 2, . . . , n, G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMX S`2b2MiKQb
+QMiBMm+BƦM mM /2KQbi`+BƦM /2 /B+? 7Ʀ`KmH- #b/ 2M H B/2 /2 [m2
/QM/2
Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b T2`KBi2M 2tT`2b` 2H iû`KBMQ [m2 ?v [m2 Ƣ/B`
yi,1 y1,1 [x0 , xi ]f [x0 , x1 ]f mM BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 ;`/Q n 1 2M mM bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb T` Q#i2M2` mM
yi,2 := = = [x0 , x1 , xi ]f, i = 2, . . . , n, BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 ;`/Q n 2M H bm+2bBƦM Q#i2MB/ H Ƣ/B` mM Mm2pQ MQ/QX
xi x1 xi x1
31 32
S`QTQbB+BƦM RXRy U6Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMVX *{H+mHQ /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b
1H bB;mB2Mi2 H;Q`BiKQ T2`KBi2 +H+mH` H i#H /2 pHQ`2b /2 /B72`2M+Bb
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = /BpB/B/b 2M MQ/Qb +QM őM/B+2b +QMb2+miBpQb
[x0 ]f + [x0 , x1 ]f (x x0 ) + · · · + [x0 , . . . , xn ]f (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 ).
di,k := [xi , . . . , xi+k ]f, i = 0, . . . , n k, k = 0, . . . , n,
miBHBxM/Q Hb `2H+BQM2b /2 `2+m``2M+B 2Mi`2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b

.2KQbi`+BƦMX 1H +bQ n = 0 2b i`BpBHX S` 2H +bQ ;2M2`H- MQi2KQb [m2
[xi+1 , . . . , xi+k ]f [xi , . . . , xi+k 1 ]f
[xi , . . . , xi+k ]f = , i = 0, . . . , n k,
r(x) := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )(x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x) xi+k xi
T` k = 1, . . . , nX
2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n [m2 b2 MmH 2M x0 , . . . , xn 1X
SQ` iMiQ H;Q`BiKQ U*H+mHQ /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bVX
r(x) = a(x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 ), S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n
bB2M/Q a 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M x /2H TQHBMQKBQ r(x)- [m2 +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2
n di,0 := f (xi )
2M xn /2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )X SQ` H S`QTQbB+BƦM RXN UV- i2M2KQb [m2 a = S` k = 1, 2 . . . , n
[x0 , . . . , xn ]f - /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 H 7Ʀ`KmH S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n k
di+1,k 1 di,k 1
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )(x) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x) di,k :=
(1.10) xi+k xi
+ [x0 , . . . , xn ]f · (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 ),
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQM2b `2[m2`B/b T` +H+mH` H
[m2 T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM TQ` BM/m++BƦMX i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b 2b n(n+1) /B72`2M+Bb v n(n+1)/2 +Q+B2Mi2bX 1M
iQiH 3n(n+1)/2 Kmv bBKBH` H +Qbi2 +QKTmi+BQMH 1+3n(n+1)/2 M2+2b`BQ
aB /2}MBKQb !0 (x) = 1- v T` +H+mH` HQb +Q+B2Mi2b f (xi )/!n+1
0
(xi )- i = 0, . . . , n- [m2 T`2+2M 2M H
7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2X
!k (x) := (x x0 ) · · · (x xk 1 ), k 1, G bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b d0,k bQM T`2+BbK2Mi2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 Hb 7mM@
+BQM2b !k 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMX lM Hi2`MiBp H H;Q`BiKQ Mi2`BQ`
+QMbBbi2 2M miBHBx` H 7Ʀ`KmH URXNVX 1M T`BK2` Hm;` THB+KQb 2H H;Q`BiKQ
H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /KBi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
URX3V T` Q#i2M2` HQb pHQ`2b /2 !k+1
0
(xi )- i = 0, . . . , k- k = 1, . . . , n- v Hm2;Q
n +H+mHKQb
X Xk
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = [x0 , . . . , xk ]f · !k . f (xi )
d0,k := 0 , k = 1, . . . , n.
k=0 !
i=0 k+1 i
(x )
1M 2bi2 +bQ- 2H +Qbi2 +QKTmi+BQMH 2b H;Q bmT2`BQ`, n(n + 1)/2 /B72`2M+Bb
v n2 T`Q/m+iQb T` Q#i2M2` HQb !k+1
0
(xi ) K2/BMi2 2H H;Q`BiKQ URX3V v (n +
1)(n+2)/2 1 /BpBbBQM2b v n(n+1)/2 bmKb T` Q#i2M2` HQb d0,k - k = 0, . . . , nX
1M iQiH- 5n(n + 1)/2 QT2`+BQM2b `BiKûiB+bX
33 34
1pHm+BƠM /2 H 7Ơ`KmH /2 L2riQM AMi`Q/m++BƠM /2 Mm2pQb /iQb
lM p2x +H+mH/b Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b G 7Ʀ`KmH URXRyV T2`KBi2 Ƣ/B` Mm2pQb /iQb v +Q``2;B` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2X
d0,k := [x0 , . . . , xk ]f, k = 0, . . . , n, amTQM;KQb [m2 MQb ?M //Q HQb pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM f 2M HQb TmMiQb
x0 , . . . , xn 1 v ?2KQb +QMbi`mB/Q 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )X aB b2
H 2pHm+BƦM /2H TQHBMQKBQ Tm2/2 272+im`b2 +ƦKQ/K2Mi2X S` +/ x- Q7`2+2 mM Mm2pQ /iQ- f (xn )- MQ 2b M2+2b`BQ `2?+2` /2 Mm2pQ HQb +H+mHQb
TQ/2KQb +H+mH` bm+2bBpK2Mi2 HQb pHQ`2b /2 !k (x)- k = 0, . . . , n- mbM/Q T` Q#i2M2` mM Mm2p 7Ʀ`KmH /2H BMi2`TQHMi2X G 7Ʀ`KmH URXRyV MQb BM/B+
URXdV
Pn v Q#i2M2` 2H pHQ` /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 p(x) bmKM/Q HQb n + 1 iû`KBMQb T`2+BbK2Mi2 2H iû`KBMQ /2 +Q``2++BƦM [m2 ?v [m2 Ƣ/B` H BMi2`TQHMi2 MiB@
i=0 d0,k !k (x)X ;mQ T` Q#i2M2` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M mM TmMiQ KbX /2Kb T` 2H +H+mHQ /2H
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM- H B;mH [m2 H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M +Q2}+B2Mi2 d0,n = [x0 , . . . , xn ]f MQ 2b M2+2b`BQ +H+mH` /2 Mm2pQ iQ/ H i#H
iû`KBMQb /2 HQb KQMQKBQb /KBi2 mM 2tT`2bBƦM MB// /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b di,k = [xi , . . . , xi+k ]f - i = 0, . . . , n k- k = 0, . . . , nX
⇣ ⌘ G i#H Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 +H+mH/ di,k - i = 0, . . . , n k- k = 0, . . . , n 1- 2b
d0,0 +(x x0 ) d0,1 +(x x1 ) d0,2 +· · ·+(x xn 2 )(d0,n 1 +(x xn 1 )d0,n ) . mM bm#i#H /2 H i#H [m2 T`2i2M/2KQb +QMbi`mB` v HQb pHQ`2b [m2 7HiM
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2pHm` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 K2/BMi2 mM H;Q`BiKQ MHQ;Q H H;Q@ b2 Q#iB2M2M K2/BMi2
`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` dn k+1,k 1 dn k,k 1
cn := d0,n dn,0 := f (xn ), dn k,k := , k = 1, . . . , n.
xn xn k
S` k = n 1, . . . , 1, 0
ck := d0,k + (x xk )ck+1 . P`/2M+BƠM /2 HQb MQ/Qb
1H pHQ` /2 cn 1 2b 2H /2H T`ûMi2bBb Kb BMi2`MQ- 2H T`ûMi2bBb [m2 HQ +QMiB2M2 lM `2Q`/2M+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM / Hm;` /B72`2Mi2b
2b cn 2 - v bő bm+2bBpK2Mi2X 1H T`ûMi2bBb 2ti2`BQ` 2b c1 v c0 2b 2H pHQ` /2H 2tT`2bBQM2b /2H BMi2`TQHMi2X S` +/ T2`Kmi+BƦM
BMi2`TQHMi2 2M xX
: {0, 1, . . . , n} ! {0, 1, . . . , n}
1H MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQM2b 2b H;Q bmT2`BQ` H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2`, n /B@
72`2M+Bb- n T`Q/m+iQb v n bmKbX 1M iQiH- 2H +Qbi2 b2 2H2p 3n QT2`+BQM2bX i2M2KQb /B72`2Mi2b 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQM /2H KBbKQ BMi2`TQHMi2
1H MȹK2`Q bmT2`BQ` /2 QT2`+BQM2b b2 DmbiB}+ i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 ?v [m2 n
X
2pHm` iQ/b Hb /B72`2M+Bb x xk - k = 0, . . . , n 1X P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [x (0) , . . . , x (k) ]f (x x (0) ) · · · (x x (k 1) )
o2KQb TQ` BM/m++BƦM [m2 HQb +H+mHQb BMi2`K2/BQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ Mi2`BQ` k=0
bQM /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b [m2 BM+Hmv2M 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM- [m2 BKTHB+M KQ/Qb /B72`2Mi2b /2 Q`;MBx` HQb +H+mHQbX
ck = [x0 , . . . , xk 1 , x]p, k = 0, . . . , n. aB Q`/2MKQb HQb MQ/Qb /2 K2MQ` KvQ` x0 < x1 < · · · < xn i2M2KQb
H HHK/ 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T`Q;`2bBp
1M T`BK2` Hm;` [x0 , . . . , xn 1 , x]p 2b 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xn /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2
BMi2`TQH+BƦM- [m2 +QBM+B/2 +QM cn = d0,n = [x0 , . . . , xn ]f X amTQMB2M/Q [m2 n
X
[x0 , . . . , xk , x]p = ck+1 - i2M2KQb P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [x0 , . . . , xk ]f (x x0 ) · · · (x xk 1 ).
k=0
[x0 , . . . , xk 1 , x]p = [x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xk ]p + (x xk )[x0 , . . . , xk , x]p
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM `2;`2bBp b2 Q#iB2M2 H BMp2ìB` 2H Q`/2M /2 HQb MQ/Qb
= dk,0 + (x xk )ck+1 = ck . x0 < x1 < · · · < xn - K2/BMi2 H T2`Kmi+BƦM (i) = n i- i = 0, . . . , n-
SQ` iMiQ- HQb +H+mHQb BMi2`K2/BQb T` H 2pHm+BƦM Tm2/2M MQi`b2 2M H n
X
i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b +QKQ mM }H /B+BQMH +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [xn k , . . . , xn ]f (x xn ) · · · (x xn k+1 ).
/B+BƦM /2H MQ/Q 2ti` xX k=0
35 36
G 2pHm+BƦM /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQM Tm2/2 KTHB}+` HQb 2``Q`2b /2 `2@ 1D2KTHQX a2 p(x) 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 f (x) = 2x 2M x0 = 2-
/QM/2Q +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2X *QKQ MQ`K ;2M2`H Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb T`Q;`2bBpb bQM x1 = 1- x2 = 0- x3 = 1X SQ/2KQb +H+mH` TQ` `2+m``2M+B Hb /B72`2M+Bb
Kb 2bi#H2b 2M HQb TmMiQb /2H BMi2`pHQ T`ƦtBKQb x0 v KMB}2biM bm KvQ` /BpB/B/b Q#i2MB2M/Q H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 f
BM2bi#BHB// 2M TmMiQb /2H BMi2`pHQ H2D/Qb /2 x0 X Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb `2;`2bBpb
iB2M2M mM +QKTQìKB2MiQ QTm2biQ v bQM Kb 2bi#H2b 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 xn xi di,0 di,1 di,2 di,3
KB2Mi`b [m2 bm KvQ` BM2bi#BHB// b2 T`Q/m+2 2M TmMiQb /2H BMi2`pHQ H2DQb 1 1/2 1/4 1 1/2 1/4 1 1/4 1/8 1
2 = = =
/2 xn X 4 ( 1) ( 2) 4 0 ( 2) 8 1 ( 2) 24
lM Q`/2M+BƦM [m2 T`Q/m+2 #m2MQb `2bmHi/Qb 2b 2H HHK/Q Q`/2M /2 1 1 1/2 1 1 1/2 1
1 2 0 ( 1) = 2 1 ( 1) = 4
G2DX 1bi Q`/2M+BƦM ?+2 ;`M/2b HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 /B@ 2 1
0 1 = 1
72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b v +QMi`QH 2H iKƢQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 H #b2 /2 L2riQM 1 0
2M H bm+2bBƦM Q`/2M/ /2 MQ/Qb x (0) , . . . , x (n) 1 2
!k (x) = (x x (0) ) · · · (x x (k 1) ), k = 0, . . . , n, G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b

2pBiM/Q [m2 bm +`2+BKB2MiQ b2 /2KbB/Q `TB/Q- 7+iQ`2b [m2 BM+B/2M 2M H 1 1 1 1
2bi#BHB// /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMX p(x) = + (x + 2) + (x + 2)(x + 1) + (x + 2)(x + 1)x.
4 4 8 24
P`/2M /2 G2DX SìB2M/Q /2 mM +QMDmMiQ }MBiQ /2 MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb X = S` 2pHm` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M x = 1/2 TQ/2KQb bmbiBimB` /B`2+iK2Mi2 2M H
{x0 , . . . , xn }X 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM
UBV AMB+BHK2Mi2 b2 2HB;2 (0) 2 {0, . . . , n} +mH[mB2`X *QM Q#D2iQ /2 KtB@ ⇣1⌘
KBx` |x (1) x (0) | 2M 2H b2;mM/Q TbQ- ?v [m2 2H2;B` +QKQ T`BK2` MQ/Q 1 1 5 1 15 1 15 91
p = + ⇥ + ⇥ + ⇥ = = 1.421875.
x (0) /2 H Q`/2M+BƦM- 2H KőMBKQ Q 2H KtBKQ /2 HQb TmMiQb /2H +QMDmMiQ 2 4 4 2 8 4 24 8 64
XX
hK#BûM b2 Tm2/2 miBHBx` 2H H;Q`BiKQ iBTQ >Q`M2` /2b+`BiQ Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2
UBBV 1M 2H b2;mM/Q TbQ b2 2HB;2 (1) 2 {0, . . . , n} \ { (0)} iH [m2
1 1 1 7 1 7 3 15 1 15 5 91
|x (1) x (0) | = máx |xi x (0) |.
c2 = + ⇥ = , c1 = + ⇥ = , c0 = + ⇥ = .
i2{0,...,n}\{ (0)} 8 24 2 48 4 48 2 32 4 32 2 64
1H b2;mM/Q TmMiQ x (1) 2b 2H Qi`Q 2ti`2KQ UKtBKQ Q KőMBKQV /2H +QM@ GQb +H+mHQb Tm2/2M /BbTQM2`b2 2M H 7Q`K /2 mM i#H /2 _m{MBX >2KQb
DmMiQ XX BMb2ì/Q mM }H /B+BQMH T` 2tT`2b` HQb 7+iQ`2b 1/2 xk - k = 2, 1, 0-
[m2 BMi2`pB2M2M 2M 2H +H+mHQX
UBBBV 1H 2H TbQ k@ûbBKQ b2 b2H2++BQM (k) 2 {0, . . . , n} \ { (0), . . . , (k 1)}
iH [m2 1
24
1
8
1
4
1
4
1 1 7 75
kY1 kY1 2 48 32 64
|x (k) x (j) | = máx |xi x (j) |.
j=0
i2{0,...,n}\{ (0),..., (k 1)}
j=0
⇥ 12 ⇥ 32 ⇥ 52
1 7 15
⌅ 91
24 48 32 64
1H Q`/2M /2 G2D MQ 2b ȹMB+QX lM TQbB#H2 +`Bi2`BQ T` b2H2++BQM` HQb
TmMiQb 2b 2H2;B` 2M +/ +bQ 2H K2MQ` UQ 2H KvQ`V /2 HQb TmMiQb TQbB#H2b 2M 1H `2bmHi/Q /2H H;Q`BiKQ iK#BûM Tm2/2 `2T`2b2Mi`b2 K2/BMi2 mM }H
+/ TbQX /B+BQMH 2M H i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 pX
37 38
1 91 15 7 1
0 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
2 64 32 48 24
1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1
2 4 4 8 24 p(x) = + (x + 2) + (x + 2)(x 1) + (x + 2)(x 1)(x + 1).
1 1 1
4 12 6 24
1 2 2 4
G }H bmT2`BQ` /2 H i#H /2b+`B#2 HQb +H+mHQb BMi2`K2/BQb 2M H 2pHm+BƦM
0 1 1
1 2 /2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x = 1/2X
6mM+BQMH2b v #b2b /mH2b

G i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b +QM HQb MQ/Qb Q`/2M/Qb /2 KvQ`
K2MQ` +QMiB2M2 Hb KBbKb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b [m2 H i#H +QM HQb MQ/Qb lM 7mM+BQMH 2b mM THB++BƦM [m2 bB;M +/ 7mM+BƦM /2 mM 2bT+BQ /2
Q`/2M/Qb /2 K2MQ` KvQ`- T2`Q /BbTm2bib 2M Qi`Q Q`/2MX SQ` iMiQ- T` 7mM+BQM2b F mM pHQ`X .2+BKQb [m2 2H 7mM+BQMH 2b HBM2H bB H THB++BƦM [m2
Q#i2M2` H 7Ʀ`KmH `2;`2bBp /2 L2riQM MQ 2b M2+2b`BQ +QMbi`mB` mM Mm2p /2}M2 2b mM 7Q`K HBM2H Q THB++BƦM HBM2H /2 F 2M _X GQb 7mM+BQMH2b bQM
i#HX "bM/QMQb 2M H i#H +QM HQb MQ/Qb Q`/2M/Qb /2 K2MQ` KvQ`- H 2H2K2MiQb /2H 2bT+BQ /mH F 0 /2 F X
7Ʀ`KmH `2;`2bBp Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2 +QMbB/2`M/Q 2H ȹHiBKQ 2H2K2MiQ /2 +/ S`QTQbB+BƦM RXRRX a2M f0 , . . . , fn 7mM+BQM2b /2 mM 2bT+BQ F v b2M
+QHmKM µ0 , . . . , µn 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b /2 F 0 iH2b [m2
1 1 µi (fj ) =
p(x) = 2 + (x 1) + (x 1)x + (x 1)x(x + 1) ij , i, j = 0, . . . , n.
4 24
1MiQM+2b f0 , . . . , fn 2 F bQM 7mM+BQM2b HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b v
v HQb +H+mHQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 iBTQ >Q`M2` Tm2/2M `2T`2b2Mi`b2 Ƣ/B2M/Q µ0 , . . . , µn bQM 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b /2 F 0 X
mM 2H2K2MiQ H }MH /2 +/ +QHmKM /2 H i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b Pn
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 j=0 cj fj = 0 T` +B2ìQb c0 , . . . , cn 2 _X
Pn
2 1
4
1
4
1
8
1
24 0 1MiQM+2b ci = µi ( j=0 cj fj ) = 0 T` iQ/Q i = 0, . . . , nX SQ` iMiQ f0 , . . . , fn
Pn
1 1 1 1 1 bQM HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2bX MHQ;K2Mi2
Pn bB i=0 ci µi = 0 T` +B2ìQb
c0 , . . . , cn 2 _- i2M/`2KQb [m2 cj = ( i=0 ci µi )fj = 0- T` iQ/Q j = 0, . . . , n-
2 2 4 24
5
0 1 1 16 /2 /QM/2 b2 bB;m2 H BM/2T2M/2M+B /2 µ0 , . . . , µn X
37
1 2
.2+BKQb [m2 (f0 , . . . , fn ) v (µ0 , . . . , µn ) 7Q`KM mM T` /mH Q [m2 bQM
32
1 91
2 64 #b2b /mH2b /2 HQb 2bT+BQb [m2 ;2M2`M bB b2 p2`B}+ µi (fj ) = ij - i, j =
0, . . . , nX
aB iQKKQb HQb MQ/Qb Q`/2M/Qb b2;ȹM 2H Q`/2M /2 G2D, 2, 1, 1, 0- ?v
a2 I mM BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X G 2pHm@
[m2 `2HBx` Mm2pQb +H+mHQb T` Q#i2M2` H Mm2p i#H
+BƦM 2M +/ MQ/Q
1 91 15 11 1 i : f 2 C(I) 7! f (xi ) 2 _
2 64 32 48 24 0
1 7 1 1
7Q`K mM +QMDmMiQ /2 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b- /2}MB/Qb 2M 2H 2bT+BQ /2 Hb 7mM@
2 4 12 6 24 +BQM2b +QMiBMmb C(I)X GQb 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b 0 , . . . , n ;2M2`M mM 2bT+BQ
1 2 3
4
1
4
p2+iQ`BH L- +QMi2MB/Q 2M 2H 2bT+BQ /mH /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b +QMiBMmbX
1 12 1 G 2tBbi2M+B /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 l0 , . . . , ln iH2b [m2
2
0 1
i lj = ij ,
39 40
MQb BM/B+ [m2 (l0 , . . . , ln ) v ( 0 , . . . , n ) 7Q`KM mM T` /mHX h2MB2M/Q 2M G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM 2pHm/ 2M x = xi
+m2Mi [m2 dim Pn = n + 1- b2 /2/m+2 /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM RXRR [m2 (l0 , . . . , ln )
2b mM #b2 /2 Pn /mH /2 H #b2 /2 7mM+BQMH2b ( 0 , . . . , n ) /2 L v [m2 n
X
dim L = n + 1X f (xi ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(xi ) = !k (xi )[x0 , . . . , xk ]f,
k=0
G /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn 2b mM 7mM+BQMH
MQb T`QTQ`+BQM 2H +K#BQ BMp2`bQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` HQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2
[x0 , . . . , xn ] : f 2 C(I) 7! [x0 , . . . , xn ]f 2 _. 2pHm+BƦM 2M iû`KBMQb /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
!k (xi ) = 0 bB k > i- b2 /2/m+2 H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H +K#BQ
.2 H 7Ʀ`KmH URXNV b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2H 7mM+BQMH [x0 , . . . , xn ] 2b HBM2H v Tm2/2
2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ mM +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b 2pHm+BƦMX SQ` i
X
iMiQ- [x0 , . . . , xn ] T2ì2M2+2 H 2bT+BQ L := h 0 , . . . , n iX i = !k (xi ) [x0 , . . . , xk ], i = 0, . . . , n.
o2KQb [m2 HQb (!0 , . . . , !n ) v ([x0 ], [x0 , x1 ], . . . , [x0 . . . , xn ]) 7Q`KM mM k=0
T` /mHX a2 P (!i ; x0 , . . . , xk ) 2 Pk 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G@
;`M;2 /2 !i 2M x0 , . . . , xk X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB k < i- 2MiQM+2b !i b2 MmH MHQ;K2Mi2 TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` H Ki`Bx /2 +K#BQ 2Mi`2 Hb #b2b /2
2M iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb v P (!i ; x0 , . . . , xk ) = 0X SQ` H S`QTQbB+BƦM RXN UV- G;`M;2 v /2 L2riQM S` 2tT`2b` H #b2 /2 L2riQM 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H
[x0 , . . . , xk ]!i = 0X aB k i- 2MiQM+2b 2H T`QTBQ TQHBMQKBQ !i 2 Pk 2b 2H #b2 /2 G;`M;2- THB+KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 H
BMi2`TQHMi2- /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 P (!i ; x0 , . . . , xk ) = !i X *QMbB/2`M/Q 2H #b2 /2 L2riQM- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 !k (xi ) = 0 T` i < k-
+Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xk b2 /2/m+2 [m2 [x0 , . . . , xk ]!i = 0 bB i < k v [x0 , . . . , xk ]!i = 1
bB i = kX SQ` iMiQ- n
X
[x0 , . . . , xk ]!i = ik , !k (x) = !k (xi )li (x), k = 0, . . . , n.
i=k
/QM/2 ik 2b 2H bőK#QHQ /2Hi /2 E`QM2+F2`X
SQ` iMiQ (!0 , . . . , !n ) 2b mM #b2 /2 Pn - HHK/ #b2 /2 L2riQM v Hb THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2- Q#i2M2KQb 2H
/B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b ([x0 ], [x0 , x1 ], . . . , [x0 . . . , xn ]) 7Q`KM mM #b2 /2 L /mH +K#BQ BMp2`bQX THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH URXNV HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2- b2
H #b2 /2 L2riQMX /2/m+2 [m2 [x0 , . . . , xk ]li = 1/!k+1
0
(xi ) bB k i v [x0 , . . . , xk ]li = 0 bB k < i-
P#i2M;KQb 2H +K#BQ /2 #b2b 2Mi`2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b 2pHm+BƦM v H Q#i2MBûM/Qb2
n
X
#b2 /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 L /2b+`Bi Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2X S` 2tT`2b` HQb 1
li (x) = !k (x), i = 0, . . . , n.
7mM+BQMH2b /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 2pHm+BƦM 0
!k+1 (xi )
k=i
miBHBxKQb H 7Ʀ`KmH URXNV
k
X 1
[x0 , . . . , xk ] = 0 i, k = 0, . . . , n,
i=0
!k+1 (xi )
/QM/2 Y
0
!k+1 (xi ) = (xi xj ), 0  i  k  n.
j2{0,...,k}\{i}
41 42
kX AMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2bX S`QTQbB+BƦM kXRX a2 f0 , f1 , . . . , fn , . . . mM bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2bX 1MiQM+2b
T` iQ/Q k i2M2KQb
1bim/B2KQb 2H T`Q#H2K /2 G;`M;2 2M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn
✓ ◆
b2M 2[mB/BbiMi2b k
X k
k j k
xi+1 xi = h, i = 1, . . . , n. fi = ( 1) fi+j .
j=0
j
G bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb 2b /2 H 7Q`K
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 kX S` k = 0- 2b i`BpBH v [m2 0 fi =
xi = x0 + ih, i = 0, . . . , n.
fi X 1H +bQ k = 1 +Q``2bTQM/2 H /2}MB+BƦMX amTQMB2M/Q 2H `2bmHi/Q +B2ìQ
AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q H MQi+BƦM T` k 1- p2KQb [m2 b2 p2`B}+ T` k
fi := f (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n. k k 1 k 1
fi = fi+1 fi
2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 +QMbBbi2 2M 2M+QMi`` p 2 Pn iH k
X1 ✓
k 1
◆ k
X1 ✓
k 1
◆
[m2 ( 1)k j 1
= fi+j+1 ( 1)k j 1
fi+j
j j
p(xi ) = fi , i = 0, . . . , n. j=0 j=0
k
X ✓ ◆ k
X1 ✓ ◆
a2 q(t) := p(x0 + th)X 1MiQM+2b q 2b mM 7mM+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ /2 Pn bB v = ( 1)k j k 1
fi+j + ( 1)k j k 1
fi+j
bƦHQ bB p 2 Pn X Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM b2 i`Mb7Q`KM 2M j=1
j 1 j=0
j
q(i) = fi , i = 0, . . . , n. k
X1 ✓✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
k 1 k 1
SQ` iMiQ- 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b x(t) = x + th +QMpB2ì2 iQ/Q T`Q#H2K /2 = ( 1)k fi + ( 1)k j
+ fi+j + fi+k
j 1 j
G;`M;2 2M MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b 2M mM T`Q#H2K 2M 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 MQ/Qb j=1
✓ ◆
2Mi2`Qb k
X k
ti = i, i = 0, . . . , n. = ( 1)k j
fi+j .
j=0
j
.B72`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpb
S` Q#i2M2` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM- BMi`Q/m+BKQb T` mM bm+2bBƦM /2 1H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ` iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 BMi2`T`2i+BƦM 2M iû`KBMQb /2H
pHQ`2b f0 , f1 , . . . , fn , . . . 2H QT2`/Q` /B72`2M+B T`Q;`2bBp QT2`/Q` /2bTHxKB2MiQ /2}MB/Q +QKQ
fi := fi+1 fi i = 0, 1, . . . Efi := fi+1 , i = 0, 1, . . .
1H QT2`/Q` 2
+Q``2bTQM/2 THB+` k p2+2b 2H QT2`/Q` /B72`2M+B T`Q;`2bBp /2 KQ/Q [m2
2
fi := ( fi ) = fi+1 fi = fi+2 2fi+1 + fi , i = 0, 1, . . . E k fi = fi+k , i = 0, 1, . . .
h2M2KQb = E I- /QM/2 I /2MQi H QT2`/Q` B/2MiB//X 6Q`KHK2Mi2
.2 2bi KM2` TQ/2KQb /2}MB` QT2`/Q`2b /B72`2M+B T`Q;`2bBp /2 Q`/2M
TQ/2KQb +QKTQM2` p`Bb p2+2b HQb QT2`/Q`2b HBM2H2b Q#i2MB2M/Q
+mH[mB2`
2
k k 1 k 1 k 1 fi = (E I)2 fi = (E 2 2E + I)fi
fi := ( fi ) = fi+1 fi , i = 0, 1, . . .
v 2M ;2M2`H i2M2KQb
aB H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b // 2b }MBi- fj , . . . , fn - bQHK2Mi2 iB2M2 b2MiB/Q
✓ ◆
+H+mH` k fi T` i = j, . . . , n k- k = 0, . . . , n jX k
k
X k
= (E I)k = ( 1)k j
Ej .
G /B72`2M+B T`Q;`2bBp k@ûbBK Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb j
j=0
pHQ`2b /2 H bm+2bBƦM K2/BMi2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH
43 44
G 7Ơ`KmH /2 L2riQM T`Q;`2bBp Q#i2M2KQb
n
X
o2KQb [m2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 /B72@ 1 k k
p(x) = h f0 !k (x).
`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpbX k!
k=0
S`QTQbB+BƦM kXkX a2M x0 , . . . , xn MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b xi+1 xi = h > 0- AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q 2H +K#BQ x = x0 + th v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 xi = x0 + ih-
i = 0, . . . , n 1- f mM 7mM+BƦM /2}MB/ 2M mM /QKBMBQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 H +QMDmMiQ i = 0, . . . , n- i2M2KQb
✓ ◆
{x0 , . . . , xn } v fi = f (xi )- i = 0, . . . , nX 1MiQM+2b t
!k (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xk 1 ) = hk t(t 1) · · · (t k +1) = hk (t)k = k!hk ,
k
1 k k
[xi , . . . , xi+k ]f =
k!
h fi . /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T`Q;`2bBp T`
MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX S` n = 0- 2b i`BpBH [xi ]f = f (xi ) = n
X k Xn k
f0 f0
fi = 0 fi X amTQM;KQb [m2 2H `2bmHi/Q 2b +B2ìQ T` k v p2KQb [m2 b2 p(x0 + th) = t(t 1) · · · (t k + 1) = (t)k
p2`B}+ T` k + 1 k! k!
k=0 k=0
Xn ✓ ◆
t
[xi+1 , . . . , xi+k+1 ]f [xi , . . . , xi+k ]f
[xi , . . . , xi+k , xi+k+1 ]f = = k
f0 . U6Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T`Q;`2bBpV
xi+k+1 xi k
k=0
1 k fi+1 fi 1
= h = h k 1 k+1
fi . aB 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` iQKKQb t = n- Q#i2M2KQb
k! (k + 1)h (k + 1)! n ✓ ◆
X n k
fn = f0 .
k
k=0
SQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` H;mMb 7Ʀ`KmHb `2HiBpb TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b miB@
GQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` 2H ȹHiBKQ iû`KBMQ /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b fn 2M
HBxM/Q 2H bőK#QHQ /2 SQ+??KK2` /2b+2M/2Mi2 U[m2 ;2M2`HBx H 7+iQ`BHV
iû`KBMQb /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpb k f0 - k = 0, . . . , nX 1pHmM/Q 2M
(t)n := t(t 1) · · · (t n + 1) 2H TmMiQ xi+j 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q j  n 2M fi , . . . , fi+j
2tT`2b/Q K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T`Q;`2bBp- Q#i2M2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2
v 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 #BMƦKB+Q ;2M2`HBx/Q `2bmHi/Q
✓ ◆
t t(t 1) · · · (t n + 1) (t)n S`QTQbB+BƦM kXjX a2 f0 , f1 , . . . , fn , . . . mM bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2bX 1MiQM+2b
:= = . T` iQ/Q j i2M2KQb
n n! n!
Xj ✓ ◆
j
.2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2
k
fi+j = fi .
k
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ k=0
t t+n 1
( t)n = ( 1)n (t + n 1)n , = ( 1)n . G S`QTQbB+BƦM kXj Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb QT2`/Q`2b
n n
/2bTHxKB2MiQ v /B72`2M+BX SìB2M/Q /2 H `2H+BƦM E = I + - Q#i2M2KQb
j ✓ ◆
aB THB+KQb 2H h2Q`2K kXk H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM X j
E j = (I + )j = k
,
n
X k
k=0
p(x) = [x0 , . . . , xk ]f !k (x)
k=0
`2H+BƦM [m2 2[mBpH2 H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ`X
45 46
THB++BƠM Hb 7Ơ`KmHb /2 bmK+BƠM o2KQb [m2 si = p(i) T` iQ/Q 2Mi2`Q i 0X *QKQ q 2 Pn p2`B}+
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 bmK+BƦM /2 bm+2bBQM2b fj = q(j)- j = 1, . . . , n + 1- /2/m+BKQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM
fj +mvQ iû`KBMQ ;2M2`H 2b mM TQHBMQKBQX n ✓ ◆
X t
k
q(t + 1) = f1 .
S`QTQbB+BƦM kX9X a2 q 2 Pn v fj := q(j)- j = 1, 2, . . . 1MiQM+2b k
k=0
✓ ◆
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
i
X n
X
k i
fj = f1 .
j=1
k+1 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
k=0 i+1 i i
= ,
k+1 k+1 k
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 s0 := 0 v
Q#i2M2KQb
i
X
n
X ✓✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆ n
X ✓ ◆
si := fj , i = 1, 2, . . . k i+1 i k i
j=1 p(i + 1) p(i) = f1 = f1 = q(i + 1)
k+1 k+1 k
k=0 k=0
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2

T` iQ/Q 2Mi2`Q MQ M2;iBpQ iX
si = fi+1 , i = 0, 1, . . . , a2 di := si p(i)X 1MiQM+2b
/2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2M Hb /B72`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpb bm+2bBpb di = fi+1 (p(i + 1) p(i)) = fi+1 q(i + 1) = 0,
k+1
si = k
fi+1 , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . T` iQ/Q 2Mi2`Q MQ M2;iBpQ i- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b
d0 , d1 , d2 , . . . 2b +QMbiMi2 v- +QKQ d(0) = s0 p(0) = 0- b2 /2/m+2 [m2
o2KQb [m2 si 2b mM bm+2bBƦM +mvQ iû`KBMQ ;2M2`H +Q``2bTQM/2 mM 0 = d0 = d1 = d2 = · · ·

TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n + 1X a2 p 2 Pn+1 2H TQHBMQKBQ
[m2 BMi2`TQH si - i = 0, . . . , n + 1- 2M HQb MQ/Qb ti = 0, 1, . . . , n, n + 1X 1bi2 Gm2;Q si = p(i) T` iQ/Q 2Mi2`Q MQ M2;iBpQ iX
TQHBMQKBQ Tm2/2 +H+mH`b2 miBHBxM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM
Pi
1D2KTHQX a2 #mb+ mM 7Ʀ`KmH T` H bmK si := j=1 j 2 X SìB2M/Q /2
✓ ◆
fj = j 2 - j 1- +H+mHKQb 0 f1 = 1- f1 = 3- 2 f1 = 2 v THB+KQb H
n+1
X
k t
p(t) = s0 . 7Ʀ`KmH /2 bmK+BƦM Mi2`BQ` T` Q#i2M2`
k
k=0
i
X 2
X ✓ ◆
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 s0 = 0 v [m2 k si = k 1 fi+1 - k = 1, . . . , n + 1- i i(i 1) i(i 1)(i 2)
j2 = k
f1 =i+3 +2
Q#i2M2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH T` 2H TQHBMQKBQ p 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H bm+2bBƦM j=1 k=0
k+1 2 6
f1 , . . . , fn , fn+1 i i 2 (2i + 1)(i + 1)i
n
X ✓ ◆ = (6 + (i 1)(9 + 2(i 2))) = (2i + 3i + 1) = .
k t 6 6 6
p(t) = f1 .
k+1
k=0
47 48
Pi`Qb iBTQb /2 /B72`2M+Bb 7BMBib G 7Ʀ`KmH `2;`2bBp /KBi2 p`Bb /2b+`BT+BQM2bX *QKQ 2H T`BK2` MQ/Q
G /B72`2M+B `2;`2bBp /2 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b . . . , f0 , f1 , . . . , fn b2 /2}M2 b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M xn v HQb /2Kb b2 2M+m2Mi`M H Bx[mB2`/- T`2+2 Kb
Mim`H `2HBx` 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b x = xn sh- i`Mb7Q`KM/Q H bm+2@
rfi := fi fi 1. bBƦM xn , . . . , x0 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2 2Mi2`Qb 0, 1, . . . , nX THB+M/Q 2H +K#BQ /2
LQi2KQb [m2 bB H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b // 2b }MBi fj , . . . , fn - bQHK2Mi2 iB2M2 p`B#H2b
b2MiB/Q +H+mH` rk fi T` i = j + k, . . . , n- k = 0, . . . , n jX Gb /B72`2M+Bb ✓ ◆
s
✓
k 1 s
◆
`2;`2bBpb b2 `2H+BQMM /B`2+iK2Mi2 +QM Hb /B72`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpb- v [m2 !k (xn sh) = hk ( 1)k s(s 1) · · · (s k+1) = ( 1)k hk = hk ,
k k
rfi = fi 1,
Q#i2M2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM Hi2`MiBp /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM `2;`2bBp
v
rk f i = k
fi k. n
X ✓ ◆ Xn ✓ ◆
k sk k k 1 s
p(xn sh) = ( 1) r fn = r fn .
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T`Q;`2bBp 2tT`2b 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M TmMiQb 2[mB@ k=0
k
k=0
k
/BbiMi2b 2M iû`KBMQb /2 /B72`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpbX MHQ;K2Mi2- H 7Ʀ`KmH
/2 L2riQM `2;`2bBp 2tT`2b 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 /B72`2M+Bb `2;`2@
G /B72`2M+Bb T`Q;`2bBpb v `2;`2bBpb bQM HQb iBTQb Kb BKTQìMi2b /2
bBpbX S` Q#i2M2`H- THB+KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM iQKM/Q HQb MQ/Qb 2M
/B72`2M+Bb }MBibX hK#BûM b2 miBHBxM Hb HHK/b /B72`2M+Bb +2Mi`H2bX
Q`/2M BMp2`bQ xn , xn 1 , . . . , x0 -
Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb +2Mi`H2b T`2i2M/2M T`Qp2+?` T`QTB2//2b /2 bBK2i`ő /2 H
n
X /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 MQ/Qb- +QKQ bm+2/2 2M 2H +bQ /2 MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2bX S`
p(x) = [xn k , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f !k (x), Q#i2M2`Hb- 2b M2+2b`BQ +QMbB/2`` HQb pHQ`2b 2M TmMiQb /2 H KHH
k=0
/QM/2 fi = f (x0 + ih), i2w

!k (x) := (x xn )(x xn 1 ) · · · (x xn k+1 ), k = 0, . . . , n. v 2M HQb TmMiQb K2/BQb
LQi2KQb [m2
✓ ◆ fi+ 12 = f (x0 + (i + 12 )h), i 2 w.
k k t n+k 1
!k (x0 + th) = h (t n)(t n + 1) · · · (t n+k 1) = k!h .
k 1H QT2`/Q` /B72`2M+B +2Mi`H b2 /2}M2 7Q`KHK2Mi2 +QKQ fi := fi+ 12 fi 12
G S`QTQbB+BƦM kXk- MQb T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 v THB+/Qb mM MȹK2`Q T` /2 p2+2b miBHBxM HQb pHQ`2b /2 HQb TmMiQb 2M HQb
k k
TmMiQb /2 H T`QTB KHH- KB2Mi`b [m2 bB b2 THB+M mM MȹK2`Q BKT` /2
k fn k kr fn p2+2b miBHBxM HQb /2 H KHH BMi2`K2/BX SQ` 2D2KTHQ-
[xn k , · · · , xn ]f =h =h .
k! k!
SQ` iMiQ- i2M2KQb 2
fi = fi+1 2fi + fi 1,
3
fi = fi+ 32 3fi+ 12 + 3fi 1 fi 3 .
2 2
n
X rk fn
p(x0 + th) = (t n)(t n + 1) · · · (t n+k 1) Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQM [m2 2tT`2bM 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 /B72`2M@
k=0
k! +Bb +2Mi`H2b bQM Kb +QKTHB+/b [m2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb T`Q;`2bBpb v `2;`2bBpbX
Xn ✓
t n+k 1
◆ 1bib 7Ʀ`KmHb b2 miBHBxM 2M +QMi2tiQb 2bT2+BHBx/Qb- TQ` HQ [m2 QKBiBKQb bm
= k
r fn U6Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM `2;`2bBpVX /2b+`BT+BƦMX
k
k=0
49 50
6Ơ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 liBHBxM/Q +Q2}+B2Mi2b #BMƦKB+Qb ;2M2`HBx/Qb- TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` HQb TQ@
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 HBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 T` MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b 2M H 7Q`K
Y x xj
li (x) = , ✓ ◆✓ ◆
xi xj t n t
j2{0,...,n}\{i} li (x0 + th) = , i = 0, . . . , n,
i n i
bmbiBimv2M/Q xi = x0 + ih- x = x0 + th- Q#i2M2KQb
v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /QTi H 7Q`K
Y x0 + th x0 jh Y t j
li (x0 + th) = = . n ✓ ◆✓ ◆
x0 + ih x0 jh i j X t n t
j2{0,...,n}\{i} j2{0,...,n}\{i} p(x0 + th) = fi .
i=0
i n i
1M T`BK2` Hm;` i2M2KQb [m2
Y iY1 n
Y n!
(i j) = (i j) (i j) = i!( 1)n i (n i)! = ( 1)n i
n , jX AMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2X
j=0 j=i+1 i
a2 f mM 7mM+BƦM /2 +Hb2 C 1 v b2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2

P (f ; x0 , x1 )(x) = [x0 ]f + [x0 , x1 ]f (x x0 )
✓ ◆Q
i n j2{0,...,n}\{i} (t j)
li (x0 + th) = ( 1)n , i = 0, . . . , n. [m2 BMi2`TQH f 2M x0 6= x1 X 1bi2 TQHBMQKBQ Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ H
i n!
;`}+ /2 H `2+i b2+Mi2X aB ?+2KQb x1 ! x0 2MiQM+2b H `2+i b2+Mi2
SQ` iMiQ- H T`BK2` 7Ʀ`KmH #`B+ûMi`B+ /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 b2 `2/m+2 iB2M/2 H iM;2Mi2 2M 2H TmMiQ x0 - +mv T2M/B2Mi2 2b f 0 (x0 )X SQ` iMiQ
n ✓ ◆
t(t 1) · · · (t n) X n fi lı́m P (f ; x0 , x1 )(x) = T1 (f ; x0 )(x)
p(x0 + th) = ( 1)n i
. x1 !x0
n! i=0
i t i
/QM/2
1bi 7ƦKmH `2[mB2`2 TQ+b QT2`+BQM2b, HQb MȹK2`Qb n! v ni - i = 0, . . . , n T1 (f ; x0 )(x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ).
Tm2/2M 2bi` +H+mH/Qb T`2pBK2Mi2X 1H +H+mHQ /2 n! `2[mB2`2 n 2 T`Q/m+@
iQbX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 ni = nn i bQHK2Mi2 2b T`2+BbQ +H+mH` 2biQb /2MQi H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ` /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q /2 H 7mM+BƦM f 2M x0 X Sm2biQ
+Q2}+B2Mi2b T` i = 1, . . . , bn/2c- HQ [m2 / Hm;` bn/2c 1 T`Q/m+iQb v [m2 2H HőKBi2 /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2bi #B2M /2}MB/Q- iB2M2 b2MiB/Q
Qi`Qb iMiQb +Q+B2Mi2bX hK#BûM TQ/2KQb i2M2` T`2pBK2Mi2 +H+mH/Qb HQb /2}MB` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 v H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2M 2H +bQ /2 +QH2b+2M+B /2 k
pHQ`2b ( 1)n i ni fi miBHBxM/Q n 1 T`Q/m+iQb /B+BQMH2bX S` 2pHm` 2H MQ/Qb
TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM M2+2bBi`2KQb TQ` +/ t- n + 1 `2bib- n + 1 /BpB@
bBQM2b- n bmKb- n + 1 T`Q/m+iQb v H /BpBbBƦM +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H /2MQKBM/Q` P (f ; x0 , x0 ) := T1 (f ; x0 ), [x0 , x0 ]f := lı́m [x0 , x1 ]f = f 0 (x0 ).
x1 !x0
n!X hK#BûM ?v [m2 i2M2` 2M +m2Mi H /B72`2M+B v 2H +Q+B2Mi2 `2[m2`B/Qb
T` ?HH` t = (x x0 )/hX 1biQ 2+QMQKBx #biMi2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQ@ 1M pBìm/ /2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q Uh2Q`2K jXRRV- i2@
M2b [m2 `2[mB2`2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2X aB /2Kb 2pHmKQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M TmMiQb M2KQb
bBKûi`B+K2Mi2 /Bbi`B#mB/Qb- H `2H+BƦM li (x) = ln i (x0 + xn x) T2`KBi2 f (n) (x0 )
`2/m+B` HQb +H+mHQb ȹM KbX lı́m [x0 , . . . , xn ]f =
x1 ,...,xn !x0 n!
51 52
v 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM S`QTQbB+BƦM jXkX a2M f, g bQM 7mM+BQM2b /2 +Hb2 C k 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 x0 v
b2 h = f gX
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [x0 ]f + · · · + [x0 , . . . , xn ]f · (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1)
UV aB Hb KmHiBTHB+B//2b /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 f, g bQM- H K2MQb- m1 , m2 -
+QMp2`;2 H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ` `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- v m1 + m2  k + 1- 2MiQM+2b H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0
n
X (x x0 ) i +QKQ +2`Q /2 h 2b- H K2MQb- m1 + m2 X
Tn (f ; x0 ) := f (i) (x0 ) , U#V aB Hb KmHiBTHB+B//2b /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 f v /2 g bQM 2t+iK2Mi2 m1
i!
i=0
v m2 - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- v m1 + m2  k- 2MiQM+2b H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0
+mM/Q x1 , . . . , xn ! x0 X 1H T`QTBQ "`QQF hvHQ` ?BxQ MQi` [m2 HQb /2b``QHHQb +QKQ +2`Q /2 h 2b 2t+iK2Mi2 m1 + m2 X
2M b2`B2 /2 TQi2M+Bb Tm2/2M p2`b2 +QKQ 2H HőKBi2 /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM U+V aB H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 f 2b 2t+iK2Mi2 m1 +QM m1  k v
T` MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b +mM/Q HQb MQ/Qb iB2M/2M +QBM+B/B`X H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 h 2b- H K2MQb- m +QM m1  m  k+1-
JmHiBTHB+B//2b /2 +2`Qb /2 mM 7mM+BƠM 2MiQM+2b H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 g 2b- H K2MQb- m m1 X
1H +QKTQìKB2MiQ HQ+H /2 /Qb 7mM+BQM2b 2M mM TmMiQ 2b bBKBH` bB HQb T`B@ .2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` H `2;H /2 G2B#MBx i2M2KQb
K2`Qb iû`KBMQb /2H /2b``QHHQ 2M b2`B2 /2 hvHQ` +QBM+B/2M- HQ [m2 2[mBpH2
}`K` [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ` /2 +B2ìQ ;`/Q /2 H /B72`2M+B /2 K#b j ✓ ◆
X j
7mM+BQM2b 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ MmHQX 1H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ` 2b MmHQ bB Hb /2`Bp/b h(j) (x0 ) = f (i) (x0 )g (j i)
(x0 ), i = 0, . . . , k.
i
bm+2bBpb /2 f ?bi +B2ìQ Q`/2M bQM iQ/b MmHbX S` 2tT`2b` 2bi +QM@ i=0
/B+BƦM BMi`Q/m+BKQb 2H +QM+2TiQ /2 KmHiBTHB+B// /2 mM +2`Q /2 mM 7mM+BƦMX
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 mM +2`Q /2 mM 7mM+BƦM 2b mM TmMiQ /2H /QKBMBQ 2M 2H [m2 H UV *QKQ Hb KmHiBTHB+B//2b /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 f v /2 g bQM H K2MQb
7mM+BƦM iQK 2H pHQ` MmHQX m1 v m2 - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- i2M2KQb [m2
.2}MB+BƦM jXRX a2 f mM 7mM+BƦM /2 +Hb2 C k 2M mM BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 f (i) (x0 ) = 0, i 2 {0, . . . , m1 1}, g (j i)
(x0 ) = 0, i 2 {j m2 + 1, . . . , j}.
x0 X aB
f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) = · · · = f (m 1) (x0 ) = 0 aB j  m1 + m2 1- 2MiQM+2b j m2 + 1  m1 v iQ/Qb HQb bmKM/Qb /2
T` +B2ìQ m  k + 1- b2 /B+2 [m2 f iB2M2 2M x0 mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//- H H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G2B#MBx bQM MmHQbX SQ` iMiQ- h(j) (x0 ) = 0 T` iQ/Q j 2
K2MQb- mX aB m  k v {0, . . . , m1 + m2 1} v H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 h 2b- H K2MQb-
m1 + m2 X
f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) = · · · = f (m 1)
(x0 ) = 0, f (m) (x0 ) 6= 0,
U#V SQ` 2H Tì/Q Mi2`BQ` h(j) (x0 ) = 0- j 2 {0, . . . , m1 + m2 1}X
2MiQM+2b b2 /B+2 [m2 x0 iB2M2 KmHiBTHB+B// 2t+iK2Mi2 mX /2Kb iQ/Qb HQb bmKM/Qb 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G2B#MBx T` h(m1 +m2 ) (x0 ) bQM
MmHQb 2t+2TiQ 2H +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 i = m1 - /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
LQi2KQb [m2 H KmHiBTHB+B// 2t+i /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 f Tm2/2 MQ 2bi`
/2}MB/ bB H 7mM+BƦM MQ 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /2`Bp#H2 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 x0 X h(m1 +m2 ) (x0 ) = f (m1 ) (x0 )g (m2 ) (x0 ) 6= 0.
SQ` +QMp2MBQ /2+BKQb [m2 H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 mM 7mM+BƦM
+QMiBMm f 2M x0 2b 0 bB f (x0 ) 6= 0 U2M Qi`b TH#`b- x0 MQ 2b mM +2`Q /2 SQ` iMiQ- H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 h 2b 2t+iK2Mi2 mX
f VX aB H KmHiBTHB+B// 2b 1- /2+BKQb [m2 x0 2b mM +2`Q bBKTH2 /2 f v- bB H U+V aB m = m1 - 2H `2bmHi/Q 2b i`BpBHX .2KQbi`2KQb 2H `2bmHi/Q TQ`
KmHiBTHB+B// 2b H K2MQb k- /2+BKQb [m2 2b x0 mM +2`Q KȹHiBTH2 /2 f X BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 m2 := m m1 X *QKQ H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 x0 +QKQ +2`Q /2 f 2b
1H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q `2H+BQM H KmHiBTHB+B// /2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 p`Bb m1 - i2M2KQb [m2 f (i) (x0 ) = 0 T` iQ/Q i 2 {0, . . . , m1 1} v f (m1 ) (x0 ) 6= 0X
7mM+BQM2b +QM H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb 7+iQ`2bX *QKQ h iB2M2 KmHiBTHB+B// H K2MQb m 1- TQ/2KQb THB+` H ?BTƦi2bBb
53 54
/2 BM/m++BƦM T` /2/m+B` [m2 g (i) (x0 ) = 0 T` iQ/Q i 2 {0, . . . , m2 2}X .2H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` b2 /2/m+2 [m2 H bmK /2 Hb KmHiBTHB+B//2b /2
THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G2B#MBx T` H /2`Bp/ (m 1)@ûbBK- p2KQb [m2 iQ/Qb HQb +2`Qb +QKTH2DQb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ 2b K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 2H ;`/QX G
iQ/Qb HQb bmKM/Qb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 i 6= m1 bQM MmHQb- /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb bmK /2 Hb KmHiBTHB+B//2b /2 HQb +2`Qb `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 MȹK2`Q /2 +2`Qb-
[m2 +QMiM/Q KmHiBTHB+B//2bX
h(m 1) (x0 ) = f (m1 ) (x0 )g (m2 1) (x0 ).
h2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H H;2#` U7Q`K /û#BHVX 1H MȹK2`Q /2 +2`Qb
aB h iB2M2 KmHiBTHB+B// H K2MQb m- 2MiQM+2b h(m 1) (x0 ) = 0 v- +QKQ +QKTH2DQb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ MQ MmHQ- +QMiM/Q KmHiBTHB+B//2b- 2b K2MQ` Q
f (m1 ) (x0 ) 6= 0- /2/m+BKQb [m2 g (m2 1) (x0 ) = 0- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 g iB2M2 2M B;mH [m2 2H ;`/QX
x0 mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//- H K2MQb- m2 X
1H h2Q`2K /2 _QHH2 T2`KBi2 +QM+HmB` [m2 2Mi`2 /Qb +2`Qb /2 mM 7mM+BƦM
.2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM jXk b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb [m2 /2`Bp#H2- bB2KT`2 2tBbi2 mM +2`Q /2 H /2`Bp/X G bB;mB2Mi2 ;2M2`HBx+BƦM
iB2M2M 2M xi 2 _ +2`Qb +QM KmHiBTHB+B//- H K2MQb- mi - i = 0, . . . , k- 7Q`@ /2H h2Q`2K /2 _QHH2 b2` ȹiBH 2M H /Bb+mbBƦM /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2X
KM mM B/2H /2H H;2#` /2 TQHBMQKBQb [m2 Tm2/2 B/2MiB}+`b2 +QM 2H B/2H
h2Q`2K /2 _QHH2 ;2M2`HBx/QX a2 I BMi2`pHQ /2 H `2+i `2H v f 2
;2M2`/Q TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x x0 )m0 · · · (x xk )mk X *QKQ HQb TQHBMQKBQb
C n (I)- n 1X a2M x0 < · · · < xk iH2b [m2
bQM 7mM+BQM2b MHőiB+b [m2 /KBi2M 2ti2MbBQM2b iQ/Q 2H +KTQ +QKTH2DQ-
Tm2/2 2ti2M/2`b2 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q H +bQ 2M [m2 x0 , . . . , xk b2M +QKTH2DQbX f (j) (xi ) = 0, j = 0, . . . , mi 1, i = 0, . . . , k,
2b P
/2+B` xi 2b mM +2`Q /2 f /2 KmHiBTHB+B//- H K2MQb- mi - T` i = 0, . . . , kX
h2Q`2K jXj Uh2Q`2K /2H _2biQ ;2M2`HBx/QVX a2M x0 , . . . , xk 2 *
aB i=1 mi n + 1- 2MiQM+2b H 7mM+BƦM f (n) b2 MmH 2M H;ȹM TmMiQ ⇠ 2 IX
k
/BbiBMiQbX aB p 2 P 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ [m2 iB2M2 2M xi mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//
KvQ` Q B;mH [m2 mi - i = 0, . . . , k- 2MiQM+2b (x x0 )m0 · · · (x xk )mk /BpB/2 .2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX aB n = 0 2H `2bmHi/Q 2b i`BpBHX aB
p(x)X n = 1- i2M2KQb /Qb +bQbX Sm2/2 bm+2/2` [m2 i2M;KQb /Qb +2`Qb /BbiBMiQb
x0 < x1 X 1MiQM+2b H 2tBbi2M+B /2 ⇠ 2 (x0 , x1 ) iH [m2 f 0 (⇠) = 0 2b +QMb2@
.2KQbi`+BƦMX o2KQbHQ TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 m = m0 + · · · + mk X aB m0 = +m2M+B /2H i2Q`2K /2 _QHH2X 1M +bQ +QMi``BQ- i2M2KQb [m2 x0 2b mM +2`Q
· · · = mk = 0- 2H `2bmHi/Q 2b i`BpBHX amTQM2` ?Q` [m2 H;ȹM 2tTQM2Mi2 mi KȹHiBTH2 v f 0 (x0 ) = 0- bő [m2 2H `2bmHi/Q b2 p2`B}+ T` ⇠ = x0 X
2b MQ MmHQX aBM Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB// TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` [m2 m0 6= 0X SQ` 2H
h2Q`2K /2H `2biQ- i2M2KQb [m2 amTQM;KQb ?Q` [m2 2H i2Q`2K b2 p2`B}+ T` n 1X a2M x0 <
· · · < xk iH2b [m2 2M xi - H 7mM+BƦM f 2 C n (I) iB2M2 mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//-
Pk
p(x) = q(x)(x x0 ). H K2MQb- mi +QM i=0 mi n + 1X .2b+ìM/Q bB 2b T`2+BbQ HQb xi +QM
mi = 0- TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` bBM Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB// [m2 mi 1 T` iQ/Q
.2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM jXk U+V- /2/m+BKQb [m2 q(x) iB2M2 2M x0 mM +2`Q /2 KmH@ i = 0, . . . , kX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2 _QHH2- 2Mi`2 +/ /Qb +2`Qb /2 f /2#2 ?#2`- H
iBTHB+B// KvQ` Q B;mH [m2 m0 1 v iB2M2 2M xi +2`Qb /2 KmHiBTHB+B//2b K2MQb- mM +2`Q /2 f 0 X 1b /2+B`- 2tBbi2M yi 2 (xi , xi+1 ) iH2b [m2 f 0 (yi ) = 0- i =
`2bT2+iBpb KvQ`2b Q B;mH2b [m2 mi - i = 1, . . . , kX THB+M/Q H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 0, . . . , k 1X 1MiQM+2b H /2`Bp/ f 0 iB2M2 2M +/ xi mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//-
BM/m++BƦM q- i2M2KQb H K2MQb- mi 1 v 2M HQb TmMiQb y0 , . . . , yk 1 +2`Qb +mv KmHiBTHB+B// 2b H
K2MQb 1X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
q(x) = (x x0 ) m0 1
(x x1 )m1 · · · (x xk )mk q1 (x), k k
X X
k+ (mi 1) = mi 1 n,
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
i=0 i=0
p(x) = (x x0 )m0 (x x1 )m1 · · · (x xk )mk q1 (x). TQ/2KQb THB+` H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM f 0 X a2 /2/m+2 [m2 H /2`Bp/ /2
Q`/2M n 1 /2 H 7mM+BƦM f 0 b2 MmH 2M H;ȹM TmMiQ ⇠ 2 I /2H BMi2`pHQ- Hm2;Q
f (n) (⇠) = 0X
55 56
1H T`Q#H2K /2 hvHQ` 1H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 ;2M2`H
1H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ` Tm2/2 +QMbB/2``b2 +QKQ mM BMi2`TQHMi2- bB +QMi2K@ lM bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb x0 , x1 , . . . , xn - MQ M2+2b`BK2Mi2 /BbiBMiQb `2+B#2 2H
THKQb H TQbB#BHB// /2 BKTQM2` H +QBM+B/2M+B- MQ bQHK2Mi2 /2 pHQ`2b- MQK#`2 /2 mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/QbX G KmHiBTHB+B// /2 mM MQ/Q
bBMQ iK#BûM /2 /2`Bp/b /2 H 7mM+BƦMX 2M H bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ x0 , . . . , xn b2 /2}M2 +QKQ 2H MȹK2`Q /2 p2+2b [m2 2H
1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 hvHQ` T` f bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M@ MQ/Q xi T`2+2 2M /B+? bm+2bBƦM-
+B#H2 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 x0 +QMbBbi2 2M 2M+QMi`` p 2 Pn iH [m2
m(xi ) := #{j | xj = xi }.
p(j) (x0 ) = f (j) (x0 ), j = 0, . . . , n.
1M `2H+BƦM +QM mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb +QMbB/2`KQb [m2 mM 7mM@
o2KQb [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 hvHQ` bB2KT`2 /KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX +BƦM +QMiBMm 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M+B#H2 bB /KBi2 2M +/ MQ/Q xi /2@
`Bp/b ?bi Q`/2M m(xi ) 1 v 2bb /2`Bp/b bQM +QMiBMmb 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ
S`QTQbB+BƦM jX9X G ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 hvHQ` /2 xi X a2 /B+2 [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM f bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M+B#H2 b2 MmH 2M H
bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn - bB
p(j) (x0 ) = f (j) (x0 ), j = 0, . . . , n.
f (j) (xi ) = 0, j = 0, . . . , m(xi ) 1, i = 0, . . . , n,
2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ`
n
X (x x0 ) i 2b /2+B`- f iB2M2 2M +/ MQ/Q xi mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//- H K2MQb- m(xi )-
Tn (f ; x0 ) := f (i) (x0 ) . i = 0, . . . , nX .2+BKQb [m2 HQb pHQ`2b /2 /Qb 7mM+BQM2b f v g bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2
i!
i=0 /B72`2M+B#H2b +QBM+B/2M 2M mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb bB H /B72`2M+B
f g b2 MmH 2M /B+? bm+2bBƦMX
.2KQbi`+BƦMX S` H 2tBbi2M+B- i2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2- bB iQKKQb
1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 +QMbBbi2 2M 2M+QMi`` mM TQHB@
p(x) = Tn (f ; x0 )(x)- i2M2KQb
MQKBQ p 2 Pn [m2 +QBM+B/ +QM mM 7mM+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M+B#H2 f
n 2M mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X SQ` iMiQ- 2H T`Q#H2K /2
Xj (x x0 ) i
p(j) (x) = f (i+j) (x0 ) = Tn j (f
(j)
; x0 ), BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 Tm2/2 /2b+`B#B`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 Hb Hb +QM/B+BQM2b
i=0
i! /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 p(j) (xi ) = f (j) (xi ), j = 0, 1, . . . , m(xi ) 1, i = 0, . . . , n.

p(j) (x0 ) = f (j) (x0 ).
GQ [m2 Km2bi` H 2tBbi2M+B /2 bQHm+BƦMX S` H mMB+B//- bmTQM;KQb [m2 lM 7Q`K 2[mBpH2Mi2 /2 7Q`KmH` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`@
p1 , p2 2 Pn bQM bQHm+BQM2b /2H KBbKQ T`Q#H2KX .2}MB2M/Q q := p1 p2 2 Pn - KBi2 +QMbBbi2 2M BMi`Q/m+B` HQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 >2`KBi2 bQ+B/Qb H bm+2bBƦM
i2M2KQb 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn
q (j) (x0 ) = 0, j = 0, . . . , n,
Hm2;Q x0 2b mM +2`Q /2 q /2 KmHiBTHB+B// H K2MQb n + 1X a2 /2/m+2 /2H if = f (ri 1)
(xi ), ri = #{j  i | xj = xi }, i = 0, . . . , n.
h2Q`2K /2H `2biQ ;2M2`HBx/Q [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x x0 )n+1 - /2 ;`/Q n + 1
/BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ q(x)- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 q(x) 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ MmHQX SQ` LQi2KQb [m2 ri 2b H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 xi 2M H bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ T`+BH
iMiQ- i2M2KQb mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM p1 (x) = p2 (x)X x0 , . . . , xi X GQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 >2`KBi2 T2`KBi2M bBKTHB}+` H /2b+`BT+BƦM /2H
T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2X
57 58
S`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2X >HH` mM 7mM+BƦM p iH [m2 h2Q`2K jXeX a2 x0 , . . . , xn 2 _ mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb v b2M
0 , . . . , n HQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 >2`KBi2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2bX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`@
ip = ⌘i , i = 0, . . . , n, TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2
i p = ⌘i , i = 0, . . . , n,
/QM/2 i - i = 0, . . . , n- bQM HQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 >2`KBi2 bQ+B/Qb mM bm+2bBƦM
2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn 2 _ v ⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n 2 _X iB2M2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M Pn T` /iQb ⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n 2 _ +mH2b[mB2`X
1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 MBM;ȹM TmMiQ 2biû `2T2iB/Q Kb /2 /Qb p2+2b- 2H T`Q@
.2KQbi`+BƦMX .2KQbi`2KQb T`BK2`Q H mMB+B//X aB p1 , p2 2 Pn bQM /Qb
#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2 +QKQ 2H T`Q#H2K /2
bQHm+BQM2b /2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 2MiQM+2b
/2i2`KBM` mM +m`p [m2 Tb2 TQ` TmMiQb //Qb- T`2b+`B#B2M/Q 2M H;mMQb
/2 2HHQb H `2+i iM;2Mi2X Jb ;2M2`HK2Mi2- bB HQb MQ/Qb 2biM `2T2iB/Qb
p`Bb p2+2b- H +m`p /2#2 Dmbi`b2 /2 KQ/Q [m2 Hb ;`}+b /2 HQb TQHBMQ@ i (p2 p1 ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n.
KBQb /2 hvHQ` +QMbi`mB/Qb +QM HQb /iQb i2M;M Q`/2M /2 +QMi+iQ B;mH H
KmHiBTHB+B// 2M +/ MQ/QX SQ` 2H G2K jX8- p2 p1 2 Pn \ !n+1 P - /QM/2 !n+1 P 2b 2H B/2H ;2M2`/Q
TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ !n+1 X *QKQ !n+1 iB2M2 ;`/Q n + 1- Pn \ !n+1 P = 0- Hm2;Q
G2K jX8X a2 x0 , . . . , xn 2 _ mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb v b2 k 2 p1 = p2 X
{0, . . . , n}X 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb p 2 P [m2 b2 MmHM 2M H bm+2bBƦM
S` H 2tBbi2M+B- +QMbB/2`2KQb H THB++BƦM HBM2H
2ti2M/B/ x0 , . . . , xk 2b 2H B/2H ;2M2`/Q TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ
0 1
!k+1 (x) := (x x0 ) · · · (x xk ), 0p
: p 2 Pn 7! @ XXX A 2 _n+1 .
B C
2b /2+B`-
np
{p 2 P | ip = 0, i = 0, . . . , k} = !k+1 P = {!k+1 q | q 2 P }.
*QKQ HQb 7mM+BQMH2b i bQM HBM2H2b- [m2/ /2}MB/ mM THB++BƦM HBM2H 2Mi`2
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 mi H KmHiBTHB+B// /2 xi +QKQ +2`Q 2M H bm+2bBƦM /Qb 2bT+BQb p2+iQ`BH2b /2 H KBbK /BK2MbBƦMX
x0 , . . . , x k - 1H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 2[mBpH2 2M+QMi`` T` (⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n ) 2 _n+1
mM MiBBK;2M p 2 Pn iH [m2 p = (⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n )X G mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM
mi := #{j 2 {0, . . . , k} | xj = xi }, i = 0, . . . , k. /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 H THB++BƦM
2b BMv2+iBpX *QKQ HQb 2bT+BQb Pn v _n+1 iB2M2M H KBbK /BK2MbBƦM- H
aB p 2 P 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ iH [m2
THB++BƦM 2b #Bv2+iBp- 2b /2+B`- //Q mM p2+iQ` (⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n ) 2 _n+1 - 2tBbi2
ip = 0, i = 0, . . . , k. mM ȹMB+Q p 2 Pn - iH [m2 p = (⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n )X 1M Qi`b TH#`b- T` /iQb
+mH2b[mB2` 2tBbi2 mM ȹMB+Q BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 >2`KBi2 2M Pn X
2MiQM+2b p iB2M2 2M +/ xi mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//- H K2MQb- mi X P#b2`@
pKQb [m2 2M 2H T`Q/m+iQ !k+1 (x) := (x x0 ) · · · (x xk ) +/ 7+iQ` x xi G ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 `2+B#2 2H
T`2+2 `2T2iB/Q 2t+iK2Mi2 mi p2+2bX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2H _2biQ ;2M2`HB@ MQK#`2 /2 TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2X .2MQi`2KQb K2/BMi2
x/Q- !k+1 /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ pX _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2 bB !k+1 /BpB/2 p- 2MiQM+2b P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 /2 mM 7mM+BƦM bm@
H S`QTQbB+BƦM jXk UV- BKTHB+ [m2 p iB2M2 2M xi mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B//- H }+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M+B#H2 f 2M H bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X
K2MQb- mi X *QKQ ri := #{j 2 {0, . . . , i} | xj = xi }  mi - b2 /2/m+2 [m2
ip = p
(ri 1)
(xi ) = 0 T` iQ/Q i = 0, . . . , kX
59 60
6Ơ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 +H{bB+Q /QM/2
G bQHm+BƦM /2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 TQHB@ ⇠i := x2i = x2i+1 , i = 0, . . . , k.
MQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2bX S` Q#i2M2` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 2bi2 iBTQ- 2ti2M/2`2KQb GQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b /2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 /2 őM/B+2 T` p2`B}+M
H /2}MB+BƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQ 7mM/K2MiH T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2X 1H TQHBMQKBQ
7mM/K2MiH /2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 b2 /2}MBM2 +QKQ 2H ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ 0
l2i (⇠j ) = l2i (⇠j ) = 0, j 6= i,
lj 2 Pn [m2 p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM l2i (⇠i ) = 1, 0
l2i (⇠i ) = 0,
Q
j li = ij . /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb [m2 j2{0,...,n}\{i} (x ⇠j )2 /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ l2i X SQ`
iMiQ- Li (x)2 /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ l2i - Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 H `2H+BƦM
.2 +m2`/Q +QM 2H h2Q`2K jXe- lj [m2/ ȹMB+K2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/QX SQ/2KQb
+QMbB/2`` (l0 , . . . , ln ) v ( 0 , . . . , n ) +QKQ #b2b /mH2b /2 HQb 2bT+BQb /2 l2i (x)
TQHBMQKBQb Pn v /2 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b L = h i |i = 0, . . . , niX h2MB2M/Q 2M Li (x)2
= ai bi (x ⇠i ).
+m2Mi H /mHB// /2 K#b #b2b- 2b BMK2/BiQ /2KQbi`` [m2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2
pB2M2 //Q TQ` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 1pHmM/Q 2M x = x2i = ⇠i - b2 /2/m+2 2H pHQ` ai = 1X .2`BpM/Q 2M H
2tT`2bBƦM Q#i2MB/ T` l2i
n
X
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = j f lj (x). l2i (x) = (1 bi (x ⇠i ))Li (x)2
j=0
Q i2M2KQb
mM[m2 TQ/2KQb }`K` [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ j:xj 6=xi (x xj ) /BpB/2 H TQHB@ 0
l2i (x) = 2(1 2bi (x ⇠i ))Li (x)L0i (x) bi Li (x)2
MQKBQ li (x)- 2bi T`QTB2// MQ T`QTQ`+BQM 2tTHő+BiK2Mi2 2H TQHBMQKBQ 7mM@
v- 2pHmM/QH 2M x = ⇠i - Q#i2M2KQb
/K2MiH- bHpQ 2M 2H +bQ bBKTH2 /2 [m2 2H TmMiQ xi MQ 2biû `2T2iB/Q 2M H
bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/QbX 0
0 = l2i (⇠i ) = 2L0i (⇠i ) bi
lM +bQ TìB+mH`K2Mi2 BMi2`2bMi2 2b 2H +bQ /2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2
+HbB+Q- 2M 2H [m2 iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb iB2M2M KmHiBTHB+B// 2t+iK2Mi2 k- bB2M/Q .2 /QM/2 TQ/2KQb /2bT2D` bi
2H 2bT+BQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q BKT` P2k+1 - n = 2k + 1X
bi = 2L0i (⇠i ),
x0 = x1 < x2 = x3 < · · · < x2k = x2k+1 .
Q#i2MB2M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH
SQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b /2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2
l2i (x) = [1 2L0i (⇠i )(x ⇠i )]Li (x)2 .
+HbB+Q 2M iû`KBMQb /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2
Y x ⇠j GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 /2 őM/B+2 BKT` p2`B}+M
Li (x) = 2 Pk ,
⇠i ⇠j 0 0
j2{0,...,k}\{i} l2i+1 (⇠j ) = l2i+1 (⇠j ) = 0, j 6= i, l2i+1 (⇠i ) = 0, l2i+1 (⇠i ) = 1,
Q
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b H T`Q#H2K /2 G;`M;2 2M HQb MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb [m2 (x ⇠i ) j2{0,...,n}\{i} (x ⇠j )2 /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ
l2i X SQ` iMiQ
⇠0 < ⇠ 1 < · · · < ⇠ k l2i+1 (x) = ci (x ⇠i )Li (x)2 .
61 62
.2`BpM/Q H 2tT`2bBƦM Mi2`BQ`
1
l0 l2
0
l2i+1 (x) 2
= ci Li (x) + 2ci (x ⇠i )Li (x)0i (x) 0.8
v 2pHmM/Q 2M ⇠i - Q#i2M2KQb
0.6
0
1 = l2i+1 (⇠i ) = ci ,
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2i2`KBM` H 7mM+BƦM 0.4
l2i+1 (x) = (x ⇠i )Li (x)2 . 0.2
l1
SQ` HQ iMiQ- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 T` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 +HbB+Q
2b 0
k
X l3
p(x) = [f (⇠i )(1 2L0i (⇠i )(x ⇠i )) + f 0 (⇠i )(x ⇠i ))]Li (x)2 .
-0.2
i=0
.2`BpM/Q Li (x)- TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` 2tTHB+BiK2Mi2 HQb pHQ`2b 6B;m` jXRX SQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 G;`M;2 T` 2H
T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +ȹ#B+ /2 >2`KBi2
X 1
L0i (⇠i ) = , i = 0, . . . , k,
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
⇠i ⇠j +QMiBMm+BƦM /2b+`B#BKQb bBM /2KQbi`+BƦM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb
7mM/K2MiH2b /2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 ;2M2`H // TQ` X aTBix#` 2M
[m2 T`2+2M 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ`X RNeyX .2}MB2M/Q
lM 2D2KTHQ BKTQìMi2 2b 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 +ȹ#B+Q /2 >2`KBi2- +Q``2bTQM@
/B2Mi2 k = 1X 1M 2b2 +bQ HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 b2 `2/m+2M pi (x) :=
!n+1 (x)
, gi (x) :=
1
,
⇣ (x xi )m(xi ) pi (x)
x ⇠0 ⌘⇣ ⇠1 x ⌘2 ⇣⇠ x ⌘2
1
l0 (x) = 1 + 2 , l1 (x) = (x ⇠0 ) , m(xi ) := #{j | xj = xi }, ri := #{j  i | xj = xi },
⇠1 ⇠0 ⇠1 ⇠0 ⇠1 ⇠0
⇣ ⇠1 x ⌘⇣ ⌘
x ⇠0 2 ⇣ x ⇠ ⌘2
l2 (x) = 1 + 2 , l3 (x) = (⇠1 x)
0
. TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b 2M H 7Q`K
⇠1 ⇠0 ⇠1 ⇠0 ⇠1 ⇠0
AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q Hb +QQ`/2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b /2H BMi2`pHQ [⇠0 , ⇠1 ] (x xi )ri 1

m(xi ) ri
X (j)
gi (xi )
li (x) = pi (x) (x xi ) j , i = 0, . . . , n,
⇠1 x x ⇠0 (ri 1)! j=0
j!
0 (x) = , 1 (x) = ,
⇠1 ⇠0 ⇠1 ⇠0
H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 /KBi2 H 7Q`K bBKTHB}+/
2 2
l0 (x) = (1 + 2 1 (x)) 0 (x) , l1 (x) = (⇠1 ⇠0 ) 1 (x) 0 (x) ,
2 2
l2 (x) = (1 + 2 0 (x)) 1 (x) , l3 (x) = (⇠1 ⇠0 ) 0 (x) 1 (x) .
63 64
Qk
.B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b v 7Ơ`KmH /2 L2riQM /QM/2 !k (x) =
1
i=0 (x xi )- k = 0, . . . , nX
S` TQ/2` /2KQbi`` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM- M2+2bBiKQb /2}MB` /B72`2M+Bb .2KQbi`+BƦMX G /2KQbi`+BƦM b2 `2HBx TQ` BM/m++BƦMX aB n = 0 2b
/BpB/B/b 2M 2H +bQ /2 TmMiQb +QBM+B/2Mi2bX lM TQbB#BHB// b2`ő /2}MB` 2pB/2Mi2X S` n > 0- MQi2KQb [m2
/B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ i`pûb /2 H `2+m``2M+B
r(x) := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )(x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x)
[x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f [x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 ]f 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n iH [m2 i r = 0- i = 0, . . . , n 1X
[x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f :=
xn x0 SQ` 2H G2K jX8- !n (x) := (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 ) /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ r(x)X
*QKQ grad r  n- i2M2KQb
v 2M 2H +bQ 2M [m2 x0 = xn - /2}MB` r(x) = an !n (x),
[x1 , . . . , xn bB2M/Q an 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xn /2H TQHBMQKBQ r- [m2 +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H +Q2@
1 , xn ]f [x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 ]f
[x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f := lı́m . }+B2Mi2 2M xn /2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )X SQ` /2}MB+BƦM /2 /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/-
xn !x0 xn x0
an = [x0 , . . . , xn ]f - /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 `2+m``2M+B
*QKT`Q#` [m2 H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` 2b +Q``2+i- BKTHB+ /2KQbi`` H 2tBb@ P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 , xn )(x) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x) + [x0 , . . . , xn ]f !n (x),
i2M+B /2 /2i2`KBM/Qb HőKBi2b- mM /Bb+mbBƦM [m2 b2 +QKTHB+ +mM/Q p`BQb [m2 T2`KBi2 +QKTH2i` H /2KQbi`+BƦM TQ` BM/m++BƦMX
TmMiQb bQM +QBM+B/2Mi2bX SQ` 2b2 KQiBpQ T`272`BKQb miBHBx` H /2}MB+BƦM /2
/B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ T`QTm2bi TQ` :2`?`/ EQrH2pbFB 2M RNjkX G /B72`2M+B 6Ơ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2
/BpB/B/ 2M n+1 MQ/Qb- b2 /2}M2 +QKQ 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xn /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BM@
G `2+m``2M+B /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2 b2 ;2M2`HBx BMK2/BiK2Mi2
i2`TQH+BƦMX G S`QTQbB+BƦM RX9 UV /2Km2bi` [m2 H /2}M+BƦM /2 EQrH2rbFB
+QBM+B/2 +QM H T`QTm2bi Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 T` TmMiQb /BbiBMiQbX h2Q`2K jXN U6Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2VX
(xn x0 )P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = (xn x)P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x)
.2}MB+BƦM jXdX a2 x0 , . . . , xn 2 _ v f mM 7mM+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M@
+B#H2 U2M +/ MQ/Q xi - H 7mM+BƦM f /2#2 /KBiB` /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M ?bi + (x x0 )P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn )(x).
m(xi ) 1VX G /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ /2 f /2 Q`/2M n 2M HQb TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn - .2KQbi`+BƦMX a2M
p1 := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 ),
[x0 , . . . , xn ]f
p2 := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn ).
b2 /2}M2 +QKQ 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xn /2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )- 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`@ *QKQ p1 2 Pn 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +2`Qb 2M x0 , . . . , xn 1 v Hb KmHiBTHB+B//2b
TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 /2 f 2M x0 , . . . , xn X /2 /B+?Qb +2`Qb bQM H K2MQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 p2+2b [m2 b2 2M+m2Mi`M `2T2iB/Qb
2M H bm+2bBƦM x0 , . . . , xn 1 - i2M2KQb [m2
.2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2 H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ MQ /2T2M/2 /2H Q`/2M p1 (x) = [x0 , . . . , xn ]f (x x0 ) · · · (x xn 1 ).
/2 bmb `;mK2MiQbX MHQ;K2Mi2 b2 Km2bi` [m2
h2Q`2K jX3 U6Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMVX a2 x0 , . . . , xn 2 _ mM bm+2bBƦM p2 (x) = [x0 , . . . , xn ]f (x x1 ) · · · (x xn ).
2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb v f mM 7mM+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72`2M+B#H2- 2MiQM+2b SQ` iMiQ
(xn x0 )P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) (xn x)P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn 1 )(x)
n
X
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [x0 , . . . , xk ]f · !k (x), (x x0 )P (f ; x1 , . . . , xn )(x) = (xn x)p1 (x) + (x x0 )p2 (x) = 0.
i=0
65 66
1H +H+mHQ /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 Tm2/2 ?+2`b2 TQ` H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2X
`2+m``2M+B miBHBxM/Q Hb 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2X S` BMi`Q/m+B` 2H H@
S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n
;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2- MQi2KQb [m2 HQb MQ/Qb b2 Tm2/2M Q`/2M` 2M H bm+2bBƦM
2ti2M/B/ /2 KQ/Q [m2 Hb +QH2b+2M+Bb 2biûM ;`mT/b- 2b /2+B`- HQb őM/B+2b pi,0 (x) := f (xi )
/2 HQb MQ/Qb +QBM+B/2Mi2b /2#2M b2` +QMb2+miBpQbX SQ` iMiQ- b2 iB2M2 [m2 bB S` k = 1, 2 . . . , n
xi+k = xi - 2MiQM+2b xi = xi+1 = · · · = xi+k 1 = xi+k v 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n k
BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q k 2M HQb MQ/Qb xi , xi+1 , . . . , xi+k 2b T`2+BbK2Mi2 2H
aB xi+k = xi
TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ`
f (k) (xi )
k
X pi,k (x) := pi,k 1 (x) + (x xi ) k
(j) (x xi ) j k!
Tk (f ; xi ) = f (xi )
j=0
j! 2M +bQ +QMi``BQ
xi+k x x xi
1M 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2 b2 Q#iB2M2M HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b pi,k (x) := pi,k 1 (x) + pi+1,k 1 (x)
xi+k xi xi+k xi
pi,k := P (f ; xi , . . . , xi+k ), i = 0, . . . , n k, k = 1, . . . , n. G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 `2+m``2M+B /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2 BKTHB+ [m2 2b TQbB#H2 `2HB@
1M 2H ȹHiBKQ TbQ /2H H;Q`BiKQ b2 Q#iB2M2 p0,n - 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM x` 2H +H+mHQ /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b TQ` `2+m``2M+BX
2M iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRy U6Ʀ`KmHb T` Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bVX
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 `2+m``2M+B /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2 T2`KBi2 +H+mH` HQb BMi2`TQ@ UV aB x0 = · · · = xn - 2MiQM+2b
HMi2b K2/BMi2 Hb `2+m``2M+Bb
xi+k x x xi [n+1] f (n) (x0 )
pi,k (x) := pi,k 1 (x) + pi+1,k 1 (x), i = 0, . . . , n k, [x0 , . . . , xn ]f = [x0 ]f =
xi+k xi xi+k xi n!
T` k = 1, . . . , nX *mM/Q HQb TmMiQb xi , . . . , xi+k +QBM+B/2M- i2MB2M/Q 2M U#V aB x0 6= xn - 2MiQM+2b

+m2Mi [m2 pi,k v pi,k 1 bQM TQHBMQKBQb /2 hvHQ`- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 [x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f [x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 ]f
[x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn ]f = .
xn x0
f (k) (xi )
pi,k (x) := pi,k 1 (x) + (x xi )k .
k! .2KQbi`+BƦMX UV *mM/Q iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb +QBM+B/2M- 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2
G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` Tm2/2 +QMbB/2``b2 +QKQ 2H HőKBi2 +mM/Q HQb TmMiQb BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 2b T`2+BbK2Mi2 2H n@ûbBKQ TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ`X
xi , . . . , xi+k iB2M/2M +QBM+B/B` /2 H `2+m``2M+B 2tT`2b/ 2M H 7Q`K SQ` iMiQ- H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ 2M n + 1 TmMiQb +QBM+B/2Mi2b 2b f (n) (x0 )/n!X
U#V a2 Q#iB2M2 BMK2/BiK2Mi2 iQKM/Q +Q2}+B2Mi2b /B`2+iQ`2b 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH
pi,k (x) := pi,k
pi+1,k 1 (x) pi,k 1 (x) /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2X
1 (x) + (x xi ).
xi+k xi
1H +H+mHQ /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b Tm2/2 ?+2`b2 miBHBxM/Q Hb 7Ʀ`Km@
aB HQb MQ/Qb /2 H bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ 2biM Q`/2M/Qb /2 KQ/Q [m2 HQb Hb Mi2`BQ`2b bB;mB2M/Q 2H KBbKQ 2b[m2K [m2 2M 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2X
őM/B+2b /2 MQ/Qb +QBM+B/2Mi2b bQM +QMb2+miBpQb- TQ/2KQb +H+mH` H i#H /2 S` [m2 2H +H+mHQ b2 2}+B2Mi2- +QMpB2M2 [m2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 H bm+2bBƦM 2t@
pHQ`2b pi,k - i = 0, . . . , n k- k = 0, . . . , n- K2/BMi2 2H mbQ `2Bi2`/Q /2 H i2M/B/ 2biûM Q`/2M/Qb /2 KQ/Q [m2 HQb őM/B+2b /2 MQ/Qb +QBM+B/2Mi2b b2M
7Ʀ`KmH /2 `2+m``2M+B Q miBHBxM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 hvHQ` +mM/Q iQ/Qb HQb +QMb2+miBpQbX 1biQ T2`KBi2 T`QTQ`+BQM` 2H bB;mB2Mi2 H;Q`BiKQ T` 2H +H+mHQ
TmMiQb +QBM+B/2MX 1bi Q#b2`p+BƦM MQb T2`KBi2 `27Q`KmH` 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 /2 H i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b di,k := [xi , . . . , xi+k ]f - i = 0, . . . , n k-
L2pBHH2 T` T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2X k = 0, . . . , n- #b/Q 2M 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 L2pBHH2 /2b+`BiQ Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2X
67 68
H;Q`BiKQ U*H+mHQ /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bVX 1H bB;mB2Mi2 H;Q`BiKQ /2 iBTQ >Q`M2`
cn := d0,n
S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n
S` k = n 1, . . . , 1, 0
di,0 := f (xi )
ck := d0,k + (t xk )ck+1 ,
S` k = 1, 2 . . . , n
S` i = 0, 1, . . . , n k +Q``2bTQM/2 H 2pHm+BƦM /2 HQb T`ûMi2bBb /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM MB//
aB xi+k = xi ⇣ ⌘
d0,0 + (t x0 ) d0,1 + (t x1 ) d0,2 + · · · + (t xn 2 )(d0,n 1 + (t xn 1 )d0,n ) ,
f (k) (xi )
di,k :=
k! +QK2MxM/Q +QM 2H T`ûMi2bBb BMi2`MQ ?bi HH2;` H T`ûMi2bBb 2ti2`MQX 1H
2M +bQ +QMi``BQ pHQ` /2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x = t 2b p(t) = c0 X GQb +H+mHQb BMi2`K2/BQb ck /2H
di+1,k 1 di,k 1
H;Q`BiKQ Mi2`BQ` Tm2/2M B/2MiB}+`b2 +QM /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b [m2 BM+Hmv2M
di,k :=
xi+k xi 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦMX
S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRRX a2 x0 , . . . , xn mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb v b2

!k (x) = (x x0 ) . . . , (x xk 1 )- k = 0, . . . , n- H #b2 /2 L2riQM +Q``2b@
1pHm+BƠM /2 H 7Ơ`KmH /2 L2riQM TQM/B2Mi2X a2 p 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 f 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn
v di,k := [xi , . . . , xi+k ]f - i = 0, . . . , n k- k = 0, . . . , n- HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H
lM p2x Q#i2MB/b Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b TQ/2KQb miBHBx` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b 2M MQ/Qb +QM őM/B+2b +QMb2+miBpQbX S` t 2 _-
L2riQM T` 2pHm` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M mM TmMiQ tX a2 bmKM HQb iû`KB@ /2}MBKQb cn+1 := 0 v +H+mHKQb bm+2bBpK2Mi2
MQb dk,0 !k (t)- /2b/2 k = 0, . . . , n- Q#b2`pM/Q [m2 HQb pHQ`2b !k (t) Tm2/2M
+H+mH`b2 bm+2bBpK2Mi2 TìB2M/Q /2 !0 (t) = 1- K2/BMi2 H `2+m``2M+B ck := d0,k + (t xk )ck+1 , k = n, n 1, . . . , 0.
!k (t) = (t xk 1 )!k 1 (t)- k = 1, . . . , nX
1MiQM+2b b2 iB2M2 [m2
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H 2pHm+BƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM +QM MQ/Qb TQbB@
#H2K2Mi2 +QBM+B/2Mi2b +QMiB2M2 mM +bQ 2bT2+BHK2Mi2 MQi#H2, +mM/Q iQ/Qb ck = [t, x0 , . . . , xk 1 ]p, k 2 {0, . . . , n, n + 1}.
HQb MQ/Qb +QBM+B/2M x0 = · · · = xn - H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM b2 `2/m+2 H
7Ʀ`KmH /2 hvHQ` 1H `2biQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM /2 p(x) T` x t 2b c0 = p(t)
n
X f (k) (x0 ) p(x) = c0 + (x t)[t, x]p,
p(x) = (x x0 )k ,
k!
k=0
v 2H +Q+B2Mi2 [t, x]p /KBi2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
/M/Q Hm;` H /2b``QHHQ /2H TQHBMQKBQ `2bT2+iQ H #b2 /2 TQi2M+Bb +2M@ n
X1
i`/b 2M x0 X 1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 x0 = · · · = xn = 0- i2M2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ [t, x]p = ck+1 !k (x).
2tT`2b/Q 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb mk (x) = xk - k = 0, . . . , n- k=0
T` +mv 2pHm+BƦM b2 T`QTmbQ 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 >Q`M2` Upûb2 h2Q`2K RXjVX
*QKQ H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM ;2M2`HBx H /2b``QHHQ /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M iû`@ .2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` H S`QTQbB+BƦM RXN UV [t, x0 , . . . , xn ]p 2b 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2
KBMQb /2 H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb- T`2+2 `xQM#H2 2ti2M/2` H H;Q`BiKQ /2 2M xn+1 /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 p 2M HQb MQ/Qb t, x0 , . . . , xn X o2@
>Q`M2` T` TQ/2` THB+`HQ H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMX KQb TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 k [m2 ck = [t, x0 , . . . , xk 1 ]pX *QKQ 2H TQHBMQKBQ
69 70
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 p 2 Pn 2M t, x0 , . . . , xn 2b 2H T`QTBQ p /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` bQM /iQb /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`QTm2biQX *QKTH2iKQb H i#H /2
2bi`B+iK2Mi2 [m2 n + 1- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 [t, x0 , . . . , xn ]p = 0 = cn+1 X a2 ?Q` /B72`2M+Bb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b
k 2 {0, . . . , n}X aB t = xk - i2M2KQb
xi di0 di1 di2 di3 di4 di5
ck = d0,k = [x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xk ]p = [t, x0 , . . . , xk 1 ]p 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 ( 1) 1 1
1 0 = 1 1 0 =1 1 0 =0
v [m2 2H pHQ` /2 mM /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ MQ /2T2M/2 /2H Q`/2M /2 HQb `@ 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 = 1 1 ( 1)
1 0 =0 1 0
1 0 = 1
;mK2MiQbX *QMbB/2`2KQb ?Q` 2H +bQ t 6= xk X SQ` ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM 0 0 1 0 0 ( 1)
i2M2KQb ck+1 = [t, x0 , . . . , xk ]p- Hm2;Q 0 0 1 0 =0 1 0 = 1 1 0 = 1
1 0 1 0
ck = d0,k + (t xk )ck+1 = [x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xk ]p + (t xk )[t, x0 , . . . , xk ]p 1 0 1
1 0
lbM/Q H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRy UV
v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b
[x0 , . . . , xk 1 , xk ]p [t, x0 , . . . , xk 1 ]p
[t, x0 , . . . , xk ]p = p(x) = x x3 + x3 (x 1).
xk t
S` 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x = 1/6 TQ/2KQb bmbiBimB` /B`2+iK2Mi2 2M H
b2 /2/m+2 [m2 7Ʀ`KmH ⇣1⌘ 1 1 5 205
ck = [x0 , . . . , xk p = =
1 , xk ]p + (t xk )[t, x0 , . . . , xk ]p = [t, x0 , . . . , xk 1 ]p. 6 6 216 1296 1296
Q miBHBx` 2H H;Q`BiKQ iBTQ >Q`M2`
SQ` ȹHiBKQ H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb 5 11 1 11 11
t, x0 , . . . , xn 1 c5 = 0, c4 = 1, c3 = 1 = , c2 = ⇥ =
6 6 6 6 36
1 11 205 1 205 205
p(x) = c0 + c1 (x t) + c2 (x t)(x x0 ) + · · · + cn (x t)(x x0 ) · · · (x xn 2) c1 = 1 + ⇥ = , c0 = ⇥ = ,
6 36 236 6 236 1296
T`QTQ`+BQM H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM T`QTm2bi /2 p b+M/Q 2H 7+iQ` +QKȹM x t [m2 `2bmKBKQb 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H
2M iQ/Qb HQb bmKM/Qb TìB` /2H b2;mM/QX
xi di0 di1 di2 di3 di4 di5
SQ/2KQb /BbTQM2` HQb +H+mHQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ Mi2`BQ` 2M 7Q`K /2 i#HX 1 205 205 11 11
1 0
S` [m2 H i#H +Q``2bTQM/ mM i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b 2M MQ/Qb 6 1296 216 36 6
+QM őM/B+2b +QMb2+miBpQb- 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2#2 i2M2` őM/B+2 Mi2`BQ` H 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

T`BK2`Q- TQ` HQ [m2 H2b bB;MKQb őM/B+2b M2;iBpQb x 1 := t- v d 1,k := ck - 0 0 1 1 0 1
k = 0, . . . , nX 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0
1D2KTHQX Zm2`2KQb Q#i2M2` 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM p(x) /2 f (x) = 1 0 1
sen(⇡x)/⇡ 2M x0 = x1 = x2 = 0- x3 = x4 = x5 = 1X a2 dik := [xi , . . . , xi+k ]f - 1 0
i = 0, 5 k- k = 0, . . . , 5X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 HQb pHQ`2b
P#i2M2KQb H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
d00 = d10 = d20 = f (0) = 0, d01 = d11 = f 0 (0) = 1, d02 = f 00 (0)/2 = 0, 205 ⇣ 1 ⌘h 1 i h1 i 205 11 11 2
d30 = d40 = d50 = f (1) = 0, d31 = d41 = f (1) = 0
1, 00
d32 = f (1)/2 = 0, p(x) = + x , x p, ,x p = x x + x3 .
1296 6 6 6 216 36 6
71 72
G S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRR Tm2/2 miBHBx`b2 `2Bi2`/K2Mi2 T` Q#i2M2` pHQ`2b xi di0 di1 di2 di3 di4
/2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b /B72`2Mi2b `2T`2@ 1 205 23 5 4
b2Mi+BQM2b /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2X liBHBxM/Q őM/B+2b M2;iBpQb T` 6 1296 27 6 3 1
BMi`Q/m+B` MQ/Qb /B+BQMH2b mtBHB`2b T`2pBQb x0 , . . . , xn - TQ/2KQb /BbTQ@ 1
6
205
1296
23
27
5
6
3
2 1
M2` HQb +H+mHQb /2H H;Q`BiKQ 2M mM i#H /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bX 1 205 23 7 5
6 1296 27 12 3 1
1 205 205 11 11
6 1296 216 36 6 1
H;Q`BiKQ U*H+mHQ /2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M H
7Q`K /2 L2riQMVX a2M x0 , . . . , xn mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb- p 2 0 0 1 0 1 1
Pn mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n v d0,k := [x0 , . . . , xk ]p- k = 0 0 1 1 0
j 1, . . . , nX ./Qb x 1 , . . . , x j - +QM j  n- +H+mHKQb 0 0 0 1
1 0 1
1 0
S` i = 1, . . . , j
G T`BK2` }H +Q``2bTQM/2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
d i,n+1 =0
S` k = n, . . . , j, j 1 205 23 ⇣ 1⌘ 5⇣ 1 ⌘2 4⇣ 1 ⌘3 ⇣ 1 ⌘4
p(x) = + x x x + x ,
d i,k := d i+1,k + (x i xk+1 i )d i,k+1
1296 27 6 6 6 3 6 6
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` Hb /2`Bp/b bm+2bBpb /2H TQHBMQKBQ p 2M x = 1/6
1MiQM+2b d j,j 1 = [x j, . . . , x 1 ]pX ⇣1⌘ ⇣ 1 ⌘ 23 ⇣1⌘
205 5 (3) ⇣ 1 ⌘ ⇣1⌘
p = , p0 = , p00 = , p = 8, p(4) = 24.
6 1296 6 27 6 3 6 6
1M 2H H;Q`BiKQ Mi2`BQ` HQb `2bmHi/Qb BMi2`K2/BQb bQM
1H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q
d i,k = [x i , . . . , x 1 , x0 , . . . , xk i ]p, k=j 1, . . . , n, i = 1, . . . , j. Gb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b iB2M2M +B2ì bBKBHBim/ +QM Hb /2`Bp/bX 1H h2Q`2K
/2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q /2 >X X a+?r`x T`QTQ`+BQM mM `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2
1M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` /2 [m2 iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb /B+BQMH2b b2M +QBM+B/2Mi2b /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M n v /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M nX
x 1 = · · · = x j = t- 2H H;Q`BiKQ T`QTQ`+BQM Hb /2`Bp/b bm+2bBpb /2 p 2M
h2Q`2K jXRk Uh2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/QVX
t v [m2 f (j 1) (t) = (j 1)![t, . . . , t]f = (j 1)!d j,j 1 X
a2 I mM BMi2`pHQ v f 2 C n (I)X ./Qb x0 , . . . , xn 2 I- 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 I iH [m2
1D2KTHQX *QMbB/2`KQb /2 Mm2pQ 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q +mìQ [m2 BMi2`TQH f (n) (⇠)
[x0 , . . . , xn ]f = .
sen(⇡x)/⇡ 2M HQb MQ/Qb 0, 0, 0, 1, 1 2tT`2b/Q K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM n!
.2KQbi`+BƦMX G 7mM+BƦM f P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) iB2M2 H K2MQb n + 1 +2@

p(x) = x x3 + x3 (x 1),
`Qb +QMiM/Q KmHiBTHB+B//2b 2M [x0 , . . . , xn ]- 2H K2MQ` bm#BMi2`pHQ /2 I [m2
+QMiB2M2 HQb TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn X THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 _QHH2 ;2M2`HB@
THB+KQb 2H H;Q`BiKQ Mi2`BQ` +QM x 1 =x 2 =x 3 =x 4 = 1/6- Q#i2@ x/Q- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 [x0 , . . . , xn ] iH [m2 H /2`Bp/ n@ûbBK /2
MB2M/Q H i#H bB;mB2Mi2 f P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2M ⇠ b2 MmH- 2b /2+B`- f (n) (⇠) n![x0 , . . . , xn ]f = 0X
73 74
1H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 a+?r`x Tm2/2 +QMbB/2``b2 +QKQ mM .2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX aB n = 0- 2MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
;2M2`HBx+BƦM /2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2X 1M 272+iQ- T`
n = 1- x0 6= x1 - 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q b2 `2/m+2 H h2Q`2K [x0 ](f g) = f (x0 )g(x0 ) = [x0 ]f [x0 ]g.
/2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2
aB x0 = · · · = xn 2MiQM+2b H `2;H /2 G2#BMBx T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) +QBM+B/2 +QM H `2;H +HbB+ T` /2`Bp/bX
= f 0 (⇠).
x1 x0 [n+1] 1 dn
[x0 , . . . , xn ](f g) = [x0 ](f g) = (f (x)g(x))
n! dxn x=x0
.2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q b2 /2/m+2 [m2 bB f 2 C n (I)- n
1 X n (j)
✓ ◆ n
X f (j) (x0 ) g (n j) (x0 )
2MiQM+2b = f (x0 )g (n j) (x0 ) =
n! j=0 j j! (n j)!
f (n) (⇠) j=0
lı́m [x0 , . . . , xn ]f = . n n
x0 ,...,xn !⇠ n! X [j+1] [n j+1]
X
= [x0 ]f [x0 ]g = [x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g.
1tT`2bM/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM- b2 j=0 j=0
/2/m+2 [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 hvHQ` 2b HőKBi2 TmMimH /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2
+mM/Q iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb iB2M/2M +QBM+B/B` S` 2H +bQ ;2M2`H bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 x0 6= xn v [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2
G2B#MBx 2b pHB/ T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M K2MQ` [m2 nX SQ` H
lı́m P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = Tn (f ; ⇠)(x), x 2 _. S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRy U#V v THB+M/Q H` ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM i2M2KQb
x0 ,...,xn !⇠
(xn x0 )[x0 , . . . , xn ](f g) = [x1 , . . . , xn ](f g) [x0 , . . . , xn 1 ](f g) =

n n
6Ơ`KmH /2 G2B#MBx X X
[x1 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g [x0 , . . . , xj 1 ]f [xj 1 , . . . , xn 1 ]g.
G S`QTQbB+BƦM jXN UV Km2bi` [m2 H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ /2 Q`/2M n 2b 2M j=1 j=1
+B2ìQ b2MiB/Q mM ;2M2`HBx+BƦM /2 H /2`Bp/ n@ûbBKX 1H h2Q`2K /2H Pn
pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q Km2bi` mM `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b aB bmKKQb v `2biKQb j=1 [x0 , . . . , xj 1 ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g H 2tT`2bBƦM Q#@
/2 Q`/2M n v Hb /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M nX G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G2B#MBx T` H /2`Bp/ i2MB/ Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 TQ/2KQb Q`;MBx` HQb iû`KBMQb /2 KM2` T`QTB/
n@ûbBK /2 mM T`Q/m+iQ /2 7mM+BQM2b T` TQ/2` THB+` /2 Mm2pQ H S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRy U#V
Xn ✓ ◆ n
X
dn n (j) ([x1 , . . . , xj ]f [x0 , . . . , xj
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (n j)
(x), 1 ]f ) [xj , . . . , xn ]g+
dxn j=0
j j=1
Xn
/KBi2 mM ;2M2`HBx+BƦM T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bX [x0 , . . . , xj 1 ]f ([xj , . . . , xn ]g [xj 1 , . . . , xn 1 ]g) =
j=1
S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRj U6Ʀ`KmH /2 G2B#MBxVX aB f, g bQM bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 /B72@ Xn
`2M+B#H2b- x0 , . . . , xn 2 I- 2MiQM+2b (xj x0 )[x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g+

j=1
n
X n
X
[x0 , . . . , xn ](f g) = [x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g. + (xn xj 1 )[x0 , . . . , xj 1 ]f [xj 1 , . . . , xn ]g,
j=0 j=1
75 76
.BpB/B2M/Q T` xn x0 - Q#i2M2KQb aB P0 , P1 , . . . , Pn 2 _n - TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` 2H pQHmK2M n@/BK2MbBQMH /2H bBK@
TH2t [P0 , P1 , . . . , Pn ] 2M iû`KBMQb /2H pQHmK2M n@/BK2MbBQMH /2H bőKTH2t 2b@
[x0 , . . . , xn ](f g) = iM/`
n
X1 xj x0 voln [P0 , P1 , . . . , Pn ] = det(P1 P0 , . . . , Pn P0 ) voln (Sn ).
[x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g + [x0 , . . . , xn ]f [x0 ]g+
j=1
xn x0 S` +H+mH`
Z Z 1 Z 1 t1 Z 1 (t1 +···+tn 1)
n
X1 xn xj voln (Sn ) = dt1 · · · dtn = ··· dtn · · · dt1
[x0 ]f [x0 , . . . , xn ]g + [x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g = Sn 0 0 0
xn x0
j=1 miBHBx`2KQb 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b
n
X Xn
[x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g. sj = ti , j = 1, . . . , n,
j=0 i=j
+mvQ +K#BQ BMp2`bQ 2b
tj = s j sj+1 , j = 1, . . . , n 1, tn = sn .
6Ơ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?B 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
Gb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /KBi2M mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM BMi2;`H HHK/ 7Ʀ`KmH Sn = {(s1 s2 , . . . , sn 1 sn , s n ) | 0  sn  sn 1  · · ·  s1  1}
/2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?BX S` Q#i2M2` /B+? `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM BMi2;`H M2+2bBiKQb 1H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b 2b HBM2H +QM /2i2`KBMMi2 R- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 MQ b2
+QMbB/2`` BMi2;`H2b bBKTHB+BH2bX T`Q/m+2 mM +K#BQ /2 pQHmK2M- 2b /2+B`-
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 mM bőKTH2t n@/BK2MbBQMH 2b H +TbmH +QMp2t /2 n + 1 voln Sn = voln {(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) | 0  sn  sn  · · ·  s1  1}.
1
TmMiQb BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b P0 , . . . , Pn /2 mM 2bT+BQ }M- 2b /2+B`
SQ` iMiQ- i2M2KQb
nX
n n
X o Z 1 Z s1 Z sn 1
[P0 , . . . , Pn ] := ti Pi | t0 , . . . , tn 0, ti = 1 , voln Sn = ··· dsn · · · ds1 .

0 0 0
i=0 i=0
S` +H+mH` H BMi2;`H /2H b2;mM/Q KB2K#`Q- BMi`Q/m+BKQb H 7mM+BƦM mtB@
/QM/2 P1 P0 , . . . , Pn P0 bQM p2+iQ`2b HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2bX GQb HB` Z s Z s1 Z sn 1
TmMiQb P0 , . . . , Pn `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 pûìB+2b /2H bBKTH2tX aB 2H2;BKQb vn (s) := ··· dsn · · · ds1 .
+QKQ pûìB+2b P0 = 0 2H Q`B;2M v Pi = ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) 2H i@ûbBKQ 0 0 0
p2+iQ` +MƦMB+Q b2 Q#iB2M2 2H bőKTH2t 2biM/` 2M _n o2KQb TQ` BM/m++BƦM [m2 vn (s) = sn /n!X aB n = 1 i2M2KQb
Z s
n
X v1 (s) = ds1 = s.
Sn = {(t1 , . . . , tn ) 2 _n | t1 , . . . , tn 0, ti  1}. 0
i=1 amTQM;KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b pHB/ T` n 1- 2MiQM+2b
Z s Z sn 1 Z s Z s n 1
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 iQ/Q bBKTH2t n@/BK2MbBQMH 2b H BK;2M 7őM /2H bBKTH2t s1 sn
vn (s) = ··· ds2 · · · dsn = vn 1 (s1 )ds1 = ds1 = .
2biM/` i`pûb /2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b 7őM 0 0 0 0 (n 1)! n!
n
.2 ?ő /2/m+BKQb [m2
X 1
(t1 , . . . , tn ) 2 _n 7! P0 + t1 (Pi P0 ). voln Sn = vn (1) = .
n!
i=1
77 78
LQiX 1H pQHmK2M /2H bőKTH2t 2biM/` Tm2/2 /2/m+B`b2 i`pûb /2 mM `@ /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb Qi` 2tT`2bBƦM /2 /B+? BMi2;`H 2M iû`KBMQb /2 BMi2;`H2b
;mK2MiQ ;2QKûi`B+QX 1H ?BT2`+m#Q [0, 1]n Tm2/2 /BpB/B`b2 2M n! bBKTHB+2b `2Bi2`/b
Z 1 Z s1 Z sn 1
{(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) | 0  s (n) s (n 1)  ···  s (1)  1}, 2 ⌃n , ··· g(x0 + s1 (x1 x0 ) + · · · + sn (xn xn 1 ))dsn · · · ds1 .
0 0 0
/QM/2 ⌃n /2MQi 2H ;`mTQ bBKûi`B+Q /2 iQ/b Hb T2`Kmi+BQM2b /2 Hb +B7`b
{1, . . . , n}X G bmK /2 HQb pQHȹK2M2b /2 iQ/Qb 2bQb bőKTHB+2b /2#2 b2` B;mH LQiX a2M P0 , . . . , Pn 2 _n iH2b [m2 P1 P0 , . . . , Pn P0 bQM p2+iQ`2b BM/2@
H pQHmK2M /2H ?BT2`+m#Q [0, 1]n X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H T2`Kmi+BƦM /2 +QQ`/2@ T2M/B2Mi2bX aB g 2b mM 7mM+BƦM BMi2;`#H2 /2}MB/ 2M 2H bBKTH2t [P0 , . . . , Pn ]-
M/b T (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x (1) , . . . , x (n) ) 2b mM KQpBKB2MiQ 2m+Hő/2Q U/B`2+iQ TQ/2KQb `2H+BQM` H BMi2;`H bBKTHB+BH /2 H 7mM+BƦM g +QM H BMi2;`H bQ#`2
bB v bQHK2Mi2 bB H T2`Kmi+BƦM miBHBx/ 2b T`VX SQ` iMiQ- iQ/Qb 2biQb bőK@ 2H bBKTH2t /2 g `2bT2+iQ /2 H K2/B/ /2 G2#2b;m2X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi 2H C@
THB+2b iB2M2M [m2 i2M2` 2H KBbKQ pQHmK2M- [m2 +QBM+B/2 +QM vol Sn - 2H pQHmK2M +Q#BMQ det(P1 P0 , . . . , Pn P0 ) /2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b [m2 T2`KBi2 /2}MB`
/2H bőKTH2t 2biM/`X 1bi Q#b2`p+BƦM MQb T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 2H pQHmK2M H BMi2;`H bBKTHB+BH
/2H bőKTH2t 2biM/` 2b voln Sn = voln [0, 1]n /n! = 1/n! n
X
(t1 , . . . , tn ) 7! P0 + ti (Pi P0 ),
G BMi2;`H bBKTHB+BH /2 mM 7mM+BƦM g BMi2;`#H2 2M [x0 , . . . , xn ] b2 /2}M2 i=1
K2/BMi2
Z Z b2 /2/m+2 [m2
g := g(x0 + t1 (x1 x0 ) + · · · + tn (xn x0 ))dt1 · · · dtn . Z Z
[x0 ,...,xn ] (t1 ,...,tn )2Sn g(x)dx1 · · · dxn = det(P1 P0 , . . . , Pn P0 ) g
[P0 ,...,Pn ] [P0 ,...,Pn ]
*QM 7`2+m2M+B b2 BMi`Q/m+2 H p`B#H2 mtBHB` t0 = 1 (t1 + · · · + tn ) T`
Q#i2M2` mM 7Ʀ`KmH bBKûi`B+ 1M TìB+mH` b2 iB2M2
Z Z Z
1
g= g(t0 x0 + t1 x1 + · · · + tn xn )dt1 · · · dtn , 1 = voln (Sn ) = .
[P0 ,...,Pn ] n!
[x0 ,...,xn ] t0 ,...,tn 0,t0 +···+tn =1
KB2Mi`b [m2
[m2 T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 H BMi2;`H bBKTHB+BH MQ /2T2M/2 /2H Q`/2M 2M [m2
T`2+2M x0 , . . . , xn X G BMi2;`H bBKTHB+BH /KBi2 /B72`2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b +QKQ Z
det(P1 P0 , . . . , Pn P0 )
BMi2;`H2b `2Bi2`/b dx1 · · · dxn = voln [P0 , . . . , Pn ] =
n!
[P0 ,...,Pn ]
Z 1 Z 1 t1 Z 1 (t1 +···+tn 1)
··· g(x0 + t1 (x1 x0 ) + · · · + tn (xn x0 ))dtn · · · dt1 . liBHBxM/Q BMi2;`H2b bBKTHB+BH2b- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?B Tm2/2
0 0 0 2tT`2b`b2 /2 7Q`K +QKT+i
Pn
aB THB+KQb 2H +K#BQ sj = i=j ti - j = 1, . . . , n- 2MiQM+2b H BMi2;`H bBKTHB@ S`QTQbB+BƦM jXR9 U6Ʀ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?BVX aB x0 , . . . , xn 2 I v
+BH b2 i`Mb7Q`K 2M f 2 C n (I)- 2MiQM+2b
Z Z
g(x0 + s1 (x1 x0 ) + · · · + sn (xn xn 1 ))ds1 · · · dsn , [x0 , . . . , xn ]f = f (n)
0sn ···s1 0 [x0 ,...,xn ]
79 80
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX aB n = 1 i2M2KQb T` x0 6= x1 SQ` iMiQ [x0 , . . . , xn ]f /KBi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
Z Z 1 Z x1
1 Z Z Z Z ⇣ ⌘
f0 = f 0 ((1 t)x0 + tx1 )dt = f 0 (⇠)d⇠ 1 s1 sn 2 sn 1 n
X
[x0 ,x1 ] 0 x1 x0 x0 ··· f (n) x0 + si (xi xi 1 )) dsn dsn 1 · · · ds1 ,
0 0 0 0
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) i=1
= = [x0 , x1 ]f.
x1 x0
HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2
aB x0 = x1 i2M2KQb
Z Z Z Z
1 1
f0 = f 0 (x0 )dt = f 0 (x0 ) dt = f 0 (x0 ) = [x0 , x0 ]f. [x0 , . . . , xn ]f = f (n) .
[x0 ,x0 ] 0 0 [x0 ,...,xn ]
amTQM;KQb +B2ì H 7Ʀ`KmH T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M n 1 v

p2KQb [m2 b2 p2`B}+ T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M nX aB x0 = · · · = xn -
2MiQM+2b *QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?B /2/m+BKQb H +QM@
Z Z
iBMmB// /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/bX
f (n) = f (n) (x0 )dt1 · · · dtn = f (n) (x0 ) voln (Sn )
[x0 ,...,xn ] (t1 ,...tn )2Sn
S`QTQbB+BƦM jXR8X a2 f 2 C n (I)X
f (n) (x0 )
= = [x0 , . . . , xn ]f. UV G 7mM+BƦM (x0 , . . . , xn ) 2 I n+1 7! [x0 , . . . , xn ]f 2 _ 2b +QMiBMmX
n!
U#V G 7mM+BƦM (x0 , . . . , xn , x) 2 I n+2 7! P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) 2b +QMiBMmX
aB ?v /Qb TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb- TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` bBM Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB// [m2
xn 1 6= xn X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb .2KQbi`+BƦMX UV .2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++B- /2/m+BKQb [m2 H
[x0 , . . . , xn 2 , xn ]f [x0 , . . . , xn 2 , xn 1 ]f /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ [x0 , . . . , xn ]f Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 K2/BMi2 H BMi2;`H T`@
[x0 , . . . , xn ]f = =
xn xn 1 Kûi`B+
Z 1Z s1 Z sn 2 Z 1 Z s1 Z sn 1
··· [xn 1 , xn ]g(·; s1 , . . . , sn 1 )dsn 1 dsn 2 · · · ds1 ,
0 0 0 ··· f (n) (x0 + s1 (x1 x0 ) + · · · + sn (xn xn 1 ))dsn · · · ds1 .
0 0 0
/QM/2
⇣ n
X2 ⌘ *QKQ f (n) 2 C(I)- /2/m+BKQb /2 HQb i2Q`2Kb /2 /2T2M/2M+B /2 mM BMi2@
g(x; s1 , . . . , sn 1) = f (n 1)
x0 + si (xi xi 1) + sn 1 (x xn 2) . ;`H `2bT2+iQ bmb T`K2i`Qb [m2 [x0 , . . . , xn ]f /2T2M/2 +QMiBMmK2Mi2 /2
i=1 x0 , . . . , xn X S` /2KQbi`` U#V- #bi +QM +QKT`Q#` [m2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb
THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?B T` n = 1- v HHKM/Q sn = tsn 1 iû`KBMQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2
i2M2KQb
n
X
[xn 1 , xn ]g(·; s1 , . . . , sn )
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [x0 , . . . , xk ]f (x x0 ) · · · (x xk ),
Z 1 ⇣ n
X1 ⌘ k=0
= sn 1 f (n) x0 + si (xi xi 1 ) + tsn 1 (xn xn 1 ) dt
bQM 7mM+BQM2b +QMiBMmb /2 (x0 , . . . , xn , x)X
0 i=1
Z sn 1 ⇣ n
X1 ⌘
= f (n) x0 + si (xi xi 1) + sn (xn xn 1) dsn .
0 i=1
81 82
.B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b +QKQ 7mM+BQMH2b THB+M/Q H #b2 /2 L2riQM- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2/m+BKQb [m2
a2 I mM BMi2`pHQ- x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 2 I mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb- Hb #b2b /2 G;`M;2 v /2 L2riQM 2biM `2H+BQM/b K2/BMi2 mM +K#BQ
m = máxni=0 m(xi )- m(x) = #{i | xi = x}X GQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 >2`KBi2 i`BM;mH`
n
X
!i (x) = j !i lj (x), i = 0, . . . , n.
i : f 2 Cm 1
(I) 7! f (ri 1)
(xi ) 2 _, ri = #{j  i | xj = xi } j=i
bQM 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b v +QMiBMmQbX *QKQ 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 1H +K#BQ BMp2`bQ b2 Q#iB2M2 H THB+` H #b2 /2 G;`M;2- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2
>2`KBi2 bB2KT`2 iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+- b#2KQb [m2 2tBbi2M TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/@ L2riQM
n
X
K2MiH2b- lj 2 Pn - j = 0, . . . , n- /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` H T`QTB2// lj (x) = [x0 , . . . , xi ]lj !i (x), j = 0, . . . , n.
i=j
i lj = ij , i, j = 0, . . . , n,
THB+M/Q HQb 7mM+BQMH2b [x0 , . . . , xi ] H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 Q#i2M2KQb
[m2 T2`KBi2M 2tT`2b` 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2
G;`M;2 i
X
n [x0 , . . . , xi ] = [x0 , . . . , xi ]lj
X j, i = 0, . . . , n,
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = f (xj ) lj . j=0
j=0
2b /2+B`- Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b bQM 7mM+BQMH2b [m2 Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ
h2M2KQb [m2 (l0 , . . . , ln ) v ( 0 , . . . , n ) 7Q`KM mM T` /mHX a2 /2/m+2 [m2
+QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b /2 >2`KBi2X SQ` iMiQ- [x0 , . . . , xi ]- i =
HQb TQHBMQKBQb lj - j = 0, . . . , n- 7Q`KM mM #b2 /2 Pn X Pi` +QMb2+m2M+B
0, . . . , n- bQM 7mM+BQMH2b /2H 2bT+BQ L = h 0 , . . . , n iX *QKQ bQM 7mM+BQMH2b
BMi2`2bMi2 2b H BM/2T2M/2M+B /2H +QMDmMiQ /2 7mM+BQMH2b i - i = 0, . . . , n-
BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b- 7Q`KM mM #b2 /2 LX
[m2 ;2M2`M mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH L := h i | i = 0, . . . , ni /2 7mM+BQMH2b
HBM2H2bX aB THB+KQb HQb 7mM+BQMH2b j H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM Q#i2M2KQb H
`2H+BƦM BMp2`b
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM
j
X
n
X
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = [x0 , . . . , xi ]f !i j = j !i · [x0 , . . . , xi ], j = 0, . . . , n.
i=0 i=0
2tT`2b H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H

#b2 /2 L2riQM !i (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xi 1 )- i = 0 . . . , n- v Hb /B72`2M+Bb GQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM TQHBMƠKB+ /2 >2`KBi2ė"B`F?Q77
/BpB/B/bX h2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 H #b2 /2 L2riQM b2 lM ;2M2`HBx+BƦM /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2 TQHBMƦKB+Qb bQM HQb HHK/Qb
MmHM +/ p2x 2M Kb TmMiQbX 1M 2bi2 +bQ- iK#BûM i2M2KQb [m2 T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2Ĝ"B`F?QzX *QKQ 2M HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2- b2 /2b2
2M+QMi`` mM TQHBMQKBQ p 2 Pn - iH [m2
[x0 , . . . , xi ]!j = ij , i, j = 0, . . . , n,
ip = i f, i = 0, . . . , n,
/2 /QM/2 (!0 , . . . , !n )- ([x0 ], . . . , [x0 , . . . , xn ]) 7Q`KM mM T` /mHX SQ` iMiQ-
(!0 , . . . , !n ) 7Q`K mM #b2 /2 Pn v ([x0 ], . . . , [x0 , . . . , xn ]) bQM 7mM+BQMH2b /QM/2
HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2bX if := f (mi ) (xi )
83 84
2pHȹ /2`Bp/b /2 +B2ìQ Q`/2M mi 2M HQb MQ/Qb xi - i = 0, . . . , nX /B72`2M+B .2KQbi``2KQb H 2tBbi2M+B /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K Q#i2MB2M/Q H 7Ʀ`@
/2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2- b2 T2`KBi2 [m2 T`2x+M /iQb /2`Bp/ /2 KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
mM Q`/2M //Q 2M mM TmMiQ bBM [m2 T`2x+M iQ/b Hb /2`Bp/b /2 K2MQ`
Q`/2MX p(x) = f (x0 )l0 (x) + f (x1 )l1 (x) + f 00 (x0 )ˆl0 (x) + f 00 (x1 )ˆl1 (x).
GQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2@"B`F?Qz +QM TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b /2H T`Q#H2K
B;mH [m2 n MQ iB2M2M TQ` [mû i2M2` bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+X 1H T`Q#H2K /2 2bi@
#H2+2` +QM/B+BQM2b bQ#`2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b [m2 T2`KBiM ;`MiBx` 2tBbi2M+B v l0 (x0 ) = 1, l0 (x1 ) = l000 (x0 ) = l000 (x1 ) = 0,
mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2@"B`F?Qz MQ 2bi `2bm2HiQ v l1 (x1 ) = 1, l1 (x0 ) = l100 (x0 ) = l100 (x1 ) = 0,
iQ/pő ?Qv 2b Q#D2iQ /2 2bim/BQX ˆl00 (x0 ) = 1, ˆl0 (x0 ) = ˆl0 (x1 ) = ˆl00 (x1 ) = 0,
0 0
7QìmM/K2Mi2 2b TQbB#H2 /2KQbi`` H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// 2M Pn /2 ˆl00 (x1 ) = 1, ˆl1 (x0 ) = ˆl1 (x1 ) = ˆl00 (x0 ) = 0.
H;mMQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2Ĝ"B`F?Qz [m2 T`2+2M 2M H T`+iB+X 1 1
G /2~2tBƦM /2 mM pB; TQv/ 2M /Qb bQTQì2b v bQK2iB/ mM /2MbB@

// /2 +`; w(x) 2b T`QtBK/K2Mi2 H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 +QMiQ`MQ
1
/2 GB/biQM2 l0 l1
y (4) (x) = w(x), 0.8
y(x0 ) = y(x1 ) = 0,
y 00 (x0 ) = y 00 (x1 ) = 0, 0.6
+QM x0 < x1 X
G bQHm+BƦM ;2M2`H /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 +mìQ Q`/2M 2b /2 H 7Q`K 0.4
f p, p 2 P3 , 0.2
bB2M/Q f 2b mM bQHm+BƦM TìB+mH` /2 H 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BHX AKTQM2` Hb +QM@

/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2[mBpH2 THMi2` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +ȹ#B+ 0
/2 GB/biQM2, 2M+QMi`` p 2 P3 iH [m2

^ ^
l0 l1
-0.2
p(x0 ) = f (x0 ), p(x1 ) = f (x1 ),
6B;m` jXkX SQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 T` 2H T`Q#H2K
p00 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ), p00 (x1 ) = f 00 (x1 ).
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 GB/biQM2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1]X
o2KQb T`BK2`Q H mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX S`BK2`Q `2bQHp2`2KQb 2H T`Q#H2K 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ 2biM/` t 2 [0, 1] v-
amTQM;KQb [m2 p1 , p2 2 P3 bQM bQHm+BQM2b /2H KBbKQ T`Q#H2K v b2 d = K2/BMi2 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b x = x0 + t(x1 x0 )- 2tT`2b`2KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH
p2 p1 X 1MiQM+2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ d00 2 P1 p2`B}+ d00 (x0 ) = d00 (x1 ) = 0X a2 /2 G;`M;2 2M mM BMi2`pHQ +mH[mB2`X *H`K2Mi2 l0 , l1 /2#2M b2` TQHBMQ@
/2/m+2 [m2 (x x0 )(x x1 ) /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ d00 (x)- Hm2;Q d00 (x) = 0 T` KBQb /2 T`BK2` ;`/QX .2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM [m2 p2`B}+M 2biQb
iQ/Q x- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 d 2 P1 X *QKQ d(x0 ) = d(x1 ) = 0- i2M2KQb TQHBMQKBQb b2 /2/m+2 [m2
(x x0 )(x x1 ) /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ d(x)- Hm2;Q d(x) = 0X 1biQ Km2bi` H
mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦMX l0 (t) = 1 t, l1 (t) = t.
85 86
.2i2`KBM`2KQb ?Q` ˆl1 v H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 ˆl0 b2 /2/m+B` /2 H bBK2i`ő /2H 1MiQM+2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ q(t) := p(x0 + t(x1 x0 )) p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2
T`Q#H2KX *H`K2Mi2 ˆl100 (t) = l1 (t) v TQ` iMiQ ˆl1 (t) 2b bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K BMi2`TQH+BƦM
/2 +QMiQ`MQ q(0) = y0 , q(1) = y1 ,
y 00 (t) = t, y(0) = y(1) = 0. q 00 (0) = h2 z0 , q 00 (1) = h2 z1 ,
AMi2;`M/Q /Qb p2+2b p2KQb [m2
/QM/2 h = x1 x0 /2MQi H HQM;Bim/ /2H BMi2`pHQ [x0 , x1 ]X P#i2M2KQb
t3 2H TQHBMQKBQ q `2bQHpB2M/Q 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 GB/biQM2 2M 2H
y(t) =
6
p(t), BMi2`pHQ [0, 1]
bB2M/Q p(t) 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q [m2 BMi2`TQH H 7mM+BƦM t3 /6 2M q(t) = y0 (1 t) + y1 t + h2 [z0 ⇤(1 x) + z1 ⇤(x)].
HQb TmMiQb 0 v 1- 2b /2+B`
t .2b?+B2M/Q 2H +K#BQ t = (x x0 )/(x x1 ) TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` H bQHm+BƦM 2M
p(t) = .
6 iû`KBMQb /2 Hb +QQ`/2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b
SQ` iMiQ i2M2KQb
3 x1 x x x0
ˆl1 (t) = t t
0 (x) = , 1 (x) = ,
6 x1 x0 x1 x0
SQ` bBK2i`ő- /2/m+BKQb H 2tT`2bBƦM /2
Q#i2MB2M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H BMi2`TQHMi2
ˆl1 (t) = ˆl0 (1 (1 t)3 (1 t)
t) = . p(x) = y0 + h2 [z0 ⇤(
6 0 (x) + y1 1 (x) 0 (x)) + z1 ⇤( 1 (x))].
1H TQHBMQKBQ a2 /2/m+2 /2 HQ Mi2`BQ` 2tT`2bBƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b 2M mM

t3 t
⇤(t) := , BMi2`pHQ +mH[mB2`
6
`2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 TQHBMQKBQ +ȹ#B+Q /2 GB/biQM2 v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 l0 (x) = 0 (x), l0 (x) = 0 (x),
T` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 GB/biQM2 ˆl0 (x) = h2 ⇤( 0 (x)), ˆl0 (x) = h2 ⇤( 0 (x)),
p(0) = y0 , p(1) = y1 ,
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ +ȹ#B+Q /2 GB/biQM2 /KBi2 H 7+iQ`Bx@
p00 (0) = z0 , p00 (1) = z1 ,
+BƦM
t(1 t)(1 + t)
2M 2H BMi2`pHQ (y-R) Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K ⇤(t) =
6
p(t) = y0 (1 t) + y1 t + z0 ⇤(1 t) + z1 ⇤(t). TQ/2KQb b+` 7+iQ`2b +QKmM2b 2M H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2
/2H BMi2`TQHMi2 Q#i2MB2M/Q
?Q` TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 2M mM BMi2`pHQ `#Bi``BQX
a2 p(x) H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 GB/biQM2 h2
p(x) = y0 0 (x) + y1 1 (x) 0 (x) 1 (x) z0 (1 + 0 (x)) + z1 (1 + 1 (x)) .
6
p(x0 ) = y0 , p(x1 ) = y1 ,
p00 (x0 ) = z0 , p00 (x1 ) = z1 .
87 88
AMi2`TQH+BƠM ?BbiQ;`{KB+ Hb `2b +mKmH/b /2H ?BbiQ;`KX 1H TQHBMQKBQ P p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b
lM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM [m2 MQ T2ì2M2+2 H +i2;Q`ő /2 HQb T`Q#H2@ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 P (xi ) = Ai - i = 0, . . . , n + 1- TQ` HQ [m2 [m2/
Kb /2 >2`KBi2Ĝ"B`F?Qz 2b 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+X lM mMőpQ+K2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/Q TQ` H 7Ʀ`KmH
?BbiQ;`K pB2M2 2tT`2b/Q TQ` mM 7mM+BƦM 2b+HQM/ /2H iBTQ n
X Y x xj
P (x) = Ai li (x), li (x) = .
n xi xj
X i=1 j6=i
s(x) = yi R[xi ,xi+1 ) (x),
SQ` iMiQ- 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+ /KBi2 bB2KT`2 mM
ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM- H /2`Bp/ /2 H 7mM+BƦM P
i=0
bB2M/Q x0 < x1 < · · · < xn+1 v R[xi ,xi+1 ) (x) H 7mM+BƦM +`+i2`őbiB+ /2H n
X
BMi2`pHQ [xi , xi+1 )- i = 0, . . . , nX GQb pHQ`2b yi bQM pHQ`2b K2/BQb /2 H p(x) = P 0 (x) = Ai li0 (x).
K;MBim/ y K2/B/ bQ#`2 2H BMi2`pHQ [xi , xi+1 ]- i=1
Z xi+1 5
1
yi = y(x)dx.
xi+1 xi xi
4
1M +B2ì KM2` TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2 s(x) BMi2`TQH H 7mM+BƦM y(x) 2M 2H

b2MiB/Q /2 [m2 K#b iB2M2M 2H KBbKQ pHQ` K2/BQ bQ#`2 2H BMi2`pHQ 3
Z xi+1 Z xi+1
1 1
s(x)dx = yi = y(x)dx, i = 0, . . . , n. 2
xi+1 xi xi xi+1 xi xi
1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+ K2/BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb iì /2 bmbiB@ 1

imB` s(x) TQ` mM 7mM+BƦM bmp2 p 2 Pn [m2 p2`B}[m2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b BMi2;`H2b
Z xi+1 Z xi+1 0
0 1 2 3
p(x)dx = yi (xi+1 xi ) = y(x)dx, i = 0, . . . , n.
xi xi 6B;m` jXjX SQHBMQKBQ +m/ìB+Q /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+
1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+

R x b2 `2/m+2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 1D2KTHQX a2 T`2i2M/2 2M+QMi`` H 7mM+BƦM +m/ìB+ [m2 BMi2`TQH H ?Bb@
G;`M;2X S` 2HHQ +QMbB/2`KQb P (x) := x0 p(t)dt- [m2 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 iQ;`K +QM Him`b 2- 1 v 3 bQ#`2 HQb BMi2`pHQb [0, 1]- [1, 2] v [2, 3]X Gb `2b
;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n + 1X Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM b2 `2/m+2M +mKmH/b bQM A0 = 0- A1 = 2- A2 = 3 v A3 = 6X P#i2M2KQb H i#H /2
2MiQM+2b /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b
P (xi ) = Ai , i = 0, 1, . . . , n + 1,
xi di0 di1 di2 di3
bB2M/Q A0 = 0 v 0 0 2 1/2 1/2
i 1 Z 1 2 1 1
X xi
2 3 3
Ai = yj (xj+1 xj ) = s(x)dx, i = 1, . . . , n,
x0
3 6
j=0
89 90
v +H+mHKQb SQ` iMiQ- H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQ@
1 1 H+BƦM HBM2H ;2M2`H 2M 2H 2bT+BQ U b2 `2/m+2 /Bb+miB` bB H +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2
P (x) = 2x x(x 1) + x(x 1)(x 2). Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM 2b MQ bBM;mH`- ?2+?Q [m2 MQ /2T2M/2 /2 H 2H2++BƦM /2
2 2
H #b2 (u0 , . . . , un ) /2 U X
.2`BpM/Q Q#i2M2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ +m/ìB+Q /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+
1H T`Q#H2K +QMiBMmQ /2 KŌMBKQb +m/`/Qb
1 1 3x2 8x + 7
p(x) = P 0 (x) = 2 (2x 1) + (3x2 6x + 2) = . 1M H;mMQb T`Q#H2Kb MQ `2bmHi Mim`H BKTQM2` H +QBM+B/2M+B /2 H 7mM+BƦM
2 2 2
f /2}MB/ 2M mM BMi2`pHQ [a, b] v 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 p 2M mMQb TmMiQb /2i2`KBM@
1H T`Q#H2K ;2M2`H /2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM HBM2H /QbX 1M +K#BQ- b2 T`2i2M/2 [m2 2H 2``Q` f p i2M; mM #m2M +QKTQìKB2MiQX
1H 2``Q` +m/ìB+Q K2/BQ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
GQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 v /2 >2`KBi2 K2/BMi2 TQHBMQ@
KBQb /KBi2M /Bp2`bb ;2M2`HBx+BQM2bX 1M T`BK2` Hm;` TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` 1
Z b
2bT+BQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM U /2 /BK2MbBƦM }MBi /B72`2Mi2b /2 Pn X GQb /iQb (f (x) p(x))2 dx.
b a a
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM MQ iB2M2M [m2 b2` pHQ`2b Q /2`Bp/b bBMQ [m2 Tm2/2M b2`
Qi`Qb 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b +QKQ- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- 7mM+BQMH2b BMi2;`H2b /2H iBTQ 1H T`Q#H2K /2 /2i2`KBM` mM T`QtBK+BƦM [m2 KBMBKB+2 2H 2``Q` +m/ìB+Q
Rb
f 7! a f (x)w(x)dxX K2/BQ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 T`Q#H2K +QMiBMmQ /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/QbX
1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2H ;2M2`H Tm2/2 THMi2`b2 /2 H bB@ S`Q#H2K +QMiBMmQ /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/QbX ./ f 2 C[a, b]- 2M+QMi``
;mB2Mi2 7Q`K, //Qb 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b 0 , . . . , n v pHQ`2b ⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n - 2M@ p 2 Pn iH [m2
+QMi`` mM 7mM+BƦM u 2 U iH [m2
Z b Z b
iu = ⌘i , i = 0, . . . , n. (f (x) p(x))2 dx  (f (x) q(x))2 dx, T` iQ/Q q 2 Pn .
a a
P#b2`pKQb [m2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 >2`KBi2Ĝ"B`F?Qz v HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2
BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+ bQM mM +bQ TìB+mH` /2 2bi 7Q`KmH+BƦM ;2M2`HX o2KQb [m2 2H T`Q#H2K +QMiBMmQ /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb Tm2/2 7Q`Km@
H`b2 +QKQ mM T`Q#H2K /2 K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM 2M mM 2bT+BQ MQ`K/QX
aB }DKQb mM #b2 (u0 , . . . , un ) P/2H 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH U - 2MiQM+2b iQ/
7mM+BƦM u 2 U - 2b /2 H 7Q`K u(x) = j=0 cj uj (x)X H BKTQM2` Hb +QM/B+BQ@
n a2 F mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH /2 7mM+BQM2b /Qi/Q /2 mM MQ`K v b2 U mM
M2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M x0 , . . . , xn i2M2KQb bm#2bT+BQ /2 F X a2 dist(f, g) := kf gk H /BbiM+B bQ+B/ H MQ`K
n
/2 /B+?Q 2bT+BQX G /BbiM+B /2 f H 2bT+BQ U b2 /2}M2 +QKQ dist(f, U ) :=
X ı́nf u2U dist(f, u)X aB u0 2 U p2`B}+
cj i uj = ⌘i , i = 0, . . . , n,
j=0
dist(f, u0 ) = dist(f, U ),
Q 2M 7Q`K Ki`B+BH ⇣u ,...,u ⌘
M
0 n
c=⌘ 2MiQM+2b u0 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M 2H bm#2bT+BQ U X G K2DQ`
0, . . . , n T`QtBK+BƦM MQ 2tBbi2 M2+2b`BK2Mi2- v [m2 2H őM}KQ [m2 /2}M2 H /BbiM+B
/QM/2 c = (c0 , . . . , cn )- ⌘ = (⌘0 , . . . , ⌘n ) v H Ki`Bx /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f mM bm#2bT+BQ U MQ iB2M2 [m2 b2` ++2bB#H2X
0
···
1 S` 7Q`KmH` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb +QKQ mM T`Q#H2K /2
0 u0 0 u1 0 un
⇣u ,...,u ⌘ B 1 u0 ··· K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM BMi`Q/m+BKQb 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
0 n 1 u1 1 un C
M := B @ XX XX XX XX C Z b
0, . . . , n X X X X A
hf, gi := f (x)g(x)dx, f, g 2 C[a, b],
n u0 n u1 ··· n un a
91 92
[m2 / Hm;` H MQ`K 9X 1``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX
kf k2 := hf, f i1/2 , f 2 C[a, b]. H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b bQM /B7ő+BH2b /2 KMBTmH`X S`2+BbK2Mi2- 2H BMi2`TQHMi2
/2 mM 7mM+BƦM b2 miBHBx +QKQ mM bmbiBimiQ /2 H /B+? 7mM+BƦM- v [m2 bm2H2
Sm2biQ [m2 2H 2``Q` +m/ìB+Q K2/BQ 2b kf pk22 /(b a)- p2KQb [m2 2H T`Q@ b2` Kb 7+BH /2 2pHm`- /2`Bp` Q BMi2;``X H bmbiBimB` mM 7mM+BƦM TQ` bm
#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb Tm2/2 7Q`KmH`b2 +QKQ mM T`Q#H2K /2 K2DQ` BMi2`TQHMi2- b2 +QK2i2 mM 2``Q` [m2 /2b2KQb 2biBK` Q +Qi`X .2 ?Q` 2M
T`QtBK+BƦM 2M F = C[a, b] +QM H MQ`K k · k2 2M 2H bm#2bT+BQ U = Pn X /2HMi2 /2b+`B#B`2KQb 2H 2``Q` +QKQ H /B72`2M+B f (x) p(x) 2Mi`2 2H pHQ`
1H TQHBMQKBQ p 2b H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2 C[a, b] [m2 `2bm2Hp2 2H T`Q#H2K 2t+iQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) v 2H pHQ` /2 bm T`QtBKMi2 p(x)- Q#i2MB/Q TQ`
/2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb bB v bQHK2Mi2 bB kf (p + td)k22 kf pk22 T` iQ/Q BMi2`TQH+BƦMX 1H 2``Q` b2` TQbBiBpQ bB 2H pHQ` /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b BM72`BQ` H
t 2 _ v iQ/Q d 2 Pn X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 pHQ` /2H H 7mM+BƦM v M2;iBpQ bB HQ bmT2`X
1H 2``Q` /2 /Qb 7mM+BQM2b /B72`2Mi2b [m2 iB2M2M 2t+iK2Mi2 2H KBbKQ
kf (p + td)k22 kf pk22 = t(2hf p, di tkdk22 ), 8t 2 _,
BMi2`TQHMi2 /2#2 b2` /BbiBMiQX *QKQ BHmbi`+BƦM /2 2bi2 ?2+?Q- b2 p(x) 2b 2H
H +QM/B+BƦM Mi2`BQ` 2[mBpH2 TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f (x)X 1H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q 2b f (x)
p(x)X 1H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 H 7mM+BƦM f¯(x) = 2f (x) p(x) 2b
hf p, di = 0, 8d 2 Pn , iK#BûM p(x)- T2`Q 2H 2``Q` T` 2bi 7mM+BƦM 2b ?Q` 2H /Q#H2 f¯(x) p(x) =
2(f (x) p(x))X
HQ +mH HH2p H +QM/B+BƦM /2 QìQ;QMHB// 2b /2+B` 2H 2``Q` /2 T`QtBK+BƦM
f p /2#2 b2` QìQ;QMH H 2bT+BQ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH GQb `;mK2MiQb Mi2`BQ`2b BM/B+M [m2 H +Qi+BƦM /2H 2``Q` /2#2 /2T2M@
[m2 n Upûb2 2H h2Q`2K 3Xk T` mM /2/m++BƦM /2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 QìQ;Q@ /2` /2 H 7mM+BƦM [m2 b2 BMi2`TQHX G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM MQb T2`KBi2 /`
MHB// 2M mM +QMi2tiQ Kb ;2M2`HVX 1HB;B2M/Q H #b2 /2 Pn /2 TQi2M+Bb mM T`BK2` 2tT`2bBƦM T` 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
+2Mi`/b 2M mM TmMiQ c 2 [a, b]- p2KQb [m2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 QìQ;QMHB//
E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) := f (x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)
Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K
Z b Z b /2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2X
p(x)(x c)i dx = f (x)(x c)i dx, i = 0, . . . , n.
a a
h2Q`2K 9XRX a2 f 2 C n+1 (I)- /QM/2 I 2b mM BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2
x0 , . . . , xn X 1MiQM+2b 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
a2 Z b E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) := f (x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x), x2I
µi f := f (x)(x c)i dx
a Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K
2H KQK2MiQ i@ûbBKQ /2 f `2bT2+iQ H TmMiQ c 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X 1MiQM+2b
p2KQb [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb 2[mBpH2 H bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q#H2K E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f !n+1 (x),
Qn
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M 2H [m2 H +QBM+B/2M+B /2 pHQ`2b b2 bmbiBimv2 TQ` H +QBM@ /QM/2 !n+1 (x) := i=0 (x xi )X /2Kb T` +/ x 2 I- 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 I iH
+B/2M+B /2 KQK2MiQb, 2M+QMi`` p 2 Pn iH [m2 [m2
f (n+1) (⇠)
µi p = µi f, i = 0, . . . , n. E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = !n+1 (x).
(n + 1)!
1H T`Q#H2K +QMiBMmQ /2 T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb 2M Pn BHmbi`
.2KQbi`+BƦMX Ƣ/KQb mM Mm2pQ MQ/Q y HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X .2 H
+ƦKQ H;mMQb T`Q#H2Kb p`B+BQMH2b v /2 T`QtBK+BƦM +mv bQHm+BƦM /2@
7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM b2 /2/m+2 [m2
T2M/2 HBM2HK2Mi2 /2 HQb /iQb Tm2/2M 7Q`KmH`b2 +QKQ mM T`Q#H2K ;2M2`H
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2HX P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , y)(x) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) + [x0 , . . . , xn , y]f !n+1 (x).
93 94
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , y) BMi2`TQH f 2M y- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 /2Kb K#b +Qib b2 H+MxM +mM/Q f = !n+1 X
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , y)(y) = f (y), .2KQbi`+BƦMX SìB2M/Q /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q` Q#i2MB/ 2M 2H h2Q`2K

9XR- i2M2KQb
/2 /QM/2 Q#i2M2KQb
|f (n+1) (⇠)|
|E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)| = |!n+1 (x)|.
f (y) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(y) + [x0 , . . . , xn , y]f !n+1 (y), (n + 1)!
Hm2;Q Gb +Qi+BQM2b b2 Q#iB2M2M i2MB2M/QQ2M +m2Mi [m2 |f (n+1) (⇠)|  Mn+1 v [m2
|!n+1 (x)|  k!n+1 k1 := máxx2[a,b] i=0 |x xi |. 1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 f = !n+1 -
n
E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(y) = f (y) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(y) = [x0 , . . . , xn , y]f !n+1 (y). i2M2KQb E(!n+1 ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = !n+1 v !n+1 (x) = (n + 1)!- HQ [m2 BKTHB+
(n+1)
[m2 K#b +Qib b2 H+MxMX

G b2;mM/ Tì2 b2 /2/m+2 /2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q- v [m2
LQi2KQb [m2 2H iKƢQ /2H T`BK2` 7+iQ` 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH U9XRV /2T2M/2 /2
f (n+1) (⇠) H 7mM+BƦM f - KB2Mi`b [m2 2H b2;mM/Q 7+iQ` /2T2M/2 /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2
[x0 , . . . , xn , y]f = ,
(n + 1)! HQb TmMiQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX *QM 7`2+m2M+B Q#i2M/`2KQb +Qib mMB7Q`K2b /2H
2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2H iBTQ
bB2M/Q ⇠ mM TmMiQ /2H K2MQ` BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 x0 , . . . , xn v yX
kf (n+1) k1
G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` MQb T2`KBi2 +Qi` TmMimH v mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 2H 2``Q`X kE(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  K .
S` /2b+`B#B` +Qib mMB7Q`K2b miBHBx`2KQb (n + 1)!
hQKM/Q f = !n+1 - i2M2KQb E(!n+1 ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = !n+1 (x) v k!n+1 k1 =

(n+1)
kf k1 := sup |f (x)|
x2[a,b] (n + 1)!- Hm2;Q
T` /2MQi` H MQ`K /2H bmT`2KQ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM +Qi/ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ k!n+1 k1 = kE(!n+1 ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  K.
[a, b]X
SQ` iMiQ- H +QMbiMi2 K = k!n+1 k1 2b H K2DQ` +QMbiMi2 TQbB#H2 2M mM
h2Q`2K 9XkX a2M x0 , . . . , xn , x 2 [a, b]- f 2 C n+1 [a, b]- +Qi mMB7Q`K2 /2H 2``Q` /2H iBTQ Kkf (n+1) k1 /(n + 1)! T` mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM
/2 MQ/Qb // x0 , . . . , xn X .2b;`+B/K2Mi2 2H KtBKQ pHQ` /2 |!n+1 (x)| MQ
Mn+1 := máx |f (n+1) (x)| = kf (n+1) k1
x2[a,b] bB2KT`2 2b 7+BH /2 2M+QMi`` v MQb p2KQb Q#HB;/Qb T`QTQM2` 2M H T`+iB+
Qn +Qib mMB7Q`K2b K2MQb Dmbi/bX
v !n+1 (x) = i=0 (x xi )X 1MiQM+2b 2H 2``Q` /KBi2 H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi+BƦM *QKQ x0 , . . . , xn , x 2 [a, b]- i2M2KQb [m2 |x xi |  b a- i = 0, . . . , nX
TmMimH SQ` iMiQ-
Mn+1 k!n+1 k1  máx |!n+1 (x)|  (b a)n .
|E(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)|  |!n+1 (x)|,
(n + 1)! x2[a,b]
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 H +Qi mMB7Q`K2 ambiBimv2M/Q H +Qi Mi2`BQ` 2M U9XRV- Q#i2M2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi mMB7Q`K2
/2H 2``Q`
Mn+1 Mn+1
kE(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  k!n+1 k1 . (4.1) kE(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  (b a)n+1 , (4.2)
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
95 96
/QM/2 Mn+1 := máxx2[a,b] |f (n+1) (x)| v f 2 C n+1 [a, b]X LQi2KQb [m2 H +Qi o2KQb [m2 2H 2``Q` 2M iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb /2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1] 2b TQbBiBpQX SQ`
U9XkV 2b BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H TQbB+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X iMiQ- 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`QTQ`+BQM pHQ`2b K2MQ`2b [m2 H 7mM@
+BƦMX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 M6 := máxx2[0,1] |f (6) (x)| = ⇡ 5 - 2H h2Q`2K 9Xk
Gb +Qi Mi2`BQ` / mM B/2 /2H ;`/Q UQ`/2MV /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2
MQb T`QTQ`+BQM H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi TmMimH /2H 2``Q`
HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 >2`KBi2 /2 mM 7mM+BƦM +mv /2`Bp/ n + 1 2bi +Q@
i/X aB iQKKQb x0 , . . . , xn , x 2M mM BMi2`pHQ [a, b] /2 HQM;Bim/ " := b a ⇡5 3
bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2Ƣ- 2MiQM+2b 2H 2``Q` 2bi mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 +Qi/Q TQ` |e(x)|  x (1 x)3 .
720
Mn+1 "n+1 /(n + 1)! v 2H 2``Q` iB2M/2 +2`Q +mM/Q " ! 0- +QM mM Q`/2M /2
+QMp2`;2M+B /2 ;`/Q n + 1X G T`QtBK+BƦM /2+BKH ⇡ 5 /720 ⇡ 0.4250273 MQb / mM B/2 /2H iKƢQ /2
2bi +Qi /2H 2``Q`X *QKQ H 7mM+BƦM x(1 x) H+Mx bm pHQ` KtBKQ 1/4 2M
1D2KTHQ U1``Q` 2M H BMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2HVX 1M 2H +bQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM x = 1/2- b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi ;HQ#H /2H 2``Q`
2M /Qb TmMiQb a = x0 < x1 = b K2/BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q R- i2M2KQb
⇡5 1 ⇡5 3
kek1  ⇥ 3 = ⇡ 6.641052 ⇥ 10 .
f (b) f (a) 720 4 46080
E(f ; a, b)(x) = f (x) f (a) + (x a) = [a, b, x]f (x a)(x b).
h GQb 2``Q`2b Tm2/2M b2` +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 K2MQ`2b bB 2H TmMiQ 2bi T`ƦtBKQ
HQb 2ti`2KQb /2H BMi2`pHQX aB- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- iQKKQb x = 1/6- 2MiQM+2b H
GHKM/Q M2 = máxx2[a,b] |f 00 (x)| TQ/2KQb +Qi` 2H 2``Q` +Qi TmMimH /QTi 2H pHQ`
⇡5 53 3
M2 |e(1/6)|  ⇥ 6 ⇡ 1.138726 ⇥ 10 .
|E(f ; a, b)(x)|  (x a)(b x). 720 6
2
1pHmM/Q 2H 2``Q` 2t+iQ
1H T`Q/m+iQ (x a)(b x) bB2KT`2 Tm2/2 +Qi`b2 TQ` (b a)2 T` x 2 [a, b]- 1 205
T2`Q TQ/2KQb K2DQ`` H +Qi +H+mHM/Q 2H pHQ` máxx2[a,b] (x a)(b x)X S` e(1/6) = ⇡ 0.9759307 ⇥ 10 3
,
2⇡ 1296
2HHQ /2}MBKQb !(x) := (x a)(b x)- v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 ! 0 (x) = a+b 2x
v ! 00 (x) = 2- /2/m+BKQb [m2 !(x) H+Mx bm pHQ` KtBKQ 2M x = (a + b)/2- TQ/2KQb +QKT`Q#` [m2 H +Qi b2 p2`B}+X
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` máxx2[a,b] (x a)(b x) = (b a)2 /4X SQ` iMiQ- mM
+Qi mMB7Q`K2 /2H 2``Q` 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] 2b LQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b
o2KQb 2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M 2H +bQ /2 MQ/Qb
kE(f ; a, b)k1 
M2
máx (x a)(b x) =
M2 (b a)2
. 2[mB/BbiMi2bX
2 x2[a,b] 8
G2K 9XjX a2M xi = x0 + ih- iQ
= 0, . . . , n- TmMiQb B;mHK2Mi2 2bT+B/Qb +QM
h > 0 v n 1X a2 !n+1 (x) := i=0 (x xi )- 2MiQM+2b
n
1D2KTHQX Zm2`2KQb +Qi` 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) =

x 2x3 + x4 [m2 BMi2`TQH f (x) = sen(⇡x)/⇡ 2M x0 = x1 = x2 = 0- n! n+1
|!n+1 (x)|  h , x 2 [x0 , xn ].
x3 = x4 = x5 = 1X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 f (6) (x) = ⇡ 5 sen(⇡x) - TQ/2KQb 4
THB+` 2H h2Q`2K 9XR v 2tT`2b` 2H 2``Q` 2M H 7Q`K /2Kb b2 iB2M2
⇡ 5 sen(⇡⇠) 3 (n 1)! n! n+1

e(x) := f (x) p(x) = x (1 x)3 . hn+1  máx |!n+1 (x)|  h .
720 4 x2[x0 ,xn ] 4
97 98
.2KQbi`+BƦMX .2KQbi`KQb H pHB/2x /2 H +Qi bmT2`BQ` TQ` BM/m++BƦM /QM/2 Mn+1 := máxx2[a,b] |f (n+1) (x)| v f 2 C n [a, b]X
bQ#`2 nX S` n = 1 i2M2KQb !2 (x) = (x x0 )(x x1 )- 2bi 7mM+BƦM 2b hQKM/Q HőKBi2b 2M Hb /2bB;mH//2b
M2;iBp- MmH 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb v H+Mx bm pHQ` KőMBKQ 2M x = (x0 + x1 )/2-
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 b a ⇣ (n 1)! ⌘1/(n+1) b a ⇣ n! ⌘1/(n+1)
 k!n+1 k1/(n+1)
1  ,
⇣ x + x ⌘ (x x0 ) 2 h2 h2 n 4 n 4
0 1 1
|!2 (x)|  !2 = = , máx |!2 (x)| = .
2 4 4 x2[x0 ,x1 ] 4 /2/m+BKQb 2H +`2+BKB2MiQ 2tTQM2M+BH /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ`Kb k!n+1 k1
amTQM;KQb [m2 H T`QTB2// 2b +B2ì T` n- v p2KQbH T` n + 1X *QKQ
b a
x 2 [x0 , xn+1 ]- i2M2KQb [m2 |x x0 |, |x xn+1 | bQM K#Qb K2MQ`2b [m2 xn+1 lı́m k!n+1 k1/(n+1)
1 =
x0 = (n + 1)hX aB x 2 [x0 , xn ]- TQ/2KQb THB+` H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM n!1 e
n
Y n! n+1 (n + 1)! n+2 T` MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X
|!n+2 (x)|  |x xn+1 | |x xi |  (n + 1)h h = h ,
i=0
4 4 J2DQ` T`QtBK+BƠM mMB7Q`K2 v Hi2`MM+Bb /2 *?2#vb?2p
v bB x 2 [x1 , xn ]- TQ/2KQb `xQM` MHQ;K2Mi2 v /2/m+B` [m2 G +Qi /2H 2``Q` /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 T` /Bbi`B#m+BQM2b 2bT2+BH2b /2 HQb TmMiQb
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM Tm2/2 K2DQ``b2 +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2X 1bib /Bbi`B#m+BQM2b /2
n
Y n! n+1 (n + 1)! n+2 TmMiQb 2biM `2H+BQM/b +QM Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2
|!n+2 (x)|  |x x0 | |x xi |  (n + 1)h
4
h =
4
h , HQb TQHBMQKBQbX
i=1
2M +mH[mB2` +bQ H /2bB;mH// b2 p2`B}+ T` mM TmMiQ KbX .2}MB+BƦM 9X9X a2 U mM bm#+QMDmMiQ /2 C[a, b]X a2 /B+2 [m2 u⇤ 2 U 2b H
K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 UQ K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 *?2#vb@
SQ` ȹHiBKQ- i2M2KQb ?2pV /2 f 2M U bB
n
1 n+1 Y (n 1)!
máx |!n+1 (x)| |!n+1 (x0 + h/2)| = h (i 1/2) hn+1 . kf u⇤ k1 = dist1 (f, U ) := ı́nf kf uk1 .
x2[x0 ,xn ] 4 i=2
4 u2U
o2KQb [m2 bB2KT`2 2tBbi2- H K2MQb- mM K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2

*QMbB/2`2KQb ?Q` MQ/Qb mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 /Bbi`B#mB/Qb 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ 2M 2bT+BQb /2 /BK2MbBƦM }MBiX
[a, b]-
h2Q`2K 9X8X a2 U ⇢ C[a, b] mM 2bT+BQ /2 /BK2MbBƦM }MBi v f 2 C[a, b]X
xi = a + ih i = 0, . . . , n, h = (b a)/n.
1MiQM+2b 2tBbi2- H K2MQb- mM K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 f 2M U X
THB+M/Q 2H G2K 9Xj- i2M2KQb
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 u1 , . . . , un mM #b2 +mH[mB2` /2 U - dim U = nX 1M@
(n 1)! ⇣ b a ⌘n+1 n! ⇣ b a ⌘n+1 iQM+2b H THB++BƦM HBM2H
 k!n+1 k1 = máx |!n+1 (x)| 
4 n x2[a,b] 4 n
L : (c1 , . . . , cn ) 2 _n 7! c1 u1 + · · · cn un 2 U
ambiBimv2M/Q H +Qi bmT2`BQ` Q#i2MB/ T` k!n+1 k1 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH U9XRV-
TQ/2KQb K2DQ`` H +Qi U9XkV Q#i2MB2M/Q
2b #Bv2+iBpX P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2bi THB++BƦM HBM2H BM/m+2 mM MQ`K 2M _n
Mn+1 ⇣ b a ⌘n+1
kE(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  , (4.3)
4(n + 1) n kckL := kc1 u1 + · · · + cn un k1 , c 2 _n .
99 100
1H T`Q#H2K /2 2M+QMi`` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 2[mBpH2 KBMBKB@ 1MiQM+2b HQb pHQ`2b 2ti`2KQb /2 f (x) c bQM M c v m c- /2 /QM/2 b2
x` H 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp /2/m+2 [m2
d(c) = máx(|M c|, |m c|), c 2 _.
F (c) := kf (c1 u1 + · · · + cn un )k1 , c 2 _n .
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB c 2
/ [m, M ]- i2M2KQb d(c) M m- KB2Mi`b [m2
.2 H /2bB;mH// i`BM;mH` /2/m+BKQb
d(c) = máx(M c, c m)  M m, c 2 [m, M ].
|F (c) F (d)|  kc dkL
SQ` iMiQ- H KőMBK /BbiM+B d(c) b2 2M+m2Mi` T` c 2 [m, M ]X G 7mM+BƦM
v- +QKQ iQ/b Hb MQ`Kb /2 _n bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b- F 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMmX d(c) 2b HBM2H i`QxQb 2M [m, M ]
a2
K := {c 2 _n | F (c)  F (0)}. ⇢
M c bB c 2 [m, (M + m)/2]-
d(c) =
*QKQ F 2b +QMiBMm- K = F 1 [0, F (0)] 2b mM +QMDmMiQ +2``/QX THB+M/Q /2 c m bB c 2 [(M + m)/2, M ]-
Mm2pQ H /2bB;mH// i`BM;mH` /2/m+BKQb [m2
/2+`2+B2Mi2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [m, (M + m)/2] v +`2+B2Mi2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [(M +
kckL  F (c) + F (0)  2F (0), 8c 2 K, m)/2, M ]X bő [m2 bm pHQ` KőMBKQ b2 H+Mx T` c = (M + m)/2 v 2b
(M m)/2X
v- +QKQ iQ/b Hb MQ`Kb bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b- K 2b mM +QMDmMiQ +Qi/QX SQ`
.2 2bi KM2` [m2/ `2bm2HiQ 2H T`Q#H2K /2 2M+QMi`` H K2DQ` T`QtB@
2H h2Q`2K /2 >2BM2@"Q`2H- K 2b mM +QKT+iQX *QKQ 0 2 K- p2KQb [m2 K
K+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 TQ` +QMbiMi2bX G +QMbiMi2 c [m2 K2DQ` T`QtBK f 2M
2b MQ p+őQX THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 q2B2`bi`bb- /2/m+BKQb [m2 F H+Mx
2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] 2b
bm pHQ` KőMBKQ 2M K 2M H;ȹM p2+iQ` c⇤ 2 KX P#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB c 2 / K-
2MiQM+2b F (c) F (0) F (c⇤ )- TQ` HQ [m2 máxx2[a,b] f (x) + mı́nx2[a,b] f (x)
c= ,
⇤
F (c ) = mı́nn F (c). 2
c2_
Pn bB2M/Q
G T`QTB2// /2 KőMBKQ /2 c BKTHB+ [m2 u⇤ =
⇤ ⇤
i=1 ci ui 2b H K2DQ` T`Q@ máxx2[a,b] f (x) mı́nx2[a,b] f (x)
dist(f, P0 ) = .
tBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 f 2M U X 2
THB+M/Q 2H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ` H 2bT+BQ U = Pn /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 1M H `2bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 TQ` +QMb@
;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n- p2KQb [m2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 mM iMi2b 2biM BMpQHm+`/Qb HQb 2ti`2KQb /2 H 7mM+BƦM [m2 T`2i2M/2KQb T`QtB@
7mM+BƦM TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn 2M mM BMi2`pHQ [a, b] bB2KT`2 2tBbi2X K`X 1H MHBbBb /2 Hb Qb+BH+BQM2b 2ti`2Kb /2H 2``Q` 2b mM ?2``KB2Mi +Hp2
1bim/B2KQb ?Q` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 2M P0 - 2H 2bT+BQ T` Q#i2M2` bQHm+BQM2b /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2KX SX GX *?2#vb?2p Q#impQ +`+i2@
/2 7mM+BQM2b +QMbiMi2bX a2 `Bx+BQM2b /2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b
/2 Qb+BH+BƦM 2``Q`X
d(c) := kf ck1 = máx |f (x) c|.
x2[a,b] .2}MB+BƦM 9XeX a2 e : I ! _ v x0 < x1 < . . . < xn < xn+1 TmMiQb /2 I
[m2 /2MQKBM`2KQb MQ/QbX a2 /B+2 [m2 e iB2M2 mM Qb+BH+BƦM Q Hi2`MM+B
*QMbB/2`2KQb HQb pHQ`2b 2ti`2KQb /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] 7m2ì2 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn+1 - bB 2tBbi2 s 2 { 1, 1} iH [m2
M := máx f (x), m := mı́n f (x).
x2[a,b] x2[a,b] s( 1)i e(xi ) > 0, i = 0, . . . , n + 1.
101 102
G 7mM+BƦM e iB2M2 mM Qb+BH+BƦM Q Hi2`MM+B /û#BH 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn+1 - hQKM/Q " > 0 iH [m2 "|d(xj )| < |p(xj )|- 2H TQHBMQKBQ q(x) := p(x) + "d(x)
bB 2tBbi2 s 2 { 1, 1} iH [m2 p2`B}+
s( 1)i e(xi ) 0, i = 0, . . . , n + 1. s( 1)j q(xj ) = s( 1)j p(xj ) + "s( 1)j d(xj ) |p(xj )| "|d(xj )| > 0,
aB e 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +Qi/ v kek1 := supx2I |e(x)| /2+BKQb [m2 e iB2M2 mM v
2[mBQb+BH+BƦM 2ti`2K Q Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M x0 , . . . , xn+1 bB 2tBbi2 s( 1)i q(xi ) = s( 1)i p(xi ) + "s( 1)i d(xi ) = |p(xi )| + " > 0,
s 2 { 1, 1} iH [m2 T` iQ/Q i 2 {0, . . . , n + 1} \ {j}X SQ` HQ iMiQ- 2H TQHBMQKBQ q 2 Pn iB2M2 mM
Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn+1 - 2M +QMi`/B++BƦM +QM UVX SQ`
s( 1)i e(xi ) = kek1 , i = 0, . . . , n + 1. iMiQ
p(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n + 1,
hQ/ Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2b mM Hi2`MM+B /û#BHX hK#BûM iQ/ Hi2`MM@
+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2b mM Hi2`MM+B /û#BHX aB e 2b mM 7mM+BƦM MQ MmH- mM v p 2 Pn iB2M2 n + 2 +2`Qb /BbiBMiQbX SQ` 2H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H H;2#`-
Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb bB;MB}+ [m2 H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 e H 2H TQHBMQKBQ p /2#2 b2` MmHQX
+QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb 2M HQb [m2 H 7mM+BƦM iQK bm pHQ` 2ti`2KQ
1H h2Q`2K /2 Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p +`+i2`Bx H K2DQ` T`QtB@
K+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b] TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn 2M iû`KBMQb
{x 2 I; |e(x)| = kek1 }
/2 Hi2`MM+Bb /2 *?2#vb?2p /2H 2``Q`X
iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2M n + 2 MQ/QbX h2Q`2K /2 Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2pX a2 f 2 C[a, b] v p 2 Pn X aB 2H
o2KQb [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb MQ MmHQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n MQ 2``Q` f p iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- 2MiQM+2b p 2b
Tm2/2M i2M2` Hi2`MM+Bb 2M Kb /2 n + 1 MQ/QbX H ȹMB+ K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 f TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ`
Q B;mH [m2 nX _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 p⇤ /2 mM
G2K 9XdX a2 p 2 Pn mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX
7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f 2 C[a, b] TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn - 2tBbi2 2b ȹMB+ v 2H 2``Q`
UV aB p iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2M k + 1 MQ/Qb- 2MiQM+2b k  nX /2 H T`QtBK+BƦM f p⇤ T`2b2Mi mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2
U#V aB p iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /û#BH 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- 2MiQM+2b p = 0X MQ/QbX
.2KQbi`+BƦMX UV amTQM;KQb [m2 p iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2M k + 1 .2KQbi`+BƦMX a2M x0 < x1 < · · · < xn < xn+1 HQb MQ/Qb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b
MQ/Qb x0 < . . . < xk X *QKQ p(xi ) 6= 0- i = 0, . . . , k- p 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ MQ H Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p /2 f pX a2 s 2 { 1, 1} iH [m2
MmHQX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2 "QHxMQ- 2tBbi2M ⇠i 2 (xi , xi+1 )- i = 0, . . . , k 1-
iH2b [m2 p(⇠i ) = 0X bő [m2 (x ⇠0 ) · · · (x ⇠k ) /BpB/2 H TQHBMQKBQ p(x)- s( 1)i (f (xi ) p(xi )) = kf pk1 , i = 0, . . . , n + 1.
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 k  grad p  nX a2 q 2 Pn mM T`QtBK+BƦM K2DQ` [m2 p- 2b /2+B`-
U#V a2M x0 < . . . < xn+1 v s 2 { 1, 1} iH2b [m2
kf qk1  kf pk1 .
s( 1)i p(xi ) 0, i = 0, . . . , n + 1.
GHKM/Q d = q p- p2KQb [m2 d 2 Pn T`2b2Mi mM Hi2`M+B /û#BH 2M HQb
amTQM;KQb [m2 2tBbi2 j 2 {0, . . . , n + 1} iH [m2 ( 1)n j
p(xj ) > 0X a2 MQ/Qb x0 < x1 < · · · < xn < xn+1 +QM HQb KBbKQb bB;MQb [m2 f p
d 2 Pn H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
s( 1)i d(xi ) = s( 1)i (f (xi ) p(xi )) s( 1)i (f (xi ) q(xi ))
i
d(xi ) = s( 1) , i 2 {0, . . . , n + 1} \ {j}. kf pk1 kf qk1 0, i = 0, . . . , n + 1.
103 104
SQ` 2H G2K 9Xd U#V- d = 0X bő [m2 q = p- HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2 p 2b H 1MiQM+2b 2H +QMDmMiQ
K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM v /2Kb 2b 2H ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ /2 Pn iH [m2 kf pk1 =
dist1 (f, Pn )X Y := {x 2 [a, b] | g(x)  m/2}
S` H /2KQbi`+BƦM /2H `2+őT`Q+Q- 2M pBbi /2H h2Q`2K 9X8- 2b bm}+B2Mi2
+QM p2` [m2- bB f p MQ iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- 2b mM +QKT+iQ /BbDmMiQ +QM XX SQ` iMiQ
2MiQM+2b p MQ Tm2/2 b2` mM K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 f X a2
máx |f (x) p(x)| < kf pk1 .
x2Y
X := {x 2 [a, b]; |f (x) p(x)| = kf pk1 },
a2
2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb 2M HQb [m2 2H 2``Q` iQK 2H pHQ` 2ti`2KQX *QKQ f p r := kf pk1 máx |f (x) p(x)| > 0,
x2Y
MQ iB2M2 Hi2`MM+Bb /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- kf pk1 6= 0 v 2H MȹK2`Q
/2 +K#BQb /2 bB;MQ 2bi`B+iQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f p 2M 2H +QMDmMiQ X 2b mM MȹK2`Q v " iH [m2
k K2MQ` [m2 n + 1X 1MiQM+2b TQ/2KQb 2H2;B` 0 < " < mı́n(m/kdk21 , r/kdk1 ).
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
a < ⇠1 < · · · < ⇠k < b
(f (x) p(x) "d(x))2 = (f (x) p(x))2 "(2g(x) "d(x)2 ).
+QM ⇠1 , . . . , ⇠k 2 (a, b) \ X /2 KQ/Q [m2 f p iB2M2 bB;MQ +QMbiMi2 2M +/
bm#+QMDmMiQ h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 "d(x)2  "kdk21 < m- b2 /2/m+2 H /2bB;mH//
X \ [a, ⇠1 ), X \ (⇠i , ⇠i+1 ), i = 0, . . . , k 1, X \ (⇠k , b]. (f (x) p(x) "d(x))2 < (f (x) p(x))2 "(2g(x) m).
SQ` iMiQ- 2tBbi2 s 2 {1, 1} iH [m2 aB x 2 [a, b] \ Y - 2MiQM+2b g(x) > m/2- /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb [m2
d(x) := s(x ⇠1 ) · · · (x ⇠k ) 2 Pn |f (x) p(x) "d(x)| < |f (x) p(x)|, 8x 2 [a, b] \ Y.
2b mM TQHBMQKBQ iH [m2 SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- +QKQ "|d(x)|  "kdk1 < r- i2M2KQb
sign(f (x) p(x)) = sign d(x), x 2 X. |f (x) p(x) "d(x)|  |f (x) p(x)| + "|d(x)| < |f (x) p(x)| + r.
1H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 TQ/KQb 2M+QMi`` mM TQHBMQKBQ d(x) +mvQb bB;MQb +QBM+B/2M .2/m+BKQb /2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 r [m2
+QM HQb /2 f (x) p(x) bQ#`2 2H +QMDmMiQ X MQb T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 2tBbi2 mM
TQHBMQKBQ /2 H 7Q`K p(x) + "d(x) [m2 T`QtBK f (x) K2DQ` [m2 p(x)X |f (x) p(x)| + r  kf pk1 , 8x 2 Y,
a2
g(x) := d(x)(f (x) p(x)), x 2 [a, b]. Q#i2MB2M/Q H /2bB;mH//
SQ` /2}MB+BƦM- g 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M [a, b] v TQbBiBp bQ#`2 XX *QKQ |f (x) p(x) "d(x)| < kf pk1 , 8x 2 Y.
X 2b +QKT+iQ- H 7mM+BƦM g H+Mx` bm pHQ` KőMBKQ 2M XX a2
SQ` iMiQ- 2tBbi2 " > 0 iH [m2 kf p "dk1 < kf pk1 v p MQ 2b H K2DQ`
m = mı́n g(x) > 0. T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M Pn X
x2X
105 106
p2+2b MQ 2b 7+BH 2M+QMi`` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 MB Q#i2M2` /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb [m2
2H pHQ` /2 dist1 (f, Pn )X S` Km+?Qb T`QTƦbBiQb 2b bm}+B2Mi2 2M+QMi`` mM
#m2M T`QtBK+BƦM [m2 T2`KBi 2biBK` dist1 (f, Pn )X 1H h2Q`2K /2 /2 H 1p 2 2 2
kf pk1 = f (⇠) p(⇠) = ⇡ 4 arc cos 1/10 ⇡ 0.11051366.
oHHû2@SQmbbBM T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` +Qib BM72`BQ`2b /2 dist1 (f, Pn )X ⇡ ⇡ ⇡
liBHBxM/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 G oHHû2@SQmbbBM +QM H Hi2`MM+B 0, ⇠, 1 /2/m+B@
h2Q`2K /2 /2 H oHHû2@SQmbbBMX a2 f 2 C[a, b] v p 2 Pn iH [m2 f p
KQb [m2 dist(f, P1 ) > mı́n(1/10, |f (⇠) p(⇠)|) = 1/10X SQ` iMiQ- H T`QtB@
iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb x0 < · · · < xn /2 [a, b]X 1MiQM+2b
K+BƦM T`QTm2bi 2bi T`ƦtBK H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2X
dist1 (f, Pn ) mı́ni=0,...,n+1 |f (xi ) p(xi )|X
aB [m2`2KQb /2i2`KBM` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2- /2#2KQb BK@
.2KQbi`+BƦMX aB H +QM+HmbBƦM 7m2` 7Hb- 2MiQM+2b 2tBbiB`ő mM TQHBMQKBQ TQM2` H 2tBbi2M+B /2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M j MQ/QbX *QKQ H
p0 2 Pn iH [m2 7mM+BƦM f 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 +ƦM+p- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 f p⇤ /2#2` H+Mx`
bm KőMBKQ 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb v bm KtBKQ 2M mM TmMiQ BMi2`BQ`X GHKM/Q
kf p0 k1 < mı́n |f (xi ) p(xi )|. b = kf p⇤ k1 - /2/m+BKQb [m2
i=0,...,n+1
p⇤ (0) = f (0) + b = b, p⇤ (1) = f (1) + b = 1 + b,

a2 s = sign(f (x0 ) p(x0 ))- 2MiQM+2b s( 1)i (f (xi ) p(xi )) = |f (xi ) p(xi )|-
T` i = 0, . . . , n + 1X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 p0 p = (f p) (f p0 )- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 p⇤ (x) = x + bX *QKQ p⇤ /B}2`2 /2 p 2M mM +QMbiMi2-
/2/m+BKQb [m2 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q /2 f p⇤ +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H /2 f p- ⇠ = 2 arc cos(2/⇡)/⇡-
Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 H `2H+BƦM
s( 1)i (p0 (xi ) p(xi )) = s( 1)i (f (xi ) p(xi )) s( 1)i (f (xi ) p0 (xi ))
1p 2 2 2
> |f (xi ) p(xi )| kf p0 k1 > 0, i = 0, . . . , n + 1. b = f (⇠) p⇤ (⇠) = ⇡ 4 arc cos b,
⇡ ⇡ ⇡
SQ` iMiQ p0 p iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B 7m2ì2 2M x0 , . . . , xn+1 - 2M +QMi`/B++BƦM HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2`
+QM 2H G2K 9Xd UVX
1 p 2 1 2
kf p⇤ k1 = b = ⇡ 4 arc cos ⇡ 0.10525683,
1D2KTHQX a2 #mb+ 2M+QMi`` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 f (x) = 2⇡ ⇡ ⇡
2 2M [0, 1] TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q RX
sen ⇡x
K2DQ`M/Q H T`QtBK+BƦM BMB+BHK2Mi2 T`QTm2biX
Mi2b /2 /2i2`KBM`H- Q#b2`pKQb [m2 H 7mM+BƦM p(x) = x + 1/10 T`2+2
SQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p v MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p
mM #m2M 2biBK+BƦM /2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2X oKQb T`QTQ`@
+BQM` mM 2biBK+BƦM /2 H /BbiM+B /2 p f X *QKQ f p 2b mM 7mM+BƦM lM T`Q#H2K +HbB+Q /2 T`QtBK+BƦM +QMbBbi2 2M 2M+QMi`` H K2DQ` T`QtB@
2bi`B+iK2Mi2 +ƦM+p H+Mx 2H pHQ` KőMBKQ 1/10 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb v 2H K+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1] /2 xn+1 TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn X 1bi2
ȹMB+Q KtBKQ b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q /2 f pX .2`BpM/Q i2M2KQb T`Q#H2K 7m2 `2bm2HiQ TQ` SX *?2#vb?2pX P#b2`pKQb T`BK2`Q [m2 2H T`Q@
#H2K 2[mBpH2 2M+QMi`` 2H TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q n + 1 +mvQ KtBKQ
f 0 (x) p0 (x) =
⇡
cos
⇡x
1. pHQ` #bQHmiQ b2 KőMBKQX
2 2 o2KQb [m2 2H h2Q`2K /2 Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p MQb T2`KBi2 2M+QM@
H B;mH` +2`Q Q#i2M2KQb H TQbB+BƦM /2H TmMiQ +`őiB+Q i`` H bQHm+BƦM 2bi2 T`Q#H2KX a2 p⇤ H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 2M
[ 1, 1] xn+1 TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2
2 2
⇠= arc cos ⇡ 0.56066418, t(x) := xn+1 p⇤ (x)
⇡ ⇡
107 108
v [m2
1.2
sin(pi*x/2)
x+0.10525683
t0 (x) = (n + 1)(x x1 ) · · · (x xn ).
1
1H TQHBMQKBQ m 2
t(x) 2 P2n+2 b2 MmH 2M x0 , x1 , . . . , xn+1 X /2Kb
2
x1 , . . . , xn bQM +2`Qb /Q#H2b TQ`[m2 t0 (xi ) = 0- i = 1, . . . , nX SQ` iMiQ

0.8
(1 x2 )t0 (x)2
m2 t(x)2 = (1 x2 )(x x1 )2 · · · (x xn ) 2 = .
0.6 (n + 1)2
*QKQ t0 (1) > 0- /2/m+BKQb [m2 t(1) = mX _2bQHpB2M/Q H 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BH
/2 p`B#H2b b2T`#H2b
0.4
(n + 1)2 2
0.2
t0 (x)2 = (m t(x)2 ),
1 x2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 +QM H +QM/B+BƦM BMB+BH t(1) = 1- t0 (1) > 0- /2/m+BKQb [m2
6B;m` 9XRX G K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 sin(⇡x/2) t(x) = m cos((n + 1) arc cos x) = mTn+1 (x)
2M [0, 1] TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q
2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 x = 1X *QKQ t(x) v Tn+1 bQM TQHBMBQKBQb /2 Pn+1 - b2 /2/m+2
2b mM TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q n + 1 [m2 p2`B}+ [m2
t(x) = mTn+1 (x), x 2 [ 1, 1].
m := ktk1 = dist1 (xn+1 , Pn ).
*QKQ 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` /2 Tn+1 2b 2n - b2 /2/m+2 [m2 m = 2 n
v t(x) =
aB t iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb /2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1]- 2 n Tn+1 (x)X
2MiQM+2b p⇤ (x) b2` H ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2KX 1MmM+BKQb +QMiBMm+BƦM H T`QTB2// /2 KBMBKBx+BƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQ@
G mMB+B// /2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 BKTHB+ [m2 2tBbi2 mM KBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p
ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q n+1 [m2 iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p
h2Q`2K U*?2#vb?2pVX 1Mi`2 iQ/Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb KƦMB+Qb /2 ;`/Q n+1-
2M n + 2 MQ/QbX o2KQb [m2 H bQHm+BƦM /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2K Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2
n 0- 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2 n Tn+1 (x) 2b 2H ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ [m2 iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM@
2M iû`KBMQb /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 *?2#vb?2p /2 ;`/Q n + 1
+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/QbX /2Kb- 2b 2H ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ 2Mi`2 iQ/Qb
Tn+1 (x) := cos((n + 1) arc cos x), x 2 [ 1, 1]. HQb TQHBMQKBQb KƦMB+Qb /2 ;`/Q n + 1 [m2 iB2M2 H K2MQ` MQ`K mMB7Q`K2 2M
2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1]
amTQM;KQb [m2 t iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M H bm+2bBƦM /2 2 n
= máx |2 n
Tn+1 (x)| = mı́n máx |xn+1 p(x)|.
MQ/Qb x0 < · · · < xn+1 /2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1]X 1MiQM+2b H 7mM+BƦM t /2#2 i2M2` x2[ 1,1] p2Pn x2[ 1,1]
n 1 2ti`2KQb `2HiBpQb x1 < · · · < xn [m2 b2`M +2`Qb /2 bm /2`Bp/ t0 (x)
.2KQbi`+BƦMX o2KQb T`BK2`Q [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 *?2#vb?2p Tn+1 (x)
t0 (xi ) = 0, i = 1, . . . , n. iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/QbX *QKQ 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B@
#H2b x = cos ✓- ✓ 2 [0, ⇡]- 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /2+`2+B2Mi2- #bi +QM +QKT`Q#`
*QKQ t0 iB2M2 HQ bmKQ n +2`Qb- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 x0 = 1- xn+1 = 1- H 2tBbi2M+B /2 /B+? Hi2`MM+B 2M H 7mM+BƦM
t0 (x0 ) 6= 0, t0 (xn+1 ) 6= 0, cos(n + 1)✓ = Tn+1 (cos ✓), ✓ 2 [0, ⇡].
109 110
1HB;B2M/Q ✓k = k⇡/(n + 1)- k = 0, . . . , n + 1- p2KQb [m2 /QM/2 Tn+1 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 *?2#vb?2p /2 ;`/Q n + 1X
k
cos(n + 1)✓k = cos(k⇡) = ( 1) , k = 0, . . . , n + 1, .2KQbi`+BƦMX a2M x0 , . . . , xn MQ/Qb +mH2b[mB2` 2M [a, b]- 2MiQM+2b
v- TQ` iMiQ- H 7mM+BƦM cos(n + 1)✓ iB2M2 mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M
2xi a b
✓0 , . . . , ✓n+1 X SQ` iMiQ- 2 n Tn+1 (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q n + 1 ti := 2 [ 1, 1], i = 0, . . . , n,
+QM mM Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/QbX b a
1H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 t(x) b2 2H TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q n + 1 +QM H K2MQ` /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
MQ`K k · k1 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 p⇤ (x) = xn+1 t(x) 2b H K2DQ` T`Q@
tBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 H 7mM+BƦM xn+1 TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn X SQ` 2H h2Q`2K ⇣a + b b a ⌘ ⇣b a ⌘n+1 Y
n
/2 Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p- bQHK2Mi2 2tBbi2 mM ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ t(x) +QM !n+1

2
+
2
t =
2
(t ti ).
2bi T`QTB2//- [m2 +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q [m2 iB2M2 mM i=0
Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- Hm2;Q t(x) = 2 n Tn+1 (x)X

SQ` iMiQ
n
Y
G T`QTB2// Mi2`BQ` 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 p (x) = x
⇤ n+1
2 Tn+1 (x) n (b a)n+1
k!n+1 k1 = máx (t ti ) .
2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 H 7mM+BƦM xn+1 TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn X 2n+1 t2[ 1,1]
i=0
>+B2M/Q mM +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b- 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 *?2#vb?2p BKTHB+ [m2
?Q` TQ/2KQb miBHBx` 2H `2bmHi/Q /2KQbi`/Q TQ` *?2#vb?2p- 2 n Tn+1 (t)
2H TQHBMQKBQ
⇣ 2x a b ⌘ 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ +mvQ KtBKQ pHQ` #bQHmiQ 2M [ 1, 1] 2b 2H K2MQ` TQbB#H2
(b a)n+1
T n+1 2Mi`2 iQ/Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb KƦMB+Qb /2 ;`/Q n + 1X bő [m2
22n+1 b a
2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q n + 1 /2 K2MQ` MQ`K mMB7Q`K2X GQb +2`Qb n
Y
/2 2bi2 TQHBMQKBQ bQM /BbiBMiQb v `2H2b v `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 MQ/Qb /2 máx (t ti ) 2 n
máx |Tn+1 (t)| = 2 n
,
*?2#vb?2p /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]
t2[ 1,1] t2[ 1,1]
i=0
⇣ 2i + 1 ⌘
xi,n =
a+b b a
cos ⇡ , i = 0, . . . , n. HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 ;`MiBx` [m2
2 2 2n + 2
(b a)n+1
G 2H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p
Qn T` mM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM k!n+1 k1 .
T2`KBi2 ;`MiBx` [m2 !n+1 (x) = i=0 (x xi ) iB2M2 H K2MQ` MQ`K mMB7Q`K2 22n+1
TQbB#H2X Qn
G B;mH// b2 iB2M2 bQHK2Mi2 bB i=0 (t ti ) = 2 n Tn+1 (t)- HQ [m2 2[mBpH2
Qn }`K` [m2
S`QTQbB+BƦM 9X3X a2M x0 , . . . , xn 2M [a, b] v !n+1 (x) := i=0 (x xi )X 1M@
Yn ⇣ 2x a b ⌘
iQM+2b b2 p2`B}+ 2n
2(x xi )
= Tn+1 .
(b a)n+1 i=0
b a b a
k!n+1 k1 := máx |!n+1 (x)| .
x2[a,b] 22n+1 SQ` iMiQ x0 , . . . , xn bQM HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] v
G B;mH// b2 iB2M2 bB v bƦHQ bB x0 , . . . , xn bQM HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p /2H
⇣ 2x a b⌘
BMi2`pHQ [a, b]- 2M +mvQ +bQ !n+1 (x) =
(b a)n+1
Tn+1 .
⇣ 2x a b ⌘ 22n+1 b a
(b a)n+1
!n+1 (x) = T n+1 ,
22n+1 b a
111 112
aB iQKKQb HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p x0,n . . . , xn,n - H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ`Kb +QM}`K [m2 H +Qi mMB7Q`K2 T` MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p U9X9V 2b Km+?Q K2@
k!n+1 (x)k1 iB2M2 mM +`2+BKB2MiQ 2tTQM2M+BH MQ` [m2 H +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 T` TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b U9XjVX 1H 7+iQ` 4/e b2
/2#2 H /B72`2Mi2 +`2+BKB2MiQ 2tTQM2M+BH [m2 T`2b2Mi k!n+1 k1 T` MQ/Qb
b a 2[mB/BbiMi2b 2M `2H+BƦM +QM HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2pX
lı́m k!n+1 (x)k1/(n+1)
1 = ,
n!1 4
G `2H+BƦM Mi2`BQ` 2Mi`2 Hb +Qib /2H 2``Q` b2 i`/m+2 2M H T`+iB+
G ib /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ (b a)/4 2b BM72`BQ` H pHQ` (b a)/e [m2 b2 Q#impQ 2M mM K2DQ` +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p
T` MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2bX `2bT2+iQ Qi`b /Bbi`B#m+BQM2b /2 MQ/QbX G 6B;m` 9Xk Km2bi` HQb 2``Q`2b
THB+M/Q 2H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ` H 7Ʀ`KmH U9XRV Q#i2M2KQb H +Qi mMB@ +QK2iB/Qb TQ` HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 ;`/Q d /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x3 /(1+x2 ) 2M
7Q`K2 /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p 2H BMi2`pHQ [ 5, 5] miBHBxM/Q HQb MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b v MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2pX
P#b2`pKQb [m2 2H KtBKQ 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2b K2MQ` +QM MQ/Qb /2
kE(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1 
Mn+1 (b a)n+1
, (4.4) *?2#vb?2p [m2 +QM MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2bX GQb MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b /M Hm;`
(n + 1)! 22n+1 mM K2MQ` 2``Q` 2M H xQM +2Mi`H /2H BMi2`pHQ T2`Q HQb 2``Q`2b bQM KvQ`2b
+QM +2`+ /2 HQb 2ti`2KQbX
Mn+1 := kf (n+1) k1 = máx |f (n+1) (x)|. 0.8
x2[a,b] "equidistantes"
"Chebyshev"
o2KQb [m2 H +Qi /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p U9X9V 0.7
2b H K2DQ` TQbB#H2 2Mi`2 iQ/b Hb +Qib mMB7Q`K2b /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
/2 H 7Q`K 0.6
kf (n+1) k1
kE(f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  Kn
(n + 1)! 0.5
[m2 Tm2/M Q#i2M2`b2 H BMi2`TQH` 2M MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn `#Bi``BQb /2H BM@
i2`pHQ [a, b]X 1M 272+iQ- iQKM/Q f = !n+1 v THB+M/Q H S`QTQbB+BƦM 9X3 0.4
/2/m+BKQb [m2
(b a)n+1 0.3
Kn k!n+1 k1
22n+1
v H B;mH// bQHK2Mi2 b2` TQbB#H2 +QM H 2H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2pX 0.2
*QKT`2KQb ?Q` H +Qi mMB7Q`K2 /2H 2``Q` U9X9V +QM H +Qip T`
TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b U9XjVX lbM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 aiB`HBM; n!/nn ⇡ e n 2⇡n- 0.1
TQ/2KQb /` mM T`QtBK+BƦM bBMiƦiB+ /2 H +Qi U9XjV

0
p
Mn+1 ⇣ b a ⌘n+1
-4 -2 0 2 4
Mn+1 2⇡n
⇡ (b a)n+1 6B;m` 9XkX *QKT`+BƦM /2 HQb 2``Q`2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
4(n + 1) n 4(n + 1)n n!en
r +QM MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b v MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p
Mn+1 (b a)n+1 ⇣ 4 ⌘n ⇡
= ⇥
(n + 1)! 22n+1 e 2n
GQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p bQM Hb T`Qv2++BQM2b bQ#`2 2H 2D2 XX 0 /2 HQb
[m2 T2`KBi2 2bi#H2+2` mM +QKT`+BƦM 2Mi`2 2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q H mb` HQb TmMiQb /2 /BpBbBƦM /2 H b2KB+B`+mM72`2M+B /2 +2Mi`Q ((a + b)/2, 0) v `/BQ
MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p v 2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q +QM MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b U9XjVX a2 (b a)/2 2M `+Qb B;mHK2Mi2 2bT+B/Qb Upûb2 6B;m` 9XjVX
113 114
1M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 TmMiQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM b2 miBHBx H
Kûi`B+ /2 .m#BM2` /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]
2x a b 2x0 a b
d(x, x0 ) := arc cos arc cos ,
b a b a
[m2 /2}M2 /BbiM+Bb T`QTQ`+BQMH2b Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 HQb `+Qb /2 H b2KB@

a x0 x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
b +B`+mM72`2M+B /2 +2Mi`Q ((a + b)/2, 0) v `/BQ (b a)/2 +QKT`2M/B/Qb 2Mi`2 Hb
#b+Bbb x v x0 X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p bQM 2[mB/BbiMi2b
6B;m` 9XjX AMi2`T`2i+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p
`2bT2+iQ H Kûi`B+ /2 .m#BM2` /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X
1bi BMi2`T`2i+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p BM/B+ [m2 *QMp2`;2M+B /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 H 7mM+BƠM
HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p iB2M/2M +QM+2Mi``b2 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb /2H BMi2`pHQ
S` +/ n- 2H2;BKQb x0,n  · · ·  xn,n mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb 2M
+mM/Q n ! 1X *QKQ H 7mM+BƦM `+Q +Qb2MQ i`Mb7Q`K HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb@
[a, b]X a2
?2p /2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1] 2M mM bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ
pn (x) := P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x),
[0, ⇡]- /2+BKQb [m2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p iB2M2M H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM `+Q +Qb2MQX
H bm+2bBƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX LQb T`2;mMiKQb bB 2b TQbB#H2
3 /2KQbi`` [m2 pn ! f 2M +B2ìQ b2MiB/QX S` 2HHQ /2}MBKQb 2H 2``Q`
2.5 En (x) := E(f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x) = f (x) pn (x).
2 G +QMp2`;2M+B TmMimH b2 T`Q/m+B` bB TQ/2KQb ;`MiBx` [m2 En (x) ! 0-

+QM/B+BƦM 2[mBpH2Mi2
1.5
n
Y
[x0,n , . . . , xn,n , x]f !n+1 (x) ! 0, !n+1 (x) := (x xi,n ).
1
i=0
0.5 aB H 7mM+BƦM 2b C 1 [a, b]- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` H +QM/B+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2 /2 +QMp2`@

;2M+B
0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Mn+1
6B;m` 9X9X .Bbi`B#m+BQM `+ +Qb /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p lı́m !n+1 (x) ! 0, Mn+1 := máx |f (n+1) (x)|.
n!1 (n + 1)! x2[a,b]
1M ;2M2`H- Hb 2H2++BQM2b /2 MQ/Qb xi 2 [ 1, 1]- i = 0, . . . , n- iH2b [m2 .2 H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` p2KQb [m2 H +QMp2`;2M+B /2T2M/2 /2 /Qb 7+iQ`2bX
arc cos xi - i = 0, . . . , n- iB2M2M mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM +bB mMB7Q`K2 bQM /2 ;`M SQ` mM H/Q 2H +`2+BKB2MiQ bBMiƦiB+Q /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 +QMbiMi2b Mn+1 =
BMi2`ûb 2M i2Q`ő /2 T`QtBK+BƦMX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- HQb +2`Qb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb kf (n+1) k1 /2T2M/2 /2 H 7mM+BƦM f X SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- 2H iKƢQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM
QìQ;QMH2b /2 G2;2M/`2 Pn+1 (x) T`2b2MiM mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM T`ƦtBK H !n+1 /2T2M/2 /2 H 2H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM v /2 bm /Bbi`B#m+BƦM
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM `+Q +Qb2MQ T` pHQ`2b ;`M/2b /2 nX bBMiƦiB+X
115 116
160
1H `;mK2MiQ miBHBx/Q 2M 2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ` Km2bi` [m2 H +QMp2`;2M+B
grado 3
grado 4 mMB7Q`K2 /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b H 7mM+BƦM BMi2`TQH/ +mM/Q 2H2pKQb 2H
;`/Q bBM BKTQM2` MBM;mM +QM/B+BƦM H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM bBMiƦiB+ /2 HQb MQ/Qb
140 grado 5
120
b2 ;`MiBx bB f 2 C 1 [a, b] v b2 p2`B}+
(b a)n+1
lı́m máx |f (n+1) (x)| = 0. (4.5)
100 n!1 x2[a,b] (n + 1)!
80
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H `2biQ /2 hvHQ`- H +QM/B+BƦM
U9X8V BKTHB+ [m2 f Tm2/2 /2b``QHH`b2 2M b2`B2 /2 hvHQ` H`2/2/Q` /2 +mH@
60
[mB2` TmMiQ c 2 [a, b] +QM `/BQ /2 +QMp2`;2M+B H K2MQb |b a|X 1M TìB+mH`-
f iB2M2 [m2 b2` mM 7mM+BƦM MHőiB+ 2M mM /QKBMBQ [m2 +QMi2M; H BMi2`pHQ
40 [a, b]X
G 2H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb Dm2; mM TT2H BKTQìMi2 2M 2H +QMi`QH /2H 2``Q`
20 /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX o2KQb [m2 bB2KT`2 2b TQbB#H2 2H2;B` MQ/Qb /2 KQ/Q [m2 H
/BbiM+B 2Mi`2 H 7mM+BƦM v 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 b2 H K2MQ` TQbB#H2X
0
S`QTQbB+BƦM 9XNX S` +/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b] v n 0- 2tBbi2M MQ/Qb
-20 x0,n < · · · < xn,n 2M (a, b) iH2b [m2 P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) 2b H K2DQ` T`QtB@
K+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2 f TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn 2M [a, b]- 2b /2+B`-
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
6B;m` 9X8X *QMp2`;2M+B /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH

kf P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )k1 = dist(f, Pn ).
1D2KTHQ U1``Q` H BMi2`TQH` H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BHVX *QMbB/2`2KQb H .2KQbi`+BƦMX 1H i2Q`2K /2 *?2#vb?2p bQ#`2 T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 /2
7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH f (x) = exp(x)- x 2 [a, b]X a2 x0,n , . . . , xn,n mM bm+2bBƦM 7mM+BQM2b TQ` TQHBMQKBQb MQb T2`KBi2 ;`MiBx` [m2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM
2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb 2M [a, b] v mMB7Q`K2 p⇤n /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b] TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn bB2KT`2 2tBbi2
v 2b ȹMB+X /2Kb 2tBbi2M n + 2 MQ/Qb 2M HQb [m2 f p⇤n T`2b2Mi mM
pn (x) := P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x), En (x) := f (x) pn (x).
Hi2`M+B /2 *?2#vb?2pX .2H h2Q`2K /2 "QHxMQ b2 /2/m+2 [m2 f p⇤n b2
MmH- H K2MQb- 2M n + 1 TmMiQb /2 (a, b)X SQ` iMiQ- T` +/ 7mM+BƦM
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
f 2 C[a, b]- 2tBbi2M TmMiQb x0,n < · · · < xn,n 2M [a, b] U/2T2M/B2Mi2b /2 f V
Mn+1 (b a)n+1 iH2b [m2 p⇤n = P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )X
kEn k1  (b a)n+1 = exp(b) .
(n + 1)! (n + 1)! .2i2`KBM` 2H2++BQM2b /2 MQ/Qb [m2 MQb HH2p2M H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM
mMB7Q`K2 Tm2/2 b2` mM i`2 `/mX S` Km+?Qb 272+iQb T`+iB+Qb #bi +QM
.2}MKQb ?Q` en := exp(b)(b a) /(n + 1)!X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
n+1
/2i2`KBM` bm+2bBQM2b /2 MQ/Qb T`ƦtBKb 2biQb- /2 KM2` [m2 2H BMi2`TQ@
en+1 /en = (b a)/(n+1)- p2KQb [m2 en+1 < en /2 v v en < en0 2n0 n T` iQ/Q
HMi2 TQHBMƦKB+Q b2 bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T`ƦtBKQ H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦMX
n n0 := b2(b a)cX bő [m2 lı́mn!1 kEn k1 = 0 v 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
+QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 +2`Q- BM/2T2M/B2Mi2K2Mi2 /2H BMi2`pHQ 2H2;B/Q v /2 1H h2Q`2K /2 J`+BMFB2rB+x }`K [m2 H +QMp2`;2M+B /2 H bm+2bBƦM
H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb 2M 2H BMi2`pHQX /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm // Tm2/2 +QMb2;mB`b2 K2/BMi2 H
b2H2++BƦM T`QTB/ /2 HQb MQ/QbX S` /2/m+B`HQ- M2+2bBiKQb 2H h2Q`2K /2
G 6B;m` 9X8 BHmbi` H `TB/ +QMp2`;2M+B /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 f (x) = T`QtBK+BƦM /2 q2B2`bi`bb +mvQ 2MmM+B/Q bBM /2KQbi`+BƦM Q7`2+2KQb
exp(x)- x 2 [ 5, 5]- 2M TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b H mK2Mi` 2H ;`/QX +QMiBMm+BƦMX
117 118
h2Q`2K /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2 q2B2`bi`bbX S` +/ f 2 C[a, b]- 2tBbi2 u i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
mM bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb pn iH [m2 lı́mn!1 kf pn k1 = 0X
⇣ Y |x2 (5j/k)2 | ⌘ Z ⇣ |x2 t2 | ⌘
k 5
5
1H h2Q`2K /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2 q2B2`bi`bb 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 lı́m
k!1 k
log
1 + (5j/k)2
= q(x) := log
1 + t2
dt
j=0 0
lı́m dist1 (f, Pn ) = 0, 8f 2 C[a, b].

n!1 H +QMp2`;2M+B /2T2M/2 /2H bB;MQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM q(x)X aB q 2b M2;iBp 2M@
iQM+2b 2H T`Q/m+iQ BM}MBiQ +QMp2`;2- KB2Mi`b [m2 bB q 2b TQbBiBp i2M2KQb
*QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b /2/m+BKQb /Bp2`;2M+BX Sm2/2 KQbi``b2 [m2 q(x) +K#B 2t+iK2Mi2 mM p2x /2 bB;MQ
2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 5] v [m2 2H ȹMB+Q +2`Q /2 H 7mM+BƦM q 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 5]
h2Q`2K /2 J`+BMFB2rB+xX S` +/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b]- 2tBbi2M TmMiQb 2b ⇠ ⇡ 4.63X SQ` iMiQ- bB |x| < ⇠- H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b p2k (x) +QMp2`;2 H
x0,n < · · · < xn,n iH2b [m2 P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f TQHBMQKBQ- KB2Mi`b [m2 bB |x| > ⇠ /Bp2`;2X
2M [a, b]X G 6B;m` 9Xe Km2bi` Hb ;`}+b /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 ;`/Qb k- 3 v
R9 +QM Q#D2iQ /2 BHmbi`` 2bi2 +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2bX
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` H T`QTQbB+BƦM Mi2`BQ`- 2tBbi2M x0,n , . . . , xn,n iH2b [m2
kf P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )k1 = dist(f, Pn )X SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2 T`QtBK+BƦM 1
/2 q2B2`bi`bb- dist1 (f, Pn ) ! 0X a2 /2/m+2 [m2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b grado 4
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f X 0.5 grado 8
grado 12
1M RNyR- *X _mM;2 Tm#HB+Ʀ mM ìő+mHQ bQ#`2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M TmMiQb 0
2[mB/BbiMi2b v HH2;Ʀ H +QM+HmbBƦM /2 [m2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2

BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b /2 mM BMi2`pHQ TQ/ő MQ +QMp2`;2`
-0.5
H 7mM+BƦM- BM+HmbQ mM[m2 H 7mM+BƦM 7m2` C 1 Q BM+HmbQ MHőiB+ 2M /B+?Q -1

BMi2`pHQX
G 7mM+BƦM f (x) = (1+x2 ) 1 - x 2 [ 5, 5]- 2b MHőiB+ 2M C\{i, i}- /QKB@ -1.5
MBQ /2H THMQ +QKTH2DQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 H BMi2`pHQ [ 5, 5]X _mM;2 /2KQbi`Ʀ [m2
2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b /Bp2`;2X S` +/ ;`/Q n- iQKKQb -2
xi,n = 5 + 10i/n- i = 0, . . . , n v +QMbi`mBKQb 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 pn (x) 2M /B+?Qb

-2.5
TmMiQbX aB +QMbB/2`KQb 2H +bQ /2 ;`/Q T` n = 2k- Tm2/2 /2KQbi``b2 [m2
H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ /2 H 7mM+BƦM (1 + x2 ) 1 2M TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn , x 2b -3
x -3.5
[x0 , . . . , xn , x]f = Qk .
(1 + x2 ) j=0 (1 + x2j )
-4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
ambiBimv2M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` Q#i2M2KQb
6B;m` 9XeX 1H 2D2KTHQ /2 _mM;2
k
Y
1 1 |x2 (5j/k)2 | G /Bp2`;2M+B /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b Tm2/2 +?+`b2 H b2@
p2k (x) = .
1 + x2 1 + x2 j=0
1 + (5j/k)2 H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX GQb MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b MQ bQM mM
119 120
#m2M 2H2++BƦM TQ`[m2- H mK2Mi` 2H ;`/Q- Tm2/2M KTHB}+` 2tTQM2M+BH@ G 2bi#BHB// /2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2bi `2H+BQM/ +QM H MQ`K /2H QT2@
K2Mi2 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM `2bT2+iQ H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q TQ` H K2DQ` `/Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2- +QKQ b2 KQbi`` 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H 2bi#BHB// /2
HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX kLk1 := sup kL[f ]k1 .
kf k1
*QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 v MQ`K /2H QT2`/Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM
1H 2D2KTHQ /2 _mM;2 Km2bi` [m2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q 1M 272+iQ- bmTQM;KQb [m2 HQb /iQb MQ T`Q+2/2M /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f bBMQ /2 mM
HiQ Tm2/2 /` Hm;` BMi2`TQHMi2b +QM Qb+BH+BQM2b /2 KTHBim/ 2H2p/X 7mM+BƦM T`ƦtBK f˜X 1MiQM+2b TQ/2KQb +Qi` mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 H /B72`2M+B /2
1bi2 72MƦK2MQ b2 KMB}2bi 2M HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b K2/BMi2
Y x xj
li (x) = , i = 0, . . . , n, kL[f˜] L[f ]k1 = kL[f˜ f ]k1  kLk1 kf˜k1 ,
xi xj
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
TQ` iMiQ bB kLk1 2b ;`M/2 TQ/2KQb i2M2` ;`M/2b /B72`2M+Bb 2Mi`2 BMi2`@
+mvQ pHQ` KtBKQ 2M pHQ` #bQHmiQ iB2M/2 BM+`2K2Mi`b2 H mK2Mi` 2H
TQHMi2b T`Q+2/2Mi2b /2 7mM+BQM2b Kmv T`ƦtBKbX
MȹK2`Q /2 TmMiQbX 1bi2 +QKTQìKB2MiQ Qb+BHiQ`BQ BKTHB+ BM2bi#BHB// /2
H BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 T` mM 2H2p/Q MȹK2`Q /2 TmMiQbX G 7mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) bQ+B/ H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQ@
./ mM bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn /BbiBMiQb- 2H QT2`/Q` /2 BMi2`TQ@ H+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 2M MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb x0 , . . . , xn b2 /2}M2 +QKQ H bmK /2
H+BƦM HQb KƦ/mHQb /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 G;`M;2
L : f 2 C[a, b] 7! P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2 C[a, b] n
X
bQ+B +/ 7mM+BƦM f bm BMi2`TQHMi2X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H BK;2M /2 L 2b (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) := |li (x)|.
2H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb Pn /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX /2Kb bB p 2 Pn - i=0
2MiQM+2b
L[p] = P (p; x0 , . . . , xn ) = p, S`QTQbB+BƦM 9XRyX a2M x0 , . . . , xn TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb /2 [a, b]X G 7mM+BƦM /2
2b /2+B` 2H QT2`/Q` L }D HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 Pn X SQ` iMiQ- 2H QT2`/Q` /2 G2#2b;m2 p2`B}+
BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2b mM T`Qv2++BƦM HBM2H- v [m2 (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) 1,
L[L[f ]] = L[f ], 8f 2 C[a, b]. v H+Mx bm pHQ` KőMBKQ 2M HQb MQ/Qb-
1H QT2`/Q` 2``Q` 2b 2H QT2`/Q` E = I L- 2b /2+B` (xj ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = 1, j = 0, . . . , n.

E[f ] = f L[f ],
.2KQbi`+BƦMX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi URX9V- b2 /2/m+2 [m2
/2 KQ/Q [m2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM f /KBi2 H /2b+QKTQbB+BƦM
n
X n
X
f = L[f ] + E[f ].
1= li (x)  |li (x)| = (x; x0 , . . . , xn ).
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 E 2b iK#BûM mM T`Qv2++BƦM HBM2H bQ#`2 2H 2bT+BQ /2 7mM@ i=0 i=0
+BQM2b MmHb bQ#`2 HQb /iQbX 1M 272+iQ

h2MB2M/Q
Pn 2M +m2Mi [m2 li (xj ) = ij - /2/m+BKQb [m2 (xj ; x0 , . . . , xn ) =
E[E[f ]] = f L[f ] L[f L[f ]] = f 2L[f ] + L[L[f ]] = f L[f ] = E[f ]. i=0 |li (xj )| = 1X
121 122
.2KQbi`+BƦMX .2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2- /2/m+BKQb [m2
n
X n
X
|L[f ](x)| = f (xi )li (x)  máx(|f (x0 )|, . . . , |f (xn )|) |li (x)|,
i=0 i=0
HQ [m2 T`m2# H T`BK2` /2bB;mH//X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2
kL[f ]k1  máx (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) máx(|f (x0 )|, . . . , |f (xn )|)

x2[a,b]
 ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )kf k1 ,
Hm2;Q kLk1  ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X

a2 ⇠ 2 [a, b] 2H TmMiQ /QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 H+Mx bm pHQ`
KtBKQ ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) = (⇠; x0 , . . . , xn ) v b2 s H 7mM+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQb iH
[m2 s(xi ) = sign(li (⇠))-Pi = 0, . . . , nX P#b2`p2KQb [m2 MQ iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b
s(xi ) bQM MmHQb TQ`[m2 i=0 li (⇠) = 1X SQ` +QMbi`m++BƦM- i2M2KQb ksk1 = 1
n
v /2Kb
n
X n
X
6B;m` 9XdX 6mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 /2 ;`/Q Ry T` MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b L[s](⇠) = s(xi )li (⇠) = sign(li (⇠))li (⇠) = (⇠; x0 , . . . , xn ),
i=0 i=0
1H pHQ` KtBKQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]
Hm2;Q
n
X kL[s]k1
kLk1 = (⇠; x0 , . . . , xn ) = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ).
⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) := máx |li (x)| ksk1
x2[a,b]
SQ` iMiQ kLk1 = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) v 2H bmT`2KQ [m2 /2}M2 H MQ`K /2 L b2
i=0
`2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2X o2KQb [m2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2@ H+Mx T` H 7mM+BƦM s(x) /2 MQ`K RX
#2b;m2 2b H MQ`K /2H QT2`/Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi H S`QTQbB+BƦM 9XRy- p2KQb [m2 ⇤n 1X G MQ`K
/2H QT2`/Q` 2``Q` iK#BûM Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2
h2Q`2K 9XRRX a2 L : C[a, b] ! C[a, b] 2H QT2`/Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M G2#2b;m2
TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb x0 , . . . , xn /2 [a, b]X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
h2Q`2K 9XRkX a2M x0 , . . . , xn TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb /2 [a, b]X G MQ`K /2H
|L[f ](x)|  (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) máx(|f (x0 )|, . . . , |f (xn )|) QT2`/Q` 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM E : f 2 C[a, b] 7! f P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2
C[a, b] 2b kEk1 = 1 + ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X
v H MQ`K /2 L 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 L[f ] = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
kLk1 = máx kL[f ]k1 = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ).
kf k1 =1 kE[f ]k1 = kf L[f ]k1  kf k1 + kL[f ]k1  (1 + kLk1 )kf k1 ,
123 124
HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 MHB+2KQb ?Q` 2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2H 2``Q` `2HiBpQX G T`QT;+BƦM
/2 HQb 2``Q`2b `2HiBpQb 2M `BiKûiB+ /2 +QK ~QiMi2 /2T2M/2 /2 H mMB//
kEk1  1 + kLk1 = 1 + ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ). /2 `2/QM/2Q uX *mMiQ K2MQ` 2b H mMB// /2 `2/QM/2Q- Kb T`2+BbQb bQM HQb
+H+mHQbX SQ` iMiQ- +QMpB2M2 /2b+`B#B` 2H 2``Q` /2 HQb /iQb BMB+BH2b K2/BMi2
o2KQb [m2 kEk1 = 1+⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X S` 2HHQ- b2 ⇠ 2 [a, b] 2H TmMiQ /QM/2 Hb /2bB;mH//2b
H 7mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 H+Mx bm pHQ` KtBKQX liBHBxM/Q mM 7mM+BƦM |ỹi yi |  ki u|yi |, i = 0, . . . , n.
HBM2H i`QxQb [m2 iQK2 pHQ`2b s(xi ) = sign(li (⇠))- i = 0, . . . , n- v s(⇠) = 1-
i2M2KQb [m2 1H pHQ` ki u 2b mM +Qi /2H 2``Q` `2HiBpQ /2 yi T` +/ i = 0, . . . , nX
hQKM/Q ✏i = ki u|yi | 2M Hb /2bB;mH//2b Mi2`BQ`2b i2M2KQb
n
X
E[s](⇠) = s(⇠) + sign(li (⇠))li (⇠) = 1 + ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ), |p̃(x) p(x)|  ku (x; x0 , . . . , xn )k(y0 , . . . , yn )k1 ,
i=0
/QM/2 k := máx(k0 , . . . , kn )X a2 /2/m+2 [m2
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 kEk1 |E[s](⇠)| = 1 + ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X
|p̃(x) p(x)| k(y0 , . . . , yn )k1
 ku (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) .
1bi#BHB// /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM |p(x)| |p(x)|
G +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 bB`p2 T` 2bim/B` H 2bi#BHB// /2H T`Q#H2K /2 G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` Km2bi` HQb i`2b 7+iQ`2b [m2 BM+B/2M 2M 2H 2``Q` `2HiBpQ
BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M TmMiQb /BbiBMiQbX amTQM;KQb [m2 HQb /iQb yi = f (xi ) MQ 2M 2H +H+mHQ /2 mM BMi2`TQHMi2X 1M T`BK2` Hm;`- 2H 7+iQ` ku 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH
bQM 2t+iQb bBMQ Kb #B2M pHQ`2b ỹi T`ƦtBKQb HQb pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 HQb 2``Q`2b /2 HQb /iQb BMB+BH2bX GQb pHQ`2b /2 ku ;`M/2b
BMi2`TQHKQb Tm2/2M +QM/m+B` mM 2``Q` `2HiBpQ 2t+2bBpQX 1bi 7m2Mi2 /2 2``Q` T`2+2
|ỹi yi |  ✏i , i = 0, . . . , n. +mM/Q b2 i`#D +QM `BiKûiB+ /2 T`2+BbBƦM #D Uu ;`M/2V Q +QM /iQb
Pn
1H BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 HQb /iQb T2ìm`#/Qb p̃(x) := i=0 ỹiP li (x) Tm2/2 /B72`B` Kmv BKT`2+BbQb `2bT2+iQ H `BiKûiB+ Uk ;`M/2VX lM b2;mM/ 7m2Mi2
+QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 H 7mM+BƦM p(x) := i=0 yi li (x)X +Q@
n /2 2``Q` bm`;2 H i2M2` mM 7mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) +QM pHQ`2b
iM/Q H /B72`2M+B 2H2p/QbX 1bi2 7+iQ` 2bi bQ+B/Q H QT2`/Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM v /2T2M/2 /2H
MȹK2`Q v /2 H /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/QbX SQ` ȹHiBKQ- bB 2H pHQ` /2H TQHBMQKBQ
p(x) 2M 2H TmMiQ x 2b Kmv T2[m2ƢQ `2bT2+iQ H iKƢQ /2 HQb /iQb- 2H 2``Q`
n
X n
X
|p̃(x) p(x)|  (ỹi yi )li (x)  ✏i |li (x)|, `2HiBpQ 2M 2H +H+mHQ Tm2/2 b2` Kmv ;`M/2X
i=0 i=0
G BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 / mM TQbB#H2 `2bTm2bi H T`Q#H2K /2
b2 /2/m+2 [m2 `2+QMbi`mB` mM 7mM+BƦM i`pûb /2 bmb pHQ`2bX 1M 2H +bQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
TQHBMƦKB+- H `2+QMbi`m++BƦM /2#2`ő b2` T2`72+i bB H 7mM+BƦM // 2b mM
|p̃(x) p(x)| = (x; x0 , . . . , xn ) máx(✏0 , . . . , ✏n ), TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX .2b;`+B/K2Mi2 MQ bB2KT`2 2b
TQbB#H2 /BbTQM2` /2 /iQb 2t+iQbX /2Kb HQb H;Q`BiKQb /2 2pHm+BƦM 2
/2 KQ/Q [m2 H /B72`2M+B /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b 2M +/ TmMiQ [m2/ +Qi/ BMi2`TQH+BƦM HH2p/Qb H T`+iB+ +QK2i2M M2+2b`BK2Mi2 mM 2``Q`X 1bi2
TQ` mM +MiB// T`QTQ`+BQMH H 7mM+BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 2M 2b2 TmMiQ TQ` 2H 2``Q` b2 /2#2 T`BM+BTHK2Mi2 H i`mM++BƦM /2 /2+BKH2b 2M H `BiKûiB+ /2
KtBKQ /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 HQb /iQbX .2 ?ő b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi mMB7Q`K2 +QK ~QiMi2 v /2T2M/2M /2H H;Q`BiKQ Q 7ƦKmH 2H2;B/ v [m2 2biQb 2``Q`2b
/2H 2``Q` /2 H T2ìm`#+BƦM /2 i`mM++BƦM Tm2/2M +mKmH`b2 /2 KM2` /BbiBMi b2;ȹM 2H iBTQ v 2H Q`/2M
/2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b `BiKûiB+b `2HBx/bX aB TìBKQb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ p(x)-
kp̃ pk1  ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) máx(✏0 , . . . , ✏n ). 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 2pHm+BƦM MQb HH2p` pHQ`2b ŷi = yi + ⌘i U2t+iK2Mi2
125 126
H KBbK bBim+BƦM [m2 bB HQb /iQb /2 TìB/ 7m2`M BM2t+iQbVX SQ/2KQb v- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 kX[1]k1 = 1 = k1k1 - b2 /2/m+2 [m2
?+2` ⌘i bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQ BM+Q`TQ`M/Q K2DQ`b 2M Mm2bi`Qb KûiQ/Qb
/2 2pHm+BƦM Q BM+Hmv2M/Q `BiKûiB+ /2 KvQ` T`2+BbBƦMX 1M ;2M2`H- MQ kXk1 = sup kXpk1 = 1.
TQ/2KQb +QMb2;mB` [m2 ⌘i b2 +2`Q MB /2/m+B` 2H pHQ` 2t+iQ /2 ⌘i X aQHK2Mi2 kpk1 =1
TQ/2KQb 2bT2`` Q#i2M2` mM 2biBK+BƦM Q mM +Qi /2 2biQb pHQ`2bX aB ?Q`
[m2`2KQb `2+QMbi`mB` 2H TQHBMQKBQ Q`B;BMH- Q#i2M/`2KQb 2M bm Hm;` G 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM MQb
n
Km2bi` [m2 X 2b mM THB++BƦM #Bv2+iBp- HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 +QMbi`mB` H THB+@
X +BƦM BMp2`b [m2 bQ+B mM +QMDmMiQ /2 pHQ`2b bm TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
p̂(x) = (yi + ⌘i )li (x) + ⌘(x),
i=0 0 1
y0 n
X
/QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM ⌘(x) Tm2/2 ?+2`b2 Kmv T2[m2Ƣ K2DQ`M/Q Mm2bi`Qb KûiQ@ : @ XXX A 2 _n+1 7!
1 B C
X yi li (x) 2 Pn .
/Qb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM Q H T`2+BbBƦM /2 Mm2bi`Qb +H+mHQbX 1H 2``Q` 2M H `2+QMb@ i=0
i`m++BƦM p̂ b2` yn
Xn
p̂(x) p(x) = ⌘(x) + ⌘i li (x). P#b2`p2KQb [m2
i=0
SQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` 1
n
X n
X
kX (y0 , . . . , yn )k1 = máx yi li (x)  k(y0 , . . . , yn )k1 máx |li (x)|,
x2[a,b] x2[a,b]
|p̂(x) p(x)|  |⌘(x)| + ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) máx(|⌘0 |, . . . , |⌘n |) i=0 i=0
1H bB;MQ v iKƢQ /2 HQb 2``Q`2b +QK2iB/Qb 2b /B7ő+BH /2 +QMi`QH` TQ` HQ [m2 HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2 kX 1 k1  ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X a2 ⇠ mM TmMiQ /QM/2 H 7mM@
2b TQbB#H2 [m2 2M H;mMQb TmMiQb 2H 2``Q` 2M H `2+QMbi`m++BƦM HH2;m2 iQK` +BƦM /2 G2#2b;m2 iQK bm pHQ` KtBKQX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ
pHQ`2b T`ƦtBKQb /B+? +QiX SQ` iMiQ- bB ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) 2b /2 ;`M iKƢQ- X 1 (sign l0 (⇠), . . . , sign ln (⇠)) 2pHm/Q 2M ⇠ 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2- /2@
Tm2/2 b2` BMpB#H2 H `2+QMbi`m++BƦM 2t+i /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ i`pûb /2 bmb /m+BKQb [m2
pHQ`2b mM[m2 HQb H;Q`BiKQb /2 2pHm+BƦM 2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QK2iM 2M +/
TbQ 2``Q`2b T2[m2ƢQb v b2 miBHB+2 `BiKûiB+ /2 Hi T`2+BbBƦMX 1 1
n
X
kX k1 kX (sign l0 (⇠), . . . , sign ln (⇠))k1 = máx | sign li (⇠) li (x)|
*QM/B+BQMKB2MiQ /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM x2[a,b]
i=0
a2M x0 < · · · < xn mM bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X G
n
X n
X
sign li (⇠) li (⇠) = |li (⇠)| = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ).
THB++BƦM 2pHm+BƦM T2`KBi2 bQ+B` +/ TQHBMQKBQ /2 Pn HQb pHQ`2b 2M
HQb MQ/Qb K2/BMi2
i=0 i=0
0 1
p(x0 ) SQ` iMiQ- kX 1
k1 = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X
X : p 2 Pn 7! @ XXX A 2 _n+1 .
B C G MQ`K /2 X v /2 X 1 T`QTQ`+BQMM mM `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 2H iKƢQ /2H
p(xn ) p2+iQ` /2 /iQb (y0 , . . . , yn ) v 2H iKƢQ /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2X
a2 (y0 , . . . , yn ) 2H p2+iQ` /2 /iQb v p 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +Q@
aB /QiKQb H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb Pn /2 H MQ`K kpk1 := máxx2[a,b] |p(x)| ``2bTQM/B2Mi2X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 (y0 , . . . , yn ) = X(p) v [m2 p =
v H 2bT+BQ _n+1 /2 H MQ`K k(y0 , . . . , yn )k1 := máxi=0,...,n |yi |- TQ/2KQb X 1 (y0 , . . . , yn )- i2M2KQb
2bi#H2+2` H `2H+BƦM
kX[p]k1  kpk1 k(y0 , . . . , yn )k1  kpk1  ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )k(y0 , . . . , yn )k1 .
127 128
1bi KBbK +QMbB/2`+BƦM Tm2/2 THB+`b2 H iKƢQ /2 H /B72`2M+B /2 /iQb [m2 2H +QM/B+BQMKB2MiQ /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM- H BM2bi#BHB// /2 HQb
v H iKƢQ /2 HQb 2``Q`2b ✏i = ỹi yi H;Q`BiKQb v H T`QT;+BƦM /2 2``Q`2b /2 `2/QM/2Q mK2MiM H mK2Mi` 2H
;`/Q /2H BMi2`TQHMi2- TQ` HQ [m2 H #ȹb[m2/ /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b TQHBMƦKB+Qb
k(✏0 , . . . , ✏n )k1  kp̃ pk1  ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )k(✏0 , . . . , ✏n )k1 . +QM #m2Mb T`QTB2//2b /2 T`QtBK+BƦM T2`Q /2 ;`/Q Kmv HiQ MQ +QM/m+2
M2+2b`BK2Mi2 T`QtBK+BQM2b }#H2b 2M H T`+iB+X
1H iKƢQ /2 H T2ìm`#+BƦM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 kp̃ pk1 2b bB2KT`2 KvQ`
[m2 2H iKƢQ /2H 2``Q` /2 HQb /iQbX aB HQb /iQb MQ bQM Kmv T`2+BbQb- 2H 1H T`BM+BTBQ /2 +Qi+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 Uh2Q`2K /2 "M+?@ai2BM?mbV }`@
2``Q` [m2 +QK2i2KQb H +H+mH` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 p̃ p b2` Kmv KTHBQ- BM+HmbQ K [m2 bB Hb MQ`Kb /2 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 QT2`/Q`2b En : C[a, b] ! C[a, b]
mM[m2 HQb H;Q`BiKQb /2 2pHm+BƦM 2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM MQ +QK2iM 2``Q` H;mMQX iB2M/2M BM}MBiQ- kEn k1 ! 1- 2MiQM+2b 2tBbi2 mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f iH
G KtBK KTHB}++BƦM /2H iKƢQ /2 H T2ìm`#+BƦM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M [m2 kEn [f ]k1 ! 1X
iû`KBMQb /2 2``Q` +QBM+B/2 +QM H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )X G /Bp2`;2M+B /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 H mK2Mi` 2H ;`/Q iB2M2
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 +QM/B+BƦM /2 mM THB++BƦM HBM2H T #B@ mM BKTQìMi2 +QMb2+m2M+BX aB x0,n , . . . , xn,n 2b mM 2H2++BƦM /2 /2 MQ/Qb
v2+iBp +QMiBMm v /2 BMp2`b +QMiBMm 2Mi`2 /Qb 2bT+BQb MQ`K/Qb b2 /2}M2 /BbiBMiQb 2M [a, b] T` +/ n- 2MiQM+2b H MQ`K /2H QT2`/Q` 2``Q` /2 BMi2`@
+QKQ (T ) := kT kkT 1 kX TQH+BƦM E(·; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) = I P (·; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) iB2M/2 BM}MBiQX SQ`
2H T`BM+BTBQ /2 +Qi+BƦM mMB7Q`K2- 2tBbiB` mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f iH [m2
1M 2H +bQ /2 H THB++BƦM 2pHm+BƦM X : Pn ! _n+1 - i2M2KQb
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) MQ +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f X 1MmM+BKQb +QMiBMm@
1 (X) = kXk1 kX 1
k1 = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ). +BƦM 2bi BKTQìMi2 Q#b2`p+BƦM /2#B/ :2Q`; 6#2` URNR9VX
SQ` iMiQ- H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ 2H +QM/B+BQ@ h2Q`2K /2 6#2`X a2 x0,n , . . . , xn,n mM b2H2++BƦM /2 MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb 2M
MKB2MiQ /2 H THB++BƦM 2pHm+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/QbX *QKQ- TQ` /2}MB+BƦM /2 [a, b] T` +/ n 0X 1MiQM+2b 2tBbi2 mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f 2 C[a, b] iH
MȹK2`Q /2 +QM/B+BƦM 1 (X 1 ) = 1 (X)- H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2b 2H +QM@ [m2 H bm+2bBƦM kf P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )k1 MQ 2bi +Qi/X
/B+BQMKB2MiQ /2 H THB++BƦM X 1 : _n+1 ! Pn - [m2 bQ+B +/ +QMDmMiQ
/2 /iQb bm BMi2`TQHMi2 TQHBMƦKB+QX GQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p /M Hm;` mM 2H2++BƦM /2 MQ/Qb /2 BMi2`TQ@
H+BƦM T` HQb +mH2b 2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2b +bB
.Bp2`;2M+B /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 ƦTiBKQ
1H +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2b BM2pBi#H2 bB mK2MiKQb 2H 2
⇤n < log n + 1.
;`/Q nX GX "`miKM 2M RNd3 Q#impQ H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi BM72`BQ` /2 Hb +QMbiMi2b ⇡
/2 G2#2b;m2 /2 mM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 ;`/Q n BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H SQ` 2H +QMi``BQ- T` MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 iB2M2 mM
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb +`2+BKB2MiQ 2tTQM2M+BHX
2⇣ ⇣4⌘ ⌘ 2
⇤n > log n + log + ⇡ log n + 0.5212516264554, S`QTQbB+BƦM 9XRjX G +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 ⇤n +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H bm+2@
⇡ ⇡ ⇡
bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b
/QM/2 ⇡ 0.5772156649015 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 1mH2`@Jb+?2`QMBX SQ` iMiQ-
H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 /Bp2`;2 H mK2Mi` 2H ;`/Q /2H BMi2`TQHMi2X xi,n = a + i(b a)/n, i = 0, . . . , n,
1H h2Q`2K /2 J`+BMFB2rB+x /2Km2bi` [m2 2b TQbB#H2 2H2;B` MQ/Qb /2
KQ/Q [m2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 H 7mM+BƦMX T2b` /2H p2`B}+
BMi2`ûb i2Ʀ`B+Q [m2 iB2M2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 iH2b bm+2bBQM2b /2 MQ/Qb- bm BMi2`ûb 2n 1
 ⇤n  2n .
T`+iB+Q 2b Kmv HBKBi/QX G /Bp2`;2M+B /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 BKTHB+ n(2n 1)
129 130
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 h = (b a)/nX GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 +Q``2bTQM@ /2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2
/B2Mi2b p2`B}+M n n ✓ ◆
X X n
✓ ◆Q ⇤n  kli k1  = 2n .
n i n j2{0,...,n}\{i} (t j) i
li,n (a + th) = ( 1) , i = 0, . . . , n. i=0 i=0
i n!
S` H +Qi BM72`BQ` TìBKQb /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2
o2KQb TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 n [m2 G2#2b;m2
Y Qn n
gi,n (t) := |t j|  n!, t 2 [0, n]. j=0 |t j| X n
i
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
⇤n = máx n (t), n (t) := .
t2[0,n] n! i=0
|t i|
aB n = 1- i2M2KQb [m2 hQKM/Q t = 1/2- Q#i2M2KQb
máx |t| = máx |1 t| = 1. 1 Y
n n
X n
t2[0,1] t2[0,1] i
máx n (t) n (1/2) = (j 1/2) .
t2[0,n] 4n! j=2 |i 1/2|
amTQM;KQb [m2 H /2bB;mH// 2b +B2ì T` n 1 v p2KQb [m2 b2 p2`B}+ i=0
T` nX aB t 2 [0, n 1]- i2M2KQb liBHBxM/Q Hb /2bB;mH//2b

n n
Y
Y1 n
Y2
gn,n (t) = |t j| = (n 1 t) |t j|  (n 1)gn 1,n 1 (t). (j 1/2) (n 1)!,
j=0 j=0 j=2
Xn n Xn ✓ ◆
1 n 2n
aB i  n 1 v t 2 [0, n 1]- i2M2KQb i
= ,
i=0
|i 1/2| n 1/2 i=0 i n 1/2
Y Y
gi,n (t) = |t j| = (n t) |t j|  ngi,n 1 (t).
/2/m+BKQb [m2
j2{0,...,n}\{i} j2{0,...,n 1}\{i}
(n 1)! 2n 2n 1
⇤n = .
1M K#Qb +bQb- TQ/2KQb mb` H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM v /2/m+B` [m2 4n! n 1/2 n(2n 1)
gi,n (t)  n!, t 2 [0, n 1], i 2 {0, . . . , n}.

lM 7Ʀ`KmH bBMiƦiB+ T` H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2M TmMiQb 2[mB/Bb@
1H +bQ 2M [m2 t 2 [1, n]- Tm2/2 `2/m+B`b2 H Mi2`BQ`- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi H iMi2b 7m2 Q#i2MB/ TQ` X >X hm`2ibFBB 2M RN9y
T`QTB2// /2 bBK2i`ő
2n+1
⇤n ⇠ , n ! 1.
gi,n (n t) = gn i,n (t), t 2 [0, n]. en log n
X a+?ƺM?;2 2M RNeR /2/mDQ BM/2T2M/B2Mi2K2Mi2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH bBM@
liBHBxM/Q H /2bB;mH// gi,n (t)  n!- t 2 [0, n]- /2/m+BKQb [m2 iƦiB+ H;Q Kb T`2+Bb
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
n gi,n (t) n 2n+1
kli,n k1 = máx |li,n (x)| = máx  . ⇤n ⇠ , n ! 1,
x2[a,b] i t2[0,n] n! i en(log n + )
131 132
Λn n ⇤n n ⇤n n ⇤n
90
R RXyy RR 8RXk k8 kXeR⇥105

80
k RXk8 Rk 3NXj jy eXey⇥106
70
j RXej Rj RX83⇥102 j8 RXdj⇥108
9 kXkR R9 kX3j⇥102 9y 9Xed⇥109
60
50
8 jXRR R8 8XRk⇥102 98 RXkd⇥1011
40 e 9X88 Re NXjj⇥102 8y jXej⇥1012
30 d eXNj Rd RXdk⇥103 88 RXyj⇥1014
20 3 RyXN R3 jXRd⇥103 ey kXNj⇥1015
10
N RdX3 RN 8X3N⇥103 e8 3Xjy⇥1016
Ry kNXN ky RXRy⇥104 dy kXjN⇥1018
0 n
h#H 9XRX *QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 T` TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
6B;m` 9X3X *`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2M TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b

1H H2K /2 G2#2b;m2
G /Bp2`;2M+B /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 /B}+mHi 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H +QMp2`@
;2M+B /2 mM BMi2`TQHMi2 H 7mM+BƦM +QKQ BM/B+ 2H h2Q`2K /2 6#2`X G
/QM/2 ⇡ 0.5772156649015 2b H +QMbiMi2 /2 1mH2`ĜJb+?2`QMBX K2` +QMiBMmB// MQ BKTHB+ H +QMp2`;2M+B v 2b M2+2b`BQ T2H` H 2tBb@
i2M+B /2 #m2Mb T`QtBK+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM T` /2/m+B`
H +QMp2`;2M+BX G +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 T2`KBi2 2bi#H2+2 mM +QKT`@
G 6B;m` 9X3 BHmbi` 2H +`2+BKB2MiQ 2tTQM2M+BH /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2@ +BƦM 2Mi`2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM v Qi`b
#2b;m2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b T` ;`/Qb /2b/2 R ?bi RkX T`QtBK+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b K2DQ`2b /2H KBbKQ ;`/QX S` /2/m+B`HQ- /2@
KQbi``2KQb 2H G2K /2 G2#2b;m2X
G i#H 9XR Km2bi` HQb pHQ`2b /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 +Q``2bTQM@ G2K /2 G2#2b;m2X a2 F mM 2bT+BQ MQ`K/Q v L : F ! U mM T`Qv2++BƦM
/B2Mi2 TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b T` ;`/Qb ?bi dy- /M/Q mM B/2 /2H +`2@ HBM2H /2 F bQ#`2 2H bm#2bT+BQ U /2 F X S` +/ f 2 F b2 iB2M2
+BKB2MiQ /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2X TìB` /2 ;`/Q jy iQK 2H iKƢQ
/2H BMp2`bQ /2 H mMB// /2 `2/QM/2Q 2M T`2+BbBƦM bBKTH2 v TìB` /2 ;`/Q dist(f, U )  kf L[f ]k  (1 + kLk) dist(f, U ),
ey 2H iKƢQ /2H BMp2`bQ /2 H mMB// /2 `2/QM/2Q 2M /Q#H2 T`2+BbBƦMX aB
MQb +QM7Q`KKQb bƦHQ +QM mMb TQ+b +B7`b bB;MB}+iBpb v HQb H;Q`BiKQb /2 /QM/2
2pHm+BƦM 2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM MQ T`QT;M HQb 2``Q`2b /2 `2/QM/2Q 2M 2t+2bQ H dist(f, U ) := ı́nf kf uk
i#H MQb BM/B+ [m2 MQ bQM `2+QK2M/#H2b ;`/Qb bmT2`BQ`2b ky 2M bBKTH2
u2U
T`2+BbBƦM MB bmT2`BQ`2b 8y 2M /Q#H2 T`2+BbBƦMX 2b H /BbiM+B /2 f H bm#2bT+BQ U X
133 134
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ L[f ] 2 U - b2 iB2M2 h2Q`2K /2 G2#2b;m2X a2 F mM 2bT+BQ MQ`K/Q v Ln : F ! Un mM
bm+2bBƦM /2 T`Qv2++BQM2b HBM2H2b /2 F bQ#`2 bm#2bT+BQb
kf L[f ]k ı́nf kf uk = dist(f, U ).
u2U U0 ⇢ U1 ⇢ · · · ⇢ Un ⇢ · · ·
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- //Q u 2 U +mH[mB2`- +QKQ L 2b mM T`Qv2++BƦM HBM2H bQ#`2 v b2 f 2 F //X aB kLn k dist(f, Un ) ! 0- 2MiQM+2b H bm+2bBƦM Ln f +QMp2`;2
U - i2M2KQb [m2 L[u] = u v- TQ` iMiQ- f 2M MQ`KX
f L[f ] = f u L[f ] + u = f u L[f ] + L[u] = (f u) L[f u]. .2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 /2/m+2 /B`2+iK2Mi2 /2H G2K /2 G2#2b;m2
kf Ln [f ]k  (1 + kLn k) dist(f, Un ) ! 0.
v iQKM/Q MQ`Kb /2/m+BKQb [m2
kf L[f ]k  kf uk + kL[f u]k.

GQb `2bmHi/Qb /2 G2#2b;m2 Tm2/2M THB+`b2 mM ;`M p`B2// /2
SQ` /2}MB+BƦM /2 MQ`K /2 mM QT2`/Q`- b2 iB2M2 [m2 bBim+BQM2b iH2b +QKQ BMi2`TQH+BƦM- b2`B2b /2 6Qm`B2`- T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` Kő@
MBKQb +m/`/Qb- 2M Hb [m2 2H T`QtBKMi2 b2 Q#iB2M2 +QKQ mM T`Qv2+@
kL[f u]k  kLk kf uk, +BƦM /2 H bQHm+BƦM bQ#`2 mM bm#2bT+BQX THB+M/Q 2H G2K /2 G2#2b;m2
H QT2`/Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM L[f ] = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2M MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb +QM
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 kLk1 = ⇤(x0 , . . . , xn )- p2KQb [m2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 T2`KBi2 +QKT@
`` 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM dist1 (f, Pn )- 2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q TQ` H K2DQ`
kf L[f ]k  (1 + kLk)kf uk. T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2X
u +QKQ u 2 U 2b `#Bi``BQ b2 /2/m+2 [m2 h2Q`2K 9XR9X a2M f 2 C[a, b]- x0 < · · · < xn MQ/Qb 2M [a, b] v ⇤n :=
⇤(x0 , . . . , xn ) H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2X 1MiQM+2b
kf L[f ]k  (1 + kLk) ı́nf kf uk = (1 + kLk) dist(f, U ).
u2U dist1 (f, Pn )  kf P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )k1  (1 + ⇤n ) dist1 (f, Pn ).
aB u⇤ 2 U p2`B}+ 1H h2Q`2K /2 G2#2b;m2 THB+/Q mM bm+2bBƦM /2 QT2`/Q`2b /2 BMi2`@

TQH+BƦM Ln [f ] := P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) T`QTQ`+BQM mM +`Bi2`BQ T` H +QMp2`@
kf u⇤ k = mı́n kf uk = dist(f, U ), ;2M+B /2 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 BMi2`TQHMi2bX
u2U
h2Q`2K 9XR8X a2 x0,n , . . . , xn,n mM b2H2++BƦM /2 MQ/Qb /BbiBMiQb 2M [a, b]
2MiQM+2b u⇤ 2b K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M 2H bm#2bT+BQ U X P#b2`pKQb v b2 ⇤n := ⇤(x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 T`
[m2 +bQ /2 2tBbiB` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M mM bm#2bT+BQ- 2H G2K /2 +/ n 0X a2 f 2 C[a, b] iH [m2 lı́mn!1 dist1 (f, Pn )⇤n = 0X 1MiQM+2b
G2#2b;m2 MQb T2`KBi2 +QKT`` H /BbiM+B /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f bm T`Qv2++BƦM P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f 2M [a, b]X
L[f ] 2M U +QM H /BbiM+B /2 f bm K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM u⇤ 2 U
SQ` iMiQ- H +QMp2`;2M+B /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b /2T2M/2 /2H
kf u⇤ k  kf L[f ]k  (1 + kLk)kf u⇤ k. T`Q/m+iQ /2 /Qb 7+iQ`2b, ⇤n +mv p2HQ+B// /2 /Bp2`;2M+B /2T2M/2 /2 H
/Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb v dist1 (f, Pn ) +mv p2HQ+B// /2 +QMp2`;2M+B +2`Q
1H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q T`QTQ`+BQM mM +`Bi2`BQ T` /2+B/B` H +QMp2`;2M+B /2T2M/2 /2 H 2tBbi2M+B /2 #m2Mb T`QtBK+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b H 7mM+BƦM
/2 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 T`Qv2++BQM2b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f X fX
135 136
*QMp2`;2M+B /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p .2}MB+BQM2b 9XReX lM 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b] 2b HBTb+?BixBM- bB 2tBbi2 L 0
liBHBxM/Q MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p- b2 Tm2/2 /2KQbi`` H +QMp2`;2M+B mMB7Q`K2 iH [m2
/2H BMi2`TQHMi2 H 7mM+BƦM T` mM +QMDmMiQ /2 7mM+BQM2b f Kb KTHBQ [m2 |f (x) f (y)|  L|x y|, x, y 2 [a, b]
T` mM /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 TmMiQb ;2Mû`B+X /2Kb 2H H2MiQ +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 Q 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2- bB
H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 ;`/Q KQ/2`/@ !(f ; h)  Lh, hb a.
K2Mi2 HiQ +QM +B2ìb ;`Miőb /2 2bi#BHB//X
a2 /B+2 [m2 f 2 C[a, b] p2`B}+ H +QM/B+BƦM /2 .BMBĜGBTb+?Bix bB
G +T+B// /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n T` T`Q@
tBK` mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm // f 2 C[a, b] MQ T`2+2 7+BH /2 2biBK`- HQ [m2 lı́m !(f ; h) log(h) = 0.
h!0+
+QMbiBimv2 mM Q#bi+mHQ T` H THB++BƦM /2H h2Q`2K 9XR8X S`2b2MiKQb
.2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM HBTb+?BxBM- p2`B}+ H +QM@
+QMiBMm+BƦM 2H 2MmM+B/Q /2H h2Q`2K /2 C+FbQM [m2 T2`KBi2 +Qi` H
/B+BƦM /2 .BMBĜGBTb+?Bix- v [m2
/BbiM+B dist1 (f, Pn ) 2M iû`KBMQb /2H KƦ/mHQ /2 +QMiBMmB// /2 H 7mM+BƦM
!(f ; h) log(h)  Lh log h ! 0, h ! 0+ .
!(f ; h) := sup |f (x) f (y)|, o2KQb [m2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 .BMBĜGBTb+?Bix ;`MiBx H +QMp2`;2M+B /2
|x y|h
H bm+2bBƦM /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2pX
/M/Q mM B/2 H p2HQ+B// /2 +QMp2`;2M+B /2 H bm+2bBƦM dist1 (f, Pn )X h2Q`2K 9XRdX aB f 2 C[a, b]- p2`B}+ H +QM/B+BƦM /2 .BMBĜGBTb+?Bix
h2Q`2K /2 C+FbQMX 1tBbi2 mM +QMbiMi2 TQbBiBp C- [m2 /2T2M/2 bQH@ lı́m !(f ; h) log(h) = 0,
h!0+
K2Mi2 /2 H HQM;Bim/ b a /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] v MQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f - iH [m2 2MiQM+2b H bm+2bBƦM /2 T`QtBK+BQM2b Q#i2MB/b H BMi2`TQH` f 2M HQb MQ/Qb
/2 *?2#vb?2p +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f X
dist1 (f, Pn )  C!(f ; 1/n), 8f 2 C[a, b].
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 ⇤n H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H /2bB;mH// /2 C+FbQM- BKTHB+ 2H h2Q`2K /2 T`Q@ /2 mM BMi2`pHQX 1MiQM+2b ⇤n p2`B}+ H /2bB;mH//
tBK+BƦM /2 q2B2`bi`bbX *QKQ iQ/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b] 2b mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 2
⇤n < 1 + log n.
+QMiBMm- b2 iB2M2 [m2 ⇡
SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2 C+FbQM- 2tBbi2 mM +QMbiMi2 C iH [m2
lı́m !(f ; h) = 0, 8f 2 C[a, b]. dist1 (f, Pn )  C!(f ; 1/n).
h!0+
Gb /2bB;mH//2b Mi2`BQ`2b- DmMiQ +QM H +QM/B+BƦM /2 .BMBĜGBTb+?Bix T2`KB@
v THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 C+FbQM b2 /2/m+2 [m2 i2M /2/m+B` [m2
⇣ 2 ⌘
dist1 (f, Pn )  C!(f ; 1/n) ! 0, n ! 1, 8f 2 C[a, b]. dist1 (f, Pn )⇤n  C!(f ; 1/n) 1 + log n ! 0
⇡
v TQ` 2H h2Q`2K 9XR9- i2M2KQb H +QMp2`;2M+B /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 BMi2`TQHMi2bX
G +QM/B+BƦM /2 .BMBĜGBTb+?Bix b2 miBHBx 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H +QMp2`;2M@
+B /2 Hb b2`B2b /2 6Qm`B2` i`B;QMQKûi`B+bX lM +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b T2`KBi2
BMi2`T`2i` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p +QKQ mM b2`B2 /2 6Qm@ SQ/2KQb THB+` 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q H 7mM+BƦM /2H 2D2KTHQ /2 _mM;2X G
`B2` i`B;QMQKûi`B+X 1bi2 ?2+?Q 2tTHB+ 2H BKTQìMi2 TT2H [m2 Dm2; 2bi 7mM+BƦM f (x) = (1 + x2 ) 1 - x 2 [ 5, 5] 2b mM 7mM+BƦM HBTb+?BixBMX SQ` iMiQ-
+QM/B+BƦM 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H +QMp2`;2M+B /2 BMi2`TQHMi2b 2M /2i2`KBM/b H b2H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p / Hm;` mM bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb
bm+2bBQM2b /2 MQ/QbX [m2 +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f X
137 138
8X 6mM+BQM2b bTHBM2X AMi2`TQH+BƠM HBM2H i`QxQb
Sm2biQ [m2 HQb KB+`QT`Q+2b/Q`2b bQM +T+2b /2 `2HBx` Hb QT2`+BQM2b 1H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb- +mv ;`}+ 2b H HőM2 TQHB;QMH [m2 mM2 HQb
`BiKûiB+b 2H2K2MiH2b, bmKb- `2bib- KmHiBTHB++BQM2b- /BpBbBQM2b v iQK` TmMiQb Kb +2`+MQb- 2b mM bQHm+BƦM T`QTB/ H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
/2+BbBQM2b- mM +QMDmMiQ Mim`H /2 7mM+BQM2b /2}MB#H2b K2/BMi2 BMbi`m++BQM2b 2M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 [m2`KQb BMi2`TQH` mM ;`M MȹK2`Q /2 /iQb UTQ` 2D2KTHQ-
#bB+b /2 HQb KB+`QT`Q+2b/Q`2b bQM Hb 7mM+BQM2b `+BQMH2b i`QxQbX .2Mi`Q mM i#H /2 mM 7mM+BƦMVX
/2 2bi +Hb2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b i`QxQb Dm2;M mM BKTQìMi2 TT2HX
:2M2`HK2Mi2 mM 7mM+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ i`QxQb Q#HB;/ Tb` TQ` +B2ìQb
TmMiQb MQ T`2b2Mi Qb+BH+BQM2b /2 iKƢQ Kmv bmT2`BQ` HQb /iQb- +QKQ
bm+2/2 2M 2H +bQ TQHBMƦKB+QX 1bi ~2tB#BHB// /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b
i`QxQb pB2M2 +QKTƢ/ /2 MQ`Kb /2 HQb QT2`/Q`2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM MQ
Kmv 2H2p/b v +QM +QM/B+BQMKB2MiQ `2HiBpK2Mi2 #DQ TQ` Km+?Q [m2 m@
K2Mi2KQb HQb TmMiQb- bB2KT`2 [m2 2H ;`/Q b2 KMi2M; +Qi/QX SQ` 2HHQ- b2
T`2}2`2 miBHBx` 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b i`QxQb 2M H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 T`Q#H2Kb
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM mM 2H2p/Q MȹK2`Q /2 /iQbX G };m` 8XR BHmbi` H
~2tB#BHB// /2 mM BMi2`TQHMi2 +ȹ#B+Q i`QxQb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 /iQb [m2
Hi2`MM p`B+BQM2b bmp2b v `TB/b /2 H T2M/B2Mi2X
6B;m` 8XkX AMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb
S` 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 MQ/Qb x0 < · · · < xn - b2 s(x) 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H

i`QxQb /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f 2 C 2 [x0 , xn ]X 1MiQM+2b H 7mM+BƦM s(x) 2bi /2}MB/
K2/BMi2
8
x1 x x x0
>
>
> f (x0 ) + f (x1 ), bB x 2 [x0 , x1 ]-
>
> x 1 x0 x1 x0
>
>
< x2 x
f (x1 ) +
x x1
f (x2 ), bB x 2 [x1 , x2 ]-
s(x) := x2 x1 x2 x1
6B;m` 8XRX 6mM+BƦM BMi2`TQHMi2 +ȹ#B+ i`QxQb >
>
> ···
>
>
> xn
>
:
x
f (xn 1) +
x xn 1
f (xn ), bB x 2 [xn 1 , xn ]-
xn xn 1 xn xn 1
139 140
S` 2tT`2b` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 K2/BMi2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH +QKT+i BMi`Q/m+B@ LQi2KQb [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b bQK#`2`Q p2`B}+M
KQb Hb HHK/b 7mM+BQM2b bQK#`2`Q
8 Ni (xj ) = ij , i, j 2 {0, 1, . . . , n}
< x1 x
, bB x0  x < x1 -
N0 (x) := x1 x0 TQ` HQ [m2 Tm2/2M +QMbB/2``b2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 G;`M;2 /2H T`Q#H2K /2
: 0, bB x x1 - BMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQbX
.2MQi2KQb TQ`
T` i = 1, . . . , n 1- kf k[a,b] := sup |f (x)|
x2[a,b]
8
> 0, bB x0  x < xi 1- H MQ`K /2H bmT`2KQ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM +Qi/ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X 1H 2``Q` /2
> x x
>
> H T`QtBK+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQb iB2M2 mM MHBbBb Kmv bBKTH2- v [m2 b2 `2/m+2
bB xi  x < xi -
> i 1
< , 1
xi xi 1 H 2bim/BQ /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2H 2M +/ mMQ /2 HQb bm#BMi2`pHQbX
Ni (x) := xi+1 x
>
> , bB xi  x < xi+1 -
>
>
: i+1 xi
> x h2Q`2K 8XRX a2 a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b- mM TìB+BƦM /2H BMi2`pHQ
0, bB xi+1  x < xn - [a, b] +mv MQ`K 2b
h := máx |xi+1 xi |.
v 8
i=0,...,n
< 0, bB x < xn 1- a2 f 2 C [a, b]- s 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb 2M x0 , . . . , xn v E(x) =

2
Nn (x) := x xn
:
1
, bB xn 1  x < xn X f (x) s(x) 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX 1MiQM+2b
xn xn 1
1MiQM+2b TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb 2M H 7Q`K (xi+1 xi ) 2

kEk[xi ,xi+1 ]  kf 00 k[xi ,xi+1 ] , i = 0, . . . , n 1,
8
n
X v
s(x) = f (xi )Ni (x),
h2 00
i=0 kEk[a,b]  kf k[a,b] ,
8
/QM/2 h := máxi=0,...,n |xi+1 xi | 2b H MQ`K /2 H TìB+BƦMX
N0 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ s(x) +QBM+B/2 2M +/ bm#BMi2`pHQ [xi , xi+1 ] +QM 2H
TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q 2M HQb MQ/Qb xi , xi+1 - i2M2KQb
|E(x)|  máx |f 00 (x)|(xi+1 xi )2 /8, x 2 [xi , xi+1 ].

x2[xi ,xi+1 ]
.2H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ`- b2 /2/m+2 H +QMp2`;2M+B mMB7Q`K2 /2H BMi2`TQ@

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 HMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb mM 7mM+BƦM /2 +Hb2 C 2 +mM/Q H MQ`K /2 H TìB+BƦM
6B;m` 8XjX 6mM+BQM2b /2 G;`M;2 T` BMi2`TQH+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQb bQ+B/ HQb MQ/Qb iB2M/2 +2`QX
141 142
1bT+BQb /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 S` n = 1 ?2KQb pBbiQ [m2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M
?Q` +QMbB/2``2KQb 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b i`QxQb /2 KM2` [m2 2M +/ iû`KBMQb /2 H #b2 /2 7mM+BQM2b bQK#`2`Q
bm#BMi2`pHQ i2M;KQb mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 k +QM +Q@ n
X
M2tBƦM 2Mi`2 bm#BMi2`pHQb /2 +Hb2 C k 1 X ./ mM TìB+BƦM /2H BMi2`pHQ s(x) = ci Ni (x),
[a, b] i=0
a = ⌧0 < ⌧ 1 < · · · < ⌧ n 1 < ⌧ n = b
Hm2;Q dim S1 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = n + 1X
+QMbB/2`KQb 2H 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q k
Lm2bi`Q Q#D2iBpQ 2b /2KQbi`` [m2 dim Sk (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = n + k v /2b+`B#B`
k 1 mM #b2 /2 2bi2 2bT+BQ T` ;`/Q `#Bi``BQX
Sk (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = {s 2 C [a, b] : s|(⌧i ,⌧i+1 ) 2 Pk , i = 0, . . . , n 1}.
S` 2tT`2b` mM #b2 /2H 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2- BMi`Q/mx+KQb
GQb TmMiQb ⌧1 , . . . , ⌧n 1 `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 Mm/Qb /2 H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2X 1M Hb Hb TQi2M+Bb i`mM+/b /2 ;`/Q k
+B2ìQ KQ/Q HQb 2ti`2KQb /2H BMi2`pHQ ⌧0 = a v ⌧n = b- iK#BûM Tm2/2M ⇢
+QMbB/2``b2 Mm/Qb TQ` HQ [m2 T` `272`B`MQb Mm/Qb T`QTBK2Mi2 /B+?Qb 0, bB x < 0-
xk+ :=
/BbiBM;mB`2KQb 2Mi`2 Mm/Qb BMi2`BQ`2b v Mm/Qb 2ti`2KQbX 1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 xk , bB x 0X
k = 0- +QMbB/2`KQb [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q +2`Q bQM
G TQi2M+B i`mM+/ /2 ;`/Q 0- 2b mM 7mM+BƦM /Bb+QMiBMm
S0 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = {s : s|(⌧i ,⌧i+1 ) 2 P0 , i = 0, . . . , n 1} ⇢
0, bB x < 0-
H(x) := x0+ =
7mM+BQM2b +QMbiMi2b i`QxQb- iK#BûM HHK/b 7mM+BQM2b 2b+HQM/bX 1, bB x 0-
LQ 2bi +H`Q [mû pHQ` /2#2 bB;M`b2 mM bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q +2`Q 2M
[m2 `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 7mM+BƦM 2b+HƦM mMBi`BQ Q 7mM+BƦM /2 >2pBbB/2X
HQb TmMiQb /2 /Bb+QMiBMmB//X liBHBx`2KQb 2H +QMp2MBQ /2 +QMiBMmB// H
G 7mM+BƦM /2 >2pBbB/2 +QBM+B/2 +QM H 7mM+BƦM +`+i2`őbiB+ /2H BMi2`pHQ
/2`2+? T2`KBi2 bB;M` mM pHQ` H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 2M +/ TmMiQ UBM+HmbQ
[0, +1)- 2b /2+B`- H(x) = R[0,+1) X
2M HQb Mm/Qb BMi2`BQ`2bV v ;BHBx H;mMb /Bb+mbBQM2bX 1M HQb 2ti`2KQb /2H
BMi2`pHQ- 2H pHQ` /2H bTHBM2 b2` 2H +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 HőKBi2 Hi2`H T` TQ/2`
i2M2` +QMiBMmB// 2M K#Qb 2ti`2KQb a, bX x +0
P#b2`pKQb [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b +`+i2`őbiB+b /2 HQb BMi2`pHQb [⌧i , ⌧i+1 )-
i = 0, . . . , n 2- v [⌧n 1 , b]
x+
R[⌧i ,⌧i+1 ) , i = 0, . . . , n 2, R[⌧n 1 ,⌧n ]
,
x +2
7Q`KM mM #b2 /2H 2bT+BQ S0 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n )X SQ` HQ iMiQ- dim S0 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) =
n v iQ/ 7mM+BƦM 2b+HQM/ Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 /2 KM2` ȹMB+ 2M H 7Q`K x +3
n
X2 -1 0 1
s(x) = ci R[⌧i ,⌧i+1 ) + cn 1 R[⌧n 1 ,⌧n ]
i=0 6B;m` 8XjX SQi2M+Bb i`mM+/b /2 ;`/Qb y- R- k v j
143 144
h2Q`2K 8XkX a2M ⌧0 < ⌧1 < · · · < ⌧n X 1MiQM+2b dim Sk (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = n+k- bő [m2 TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B`
bB2M/Q mM #b2 /2H 2bT+BQ
s(x) = p(x) + ↵1 (x ⌧1 )k+ .
2 k
1, x, x , . . . , x , (x ⌧1 )k+ , . . . , (x ⌧n 1 )k+ . (5.1)
Gm2;Q iQ/ 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q k v bmpB// C k 1
+QM mM bQHQ Mm/Q Tm2/2
2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K
.2KQbi`+BƦMX S`Q+2/2`2KQb TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 MQ/QbX a2
a = ⌧0 v b = ⌧n X *QKQ TmMiQ /2 TìB/ `2+Q`/`2KQb bB MQ ?v MBM;mM Mm/Q k
X
BMi2`BQ` Un = 1V- 2MiQM+2b Sk (a, b) = Pk [a, b] 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b s(x) = ci xi + ↵(x t)k+ .
TQHBMƦKB+b /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 k bQ#`2 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X lM #b2 i=0
/2 /B+?Q 2bT+BQ 2b H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb
1biQ Km2bi` [m2 1, x, . . . , xk - (x ⌧1 )k+ - 7Q`KM mM bBbi2K ;2M2`/Q` /2H
k
1, x, . . . , x . 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q k +QM mM bQHQ Mm/Q- HQ [m2 T2`KBi2
/2/m+B` [m2 k + 2 2b mM +Qi bmT2`BQ` T` H /BK2MbBƦM /2 2bi2 2bT+BQX
Hm2;Q dim Sk (⌧0 , ⌧1 ) = dim Pk [a, b] = k + 1X S` /2/m+B` H BM/2T2M/2M+B- +QMbB/2`2KQb mM +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H B;mH
MHB+2KQb 2H +bQ n = 2 2M [m2 bQHK2Mi2 ?v mM Mm/Q BMi2`BQ`X 1M H 7mM+BƦM MmH
T`BK2` Hm;` Q#b2`p2KQb [m2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q k Tm2/2M +QTH`b2 +QM n
X
bmpB// C k 1 H Bx[mB2`/ v /2`2+? /2 mM Mm/Q BMi2`BQ` ⌧1 X 1M T`BM+BTBQ- ci xi + ↵1 (x ⌧1 )k+ = 0, x 2 [a, b], (5.2)
/2#2KQb +QMbB/2`` HQb TQHBMQKBQb p, q 2 Pk +/ H/Q /2H Mm/Q i=0
⇢
p(x), bB x < ⌧1 - h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 bQ#`2 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, ⌧1 ) +QBM+B/2 +QM
s(x) := mM TQHBMQKBQ- i2M2KQb
q(x), bB x ⌧1 -
n
X
DmMiQ +QM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b ci xi = 0, x 2 [a, ⌧1 ].
(i) (i) i=0
p (⌧1 ) = q (⌧1 ), i = 0, . . . , k 1.
*QKQ HQb KQMQKBQb 7Q`KM mM #b2 /2 Sk (a, ⌧1 ) = Pk [a, ⌧1 ]- iQ/Qb HQb +Q2@
S` BM+HmB` 2H +bQ k = 0- +QMbB/2``2KQb- TQ` +QMp2MBQ- [m2 mM 2MH+2 C 1 MQ }+B2Mi2b ci /2#2M b2` MmHQb TQ` HQ [m2 U8XkV BKTHB+ [m2
+QMHH2p MBM;mM +QM/B+BƦM- TQ` HQ [m2 H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 Tm2/2 b2` /Bb+QMiBMmX
*QM Q#D2iQ /2 bBKTHB}+` Mm2bi`Q T`Q#H2K- +QMbB/2`KQb H 7mM+BƦM ↵1 (x ⌧1 )k+ = 0, x 2 [a, b],
⇢
0, bB x < ⌧1 - v 2pHmM/Q 2M x = b i2M2KQb
s(x) p(x) :=
d(x), bB x ⌧1 -
↵1 (b ⌧1 )k = 0,
bB2M/Q d(x) = q(x) p(x)X Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTHK2 2[mBpH2M /2+B` [m2
2H TQHBMQKBQ d(x) iB2M2 2M ⌧1 mM `őx /2 KmHiBTHB+B// k- /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 Hm2;Q ↵1 = 0X bő p2KQb [m2 U8XkV 2b mM #b2 /2H 2bT+BQ +mM/Q n = 2X
[m2 (x ⌧1 )k /BpB/2 d(x)- Hm2;Q amTQM;KQb +B2ì H T`QTB2// T` n 2 Mm/Qb BMi2`BQ`2bX ./Q s 2
Sk (a, ⌧1 . . . , ⌧n 1 , b)- bm `2bi`B++BƦM H BMi2`pHQ [a, ⌧n 1 ] 2b mM 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2
d(x) = ↵1 (x ⌧1 ) k . +QM mM Mm/Q 2t+2TiQ 2M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 k = 0X aB k = 0- 2H pHQ` +QBM+B/B` 2M
145 146
iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb bHpQ [mBxb 2M ⌧n 1 - v [m2 H 7mM+BƦM Tm2/2 b2` /Bb+QMiBMm 1HbiB+B// /2 #``b 7H2tB#H2b v 7mM+BQM2b +ȳ#B+b i`QxQb
2M /B+?Q Mm/QX Gb 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 iB2M2M #m2Mb T`QTB2//2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM- bQM #m2MQb
THB+M/Q H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM i2M2KQb T`QtBKMi2b v mM ?2``KB2Mi ~2tB#H2 T` 2H /Bb2ƢQ /2 +m`pbX lM Dmb@
k
X n
X2 iB}++BƦM /2 H p2`biBHB// /2 2bib 7mM+BQM2b T`QpB2M2 /2H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 Hb
s(x) = c i xi + ↵j (x ⌧j )k+ , x 2 [a, ⌧n 1 ). 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b /2 +Hb2 C 2 bQM mM KQ/2HQ T` H 7Q`K [m2 /QTi
i=0 j=1 mM #`` ~2tB#H2 TQv/ 2M bmb 2ti`2KQb Q 2KTQi`/ #DQ H ++BƦM /2
a2 /2/m+2 /2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTHK2 [m2 +`;b +QM+2Mi`/bX
k n lM T`2+2/2Mi2 /2 HQb bBbi2Kb /2 /Bb2ƢQ [m2 mbM mM +QMi`QH #b/Q 2M
X X2
s(x) c i xi ↵j (x ⌧j )k+ = ↵n k H 2HbiB+B// b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M HQb KûiQ/Qb i`/B+BQMH2b /2 BM;2MB2`őX G
1 (x ⌧n 1 )+ ,
i=0 j=1 TH#` BM;H2b bTHBM2 ?+2 `272`2M+B mM #`` Q p`BHH ~2tB#H2 bmD2i
K2/BMi2 +`;b /2 THQKQ 2KTH2/ 2M 2H /Bb2ƢQ /2 +m`pbX 1M 2H +bQ /2H
Hm2;Q U8XRV 2b mM bBbi2K ;2M2`/Q`X /Bb2ƢQ /2 +b+Qb /2 #`+Qb- Hb p`B+BQM2b /2 H 7Q`K b2 Q#i2MőM K2/BMi2 H
S` H BM/2T2M/2M+B- +QMbB/2`` mM +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b ++BƦM /2 +`;b +QMi`QH/b bQ#`2 HBbiQM2b Q i#HQM2b /2 K/2`X H;mMb /2
U8XRV [m2 b2 B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmH 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]- 2b /2+B` Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 Tm2/2M +QKT`2M/2`b2 K2DQ` MHBxM/Q
k
X n
X1 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb Ki2`BH2b 2HbiB+QbX
ci (x t0 ) i + ↵j (x ⌧j )k+ = 0, x 2 [a, b]. *mM/Q bQ#`2 mM bƦHB/Q `ő;B/Q b2 2D2`+2M 7m2`xb +mv `2bmHiMi2 2b MmH
i=0 j=1 /2 KQ/Q [m2 H bmK /2 HQb KQK2MiQb /2 Hb 7m2`xb bQ#`2 +mH[mB2` TmMiQ
.2}MKQb 2b +2`Q- 2H +m2`TQ b2 ?HH 2M 2[mBHB#`BQ 2biiB+Q v MQ b2 /2i2+iM KQpBKB2MiQb
k
X n
X2 T2`+2TiB#H2b /2H bƦHB/Q iH2b +QKQ /2bTHxKB2MiQb M2iQb /2 iQ/Q 2H Ki2`BH
ŝ(x) := c i xi + ↵j (x ⌧j )k+ . 2M H KBbK /B`2++BƦM MB KQpBKB2MiQb /2 `Qi+BƦMX aBM 2K#`;Q- Hb 7m2`xb
i=0 j=1
2M 2[mBHB#`BQ 2biiB+Q 2D2`+B/b bQ#`2 TmMiQb /2 THB++BƦM /B72`2Mi2b +`2M mM
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb 2bi/Q /2 i2MbBƦM [m2 b2 /Bbi`B#mv2 2M 2H K2/BQ 2HbiB+QX 1H Ki2`BH bm7`2
ŝ(x) + ↵n 1 (x ⌧n k
1 )+ = 0, x 2 [a, b]. (5.3) /27Q`K+BQM2b, b2 2biB` 2M H;mMb xQMb- 2M Qi`b b2 +QKT`BK2 v iK#BûM
Tm2/2 /Q#H`b2 Q `2iQ`+2`b2 T` +QKQ/`b2 H 2bi/Q /2 i2MbBƦMX GQb 2b@
*QMbB/2`M/Q HQb x 2 [a, ⌧n 1 )- /2/m+BKQb /2 U8XjV [m2 ŝ|[a,⌧n 1 ] = 0X SQ` ?B@ 7m2`xQb 2M 2H Ki2`BH /2b+`B#2M 2H 2bi/Q /2 i2MbBƦM /2 mM bƦHB/Q 2HbiB+Q v
TƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM- HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2bT2+iQ H #b2 /2 TQi2M+Bb i`mM+/b T2`KBi2M /2/m+B` Hb /27Q`K+BQM2bX
2M 2H 2bT+BQ Sk (a, ⌧1 , . . . , ⌧n 1 ) bQM MmHQb- 2b /2+B`
1H 2bim/BQ /2 H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 7m2`xb /2 i2MbBƦM v /27Q`K+BQM2b T`Q@
ci = 0, i = 0, . . . , k, ↵j = 0, j = 1, . . . , m 2, /m+B/b 2M mM #`` Tm2/2 b2` +QKTHB+/Q- v [m2 ?v [m2 i2M2` 2M +m2Mi
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 H 7mM+BƦM ŝ 2b B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmH 2M [a, b]X SQ` HQ HQb KȹHiBTH2b 7+iQ`2b [m2 Tm2/2M BMi2`p2MB`, iBTQ /2 Ki2`BH2b- 7Q`K /2 H
iMiQ H 7Ʀ`KmH U8XjV b2 `2/m+2 #``- iBTQb /2 7m2`xb [m2 +iȹMX S` bBKTHB}+` H /2b+`BT+BƦM b2 bm2H2M
k BKTQM2` mMb ?BTƦi2bBb Kmv `2bi`B+iBpbX aB 2bib ?BTƦi2bBb 7HHM- TQ/2KQb
↵n 1 (x ⌧n 1 )+ = 0, x 2 [a, b], +QKTHB+` 2H KQ/2HQ T` BM+HmB` 2M H /2b+`BT+BƦM HQb 7+iQ`2b +mv BM~m2M+B
v- 2pHmM/Q 2M x = b- i2M2KQb MQb BMi2`2b `2bHi`X
↵n 1 (b ⌧n 1)
k
= 0, amTQM;KQb [m2 i2M2KQb mM #`` H`; v /2H;/ +QM b2++BƦM +QMb@
iMi2 v 7Q`K/ TQ` mM Ki2`BH BbƦi`QTQX 1bi ?BTƦi2bBb BKTHB+ [m2 bB MQ
Hm2;Q ↵n = 0X SQ` iMiQ- Hb 7mM+BQM2b U8XRV bQM HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2bX
1
[m2`2KQb /2iHH2b Kmv T`2+BbQb TQ/2KQb /2b+`B#B` Hb /27Q`K+BQM2b 2M H #@
`` i`pûb /2 H 7Q`K /2 H H HőM2 7Q`K/ TQ` HQb +2Mi`Qb /2 Kb /2 Hb
147 148
b2++BQM2b- HHK/ HőM2 M2mi`X aB bmTQM2KQb [m2 H #`` iB2M2 BMB+BHK2Mi2 H TQbB+BƦM BMB+BH /2 H HőM2 M2mi` b2
mM HQM;Bim/ /2 l v H HőM2 M2mi` 2M 2bi/Q /2 `2TQbQ 2b mM b2;K2MiQ- TQ/2@
KQb 2H2;B` +QQ`/2M/b T` [m2 H TQbB+BƦM BMB+BH /2 H #`` p2M; /2b+`Bi (x, 0, 0), x 2 [0, l].
TQ` (x, 0, 0), x 2 [0, l]X
*QKQ iQ/b Hb 7m2`xb bQM T`H2Hb- TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` [m2 bQM /2 H 7Q`K
1H 2bi/Q /2 i2MbBƦM /2 mM bƦHB/Q Tm2/2 /2b+`B#B`b2 2M +/ TmMiQ /2H
Ki2`BH K2/BMi2 /B72`2Mi2b iBTQb /2 2b7m2`xQbX .2T2M/B2M/Q /2 H ++BƦM /2 (0, Fi , 0), i = 1, . . . , n 1,
Hb 7m2`xb [m2 b2 2D2`+2M 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2H TmMiQ- HQb 2b7m2`xQb /2H Ki2@
`BH `2+B#2M MQK#`2b /B72`2Mi2b, 2b7m2`xQb /2 i2MbBƦM- +QKT`2bBƦM- 2tTMbBƦM- v [m2 bmb TmMiQb /2 THB++BƦM `2bT2+iBpQb bQM
~2tBƦM- iQ`bBƦM- 2i+X GQb 2b7m2`xQb Tm2/2M +HbB}+`b2 2M /Qb iBTQb 7mM/K2M@
iH2b, 2b7m2`xQb i2MbBH2b v 2b7m2`xQb +QìMi2b UQ /2 +BxHH/m`VX GQb 2b7m2`xQb (xi , 0, 0), i = 0, . . . , n 1,
i2MbBH2b +Q``2bTQM/2M H +QKTQM2Mi2 /2 H 7m2`x MQ`KH H bmT2`}+B2 bQ@
/QM/2
#`2 H [m2 +iȹM v iB2M/2M 2tTM/B` Q +QKT`BKB` 2H Ki2`BH HQ H`;Q /2
0 = x0 = x1 < · · · < x n < xn = l.
2b /B`2++BƦMX GQb 2b7m2`xQb +QìMi2b +Q``2bTQM/2M H +QKTQM2Mi2 /2 H 1
7m2`x T`H2H H bmT2`}+B2 bQ#`2 H [m2 +iȹM v iB2M/2M b2T`` +Tb .2#B/Q H +`+i2` /2H T`Q#H2K- H #`` bm7`B` /2bTHxKB2MiQb +mv +QK@
T`H2Hb /2H Ki2`BHX 1Mi`2 HQb 2b7m2`xQb +QìMi2b TQ/2KQb /BbiBM;mB` 2H TQM2Mi2 2M 2H 2D2 OZ b2` MmH- bő [m2 H Mm2p TQbB+BƦM /2 H HőM2 M2mi`
2b7m2`xQ ~2+iQ` v 2H 2b7m2`xQ iQ`bQ`- [m2 MQ`KHK2Mi2 T`2+2M +QK#BM/QbX /2 H #`` /27Q`K/ b2` (x + d(x), y(x), 0)- x 2 [0, l]X GQb /2bTHxKB2MiQb
aB Hb 7m2`xb T`H2Hb H bmT2`}+B2 +QMbB/2`/ +iȹM bB2KT`2 2M 2H KBbKQ 2M H /B`2++BƦM /2 Hb 7m2`xb y(x) `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 /2~2tBQM2bX
THMQ TQ/2KQb /2bT`2+B` HQb 272+iQb /2 H iQ`bBƦM v b2 iB2M2M bQHK2Mi2 2b@ Zm2`2KQb /2i2`KBM` H /2~2tBƦM y(x) 2M iû`KBMQb /2 Hb 7m2`xb 2D2`@
7m2`xQb ~2+iQ`2bX +B/bX aB iQ/b Hb 7m2`xb Fi < 0- i = 1, . . . , n 1- H bQHm+BƦM /2 Mm2bi`Q
G /27Q`K+BƦM mMBi`B 2M mM bƦHB/Q T`QTQ`+BQM mM B/2 T`2+Bb /2H T`Q#H2K /2b+`B#2 H /2~2tBƦM /2 mM #`` /2#B/Q +`;b TmMimH2b bBim@
2bi/Q /2 +QMbi`B++BƦM /2H Ki2`BH v Tm2/2 K2/B`b2 HQ H`;Q /2 +mH[mB2` /b bQ#`2 2HHX
/B`2++BƦM +H+mHM/Q /2`Bp/b /B`2++BQMH2b /2H /2bTHxKB2MiQ /2H Ki2`BHX
1tBbi2M p`BQb iBTQb /2 /27Q`K+BQM2bX Gb /BHi+BQM2b Q +QMi`++BQM2b b2
T`Q/m+2M +mM/Q H p`B+BƦM /2H /2bTHxKB2MiQ b2 KB/2 HQ H`;Q /2 H
/B`2++BƦM /2H /2bTHxKB2MiQX Gb ~2tBQM2b- iQ`bBQM2b v- 2M ;2M2`H- +BxHH/m@
`b bQM K2/B/b /2 H p`B+BƦM /2H /2bTHxKB2MiQ HQ H`;Q /2 /B`2++BQM2b
T2`T2M/B+mH`2b H /2bTHxKB2MiQX
G T`QTQ`+BQMHB// 2Mi`2 2b7m2`xQ v /27Q`K+BƦM mMBi`B +QMbiBimv2 mMQ
/2 HQb T`BM+BTBQb #bB+Qb /2 H i2Q`ő /2 H 2HbiB+B// v iB2M2 pHB/2x 2M +mH@
[mB2` i`QxQ T2[m2ƢQ /2H Ki2`BH +mM/Q HQb 2b7m2`xQb v Hb /27Q`K+BQM2b bQM 6B;m` 8X9X 6m2`xb ~2+iQ`b bQ#`2 mM #`` #BTQv/
`2HiBpK2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQbX 1bi2 T`BM+BTBQ MQb T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` `2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2
HQb 2b7m2`xQb v Hb /27Q`K+BQM2bX amTQM;KQb [m2 Mm2bi` #`` b2 2M+m2Mi` TQv/ 2M K#Qb 2ti`2KQbX
1bim/B2KQb ?Q` H ~2tBƦM /2 mM #``X S` 2HBKBM` 2M Mm2bi`Q .2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2[mBHB#`BQ 2biiB+Q
2bim/BQ HQb 272+iQb /2 H i2MbBƦM v /2 H iQ`bBƦM bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 iQ/b Hb n n
X X
7m2`xb [m2 b2 2D2`+2M bQ#`2 H #`` bQM QìQ;QMH2b H HőM2 M2mi` v +iȹM Fi = 0, xi Fi = 0,
2M mM ȹMB+Q THMQ T`Q/m+B2M/Q ~2tBƦM Tm`X 6BDKQb +QQ`/2M/b T` [m2 i=0 i=0
149 150
/QM/2 x0 = 0- xn = l- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` H K;MBim/ /2 Hb 7m2`xb /2 `2++BƦM *QM Q#D2iQ /2 bBKTHB}+` 2H 2bim/BQ- bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 iQ/b Hb 7m2`xb
(0, F0 , 0) v (0, Fn , 0) 2M K#Qb 2ti`2KQb (0, 0, 0)- (l, 0, 0), 2D2`+B/b bQ#`2 H #`` bQM bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2Ƣb v [m2 HQb KQK2MiQb
~2+iQ`2b bQM iK#BûM T2[m2ƢQb `2bT2+iQ H `B;B/2x ~2tm`H- /M/Q Hm;`
n 1
1X
n 1
1X /2~2tBQM2b `2HiBpK2Mi2 T2[m2Ƣb
F0 = (l xi )Fi , Fn = x i Fi .
l i=1 l i=1
|y(x)| << l, |y 0 (x)| << 1, x 2 [0, l].
*QMbB/2`2KQb mM bmT2`}+B2 /2 b2T`+BƦM MQ`KH H HőM2 M2mi` 2M 2H
aB H #`` 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 H`;- TQ/`2KQb /2bT`2+B` HQb /2bTHxKB2MiQb
TmMiQ (x, y(x), 0)X G `2bmHiMi2 /2 HQb KQK2MiQb /2 Hb 7m2`xb ~2+iQ`b [m2
HQM;Bim/BMH2b d(x)- v [m2 bQM Km+?Q K2MQ`2b [m2 Hb /2~2tBQM2b |d(x)| <<
+iȹM 2M mM TmMiQ /2b/2 mM H/Q /2 H #`` 2b B;mH v /2 b2MiB/Q +QMi``BQ
|y(x)|X
H `2bmHiMi2 /2 HQb KQK2MiQb /2 Hb 7m2`xb ~2+iQ`b [m2 +iȹM /2b/2 2H
Qi`Q H/Q /M/Q Hm;` mM KQK2MiQ ~2+iQ` M2iQ 2M +/ TmMiQ G TQbB+BƦM /2H 2D2 M2mi`Q /2 H #`` 2b (x + d(x), y(x), 0)- /2 /QM/2 b2
Q#iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH T` H +m`pim` /2H 2D2 M2mi`Q /2 mM #``
X X
M (x) := Fi (x xi ) = Fi (x xi ). bQK2iB/ ~2tBƦM
xi <x xi >x
(1 + d0 (x))y 00 (x) d00 (x)y 0 (x)
(x) = .
aB H #`` b2 2M+m2Mi` 2KTQi`/- 2H Ki2`BH +B`+mM/Mi2 Tm2/2 2D2`+2` ((1 + d0 (x))2 + y 0 (x)2 )3/2
2M K#Qb 2ti`2KQb KQK2MiQb QTm2biQb M0 + Mn = 0- TQ` HQ [m2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
/2H KQK2MiQ ~2+iQ` Tm2/2 +QMi2M2` mM iû`KBMQ /B+BQMH h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 Hb 7m2`xb [m2 BMi2`pB2M2M MQ T`Q/m+2M /2~2tBQM2b
/2 ;`M K;MBim/ v [m2 HQb /2bTHxKB2MiQb HQM;Bim/BMH2b bQM /2bT`2+B#H2b-
X TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` [m2 d0 (x) ⇡ 0- y 0 (x) ⇡ 0- /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2
M (x) = M0 + Fi (x xi ).
xi <x
(x) ⇡ y 00 (x).
a2 /2/m+2 [m2 M (x) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQb +QM M (x0 ) = M0 - M (x0 ) = 0
F0 - v Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H #b2 /2 TQi2M+Bb i`mM+/b K2/BMi2 SQ` HQ iMiQ- TQ/2KQb bmbiBimB` H H2v /2 1mH2`@"2`MQmHHB TQ` H 2+m+BƦM
H 7Ʀ`KmH T`QtBK/
1
n
X1 y 00 (x) = M (x), x 2 [0, l].
R
M (x) = M (x0 ) + M 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) + Fi (x xi ) + .
i=1 P#b2`p2KQb [m2 M (x) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q R 2M [0, l] +QM Mm/Qb
BMi2`BQ`2b 2M x1 , . . . , xn 1 X a2 /2/m+2 [m2 H /2~2tBƦM y 2b T`QtBK/K2Mi2
G H2v /2 1mH2`@"2`MQmHHB T2`KBi2 `2H+BQM` Hb 7m2`xb ~2+iQ`b v Hb mM 7mM+BƦM +ȹ#B+ i`QxQb /2 +Hb2 C 2 +QM Mm/Qb 2M HQb TmMiQb x1 , . . . , xn 1
/2~2tBQM2b 2M mM #`` bQK2iB/ 2b7m2`xQb /2 ~2tBƦM Tm`Qb /2 THB++BƦM /2 Hb +`;bX
1 G /2~2tBƦM [m2/ +QKTH2iK2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/ /DmMiM/Q H 2+m+BƦM
(x) =
R
M (x), /B72`2M+BH Mi2`BQ` BM7Q`K+BƦM bQ#`2 H TQbB+BƦM /2 H #`` 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb-
/M/Q Hm;` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ y(0) = y(l) = 0X aB H #`` b2
/QM/2 (x) 2b H +m`pim` /2H 2D2 M2mi`Q- M (x) 2H KQK2MiQ ~2+iQ` v R mM 2M+m2Mi` #BTQv/- 2MiQM+2b HQb KQK2MiQb /2 Hb 7m2`xb 2D2`+B/Qb bQ#`2 HQb
+QMbiMi2- HHK/ `B;B/2x ~2tm`H- [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 H ;2QK2i`ő /2 H b2++BƦM 2ti`2KQb bQM MmHQb M0 = Mn = 0- HQ [m2 HH2p Hb +QM/B+BQM2b y 00 (0) =
v /2H Ki2`BH /2 H #``X y 00 (l) = 0- HHK/b +QM/B+BQM2b Mim`H2bX
151 152
G 2tT2`B2M+B Km2bi` [m2 b2 Tm2/2 7Q`x` H 2D2 M2mi`Q Tb` TQ` 1M T`BK2` Hm;` /`2KQb mM 2tT`2bBƦM /2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+
/2i2`KBM/Qb TmMiQb +QMi`QHM/Q H K;MBim/ /2 Hb +`;b +QM+2Mi`/b 2M s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) miBHBxM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 GB/biQM2
TQbB+BQM2b x1 < · · · < xn 1 X G /2b+`BT+BƦM Ki2KiB+ /2 2bi T`QTB2//
+QM/m+2 H MHBbBb /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM s(x) = yi (1 i (x)) + yi+1 i (x) + h2i [zi ⇤(1 i (x)) + zi+1 ⇤( i (x))],
x 2 [xi , xi+1 ],
y(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n,
DmMiQ +QM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ /QM/2

yi := s(xi ), zi := s00 (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n,
00 00
y (x0 ) = y (xn ) = 0,
x xi
i (x) := , hi := xi+1 xi , i = 0, . . . , n 1,
2M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 H pB; 2biû TQv/ 2M K#Qb 2ti`2KQbX hi
AMi2`TQH+BƠM K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b +ȳ#B+b i`QxQb v ⇤(t) := (t3 t)/6 2b TQHBMQKBQ /2 GB/biQM2 /2 i2`+2` ;`/QX .2`BpM/Q
`2bT2+iQ x i2M2KQb
a2M a = ⌧0 < ⌧1 < · · · < ⌧n 1 < ⌧n = b mM bm+2bBƦM /2 Mm/QbX *QM@
bB/2`2KQb 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b /2 s0 (x) = di + hi [ zi ⇤0 (1 0
i (t)) + zi+1 ⇤ ( i (t))],
S3 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n )X mM[m2 Tm2/2M 7Q`KmH`b2 T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM 00 00
bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+ T` TmMiQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /B72`2Mi2b /2 HQb Mm/Qb- `2bi`BM@ s (x) = zi ⇤ (1 i (t)) + zi+1 ⇤00 ( i (t)),
;B`2KQb Mm2bi`Q 2bim/BQ H +bQ 2M [m2 HQb TmMiQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM x0 , . . . , xn
+QBM+B/2M +QM HQb Mm/Qb ⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n - +bQ [m2 T`2+2 7`2+m2Mi2K2Mi2 KQiBp/Q /QM/2
yi+1 yi
TQ` bm BMi2`T`2i+BƦM 7őbB+X 1M T`BK2` Hm;`- MQi2KQb [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 di :=
hi
, i = 0, . . . , n 1,
BMi2`TQH+BƦM
/2MQi H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2M xi , xi+1 - T`2}D/ TQ` Hb
s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ), (5.4) +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX
ambiBimv2M/Q ⇤(t) = t(1 t)(1 + t)/6- ⇤0 (t) = (3t2 1)/6 v ⇤00 (t) = t
MQ Tm2/2 i2M2` bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+ v [m2
2M Hb `2H+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b Q#i2M2KQb
dim S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) = n + 3
s(x) = yi (1 i (x)) + yi+1 i (x)
v bQHK2Mi2 b2 BKTQM2M n + 1 +QM/B+BQM2bX SQ` iMiQ- Ƣ/B`2KQb H T`Q#H2K h2i (5.5)
/Qb +QM/B+BQM2b /B+BQMH2b- iőTB+K2Mi2 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb- T` Q#i2M2` T`Q@ 6
i (x)(1 i (x))[zi (2 i (x)) + zi+1 (1 + i (x))], x 2 [xi , xi+1 ],
#H2Kb +QM bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+X lM /2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ Kb mb/b
bQM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b Mim`H2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM v Hb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b T` Hb /2`Bp/b
s00 (a) = s00 (b) = 0, hi

s0 (x) = di + [zi (1 3(1 2
i (x)) ) + zi+1 (3 i (x)
2
1)], x 2 [xi , xi+1 ],
6
[m2 +Q``2bTQM/2M 7őbB+K2Mi2 H bBKTH2 TQvQ 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb bBM [m2 2H K@
s00 (x) = zi (1 i (x)) + zi+1 i (x), x 2 [xi , xi+1 ].
i2`BH +B`+mM/Mi2 2D2`x KQK2MiQb 2M HQb 2ti`2KQbX Pi`b +QM/B+BQM2b [m2
(5.6)
T`2+2M 2M H T`+iB+ bQM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQ Q /2 ;`T
o2KQb #DQ [mû +QM/B+BQM2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ +ȹ#B+Q i`QxQb //Q TQ` Hb
s0 (a) = m0 , s0 (b) = mn . 7Ʀ`KmHb U8X8V 2b /2 +Hb2 C 2 [x0 , xn ]X
153 154
SQ` +QMbi`m++BƦM [m2/ ;`MiBx/ H +QMiBMmB// /2 H 7mM+BƦM h2Q`2K 8XjX a2 x0 < · · · < xn mM bm+2bBƦM /2 Mm/QbX 1MiQM+2b HQb
bB;mB2Mi2b T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b s 2
lı́m s(x) = lı́m s(x) = s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n. S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) /KBi2M mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM
x!x+
UV s(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , n- s00 (a) = z0 - s00 (b) = zn -
x!xi i
AKTQM2` H +QMiBMmB// /2 H /2`Bp/ T`BK2` 2[mBpH2 BKTQM2` Hb bB;mB2M@ U#V s(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , n- s0 (a) = m0 - s0 (b) = mn -
i2b +QM/B+BQM2b U+V s(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , n- s0 (a) = s0 (b)- s00 (a) = s00 (b)X
.2KQbi`+BƦMX lM 7mM+BƦM +ȹ#B+ i`QxQb // TQ` U8X8V 2b /2 +Hb2
lı́m s0 (x) = lı́m+ s0 (x), i = 1, . . . , n 1. C 2 [a, b] bB v bƦHQ bB b2 p2`B}+M Hb 2+m+BQM2b U8XdV- [m2 Tm2/2M b2` /2b+`Bib
x!xi x!xi
2M 7Q`K Ki`B+BH
0 1 0 1
1pHmM/Q 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb Q#i2M2KQb z0 d1 d0
X XX
M @ XX A = 6 @ X A
hi hi zn dn dn
lı́m+ s0 (x) = di (2zi + zi+1 ), lı́m s0 (x) = di + (zi + 2zi+1 ), 1 2
x!xi 6 x!xi+1 6 +QM
0 1
h0 2(h0 + h1 ) h1 0 ··· 0
T` iQ/Q i = 0, . . . , n 1- HQ [m2 / Hm;` Hb 2+m+BQM2b B XX XX C
B 0 h1 2(h1 + h2 ) h2 X X C
M := B XX
C,
B XX XX XX XX C
di 1 +
hi 1
(zi + 2zi ) = di
hi
(2zi + zi+1 ), i = 1, . . . , n 1,
@ X X X X X 0 A
1
6 6 0 ··· 0 hn 2 2(hn 2 + hn 1) hn 1
[m2 Tm2/2M 2b+`B#B`b2 2M H 7Q`K /QM/2 hi = xi+1 xi - di = (yi+1 yi )/hi i = 0, . . . , n 1X

UV aB MQb /M z0 v zn - 2MiQM+2b 2H bBbi2K U8XdV b2 `2/m+2 mM bBbi2K
hi 1 zi 1 + 2(hi 1 + hi )zi + hi zi+1 = 6(di di 1 ), i = 1, . . . , n 1. (5.7) /2 n 1 2+m+BQM2b +QM n 1 BM+Ʀ;MBib
0 6(d1 d0 ) h0 z0 1
0 1
SQ` ȹHiBKQ- H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM // ;`MiBx H +QMiBMmB// /2 H /2`Bp/ z1 B 6(d2 d1 ) C
b2;mM/- v [m2 X B XX C
M̂ @ XX A = B B X
C
C
zn 1 @ A
6(dn 2 dn 3 )
lı́m s00 (x) = lı́m+ s00 (x) = zi , i = 1, . . . , n 1. 6(dn 1 dn 2 ) hn 1 zn
x!xi x!xi
/QM/2 M̂ 2b H bm#Ki`Bx /2 M [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H bmT`BKB` H T`BK2` v ȹHiBK
SQ` iMiQ H 7mM+BƦM s(x) +ȹ#B+ i`QxQb // TQ` U8X8V 2b /2 +Hb2 C 2 bB v +QHmKMb
bƦHQ bB Hb +QMbiMi2b z0 , . . . , zn p2`B}+M 2H bBbi2K /2 n 1 2+m+BQM2b +QM 0 1
2(h0 + h1 ) h1 0 ··· 0
n + 1 BM+Ʀ;MBib U8XdVX B XX XX C
B h1 2(h1 + h2 ) h2 X X C
S` /2i2`KBM` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 b2 BKTQM2M +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ T`Q@ B C
B
M̂ := B X XX X XX X XX C . (5.8)
TB/bX 1M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 h2Q`2K- /2/m+BKQb H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 HQb 0 0 C
B X
XX XX XX C
T`Q#H2Kb /2 +QMiQ`MQ Kb mbmH2b, Mim`H2b- /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQ v T2`BƦ/B@ @ X h X n 3 h A
n 2
+bX 0 ··· 0 hn 2 2(hn 2 + hn 1)
155 156
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H Ki`Bx M̂ 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /B;QMH /QKBMMi2- /2 /QM/2 *QKQ H Ki`Bx M̃ 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /B;QMH /QKBMMi2- det M̃ 6= 0- b2 /2/m+2
b2 /2/m+2 [m2 det M̂ 6= 0X SQ` HQ iMiQ- 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, s00 (a) = z0 , s00 (b) = zn , s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, s0 (a) = m0 , s0 (b) = mn ,
iB2M2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn )X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H Ki`Bx M̂ 2b iB2M2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn )X G Ki`Bx M̃ 2b iK#BûM i`B/B;Q@
i`B/B;QMH v bBKûi`B+- HQ [m2 b2 i`/m+2 2M mM K2MQ` MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQM2b MH v bBKûi`B+- HQ [m2 Tm2/2 miBHBx`b2 T` `2/m+B` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 QT2`+BQM2b
H `2bQHp2` 2H bBbi2KX M2+2b`Bb T` `2bQHp2` 2H bBbi2KX
LQi2KQb [m2 2M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` 2M [m2 n = 2- 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b U+V 1pHmM/Q U8XeV 2M x0 = a v xn = b- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 H +QM/B+BƦM
Mi2`BQ` b2 `2/m+2 mM bQH 2+m+BƦM s0 (a) = s0 (b) 2[mBpH2
2(h0 + h1 )z1 = 6(d1 d0 ) h 0 z0 h 1 z2 . h0 hn 1
d0 (2z0 + z1 ) = dn 1 + (zn 1 + 2zn ),
6 6
lM +QMb2+m2M+B /2H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 det M̂ 6= 0 2b [m2 H Ki`Bx M iB2M2
KB2Mi`b [m2 s (a) = s (b) b2 i`/m+2 2M H B;mH// z0 = zn X SQ/2KQb
00 00
`M;Q n 1 v [m2 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b U8XdV bB2KT`2 2b +QKTiB#H2 v
Ƣ/B` H 2+m+BƦM
iB2M2 BM}MBib bQHm+BQM2b- bB2M/Q 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 bQHm+BQM2b mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH
i`bH//Q /2 /BK2MbBƦM kX hn 1 zn 1 + 2(hn 1 + h0 )zn + h0 z1 = 6(d0 dn 1)
U#V 1pHmM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH U8XeV /2 s0 (x) 2M x0 = a v xn = b- Q#i2M2KQb v 2HBKBM` H BM+Ʀ;MBi z0 = zn T` Q#i2M2` 2H bB;mB2Mi2 bBbi2K /2 n 2+m@
h0 hn 1 +BQM2b +QM n BM+Ʀ;MBib
m0 = s0 (a) = d0 (2z0 + z1 ), mn = s0 (b) = dn 1+ (zn 1 + 2zn ), 0 1 0 1
6 6 z1 d1 d0
2 BM+Q`TQ`M/Q Hb +QM/B+BQM2b B XX C B XX C
Mp B X C = 6B X C
2h0 z0 + h0 z1 = 6(d0 m0 ), hn @z A @d dn 2 A
1 zn 1 + 2hn 1 zn = 6(mn dn 1 ), n 1 n 1
Q#i2M2KQb mM bBbi2K /2 n + 1 2+m+BQM2b +QM n + 1 BM+Ʀ;MBib zn d0 dn 1

0
z0
1 0
d0 m0
1 /QM/2 Mp 2b H Ki`Bx
B z1 C B d1 d0 C 0 2(h + h ) h1 0 ··· 0 h0 1
0 1
B X C B XX C
XX XX
B XX C = 6 B
M̃ B C B C B C
X C B h1 2(h1 + h2 ) h2 X X 0 C
@z A @d A B C
n 1 d n 1 n 2 B XX XX XX XX C
zn mn dn B 0 h2 X X X X C.
1 B XX XX XX XX C
B X X X C
/QM/2 M̃ b2 Q#iB2M2 /2 M Ƣ/B2M/Q mM }H H T`BM+BTBQ v Qi` H }MH B X hn 1 0 C
@ A
0 1 0 ··· 0 hn 2 2(hn 2 + hn 1) hn 1
2h0 h0 0 0 ··· 0 h0 ··· 0 0 hn 1 2(hn + h0 )
1
B h0 2(h0 + h1 ) h1 0 ··· 0 C
B C *QKQ 2bi Ki`Bx 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /B;QMH /QKBMMi2- det Mp 6= 0- v 2H
B X X XX C
B 0 h 2(h + h ) h X X C T`Q#H2K
M̃ := B
B X
1 1 2 2 C.
B XX X XX X XX X XX X XX
C
B 0 C C s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, s0 (a) = s0 (b), s00 (a) = s00 (b),
@ 0 ··· 0 hn 2 2(hn 2 + hn 1 ) hn 1 A
iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+X 1M 2bi2 +bQ H Ki`Bx 2b bBKûi`B+ T2`Q MQ iB2M2 2bi`m+@
0 ··· 0 0 hn 1 2hn 1
im` /2 #M/X
(5.9)
157 158
*QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ 2M H BMi2`TQH+BƠM +QM bTHBM2b 7mM+BƦM BMi2`TQH/ f X *QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 2bi Q#b2`p+BƦM- 2H BMi2`TQHMi2
u ?2KQb K2M+BQM/Q Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 2H TT2H [m2 Dm2;M Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 /2 mM 7mM+BƦM C 2 +ȹ#B+ i`QxQb MQ iB2M2 [m2 +QBM+B/B` +QM H T`QTB 7mM+BƦMX
+QMiQ`MQ s00 (a) = s00 (b) = 0 T` H /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 H /2~2tBƦM /2 mM #`` 1M TìB+mH`- HQb TQHBMQKBQb +ȹ#B+Qb MQ +QBM+B/2M +QM bmb BMi2`TQHMi2bX
#BTQv/X lM 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+ s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQ
/2 bTHBM2 Mim`H bB p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ s00 (a) = s00 (b) = 0X
.2H Tì/Q UV /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 Hb s0 (a) = f 0 (a), s0 (b) = f 0 (b).
7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Qb Mim`H2b
T`QTQ`+BQMM BMi2`TQHMi2b [m2 `2T`Q/m+2M TQHBMQKBQb +ȹ#B+Qb- v [m2 H T`Q@
S3nat (x0 . . . , xn ) := {s 2 S3 (x0 . . . , xn ) | s00 (x0 ) = s00 (xn ) = 0} TB 7mM+BƦM BMi2`TQH/ f p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ BKTm2bibX SQ`
2HHQ- H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTQi`@
2b mM bm#2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH /2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) /2 /BK2MbBƦM n + 1 2M 2H [m2 2H
KB2MiQ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQX
T`Q#H2K /2 G;`M;2
1D2KTHQX Zm2`2KQb 2M+QMi`` 2H bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ s [m2 BMi2`TQH H TQHB@
s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, MQKBQ x4 x2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1] 2M 1, 0, 1X G 7mM+BƦM s 2b H ȹMB+
7mM+BƦM /2H 2bT+BQ S 3 ( 1, 0, 1) [m2 p2`B}+ bBKmHiM2K2Mi2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b
bB2KT`2 iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+X Gb +QM/B+BQM2b s00 (a) = s00 (b) = 0 BKTHB+M [m2
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb /KBi2 +QM2tBQM2b /2 +Hb2 C 2 +QM 7mM+BQM2b
/2 T`BK2` ;`/Q +mvb ;`}+b bQM HőM2b `2+ib- 2b /2+B` s( 1) = s(0) = s(1) = 0,
8 v Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 ;`T
< s(x0 ) s0 (x0 )(x0 x), bB x < x0 -
s̃(x) := s(x), bB x 2 [x0 , xn ]-
: s0 ( 1) = 2, s0 (1) = 2.
s(xn ) + s0 (xn )(x xn ), bB x > xn -
2b mM 7mM+BƦM C 2 ( 1, 1)X GQb pHQ`2b z0 = s00 ( 1)- z1 = s00 (0) v z2 = s00 (1) p2`B}+M 2H bBbi2K /2
2+m+BQM2b 0 10 1 0 1
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM 8Xk U#V- `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 2 1 0 z0 12
/2 +QM/B+BQM2b /2 ;`T/Q Q /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQX aB mM pB; 2bi 2KTQi`/ @ 1 4 1 A @ z1 A = @ 0 A ,
2M mM T`2/- H T`2/ `2++BQM bQ#`2 H pB; +QM HQb KQK2MiQb /2 7m2`xb 0 1 2 z2 12
s00 (a) = z0 - s00 (b) = zn [m2 T2`KBi2M HBM2` H /B`2++BƦM /2 H iM;2Mi2 2M HQb
2ti`2KQb +QM 2H i`QxQ 2KTQi`/Q v H HőM2 M2mi` /2 H pB; 2bi` bmD2i +mv bQHm+BƦM 2b (z0 , z1 , z2 ) = (8, 4, 8)X THB+KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH U8X8V 2M +/
HB;/m`b s0 (a) = m0 v s0 (b) = mn X bm#BMi2`pHQ T` Q#i2M2`
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM 8XkU+V- `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2
( x)(1 + x)
/2 +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ T2`BƦ/B+b v T2`KBi2 /2}MB` mM 7mM+BƦM 2ti2MbBƦM s(x) = (8(1 x) 4(2 + x)) = 2x2 (1 + x), x 2 [ 1, 0],
/2 s iQ/ H `2+i `2H [m2 b2 mM 7mM+BƦM T2`BƦ/B+ /2 T2`BQ/Q b aX 6
x(1 x)
/2Kb /2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM Mim`H2b- /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQ s(x) = ( 4(2 x) + 8(1 + x)) = 2x2 (1 x), x 2 [0, 1],
6
v T2`BƦ/B+b 2tBbi2M mM ;`M p`B2// /2 +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ [m2 b2 mbM
2M H T`+iB+X /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
lM +`őiB+ [m2 Tm2/2 ?+2`b2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b Mim`H2b Q T2`BƦ/B+b 2b
[m2 BKTQM2KQb H BMi2`TQHMi2 mM +QM/B+BƦM [m2 MQ iB2M2 TQ` [mû p2`B}+` H s(x) = 2x2 (1 |x|).
159 160
P#b2`pKQb [m2 H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 s 2b T`- 2b /2+B` s( x) = s(x)- T`
0
x4-x2
s(x)
iQ/Q x 2 [ 1, 1]X 1bi T`QTB2// Tm2/2 /2/m+B`b2 /B`2+iK2Mi2 /2 H bBK2i`ő -0.05
/2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM v T2`KBi2 `2/m+B` H /Bb+mbBƦM /2H T`Q#H2KX
1M 272+iQ- bB HHKKQb r(x) := s( x)- x 2 [ 1, 1]- p2KQb [m2 H 7mM+BQM -0.1
r 2 C 2 [ 1, 1] +QBM+B/2 +QM mM TQHBMQKBQ +ȹ#B+Q 2M +/ bm#BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 0] v
[0, 1] v /2Kb p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM -0.15
r( 1) = s(1) = 0, r(0) = s(0) = 0, r(1) = s( 1) = 0 -0.2
v Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ -0.25
r0 ( 1) = s0 (1) = 2, r0 (1) = s0 ( 1) = 2. -0.3
SQ` iMiQ r v s bQM bQHm+BQM2b /2H KBbKQ T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BQM +QM +QM/B@ -0.35
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
+BQM2b /2 ;`TX *QKQ 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM +QM/B+BQM2b /2 ;`T 6B;m` 8X8X AMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ /2 x4 x2 X
iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+- /2/m+BKQb [m2 r = sX SQ` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 r- i2M2KQb
[m2 s(x) = s( x)- T` iQ/Q x 2 [ 1, 1]X
+QKT`` Hb ;`}+b /2 H 7mM+BƦM x4 x2 v bm BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 2M H
*QM Q#D2iQ /2 /B#mD` H ;`}+ /2 s(x)- pKQb 2bim/B` bmb 2ti`2KQb 6B;m` 8X8X
v bmb TmMiQb /2 BM~2tBƦMX S`BK2`Q +H+mHKQb
G `2T`Q/m++BƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q HiQ 2b mM T`QTB2// /2 ;`M
0 00 BMi2`ûb T` MHBx` 2H 2``Q` /2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2X
s (x) = 4x + 6x|x|, s (x) = 4 + 12|x|.
.2b;`+B/K2Mi2 2b 7`2+m2Mi2 [m2 +QMQx+KQb bQHK2Mi2 pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM@
+BƦM f v MQ /2 bmb /2`Bp/b TQ` HQ [m2 M2+2bBiKQb 2biBK+BQM2b /2 ûbibX
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 s0 b2 MmH 2M 2M 2/3, 0, 2/3- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` [m2
SQ` 2HHQ- 2b 7`2+m2Mi2 bmbiBimB` H +QM/B+BƦM /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQ TQ` Qi` `2b@
H 7mM+BƦM s 2b /2+`2+B2Mi2 2M HQb bm#BMi2`pHQb [ 1, 2/3] v [0, 2/3] v +`2+B2Mi2
i`B++BƦM [m2 T2`KBi K2DQ`` 2H +QKTQìKB2MiQ /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 2M HQb
2M HQb bm#BMi2`pHQb [ 2/3, 0] v [2/3, 0]X h2M2KQb mM KtBKQ `2HiBpQ 2M x = 0
2ti`2KQb v T2`KBi `2T`Q/m+B` TQHBMQKBQb +m/ìB+Qb Q +ȹ#B+QbX
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H pHQ` 0 v /Qb KőMBKQb `2HiBpQb 2M ±2/3- +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b
H pHQ` 8/27X 1pHmM/Q 2M x = ±1- p2KQb [m2 2H pHQ` KtBKQ 2b 0 v b2 Gb +QM/B+BQM2b MQi@@FMQi +QMbBbi2M 2M BKTQM2` 2M x1 v xn 1 bmpB//
H+Mx T` x 2 { 1, 0, 1}- TQ` HQ [m2 s(x)  0- x 2 [ 1, 1]X G /2`Bp/ /2 +Hb2 C 3 - 2b /2+B`
b2;mM/ +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2M x = ±1/3- /2/m+BûM/Qb2 [m2 (±1/3, 4/27) bQM
HQb /Qb TmMiQb /2 BM~2tBƦM /2 H ;`}+ /2 sX lı́m s000 (x) = lı́m+ s000 (x), lı́m s000 (x) = lı́m s000 (x),
x!x1 x!x1 x!xn x!x+
S` i`x` H ;`}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 (x2 1)- i2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi
1 n 1
[m2 f (x) 2b mM 7mM+BQM T` K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 +2`Q 2M [ 1, 1]- TQ` HQ [m2 bm 2M H T`+iB+ 2biQ 2[mBpH2 BKTQM2` [m2 s T2ì2M2x+ H bm#2bT+BQ (n + 1)@
;`}+ 2b mM 7mM+BƦM bBKûi`B+ TQ` /2#DQ /2H 2D2 /2 Hb XX 0 X GQb pHQ`2b /BK2MbBQMH S3 (x0 , x2 , . . . , xn 2 , xn ) /2 S3 (x0 , x1 , x2 . . . , xn 2 , xn 1 , xn )- 2b
KtBKQb /2 f b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M Hb `ő+2b 1, 1, 0X 1M x = 0 H 7mM+BƦM p H+Mx /2+B` [m2 x1 v xn 1 MQ b2M Mm/Qb /2 H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2X Gb +QM/B+BQM2b
mM KtBKQ `2HiBpQ v H T2M/B2Mi2 2b MmHX GQb TmMiQb +`őiB+Qb x = ± 2/2, 0 MQi@@FMQi Tm2/2M 2b+`B#B`b2 2M H 7Q`K
b2 Q#iB2M2M /2 Hb `ő+2b /2 fp0 (x) = 2x(2x2 1)X a2 /2/m+2 [m2 2H pHQ` KőMBKQ
1/4 b2 H+Mx 2M x = ± 2/2X >HHM/Q Hb `ő+2b p /2 f 00 (x) = 12x2 2- z1 z0 z2 z1 zn 1 zn 2 zn zn 1
= , =
2M+QMi`KQb HQb TmMiQb /2 BM~2tBƦM /2 H ;`}+ 2M (± 6/6, 5/36)X SQ/2KQb h0 h1 hn 2 hn 1
161 162
lM 7Q`K /2 BKTQM2` 2bib +QM/B+BQM2b 2b Ƣ/B` H bBbi2K U8XdV Hb 2+m@ 2b
+BQM2b bmTH2K2Mi`Bb dn 2 dn 1
q 0 (xn ) = dn 1 + hn 1,
hn 2 + hn 1
h1 z0 + (h0 + h1 )z1 h0 z2 = 0,
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 "2bb2H 2M 7Q`K /2 +QM/B+BQM2b /2
hn 1 zn 2 + (hn 2 + hn 1 )zn 1 hn 2 zn = 0. ;`T
S` `2bQHp2` 2H bBbi2K TQ/2KQb 2HBKBM` Hb BM+Ʀ;MBib z0 v zn - Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 h0 hn
mM bBbi2K /2 n 1 2+m+BQM2b +QM BM+Ʀ;MBib z1 , . . . , zn 1 X Sm2/2 +QKT`Q#`b2 s0 (x0 ) = d0 (d1 d0 ), s0 (xn ) = dn 1 + (dn 2 dn 1 ).
h0 + h1 hn 1 + hn
[m2 H Ki`Bx +m/`/ /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 2bi2 bBbi2K 2b /B;QMH /QKBMMi2
v- TQ` iMiQ MQ bBM;mH`X 1biQ BKTHB+ H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2 Gb +QM/B+BQM2b +m/ìB+b v Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ /2 "2bb2H T2`@
HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QM +QM/B+BQM2b MQi@@FMQiX Gb +QM/B+BQM2b KBi2M ;`MiBx` H `2T`Q/m++BƦM 2t+i /2 TQHBMQKBQb +m/ìB+Qb i`pûb
MQi@@FMQi T2`KBi2M H `2T`Q/m++BƦM 2t+i /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +ȹ#B+Q i`pûb /2 HQb /iQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX
/2 HQb /iQbX
6mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȳ#B+b 2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM /2 >2`KBi2
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b +m/ìB+b BKTQM2M [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ
/2 K#Qb 2ti`2KQb b2M /2 b2;mM/Q ;`/Q Q 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2 a2M a = ⌧0 < ⌧1 < · · · < ⌧n 1 < ⌧n = b mM bm+2bBƦM /2 Mm/QbX .2}MBKQb 2H
2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q k v +Hb2 C r
s000 (a) = s000 (b) = 0,
Skr (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = {s 2 C r [a, b] : s|[⌧i ,⌧i+1 ) 2 Pk , i = 0, . . . , n 1}.
HQ [m2 2[mBpH2 Ƣ/B` H bBbi2K U8XdV Hb 2+m+BQM2b bmTH2K2Mi`Bb
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 ;`/Q k Kb ?#BimH 2b 2H
z0 = z1 , zn 1 = zn . /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 +Hb2 C k 1 - Sk (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) = Skk 1 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n )- +Q``2bTQM@
/B2Mi2b H KvQ` Q`/2M /2 bmpB//X
H 2HBKBM` Hb BM+Ʀ;MBib z0 v zn b2 Q#iB2M2 mM bBbi2K i`B/B;QMH v /B;QMH
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H 2bT+BQ S3 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n ) /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b /2
/QKBMMi2- ?2+?Q [m2 T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2H BMi2`TQHMi2
+Hb2 C 2 +QMbB/2`/Q 2M H b2++BƦM T`2pB 2b mM bm#2bT+BQ /2 S31 (⌧0 , . . . , ⌧n )X
+QM +QM/B+BQM2b +m/ìB+bX
.2 Mm2pQ bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 HQb TmMiQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb Mm@
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ /2 "2bb2H +QMbBbi2M 2M BKTQM2` [m2 H /2@ /QbX SHMi2KQb ?Q` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 +HbB+Q 2M 2H
`Bp/ 2M 2H 2ti`2KQ BM72`BQ` U`2bTX- bmT2`BQ`V +QBM+B/ +QM H /2`Bp/ /2H 2bT+BQ S31 (x0 , . . . , xn ) +QM TmMiQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM x0 , . . . , xn X
BMi2`TQHMi2 +m/ìB+Q [m2 BMi2`TQH 2M x0 - x1 - x2 U`2bTX- 2M xn 2 - xn 1 -
xn VX 1M 2H 2ti`2KQ BM72`BQ` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 +m/ìB+Q 2b S`QTQbB+BƦM 8X9X 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2
d1 d0 s(xi ) = yi , s0 (xi ) = mi , i = 0, . . . , n,
q0 (x) = y0 + d0 (x x0 ) + (x x0 )(x x1 )
h0 + h1
/KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M S31 (x0 , . . . , xn )X
/2`BpM/Q v 2pHmM/Q 2M x0 i2M2KQb
.2KQbi`+BƦMX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 2H T`Q#H2K +HbB+Q /2 >2`KBi2 K2@
q00 (x0 ) = d0
d1 d0
h0 /BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb +ȹ#B+Qb bB2KT`2 /KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM- H 7mM+BƦM s(x)
h0 + h1 [m2/ /2i2`KBM/ 2M +/ bm#BMi2`pHQ [xi , xi+1 ]X liBHBxM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2
MHQ;K2Mi2 H /2`Bp/ 2M xn /2 G;`M;2 T` 2H TQHBMQKBQ +ȹ#B+Q /2 >2`KBi2 +HbB+Q Q#i2M2KQb H 2tT`2bBƦM
2
dn dn s(x) = yi (1 i (x)) (1 + 2 i (x)) + yi+1 i (x)2 (3 2 i (x))+
2 1 ⇥ ⇤ (5.10)
qn (x) = yn + dn 1 (x xn ) + (x xn )(x xn 1)
hn 2 + hn 1 hi i (x)(1 i (x)) mi (1 i (x)) mi+1 i (x) , x 2 [xi , xi+1 ],
163 164
/QM/2 h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 m0 v mn bQM /iQb- Q#i2M2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 bBbi2K
x xi
i (x) := , hi := xi+1 xi , i = 0, . . . , n 1. /2 2+m+BQM2b
hi 0 1
3(h0 1 d0 + h1 1 d1 ) h0 1 m0
SQ` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM BKTm2bib i2M2KQb [m2 0
m1
1 B 3(h1 1 d1 + h2 1 d2 ) C
B C
X B X
XX C
s(x+ s0 (x+ 0 M̂ @ XX A = B C,
i ) = yi = s(xi ), i ) = mi = s (xi ), i = 1, . . . , n 1, B C
mn 1 @ 1 1
3(hn 3 dn 3 + hn 2 dn 2 ) A
HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 s 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +ȹ#B+ i`QxQb /2 +Hb2 C 1 X 3(hn 1 2 dn 2 + hn 1 1 d n 1) hn 1 1 mn
*QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 H 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /QM/2 M̂ 2b H Ki`Bx
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 +QM 2n + 2 /iQb- Q#i2M2KQb H /BK2MbBƦM /2H 0 2(h 1 + h 1 ) h1 1 0 ··· 0 1
0 1
2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b /2 +Hb2 C 1 - dim S31 (x0 , . . . , xn ) = 2n + 2X B XX XX C
B h1 1 2(h1 1 + h2 1 ) h2 1 X X C
i`pûb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH U8XRyV- TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` mM /2KQbi`+BƦM Hi2`@ B C
M̂ := B XX XX XX C.
MiBp /2H h2Q`2K 8XjX lM 7Q`K /2 Q#i2M2` H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K +QM B 0 X X X 0 C
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 ;`T
B XX XX XX C
@ X X hn 1 3 X hn 1 2 A
s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, s0 (a) = m0 , s0 (b) = mn , 0 ··· 0 hn 1 2 2(hn 1 2 + hn 1 1 )

*QKQ M̂ 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /B;QMH /QKBMMi2- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2
K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b /2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) +QMbBbi2 2M +QMbB/2``
BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb Mm/Qb K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b /2 +Hb2 C 2 +QM
Hb T2M/B2Mi2b m1 , . . . , mn 1 +QKQ BM+Ʀ;MBib /2H T`Q#H2K 2 BKTQM2` H BM@
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 ;`T iB2M2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX
i2`TQHMi2 U8XRyV Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 bmpB// 2ti` s00 (x+ 00
i ) = s (xi )- i =
1, . . . , n 1X .2`BpM/Q bm+2bBpK2Mi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM U8XRyV Q#i2M2KQb P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` 2M [m2 n = 2- Hb +QM/B+BQM2b b2
`2/m+2M mM bQH 2+m+BƦM
s0 (x) = i (x)(1 i (x))(6di mi mi+1 )+ 2(h0 1 + h1 1 )m1 = 3(h0 1 d0 + h1 1 d1 ) h 0 1 m0 h1 1 m1 .
⇥ ⇤
(1 2 i (x)) mi (1 i (x)) mi+1 i (x) ,
⇥ ⇤ aB 2M Hm;` /2 T`2b+`B#B` Hb /2`Bp/b T`BK2`b 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb b2 T`2b@
2
s00 (x) = (3di mi mi+1 )(1 2 i (x)) mi (1 i (x)) + mi+1 i (x) , +`B#2M Hb /2`Bp/b b2;mM/b +QKQ 2M 2H +bQ /2H bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q Mim`H
hi
x 2 [xi , xi+1 ], s(xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, s00 (a) = z0 , s00 (b) = zn ,
Q#i2M2KQb Hb +QM/B+BQM2b
/QM/2 di := (yi+1 yi )/hi - i = 0, . . . , n 1X 1pHmM/Q 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb
2 2
i2M2KQb (3d0 2m0 m1 ) = z0 , (mn 1 + 2mn 3dn 1) = zn ,
h0 hn 1
2 2
s00 (xi ) = (mi 1 + 2mi 3di 1 ), s00 (x+
i )= (3di 2mi mi+1 ). [m2 /M Hm;` H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b
hi 1 hi 0 1 0 1
m0 3h0 1 d0 z0 /2
SQ` HQ [m2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiBMmB// /2 H /2`Bp/ b2;mM/ b2 i`/m+2M B m1 C B 3(h0 1 d0 + h1 1 d1 ) C
B X C B XX
C
2M B C
M̃ BB XX C = B
C
B X C,
C
⇣ 1 1⌘ ⇣d di ⌘ @m A @ 3(h 1 d
mi 1 mi+1 i 1 n 1 n 2 n 2 + hn 1 1 d n 1) A
+2 + mi + =3 + , i = 1, . . . , n 1. 1
hi 1 hi 1 hi hi hi 1 hi mn 3hn 1 dn 1 + zn /2
165 166
Rl
/QM/2 M̃ 2b H Ki`Bx v 2H pHQ` /2 H BMi2;`H 0 y 00 (x)2 dx 2b T`QtBK/K2Mi2 2E/RX 1bi bBKTHB}@
0 2h 1 1 ++BƦM 2b +QKȹM 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 Hb ~2tBQM2b /2 pB;b- Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 bQHm+BQM2b
0 h0 1 0 ··· 0 Kmv T`QtBK/b H `2HB//X
B XX XX C
B h0 1 2(h0 1 + h1 1 ) h1 1 X X C aB H #`` bQTQì +`;b +QM+2Mi`/b 2M TQbB+BQM2b x1 < · · · < xn 1 -
B C
M̃ := B XX XX XX C. TQ/2KQb Hi2`` bm 7Q`K- +QMi`QHM/Q H K;MBim/ /2 Hb +`;b vfQ KQ/B}@
B 0 X X X 0 C
B X XX C +M/Q H TQbB+BƦM 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb a = x0 - b = xn T` 7Q`x` H 2D2 M2mi`Q
@ XX X 1 1 1
hn 1 1 A
hn 2 2(hn 2 + hn 1) Tb` TQ` /2i2`KBM/Qb TmMiQbX 1biQ HH2p Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
U8X9V- [m2 Tm2/2M +QMbB/2``b2 +QKQ HB;/m`b /2H T`Q#H2KX SQ` iMiQ- H
1
0 ··· 0 hn 1 2hn 1 1
TQbB+BƦM /2 H #`` +Q``2bTQM/2 T`QtBK/K2Mi2 H ;`}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM
G Ki`Bx M̃ 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 /B;QMH /QKBMMi2X SQ` iMiQ- 2H T`Q#H2K /2 [m2 KBMBKBx 2H 7mM+BQMH +m/ìB+Q
BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb Mm/Qb K2/BMi2 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b /2 +Hb2 C 2 +QM
Z
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ Mim`H2b iB2M2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX b
J : f 2 C 2 [a, b] 7! f 00 (x)2 dx,
S`QTB2//2b p`B+BQMH2b /2H bTHBM2 +ȳ#B+Q Mim`H a
G 2M2`;ő /2 ~2tBƦM /2 mM #`` 2b 2H i`#DQ [m2 `2HBxM iQ/b Hb 7m2`xb bmD2i Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM f (xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , nX 1H 7mM+BQMH
[m2 +iȹM T` HH2p` H #`` /2b/2 H TQbB+BƦM /2 2[mBHB#`BQ mM TQbB+BƦM +m/ìB+Q J T`QpB2M2 /2 H 7Q`K #BHBM2H
//X .2 H H2v /2 1mH2`@"2`MQmHHB- Tm2/2 /2/m+B`b2 [m2 H 2M2`;ő /2 ~2tBƦM
/2 mM #`` /KBi2 H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM Z b
j : (f, g) 2 C 2 [a, b] ⇥ C 2 [a, b] 7! f 00 (x)g 00 (x)dx.
Z l a
R
E= (s)2 ds,
2 0
.2KQbi``2KQb [m2 H bQHm+BƦM /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2K p`B+BQMH 2b T`2+Bb@
/QM/2 R 2b H `B;B/2x ~2tm`H v (s) 2b H +m`pim` 2tT`2b/ 2M iû`KBMQb /2 K2Mi2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q Mim`H- T`QTm2biQ T` /2b+`B#B` H 7Q`K
H HQM;Bim/ /2 `+Q sX /2 mM #`` #BTQv/X .2KQbi``2KQb T`BK2`Q 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q mtB@
HB`X
1b #B2M +QMQ+B/Q [m2 +B2ìQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 K2+MB+ Tm2/2M `2bQHp2`b2
bB +QMQ+2KQb Hb 7m2`xb [m2 BMi2`pB2M2MX 1M 2H +bQ /2 i2M2` T`Q#H2Kb +QM G2K 8X8X a2M a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b v s, v 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn )X aB
HB;/m`b- H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 Hb 7m2`xb /2 HB;/m` Tm2/2 `2bmHi` i2/BQb v v(xi ) = 0- i = 0, . . . , n- 2MiQM+2b
b2 T`2}2`2M 7Q`KmH+BQM2b p`B+BQMH2b 2M Hb [m2 Tm2/2M BM+HmB`b2 `2bi`B++BQ@
M2b /2 KQ/Q Mim`HX Sm2/2 /2KQbi``b2 [m2 H H2v /2 1mH2`@"2`MQmHHB Tm2/2 Z b
`22KTHx`b2 TQ` mM T`BM+BTBQ p`B+BQMH, H 7Q`K [m2 /QTi mM #`` j[s, v] := s00 (x)v 00 (x)dx = s00 (b)v 0 (b) s00 (a)v 0 (a).
7Q`x/ Tb` TQ` mM b2`B2 /2 TmMiQb KBMBKBx H 2M2`;ő 2HbiB+X a
>2KQb pBbiQ [m2 bB Hb /2~2tBQM2b bQM T2[m2Ƣb- 2H 2D2 M2mi`Q Tm2/2 b2`
`2T`2b2Mi/Q TQ` (x, y(x), 0)- x 2 [0, l]- +QM |y 0 (x)| ⌧ 1X 1M 2bi2 +bQ H .2KQbi`+BƦMX .2b+QKTQM;KQb H BMi2;`H +QKQ bmK /2 BMi2;`H2b 2M HQb
2M2`;ő /2 ~2tBƦM Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K bm#BMi2`pHQb [xi , xi+1 ]
Z Z l Z l
Z b X1 Z xi+1
n
R R y 00 (x)2 R
E= (s)2 ds = dx ⇡ y 00 (x)2 dx j[s, v] := s00 (x)v 00 (x)dx = s00 (x)v 00 (x)dx.
2 2 5/2 2
0 (1 + y 0 (x)2 ) 0 a i=0 xi
167 168
*QKQ +/ mM /2 Hb `2bi`B++BQM2b s|[xi ,xi+1 ] 2 C 4 [xi , xi+1 ]- i = 0, . . . , n 1- o2KQb ?Q` [m2 H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 J bQ#`2 2H 2bT+BQ
TQ/2KQb BMi2;`` TQ` Tì2b v Q#i2M2`
U0 := {v 2 C 2 [a, b] | v(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n}
X1 ✓
n Z xi+1 ◆
2b /2}MB/ TQbBiBpX S` 2HHQ- bmTQM;KQb [m2 v 2 U0 p2`B}+ J[v] = 0X
j[s, v] = s00 (xi+1 )v 0 (xi+1 ) s00 (xi )v 0 (xi ) s000 (x)v 0 (x)dx
xi
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb Z b
i=0
X1 Z xi+1
n v 00 (x)2 dx = 0.
= s00 (b)v 0 (b) s00 (a)v 0 (a) s000 (x)v 0 (x)dx. a
i=0 xi *QKQ v 00 2b +QMiBMm- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 v 00 (x) = 0c Hm2;Q v 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2

T`BK2` ;`/QX *QKQ v(a) = v(b) = 0- p2KQb [m2 v(x) = 0 T` iQ/Q x 2 [a, b]X
AMi2;`M/Q /2 Mm2pQ TQ` Tì2b v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 v(xi ) = 0- T` iQ/Q SQ` 2H h2Q`2K 8Xj UV- 2tBbi2 mM ȹMB+ 7mM+BƦM s 2 S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn ) [m2
i = 0, . . . , n, v [m2 s(4) (x) = 0 2M +/ BMi2`pHQ (xi , xi+1 )- i = 0, . . . , n 1- p2`B}+ s(xi ) = yi - i = 0, . . . , nX SQ` +QMbi`m++BƦM s 2 U p2`B}+ s00 (a) =
/2/m+BKQb [m2 s00 (b) = 0X SQ` 2H G2K 8X8
Z b
X1 Z xi+1
n
s000 (x)v 0 (x)dx = j[s, v] = s00 (x)v 00 (x)dx = s00 (b)v 0 (b) s00 (a)v 0 (a) = 0, 8v 2 U0 .
xi a
i=0
X1 ✓
n Z xi+1 ◆ aB f 2 U - i2M2KQb [m2 f s 2 U0 - /2 /QM/2 j[s, f s] = 0X SQ` iMiQ
s000 (xi+1 )v(xi+1 ) + s000 (x+
i )v(xi ) + s(4) (x)v(x)dx = 0,
i=0 xi J[f ] J[s] = J[f s] + 2j[s, f s] = J[f s] 0, 8f 2 U.
Gm2;Q J[s] 2b 2H pHQ` KőMBKQ /2 J bQ#`2 U X
Hm2;Q j[s, v] = s00 (b)v 0 (b) s00 (a)v 0 (a)X
aB J[f ] = J[s] T` +B2ì f 2 U - 2MiQM+2b J[f s] = 0- v +QKQ J 2b
.2KQbi`2KQb ?Q` [m2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q Mim`H KBMBKBx /2}MB/Q TQbBiBpQ bQ#`2 U0 - /2/m+BKQb [m2 f s = 0X 1biQ T`m2# [m2 s 2b 2H
Rb
2H 7mM+BQMH f 7! a f 00 (x)2 dxX ȹMB+Q KőMBKQ /2 J 2M U X
h2Q`2K 8XeX a2M HQb /iQb y0 , y1 , . . . , yn +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b HQb TmMiQb o2KQb [m2 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 ;`T/Q KBMBKBx H 2M2`;ő 2HbiB+
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = bX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 KBMBKBx` 2H 7mM+BQMH /2 mM #`` ~2tB#H2 bQK2iB/ +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQX
Rb
J[f ] := a f 00 (x)2 dx bQ#`2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 iQ/Qb HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b h2Q`2K 8XdX a2M HQb pHQ`2b y0 , y1 , . . . , yn +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b HQb TmMiQb
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b v m0 , mn Hb T2M/B2Mi2b 2M HQb 2ti`2KQbX
U := {f 2 C 2 [a, b] | f (xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n} Rb
1MiQM+2b 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KBMBKBx` 2H 7mM+BQMH J[f ] := a f 00 (x)2 dx bQ#`2 2H
+QMDmMiQ
/KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX 1bi bQHm+BƦM 2b 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q
Mim`H- s 2 S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn ) \ U X V := {f 2 C 2 [a, b]) | f (xi ) = yi , i = 0, . . . , n, f 0 (a) = m0 , f 0 (b) = mn }
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ H BMi2;`H /2 mM 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp 2b iK#BûM MQ /KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX 1bi bQHm+BƦM 2b 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q [m2
M2;iBp- i2M2KQb p2`B}+ Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2KTQi`KB2MiQ- s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) \ V X
Z b .2KQbi`+BƦMX 1H 2bT+BQ
J[f ] = f 00 (x)2 dx 0, 8f 2 C 2 [a, b].
a
V0 := {f 2 C 2 [a, b] | f (xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n, f 0 (a) = f 0 (b) = 0}
169 170
2b mM bm#2bT+BQ /2 U0 := {v 2 C 2 [a, b] | v(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n} /QM/2 H G2K 8XNX a2 a = x0 < · · · < xn = b- v b2 s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) 2H BMi2`TQ@
7Q`K J 2b /2}MB/ TQbBiBpX SQ` iMiQ- H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 J bQ#`2 V0 2b iK#BûM HMi2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ /2 f 2 C 2 [a, b] 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X 1MiQM+2b
/2}MB/ TQbBiBpX
ks00 k[a,b]  3kf 00 k[a,b] .
SQ` 2H h2Q`2K 8Xj U#V- 2tBbi2 mM ȹMB+ 7mM+BƦM s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) \ V X
.2H G2K 8X8- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 bB s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) \ V v v 2 V0 - 2MiQM+2b .2KQbi`+BƦMX a#2KQb [m2 s00 (x) 2b H 7mM+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQb [m2 p2`B}+
j[s, v] = 0- HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` [m2 s 2b KőMBKQ /2 J 2M V X *QKQ J 2b
/2}MB/ TQbBiBp bQ#`2 V0 - s /2#2 b2` 2H ȹMB+Q KőMBKQX s00 (xi ) = zi , i = 0, . . . , n,
bB2M/Q z = (z0 , . . . , zn ) H bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K
1``Q` /2 H BMi2`TQH+BƠM bTHBM2 +ȳ#B+
1
1M 2bi b2++BƦM Q#i2M/`2KQb mM 7Ʀ`KmH T` 2H 2H 2``Q` /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 z0 + z1 = 3[x0 , x0 , x1 ]f,
2
bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQX *QK2Mx`2KQb KQbi`M/Q [m2 H 2biBK+BƦM /2H 2``Q` Tm2/2 h i 1 zi 1 hi zi+1
TQM2`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H /2`Bp/ b2;mM/ /2H 2``Q`X + zi + = 3[xi 1 , xi , xi+1 ]f, i = 1, . . . , n 1,
2(hi 1 + hi ) 2(hi 1 + hi )
S`QTQbB+BƦM 8X3X a2 a = x0 < · · · < xn = b- v b2 s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) mM 1
zn 1 + zn = 3[xn 1 , xn , xn ]f.
7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 [m2 BMi2`TQH f 2 C 2 [a, b] 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X 1MiQM+2b 2
2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM E(x) := f (x) s(x) p2`B}+ .2 H T`BK2` 2+m+BƦM /2/m+BKQb [m2
h2 00 1 3 1
kEk[a,b]  kE k[a,b] , |z0 |  3|[x0 , x0 , x1 ]f | + |z1 |  kf 00 k[a,b] + kzk1 .
8 2 2 2
S` Hb bB;mB2Mi2 2+m+BQM2b i2M2KQb
/QM/2 h := máxi=0,...,n |xi+1 xi | 2b H MQ`K /2 H TìB+BƦMX
|hi 1 zi 1 + hi zi+1 | 3 1
|zi |  3|[xi 1 , xi , xi+1 ]f +  kf 00 k[a,b] + kzk1 ,
.2KQbi`+BƦMX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 E(xi ) = 0- i = 0, . . . , n- i2M2KQb 2(hi 1 + hi ) 2 2
i = 1, . . . , n 1- v T` H ȹHiBK 2+m+BƦM i2M2KQb
E(x) = [xi , xi+1 , x]E (x xi )(x xi+1 ).
1 3 00 1
|zn |  3|[xn 1 , xn , xn ]f | + |zn 1|  kf k[a,b] + kzk1 .
hQKM/Q x 2 [xi , xi+1 ]- /2/m+BKQb [m2 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 [xi , xi+1 ] iH [m2 2 2 2
SQ` iMiQ
|E 00 (⇠)| 3 00 1
|E(x)| = (x xi )(xi+1 x), x 2 [xi , xi+1 ]. kzk1 
kf k[a,b] + kzk1 ,
2 2 2
/2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb H /2bB;mH//
1H pHQ` |E 00 (⇠)| Tm2/2 +Qi`b2 TQ` kE 00 k[a,b] - Q#i2MBûM/Qb2
kzk1  3kf 00 k[a,b] .
00
kE k[a,b]
|E(x)|  (x xi )(xi+1 x), x 2 [xi , xi+1 ]. *QKQ s00 2b HBM2H i`QxQb +QM Mm/Qb 2M x0 , . . . , xn - i2M2KQb
2
ks00 k[a,b] = máx |s00 (xi )|  kzk1  3kf 00 k[a,b] .
*QKQ 2H KtBKQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM (x xi )(xi+1 x) 2M x 2 [xi , xi+1 ] b2 H+Mx i=0,...,n
2M 2H TmMiQ K2/BQ- Q#i2M2KQb H +Qi+BƦM T`QTm2biX
171 172
G2K 8XRyX a2 a = x0 < · · · < xn = b- v b2 s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) 2H BMi2`@ v TQ` 2H G2K 8XRy i2M2KQb
TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ /2 f 2 C 2 [a, b] 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X 1MiQM+2b 2H
2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM E(x) := f (x) s(x) p2`B}+ h2 (4)
kE 00 k[a,b]  4 dist1 (f 00 , S1 (x0 , . . . , xn ))  kf k[a,b] ,
2
kE 00 k[a,b]  4 dist1 (f 00 , S1 (x0 , . . . , xn )).
Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 H T`BK2` /2bB;mH//X S` H b2;mM/- THB+KQb H S`QTQbB@
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 ⇣ 2 S1 (x0 , . . . , xn ) +mH[mB2`X .2}MKQb +BƦM 8X3
Z x h2 00 h4 (4)
kEk[a,b]  kE k[a,b]  kf k[a,b] .
r(x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) + (x t)⇣(t)dt. 8 16
x0
Rx
SQ` +QMbi`m++BƦM r 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) p2`B}+ r (x) = f 0 (x0 ) + x0 ⇣(t)dtX .2@
0
G S`QTQbB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` BKTHB+ [m2 bB mK2MiKQb 2H MȹK2`Q /2 TmMiQb
`BpM/Q mM b2;mM/ p2x b2 Q#iB2M2 r00 (x) = ⇣(x)X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H BMi2`@
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM- /2 KQ/Q [m2
TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ /2 f r 2b s rX THB+M/Q 2H G2K 8XN f r-
i2M2KQb
hn = máx |xni+1 xi,n | ! 0,
ks00 r00 k[a,b]  3kf 00 r00 k[a,b] . i=0,...,n
SQ` iMiQ-
2MiQM+2b 2H bTHBM2 /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QKTH2iQ sn /2 +mH[mB2` 7mM+BƦM f 2
kf 00 s00 k[a,b]  kf 00 r00 k[a,b] + ks00 r00 k[a,b]  4kf 00 ⇣k[a,b] , C 4 [a, b] 2M a = x0,n < · · · < xn,n = b +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f -
T` iQ/ 7mM+BƦM ⇣ 2 S1 (x0 , . . . , xn )X a2 /2/m+2 [m2 lı́m kf sn k1 = 0.
n!1
kE 00 k[a,b]  4 ı́nf kf 00 ⇣k[a,b] = 4 dist1 (f 00 , S1 (x0 , . . . , xn )).
⇣2S1 (x0 ,...,xn )
P#b2`p+BƦMX G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 2``Q` Q#i2MB/ Tm2/2 K2DQ``b2X G bB;mB2Mi2
/2bB;mH// K2DQ`/ 7m2 Q#i2MB/ 2M RNe3 TQ` *X X >HH
S`QTQbB+BƦM 8XRRX a2 a = x0 < · · · < xn = b- v b2 s 2 S3 (x0 , . . . , xn ) 2H
BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ /2 f 2 C 4 [a, b] 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn X 1MiQM+2b 5h4 (4)
kEk[a,b]  kf k[a,b] .
2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM E(x) := f (x) s(x) p2`B}+ 384
h2 (4) *X X >HH v qX qX J2v2` /2KQbi``QM 2M RNde [m2 H +QMbiMi2 5/384 2b H

kE 00 k[a,b]  kf k[a,b] , K2DQ` +QMbiMi2 [m2 Tm2/2 /` Hm;` mM +Qi /2H 2``Q` /2 2bi2 iBTQX
2
v
h4 (4) 1D2KTHQX S`2i2M/2KQb +Qi` 2H 2``Q` /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +QKTH2iQ /2
kEk[a,b]  kf k[a,b] , f (x) = x4 x2 2M x = 1, 0, 1X G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 >HH MQb T`QTQ`+BQM H +Qi
16
/QM/2 h := máxi=0,...,n |xi+1 xi | 2b H MQ`K /2 H TìB+BƦMX 5 5
kEk[ 1,1]  ⇥ 24 = ⇡ 0.3125.
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QMbB/2`M/Q H 7mM+BƦM HBM2H i`QxQb ⇣ [m2 BMi2`TQH f 00 384 16
2M HQb Mm/Qb x0 , . . . , xn - /2/m+BKQb /2H h2Q`2K 8XR H bB;mB2Mi2 /2bB;mH// 1M 2bi2 +bQ 2bT2+BHK2Mi2 bBKTH2- TQ/2KQb +Qi` 2H 2``Q` /2 KQ/Q Kb
h2 (4) T`2+BbQ mbM/Q 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+X .2#B/Q
dist1 (f 00 , S1 (x0 , . . . , xn ))  kf 00 ⇣k1  kf k[a,b] H bBK2i`ő /2H T`Q#H2K- 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b mM 7mM+BƦM T`X SQ` iMiQ-
8
173 174
kEk[ 1,1] = kEk[0,1] v #bi +QM +Qi` 2H 2``Q` 2M [0, 1]X 1M /B+?Q BMi2`@ h2Q`2K 8XRkX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 KBMBKBx` 2H 7mM+BQMH
pHQ- p2KQb [m2 s(0) = f (0)- s(1) = f (1)- s0 (1) = f 0 (1)X /2Kb- b2 /2/m+2
Z
/2 H bBK2i`ő /2H T`Q#H2K [m2 s0 (0) = 0 = f 0 (0)X SQ` iMiQ- H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 n
X b
s H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1] 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +ȹ#B+Q /2 >2`KBi2 2M 0, 1X E[f ] + qJ[f ] = wi (yi f (xi ))2 + q f 00 (x)2 dx, f 2 C 2 [a, b].
a
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 f 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q 9 v H /2`Bp/ +mì /2 i=0
f 2b +QMbiMi2- p2KQb [m2 [0, 0, 1, 1, x]f = 1 v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` b2 bBKTHB}+

/KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX 1bi bQHm+BƦM T2ì2M2+2 S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn )- 2H
MQi#H2K2Mi2
2bT+BQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+b Mim`H2b +QM Mm/Qb 2M x0 , . . . , xn X
E(x) = [0, 0, 1, 1, x]f x2 (x 1)2 = x2 (1 x)2 , x 2 [0, 1].
*QKQ H bQHm+BƦM /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2K bB2KT`2 b2 2M+m2Mi` 2M 2H 2bT+BQ
*QKQ H 7mM+BƦM x (12
x) H+Mx bm pHQ` KtBKQ 1/16 2M x = 1/2- b2
2
S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn )- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 +mM/Q q ! 0+ - H bQHm+BƦM +QMp2`;2 H ȹMB+Q
/2/m+2 [m2
1 BMi2`TQHMi2 bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q Mim`HX
kEk[ = kEk[0,1] = = 0.0625.
1,1]
16 G 6B;m` 8Xe Km2bi` /B72`2Mi2b iBTQb /2 bTHBM2b /2 bmpBx/Q +Q``2bTQM@
/B2Mi2b T`K2i`Qb q = 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 100X 1H BMi2`TQHMi2 +Q``2bTQM/2
6mM+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 bmpBx/Q q = 0- KB2Mi`b [m2 H T`QtBK+BƦM +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 q = 100 2bi T`ƦtBK
lM T`Q#H2K p`B+BQMH T`QTm2biQ TQ` AX CX a+?Q2M#2`; +QMbBbi2 2M KBMBKBx` H `2+i /2 `2;`2bBƦMX
2H 7mM+BQMH +m/ìB+Q
1
E[f ] + qJ[f ], f 2 C 2 [a, b],
/QM/2 Z
n
X b 0.8
E[f ] := wi (yi f (xi ))2 , J[f ] := f 00 (x)2 dx.
i=0 a
T` MQ/Qb a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = bX GQb wi 0- i = 0, . . . , n- bQM T2bQb 0.6
bQ+B/Qb +/ MQ/Q v q > 0 2b 2H T`K2i`Q /2 bmpBx/QX

G bQHm+BƦM /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2K MQ 2b mM BMi2`TQHMi2 bBMQ mM T`QtBK@ 0.4
+BƦMX G ;`}+ 2b mM +m`p bmp2 [m2 Tb +2`+ /2 HQb TmMiQb (xi , yi )-
i = 0, . . . , nX .2 ?2+?Q- +mM/Q q ! +1 H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K iB2M/2
H `2+i /2 `2;`2bBƦMX lMQ /2 HQb KQiBpQb TQ` HQb [m2 TQ/2KQb `2[m2`B` mM 0.2
T`QtBK+BƦM [m2 MQ Tb2 M2+2b`BK2Mi2 TQ` HQb TmMiQb //Qb 2b [m2 HQb /@
iQb 2biûM +QMiKBM/Qb +QM mM 2``Q`X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- bB HQb /iQb T`Q+2/2M /2
0
mM K2/B+BƦM /2 mM 7mM+BƦM bmp2 s(x) i2M/`2KQb
yi = s(xi ) + ✏i , i = 0, . . . , n.
-0.2
G 2H2++BƦM /2 HQb T2bQb Tm2/2 ;mB`b2 TQ` +QMbB/2`+BQM2b 2bi/őbiB+b /2H 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+QKTQìKB2MiQ /2H 2``Q`X aB /BbTQM2KQb /2 mM 2biBK+BƦM Vi /2 H p`BMx 6B;m` 8XeX T`QtBK+BQM2b bTHBM2 /2 bmpBx/Q
/2H 2``Q` ✏i 2M +/ TmMiQ xi - mM bm;2`2M+B `xQM#H2 +QMbBbi2 2M 2H2;B` T2bQb
wi BMp2`bK2Mi2 T`QTQ`+BQMH2b Hb p`BMxb /2H 2``Q` Vi - i = 0, . . . , nX liBHBxM/Q 2H G2K 8X8 v bB;mB2M/Q `;mK2MiQb bBKBH`2b HQb 2tTm2biQb
1MmM+BKQb +QMiBMm+BƦM 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 a+?Q2M#2`;X 2M H /2KQbi`+BƦM /2H h2Q`2K 8Xe Tm2/2 /2KQbi``b2 [m2 bB 2H T`Q#H2K
175 176
/2 KBMBKBx` J 2M 2H 2bT+BQ S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn ) /KBi2 mM bQHm+BƦM s- 2bi 1H p2+iQ` ✏ [m2 KBMBKBx H 2tT`2bBƦM Mi2`BQ` /2#2 p2`B}+` Hb 2+m+BQM2b
7mM+BƦM b2` H ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 KBMBKBx` 2H 7mM+BQMH J 2M MQ`KH2b
2H 2bT+BQ Kb KTHBQ /2 iQ/b Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 C 2 [a, b]X SQ` iMiQ- T` W ✏ 6qN T M̂ 1 N (y ✏) = 0. (5.12)
/2KQbi`` 2H h2Q`2K 8XRk- #bi +QM /2KQbi`` [m2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KBMBKBx`
J 2M S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn ) /KBi2 mM bQHm+BƦMX S`2b2MiKQb +QMiBMm+BƦM H SQ/2KQb /2bT2D` /B`2+iK2Mi2 y ✏ /2 U8XRkV- `2bQHpB2M/Q 2H bBbi2K
`2bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K T`QTm2bi TQ` *X _2BMb+?X (I + 6qW 1 T
N M̂ 1
N )(y ✏) = y
a2 s 2 S3nat (x0 , . . . , xn ) +mH[mB2`- 2MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
v Hm2;Q `2bQHp2` U8XRRV T` +H+mH` 2H bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+Q /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM [m2
✏i := yi s(xi ), zi := s00 (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n. BMi2`TQH HQb /iQb y ✏X
1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 _2BMb+? T`QTQM2 2pBi` H `2bQHm+BƦM bm+2bBp /2 /Qb
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 z0 = zn = 0 TQ`[m2 s 2b mM 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 +ȹ#B+ Mim`HX bBbi2Kb v H +QMbi`m++BƦM /2 H Ki`Bx W 1 N T M̂ 1 N - THMi2M/Q /B`2+i@
a2 z = (z1 , . . . , zn 1 )T 2 _(n 1)⇥(n 1) v ✏ = (✏0 , . . . , ✏n )X *QKQ s 2 S3nat K2Mi2 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b [m2 +QM/m+2 H Q#i2M+BƦM /2H p2+iQ` z- +mvb
BMi2`TQH HQb /iQb s(xi ) = yi ✏i - i = 0, . . . , n- TQ/2KQb 2bi#H2+2` mM +QKTQM2Mi2b bQM Hb /2`Bp/b b2;mM/b /2H bTHBM2 /2 bmpBx/Q [m2 #mb+@
`2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 2H p2+iQ` z v 2H p2+iQ` y ✏ +QKQ 2M H /2KQbi`+BƦM /2H h2Q`2K KQb- zi = s00 (xi )- i = 0, . . . , nX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 z = 6M̂ 1 N (y ✏)-
8Xj UV /2/m+BKQb /2 U8XRkV [m2 2H p2+iQ` z p2`B}+
M̂ z = 6N (y ✏), (5.11)
W✏ qN T z = 0. (5.13)
/QM/2 M̂ 2 _ 2b H Ki`Bx // 2M U8X3V v N 2 _
(n 1)⇥(n 1) (n 2)⇥n
2b H
1bi `2H+BƦM T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` ✏ 2M iû`KBMQb /2H p2+iQ` z v Q#i2M2` mM bBbi2K
Ki`Bx i`B/B;QMH // TQ`
/2 2+m+BQM2b +mvQ p2+iQ` /2 BM+Ʀ;MBib 2b zX S` 2HHQ 2HBKBMKQb ✏ 2M U8XRRV-
0 1 1 miBHBxM/Q H `2H+BƦM ✏ = qW 1 N T z Q#i2MB/ /2 U8XRjV
h0 h0 1 h1 1 h1 1 0 ··· 0
B XX XX C 1
N T z),
B 0 h1 1 h 1 1 h2 1 h2 1 X X C M̂ z = 6N (y qW
N =B B X
C.
@ XX X XX X XX X XX X XX
C
Q#i2MB2M/Q 2H bB;mB2Mi2 bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b
0 A
1
0 ··· 0 hn 2 hn 2 hn 1 1
1
hn 1
1 (M̂ + 6qN W 1
N T )z = 6N y.
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 s00 (x) 2b HBM2H i`QxQb- TQ/2KQb +H+mH` 2H pHQ` G Ki`Bx /2H bBbi2K Mi2`BQ` 2b mM Ki`Bx /2}MB/ TQbBiBp- TQ` HQ [m2 2H
/2 J[s] bmKM/Q Hb +QMi`B#m+BQM2b /2 Hb BMi2;`H2b /2 +/ bm#BMi2`pHQ bBbi2K iB2M2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX lM p2x Q#i2MB/Q z- b2 /2i2`KBM ✏ K2/BMi2
H `2H+BƦM
X1 Z xi+1
n
1X
n 1
1 ✏ = qW 1 N T z.
J[s] = s00 (x)2 dx = hi (zi2 + zi zi+1 + zi+1
2
) = z T M̂ z.
i=0 xi 3 i=0 6 6BMHK2Mi2- H 7mM+BƦM bTHBM2 /2 bmpBx/Q b2 /2i2`KBM miBHBxM/Q 7Ʀ`@
KmHb bBKBH`2b U8X8V- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 2H pHQ` /2H bTHBM2 2M HQb MQ/Qb
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q pB2M2 //Q TQ` 2H p2+iQ` y ✏X
E[s] = ✏T W ✏,
s(x) =(yi ✏i )(1 i (x)) + (yi+1 ✏i+1 ) i (x)
/QM/2 W := diag(w0 , . . . , wn )X S` 2tT`2b` 2H 7mM+BQMH 2M iû`KBMQb /2 ✏- h2i
/2bT2DKQb z 2M U8XRRV- z = 6M̂ 1 N (y ✏) v bmbiBimBKQb Q#i2MB2M/Q i (x)(1 i (x))[zi (2 i (x)) + zi+1 (1 + i (x))], x 2 [xi , xi+1 ],
6
E[s] + qJ[s] = ✏T W ✏ + 6q(y ✏)T N T M̂ 1
N (y ✏). /QM/2 i (x) = (x xi )/hi - i = 0, . . . , n 1X
177 178
eX .2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+X 1bi +QMbB/2`+BƦM T2`KBi2 /2b+`B#B` iQ/ 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+
i`pûb /2 H B;mH//
1M H T`+iB+ MQ bB2KT`2 b2 M2+2bBi T`QtBK` mM 7mM+BƦM 2M iQ/Q mM
BMi2`pHQ bBMQ 2biBK` 2H pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM Q /2 bm /2`Bp/ 2M H;ȹM TmMiQ n
X
Q H BMi2;`H 2M H;ȹM BMi2`pHQX f 0 (c) = ai f (xi ) + R[f ]. (6.1)
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 i=0
f (c + h) f (c)
f 0 (c) = lı́m , lM +m2biBƦM /2 BMi2`ûb T` 2H MHBbBb /2H 2``Q` +QMbBbi2 2M B/2MiB}+`
h!0 h +QMDmMiQb /2 7mM+BQM2b T` HQb [m2 2H `2bB/mQ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b MmHQX
T`2+2 HƦ;B+Q Q#i2M2` T`QtBK+BQM2b /2 f 0 (c)- +H+mHM/Q 2H +Q+B2Mi2 BM+`2@
K2MiH /2 h 1 (f (c + h) f (c))- miBHBxM/Q p`BQb pHQ`2b /2 h- +/ p2x Kb .2}MB+BƦM eXRX lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ UeXRV 2b 2t+i 2M mM
T2[m2ƢQb- ?bi [m2 2H pHQ` /2 f 0 (c) b2 T`QtBK2 bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 2M 2H b2MiB/Q +QMDmMiQ /2 7mM+BQM2b F - bB
/2 [m2 2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q X
f 0 (c) = ai f (xi ), 8f 2 F,
0 f (c + h) f (c) i=0
R[f ] := f (c) ,
h
b2 T2[m2ƢQ 2M pHQ` #bQHmiQX *QKQ p2`2KQb H }MH /2 H b2++BƦM- MQ TQ@ 2b /2+B` R[f ] = 0 T` iQ/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 F X
/2KQb 2H2;B` pHQ`2b /2 h `#B``BK2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQb- v [m2 HQb 2``Q`2b /2 `2@ P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H HBM2HB// /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM BKTHB+ [m2
/QM/2Q iB2M/2M 1 +mM/Q h ! 0X SQ` 2HHQ- /2#2KQb T`QTQM2` mM pHQ`
+QM+`2iQ /2 h v 2bim/B` bB H 7Ʀ`KmH T`QTQ`+BQM mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM hX
m i Xm
/2 H /2`Bp/X R cj fj = cj R[fj ],
1M H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` ?2KQb +QMbB/2`/Q H BM7Q`K+BƦM T`Q+2/2Mi2 /2 j=0 j=0
H 2pHm+BƦM /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2M /Qb TmMiQb f (c) v f (c + h)X S`2+2 HƦ;B+Q [m2 bB

+QMbB/2`KQb H BM7Q`K+BƦM /2 H 2pHm+BƦM 2M Kb /2 /Qb TmMiQb- TQ/KQb TQ` HQ [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 7mM+BQM2b T` HQb [m2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i 2b mM
K2DQ`` 2H ;`/Q /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BHX *QKQ +QMb2+m2M+B /2 2biQ b2 /2/m+2 [m2 bB mM 7Ʀ`KmH
2b 2t+i 2M F iK#BûM b2` 2t+i 2M H +Hmbm` HBM2H /2 F X SQ` iMiQ-
1H T`Q#H2K /2 H /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ iì /2 2biBK` 2H pHQ` /2 H T` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH b2 2t+i 2M mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH F #bi +QM BKTQM2`
/2`Bp/ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM 2M H;ȹM TmMiQ x = c- +QK#BM/Q /2+m/K2Mi2 H 2t+iBim/ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2M mM #b2 /2 2b2 2bT+BQX
pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM
n
X
f 0 (c) ⇡ ai f (xi ), .2}MB+BƦM eXkX lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
i=0
H K2MQb k bB 2b 2t+i 2M Pk X G 7Ʀ`KmH iB2M2 ;`/Q T`2+BbBƦM 2t+iK2Mi2
k bB 2b 2t+i 2M Pk T2`Q MQ 2b 2t+i 2M Pk+1 X
bB2M/Q x0 , . . . , xn TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb- HHK/Qb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX
mM[m2 i2M;KQb B;mH// T` H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b- bB2KT`2Pn 2tBbiB`M 7mM@ .2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2M Hb +QM/B+BQM2b M2+2b`Bb v bm}+B2Mi2b /2
+BQM2b f /2`Bp#H2b 2M c T` Hb [m2 f 0 (c) MQ +QBM+B/ +QM i=0 ai f (xi )X SQ` 2t+iBim/X 1HB;B2M/Q +QKQ #b2 (x c)j - j = 0, . . . , k- p2KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
iMiQ- 2b BKT`2b+BM/B#H2 i2M2` 2M +m2Mi 2H 2``Q` UiK#BûM HHK/Q `2bB/mQ Q UeXRV iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM H K2MQb k bB
`2biQV /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
Xn n
X
R[f ] := f 0 (c) ai f (xi ). ai (xi c)j = j1 , j = 0, . . . , k.
i=0 i=0
179 180
hQKM/Q k = 0- p2KQb [m2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2b 2t+i 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
T` Hb +QMbiMi2b bB v bƦHQ bB HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH bmKM +2`Q R[p] = 1 6= 0,
n
X
ai = 0, v H 7Ʀ`KmH MQ 2b 2t+i T` p 2 Pn+2 TQ` HQ [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2b
i=0 K2MQ` [m2 n + 2X 1M 2H +bQ 2M [m2 c 2 {x0 , . . . , xn }- ?v mM /iQ `2T2iB/Q
2M 2H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 Mi2`BQ`X SQ` iMiQ- /B+?Q T`Q#H2K /KBi2 mM
aB [m2`2KQb [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM b2 TQ` HQ K2MQb mMQ Ƣ/B`2KQb H
bQHm+BƦM 2M p 2 Pn+1 +QM R[p] = 1 6= 0- /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2H ;`/Q /2
+QM/B+BƦM
Xn T`2+BbBƦM 2b K2MQ` [m2 n + 1X
ai (xi c) = 1,
i=0
6Ơ`KmHb /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ
v T` ;`/Qb Kb HiQb i2M2KQb Hb +QM/B+BQM2b
n lM B/2 #bB+ T` +QMbi`mB` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ +QMbBbi2
X
ai (xi j
c) = 0, j = 2, . . . , k. 2M bmbiBimB` f TQ` mM 7mM+BƦM p Kb bBKTH2 [m2 f [m2 H T`QtBK2X aB p 2b mM
i=0 #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f - T`2+2 `xQM#H2 [m2 p0 (c) b2 mM #m2M T`QtBK@
+BƦM /2 f 0 (c)X 1H +H+mHQ /2 /2`Bp/b 2b TìB+mH`K2Mi2 bBKTH2 T` TQHBMQ@
1H +QMDmMiQ /2 +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ T` ;`/Q k Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 2M
KBQb- TQ` HQ [m2 `2bmHi Mim`H T`QTQM2` H 2H2++BƦM /2 p = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )X
7Q`K Ki`B+BH
0 1 /2Kb- THB+M/Q 7Ʀ`KmHb /2H 2``Q` /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b TQHBMƦKB+Qb- 2b
0
1 1 ··· 1
10 1
a0
0 TQbB#H2 /2/m+B` +Qib T` 2H 2``Q` f 0 (c) p0 (c) /2 H T`QtBK+BƦM p0 (c) /2
B1C f 0 (c)X
B x0 c x1 c ··· xn c C B a1 C B C
B XX XX XX XX CB X C = B0C.
A @ XX A B X C (6.2)
@ X X X X @ XX A S` 2tT`2b` H B/2 Mi2`BQ` +QMbB/2`2KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 /2H
(x0 c)k (x1 c)k · · · (xn c)k an TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
0
n
X
S` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH i2M; ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2t+iK2Mi2 k 2b M2+2b`BQ
p(x) = f (xi )li (x),
[m2 b2 p2`B}[m2 H +QM/B+BƦM /B+BQMH i=0
n
X
ai (xi c)k+1 6= 0. /2`BpM/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM v 2pHmM/Q 2M x = c Q#i2M2KQb 2H
i=0 pHQ`
n
X
o2KQb [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ p0 (c) = li0 (c)f (xi ).
2bi /2}MB/Q v 2b bB2KT`2 K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n + 1X i=0
S`QTQbB+BƦM eXjX 1H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû@ *QKT`M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` +QM UeXRV- p2KQb [m2 H 2H2++BƦM TìB+mH` /2
`B+ +QM n + 1 MQ/Qb 2b K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n + 1X aB /2Kb c 2 {x0 , . . . , xn }- ai = li0 (c)- i = 0, . . . , n- / Hm;` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ iH [m2
2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2b K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 0 (c) 2b T`2+BbK2Mi2 H /2`Bp/ 2M x = c /2H TQHBMQKBQ
/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 2M x0 , . . . , xn X
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 c 2/ {x0 , . . . , xn } v b2 p 2 Pn+2 2H TQHBMQ@
KBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2
.2}MB+BƦM eX9X lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ UeXRV b2 /B+2 /2 iBTQ
p(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , n, p(c) = 0, p0 (c) = 1. BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ bB H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 0 (c) +QBM+B/2 +QM H /2`Bp/ 2M c /2H
181 182
TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 f 2M HQb TmMiQb /2 2pHm+BƦM x0 , . . . , xn /2 H 1H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` Q7`2+2 H TQbB#BHB// /2 Q#i2M2` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 Hb
7Ʀ`KmH 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ `2bQHpB2M/Q 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b UeXkV +QM
Xn
d k = n +QKQ Hi2`MiBp H 7Ʀ`KmH /B`2+i ai = li0 (c)- i = 0, . . . , nX
ai f (xi ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)
i=0
dx x=c .2H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` iK#BûM b2 /2/m+2 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/QX
Q- 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2- bB H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2H iBTQ UeXRV v iB2M2 +QKQ +Q2}+B2Mi2b *Q`QH`BQ eXeX 1Mi`2 iQ/b Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ [m2 mbM
Hb /2`Bp/b 2M c /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn HQb KBbKQb MQ/Qb- H /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ 2b H [m2 H+Mx KvQ` ;`/Q /2
ai = li0 (c), i = 0, . . . , n. T`2+BbBƦMX
Lm2bi`Q T`ƦtBKQ Q#D2iBpQ +QMbBbi2 2M 2bi#H2+2` mM T`QTB2// +2`+ /2H .2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K eX8- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ 2b H
;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX P#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB ȹMB+ [m2 H+Mx mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM KvQ` Q B;mH [m2 nX _2+őT`Q+@
k = n- H Ki`Bx /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b UeXkV 2b +m/`/ v K2Mi2 iQ/ 7Ʀ`KmH [m2 H+M+2 mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM KvQ` Q B;mH [m2 n-
+QBM+B/2 +QM H i`bTm2bi /2 mM Ki`Bx /2 oM/2`KQM/2X SQ` iMiQ- UeXkV 2b 2t+i 2M Pn v- TQ` 2H h2Q`2K eX8- /2#2 +QBM+B/B` +QM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ
/KBi2 mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦMX 1H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q B/2MiB}+ H ȹMB+ 7Ʀ`KmH BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX
[m2 2b 2t+i T` Pn 2M mM +QMDmMiQ /2 MQ/Qb //QX
SQ/2KQb /2/m+B` 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM Mm@
h2Q`2K eX8X lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2b 2t+i 2M Pn bB v bƦHQ Kû`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ miBHBxM/Q H bB;mB2Mi2 T`QTQbB+BƦMX
bB 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX
S`QTQbB+BƦM eXdX lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 UeXRV 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX 1MiQM+2b /BbiBMiQb H+Mx ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM n + 1 bB v bƦHQ
Qn bB 2b mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ
n
X d BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v !n+1
0
(c) = 0- /QM/2 !n+1 (x) := i=0 (x xi )X
ai f (xi ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x).
i=0
dx x=c .2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K eX8- i2M2KQb [m2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM
aB p 2 Pn - i2M2KQb [m2 P (p; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = p(x)- /2 /QM/2 MmKû`B+ 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ bB v bƦHQ bB 2b 2t+i 2M Pn X SQ` iMiQ- b2
H+Mx` 2H KtBKQ ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
Qn n + 1 bB v bƦHQ bB H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i
n
X d T` 2H TQHBMQKBQ !n+1 (x) := i=0 (x xi )X *QKQ !n+1 b2 MmH 2M iQ/Qb
ai p(xi ) = P (p; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = p0 (c).
dx x=c HQb MQ/Qb- !n+1 (xi ) = 0- i = 0, . . . , n- H +QM/B+BƦM /2 2t+iBim/ T` 2bi2
i=0
TQHBMQKBQ / Hm;` H `2H+BƦM
SQ` iMiQ R[p] = 0 T` iQ/ 7mM+BƦM p 2 Pn v H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i 2M Pn X
n
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- b2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2t+i 2M Pn X *QKQ 0
X
!n+1 (c) = ai !n+1 (xi ) = 0.
p := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) i=0
2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n iH [m2

Qn
p(xi ) = f (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n *QKQ iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb bQM /BbiBMiQb- H 7mM+BƦM !n+1 (x) = i=0 (x xi ) MQ
i2M2KQb iB2M2 +2`Qb /Q#H2bX SQ` iMiQ- bB b2 p2`B}+ H +QM/B+BƦM !n+1 (c) = 0- i2M2KQb
0
X n n
X [m2 !n+1 (c) 6= 0X .2`BpM/Q log |!n+1 (x)| 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 c- Q#i2M2KQb
d
ai f (xi ) = ai p(xi ) = p0 (c) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x),
i=0 i=0
dx x=c 0
!n+1 (c) X 1
n
= . (6.3)
HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX !n+1 (c) i=0
c xi
183 184
aB 2H MȹK2`Q /2PTmMiQb 2b T` v 2biM bBKûi`B+K2Mi2 /Bbi`B#mB/Qb `2b@ /QM/2 ci (h) 2b mM TmMiQ BMi2`K2/BQ 2Mi`2 c v c + ti h /2/m+BKQb [m2
T2+iQ c- 2MiQM+2b i=0 (c xi ) 1 = 0 v b2 p2`B}+ H +QM/B+BƦM T` [m2
n
H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ H+M+2 ;`/Q /2 f (c) X

n ⇣ n
X ⌘ f 00 (c)h X
n
T`2+BbBƦM n + 1X Rc,h [f ] = ai + f 0 (c) 1+ a i ti + a i t2

h i=0 i=0
2! i=0 i
.2b``QHHQb /2 hvHQ` v Q`/2M /2 +QMp2`;2M+B
n
X n
f (k) (c)hk 1
hk X (k+1)
+ ··· + ai tki + f (ci (h))ai tk+1
i .
G iû+MB+ /2 /2b``QHHQb /2 hvHQ` Tm2/2 b2` ȹiBH T` /2i2`KBM` 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 k! i=0
(k + 1)! i=0
Q`/2M /2 +QMp2`;2M+B HiQXP Zm2`2KQb MHBx` [mû +QM/B+BQM2b bQM M2+2b`Bb (6.4)
T` i2M2` +QMp2`;2M+B /2 i=0 ai f (xi ) H /2`Bp/ f 0 (c) +mM/Q HQb TmMiQb
n
S` +M+2H` HQb T`BK2`Qb k +1 iû`KBMQb /2 2bi2 /2b``QHHQ- /2#2KQb BKTQM2`
x0 , . . . , xn 2biM +/ p2x Kb +2`+ /2 cX
n
X
SìBKQb /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM UeXRV +QM +2Mi`Q c = 0- 2b+`Bi 2M ai = 0
H 7Q`K i=0
n
X
Xn
f 0 (0) = ai f (ti ) + R[f ].
a i ti = 1
i=0
i=0
S` +/ c v +/ h 6= 0 +QMbB/2`KQb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 Xn
H 7Q`K ai tji = 0, j = 2, . . . , k.
n
1X i=0
f 0 (c) = ai f (c + ti h) + Rc,h [f ].
h i=0
1bib +QM/B+BQM2b bQM T`2+BbK2Mi2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b UeXkV /2 2t+iBim/ 2M Pk
S`2i2M/2KQb /2i2`KBM` +ƦKQ /2#2M b2` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b ai T` TQ/2` ;`M@ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
n
X
iBx` +QMp2`;2M+B f 0 (0) = ai f (ti ) + R[f ].
n
1X i=0
lı́m ai f (c + ti h) = f 0 (c),
h!0 h
i=0
h2Q`2K eX3X a2
n
X
2 BKTQM2` +QM/B+BQM2b /B+BQMH2b T` [m2 H +QMp2`;2M+B b2 `TB/X
f 0 (0) = ai f (ti ) + R[f ]
S` #Q`/` 2bi2 T`Q#H2K- Q#i2M/`2KQb 2H /2b``QHHQ /2 hvHQ` /2H i=0
`2bB/mQ H`2/2/Q` /2H TmMiQ c
mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2t+i 2M Pk - k 1- v b2 f mM 7mM+BƦM
n /2 +Hb2 C k+1 2M mM 2MiQ`MQ /2 c- 2MiQM+2b
1 X
Rc,h [f ] = f 0 (c) ai f (c + ti h). Pn
h i=0 ai f (c + ti h)
lı́m i=0
= f 0 (c)
h!0 h
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 +/ iû`KBMQ /KBi2 2H /2b``QHHQ
v
Pn n
f (k)
(c) k k f (k+1)
(ci (h)) k+1 k+1 f 0 (c) h 1
i=0 ai f (c + ti h) f (k+1) (c) X k+1
0
f (c + ti h) = f (c) + f (c)ti h + · · · + ti h + ti h , lı́m = ai t .
k! (k + 1)! h!0 hk (k + 1)! i=0 i
185 186
.2KQbi`+BƦMX Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ BKTHB+M [m2 HQb T`BK2`Qb iû`@ `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 iû`KBMQ T`BM+BTH /2H 2``Q`X 1H iû`KBMQ T`BM+BTH /2H
KBMQb /2H /2b``QHHQ /2 hvHQ` /2 2``Q` T`QTQ`+BQM mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM /2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q TQ` H 7Ʀ`KmH
Pn +mM/Q h 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQX G TQi2M+B hk 2M 2bi2 iû`KBMQ / mM
i=0 ai f (c + ti h) B/2 /2H Q`/2M /2 +QMp2`;2M+B /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX o2KQb [m2 2t+iBim/ v Q`/2M
Rc,h [f ] := f 0 (c) ,
h /2 +QMp2`;2M+B 2biM `2H+BQM/b- v [m2 mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM k BKTHB+
mM Q`/2M /2 +QMp2`;2M+B /2 ;`/Q kX
2M iQ`MQ H TmMiQ c b2 +M+2HMX SQ` iMiQ- b2 iB2M2
1M +B2ìb Q+bBQM2b 2b TQbB#H2 T`QTQ`+BQM` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` 2t+iQX
h k n
X S` 2HHQ miBHBx`2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q
Rc,h [f ] = f (k+1) (ci (h))ai tk+1
i ,
(k + 1)! i=0 G2K eXNX a2 f 2 C[a, b]- x0 , . . . , xn 2 [a, b]- w0 , . . . , wn 0 2MiQM+2b 2tBbi2
⇠ 2 [a, b] iH [m2
/QM/2 ci (h) 2b mM TmMiQ BMi2`K2/BQ 2Mi`2 c v c + ti hX a2 /2/m+2 [m2 X n X n
wi f (xi ) = f (⇠) wi .
n
k f (k+1) (c) X k+1 i=0 i=0
lı́m h Rc,h [f ] = ai t . Pn
h!0 (k + 1)! i=0 i .2KQbi`+BƦMX h`BpBH bB w0 = · · · = wn = 0X aB i=0 wi > 0- i2M2KQb
Pn
*QKQ k 1- i2M2KQb Pn i
mı́n(f (x0 ), . . . , f (xn ))  i=0
w f (xi )
 máx(f (x0 ), . . . , f (xn )).
lı́m Rc,h [f ] = 0. i=0 wi
h!0
.2H h2Q`2K /2 "QHxMQ b2 /2/m+2 [m2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M mM BMi2`@
1M 2H h2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` ?2KQb pBbiQ [m2 bB f 2b /2 +Hb2 C k+1 2M mM pHQ iQK +mH[mB2` pHQ` BMi2`K2/BQ 2Mi`2 /Qb pHQ`2b //Qb UT`QTB2// /2
2MiQ`MQ /2 c- 2MiQM+2b .`#QmtVX SQ` iMiQ f iQK` 2M H;ȹM TmMiQ ⇠ 2H pHQ`
n n Pn
1X f (k+1) (c)hk X k+1 w f (xi )
f 0 (c) = ai f (c + ti h) ai t + g(h)hk , Pn i
f (⇠) = i=0 .
h i=0 (k + 1)! i=0 i i=0 wi
+QM lı́mh!0 g(h) = 0X aB H 7Ʀ`KmH iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2t+iK2Mi2 k- 1H G2K Mi2`BQ` Tm2/2 b2` ȹiBH T` /2/m+B` 2tT`2bBQM2b /2H 2``Q` /2
2MiQM+2b H +QMbiMi2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM k T` mM 7mM+BƦM
Xn
f 2 C k+1 [a, b]X SìB2M/Q /2
K := ai tk+1
i
n
i=0 hk X (k+1)
Rc,h [f ] = f (ci (h))ai tk+1 ,
2b MQ MmH v 2H 2``Q` /KBi2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM bBMiƦiB+ (k + 1)! i=0 i
/QM/2 ci (h) 2b mM TmMiQ BMi2`K2/BQ 2Mi`2 c v xi = c + ti hX aB iQ/Qb HQb

n
1X Kf (k+1) (c) k
Rc,h [f ] = f 0 (c) ai f (c + ti h) = h + o(hk ) (h ! 0). T`Q/m+iQb ai tk+1 bQM /2H KBbKQ bB;MQ MQ 2bi`B+iQ TQ/`2KQb THB+` 2H G2K
h i=0 (k + 1)! i
eXN H 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f (k+1) v /2/m+B` [m2 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 [a, b] iH [m2
1H iû`KBMQ n
X n
X
Kf (k+1) (c) k f (k+1) (ci (h))ai tk+1 = f (k+1) (⇠) ai tk+1 .
h i i
(k + 1)! i=0 i=0
187 188
LQi2KQb [m2 ⇠ /2T2M/2 /2 f /2 c v /2 hX 1M 2bi2 +bQ- i2M2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 SìB2M/Q /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q` /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+
E(x) = [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f !n+1 (x)
Qn
+QM !n+1 (x) = j=0 (x xj )- p2KQb [m2 2b T`2+BbQ /2`Bp` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b
(k+1) n
X
f (⇠) k
Rc,h [f ] = K h , K := ai tk+1
i . +mvQb `;mK2MiQb bQM p`B#H2bX P7`2+2`2KQb mM bQHm+BƦM /2 2bi2 T`Q#H2K
(k + 1)!
2M 2H TûM/B+2X
i=0
1M 2H +bQ ;2M2`H- b2T`M/Q HQb bmKM/Qb +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b TQbBiBpQb v HQb Sm2/2 2pBi`b2 /2`Bp` 2tTHő+BiK2Mi2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b `2bT2+iQ bmb
[m2 iB2M2M +Q2}+B2Mi2b M2;iBpQb i2M/`2KQb `;mK2MiQbX G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K
/2 >2`KBi2 +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn , c, c 2M H 7Q`K
K1 f (k+1) (⇠1 ) K2 f (k+1) (⇠2 ) k
Rc,h [f ] = h , P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , c, c)(x) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) + [x0 , . . . , xn , c]f !n+1 (x)
(k + 1)!
+ [x0 , . . . , xn , c, c]f (x c)!n+1 (x),
/QM/2 Qn
X X /QM/2 !n+1 (x) = j=0 (x xj )X *QKQ 2H MQ/Q c 2bi `2T2iB/Q H K2MQb /Qb
K1 := ai tk+1 , K2 := ai tk+1 ,
i i p2+2b 2M H bm+2bBƦM x0 , . . . , xn , c, c- i2M2KQb [m2
ai tk+1
i
<0 ai tk+1
i
>0
d
p2`B}+M P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , c, c)(x) = f 0 (c).
dx x=c
n
X n
X SQ` iMiQ
K := ai tk+1
i = K1 K2 , K̄ := |ai tk+1
i | = K 1 + K2 . d
i=0 i=0
f 0 (c) = 0
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) + [x0 , . . . , xn , c]f !n+1 (c)
dx x=c
d
hQKM/Q pHQ`2b #bQHmiQb- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` mM +Qi /2H 2``Q` + [x0 , . . . , xn , c, c]f [(x c)!n+1 (x)].
dx x=c
K̄Mk+1 k .2`BpM/Q
|Rc,h [f ]|  h , Mk+1 = máx |f (k+1) (x)|.
(k + 1)! x2[a,b] d 0
[(x c)!n+1 (x)] = (x c)!n+1 (x) + !n+1 (x),
dx
1``Q` /2 mM 7Ơ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƠM /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v 2pHmM/Q 2M x = c- Q#i2M2KQb
aB i2M2KQb mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ 2MiQM+2b d
[(x c)!n+1 (x)] = !n+1 (c),
dx x=c
d /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp@
R[f ] = f 0 (c) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)
dx x=c +BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM p2Mő /2}MB/Q TQ` d
R[f ] = f 0 (c) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)
dx x=c
E(x) := f (x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x), 0
= [x0 , . . . , xn , c]f !n+1 (c) + [x0 , . . . , xn , c, c]f !n+1 (c).
Hm2;Q 2H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ b2 Q#iB2M2 /2`BpM/Q 2H 1H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q T`2b2Mi /B72`2Mi2b 7Ʀ`KmHb /2H 2``Q` b2;ȹM H TQ@
2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM bB+BƦM `2HiBp /2 HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn v 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2 H /2`Bp/
R[f ] = E 0 (c). cX
189 190
S`QTQbB+BƦM eXRyX a2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQ@ THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q /2/m+BKQb [m2 T` +/
HiQ`BQ UeXRVX a2 I 2H K2MQ` BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn v f 2 C n+1 (I)- 2tBbi2 ⇠ iH [m2
cX
f (n+1) (⇠) Y
UV aB c = xi T` H;ȹM i- 2MiQM+2b 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ iB2M2 R[f ] = (c xj ).
;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM n v- T` +/ f 2 C n+1 (I)- 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 I iH [m2 (n + 1)!
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
f (n+1) (⇠) Y
R[f ] = (c xj ). 1M +bQ +QMi``BQ- c 2
/ {x0 , . . . , xn }X amTQMB2M/Q [m2 f 2 C n+2 (I)- TQ@
(n + 1)!
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
/2KQb THB+` 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ ;2M2`HBx/Q v /2/m+B` [m2 2tBbi2M
⇠1 , ⇠2 2 I iH2b [m2
Pn
U#V aB c 2
/ {x0 , . . . , xn } v i=0 (c xi ) 1 = 0- 2MiQM+2b 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM f (n+1) (⇠1 ) 0 f (n+2) (⇠2 )
MmKû`B+ iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM n + 1 v- T` +/ f 2 C n+2 (I)- 2tBbi2 R[f ] =
(n + 1)!
!n+1 (c) +
(n + 2)!
!n+1 (c).
⇠ 2 I iH [m2
n
f (n+2) (⇠) Y THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH UeXjV- i2M2KQb
R[f ] = (c xj ).
(n + 2)! j=0 n n
X 1 Y
0
Pn !n+1 (c) = !n+1 (c) , !n+1 (c) = (c xj ).
U+V 1M 2H +bQ ;2M2`H c 2
/ {x0 , . . . , xn } v i=0 (c xi ) 1 6= 0- H 7Ʀ`KmH i=0
c xi j=0
H+Mx ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM n v T` +/ f 2 C n+2 (I) 2tBbi2M ⇠1 , ⇠2 2 I Pn
iH2b [m2 aB /2Kb i=0 (c xi ) 1 = 0- 2MiQM+2b !n+1
0
(c) = 0 v H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q`
b2 `2/m+2 mM bQHQ iû`KBMQX
n
Y ⇣ f (n+1) (⇠ ) X
n
1 f (n+2) (⇠2 ) ⌘
1
R[f ] = (c xj ) + .
(n + 1)! i=0 c xi (n + 2)! H;mMb 7Ơ`KmHb /2 /2`Bp+BƠM MmKö`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ
j=0
1tT`2b`2KQb Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ Kb +QKmM2b 2M H 7Q`K
.2KQbi`+BƦMX 1H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM b2 /2/m+2 2M +/ +bQ /2H h2Q`2K n
X
eX8 v H S`QTQbB+BƦM eXdX aB c +QBM+B/2 +QM mM MQ/Q c = xi 2MiQM+2b f 0 (c) = h 1
ai f (c + ti h) + Rc,h [f ].
Y i=0
!n+1 (x) = (x c) (x xj ),
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
JQ/B}+M/Q c v h +K#B`2KQb 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2 H /2`Bp/ v H
2b+H /2H T`Q#H2KX 1M 2H +bQ /2 i2M2` /Qb TmMiQb xi = c + ti h- i = 0, 1- H
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2H iBTQ
Y f (c + t1 h) f (c + t0 h)
0
!n+1 (c) = 0, !n+1 (c) = (c xj ) 6= 0 f 0 (c) = + Rc,h [f ].
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
(t1 t0 )h
v H 2biBK+BƦM /2 H /2`Bp/ +QBM+B/2 +QM H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ [x0 , x1 ]f 2M

v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` b2 `2/m+2
K#Qb TmMiQb- bB2M/Q 2H 2``Q`
Y
R[f ] = [x0 , . . . , xn , c]f (c xj ). f 00 (⇠1 ) f 000 (⇠2 )
j2{0,...,n}\{i}
Rc,h [f ] = (t0 + t1 )h + t0 t1 h2 ,
2 6
191 192
/QM/2 ⇠1 , ⇠2 /2MQiM TmMiQb /2H K2MQ` BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 c, x0 , x1 X .2 /QM/2 a1 = 0X 1bQ bB;MB}+ [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH bQHK2Mi2 mb k MQ/Qb v- /2
a2 H+Mx` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM k- +mM/Q t0 + t1 = 0- Q 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2 ?2+?Q- +QBM+B/2 +QM H 7Ʀ`KmH #b/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb c h v c + h- /2b+`Bi
+mM/Q c b2 2H TmMiQ K2/BQ /2 x0 , x1 X hQKM/Q t0 = 1- t1 = 1 Q#i2M2KQb Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2X
H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM 2M iû`KBMQb /2 /B72`2M+Bb +2Mi`H2b SQ` ȹHiBKQ /Bb+miB`2KQb mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ 2M 9 TmMiQb
f (c + h) f (c h) 000
f (⇠) 2 bBKûi`B+Qb `2bT2+iQ H +2Mi`Q [m2 H+Mx mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 9X hQKKQb
f 0 (c) = h . t0 = 2- t1 = 1- t2 = 1- t3 = 2X G bBK2i`ő /2H T`Q#H2K T2`KBi2 /2/m+B`
2h 6
[m2 a3 = a0 v a2 = a1 v Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ b2 `2/m+2M
hQKM/Q t0 = 0- t1 = 1- i2M2KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM T`Q;`2bBp
a2 + 2a3 = 1/2, a2 + 8a3 = 0.
0 f (c + h) f (c) f 00 (⇠)
f (c) =
h 2
h. _2bQHpB2M/Q 2H bBbi2K- b2 Q#iB2M2 a0 = a3 = 1/12 v a1 = a2 = 2/3 v H
7Ʀ`KmH +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 2b
KB2Mi`b [m2 H 2H2++BƦM t0 = 1- t1 = 0 / Hm;` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM
`2;`2bBp f (c 2h) 8f (c h) + 8f (c + h) f (c + 2h) f (5) (⇠) 4
f (c) f (c h) f 00 (⇠) f 0 (c) = + h .
0
f (c) = + h, 12h 30
h 2
K#b +QM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM RX 1``Q` /2 `2/QM/2Q v /2`Bp+BƠM MmKö`B+
1M 2H +bQ /2 j TmMiQb Un = 2V- TQ/2KQb +QMbi`mB` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2`B@ 1H 2``Q` /2 `2/QM/2Q T`2+2 H i2M2` [m2 `2T`2b2Mi` MȹK2`Qb `2H2b 2M H
pM/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM Q 2HBKBMM/Q HQb T`BK2`Qb iû`KBMQb 2M K2KQ`B /2H Q`/2M/Q`X H b2` H K2KQ`B 7őbB+ }MBi- H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
2H /2b``QHHQ /2 hvHQ`- mM[m2 HQ Kb T`+iB+Q 2b /2i2`KBM` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b M2+2b`BK2Mi2 miBHBx mM MȹK2`Q /2 +B7`b }MBiQX G `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M +QK
miBHBxM/Q Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ 2M P2 X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- H 7Ʀ`KmH T`Q@ ~QiMi2 BMi2Mi 2ti`2` mM bm#+QMDmMiQ }MBiQ /2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2b /2 KM2`
;`2bBp [m2 miBHBx MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b t0 = 0- t1 = 1- t2 = 2- / Hm;` Hb [m2 2H MȹK2`Q `2T`2b2Mi#H2 2M +QK ~QiMi2 Kb T`ƦtBKQ fl(x) mM MȹK2`Q
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ `2H //Q x U/2Mi`Q /2 mM KTHBQ `M;Q /2 pHQ`2b `2H2b rmin  |x|  rmax V
a0 + a1 + a2 = 0, a1 + 2a2 = 1, a1 + 4a2 = 0. i2M; mM 2``Q` `2HiBpQ +Qi/Q- 2b /2+B`-
_2bQHpB2M/Q 2H bBbi2K b2 Q#iB2M2 a0 = 3/2- a1 = 2- a2 = 1/2- /2 /QM/2 b2 fl(x) = x(1 + ), | | < u,

/2/m+2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM k
/QM/2 u 2b H HHK/ mMB// /2 `2/QM/2QX aB H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2b #BM`B- p
0 3f (c) + 4f (c + h) f (c + 2h) f 000 (⇠) 2 2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2 +B7`b /2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM [m2 HK+2M 2H Q`/2M/Q` v emin
f (c) = + h . v emax bQM HQb 2tTQM2Mi2b KőMBKQ v KtBKQ /2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM- i2M2KQb
2h 3
G 7Ʀ`KmH `2;`2bBp +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 Ut0 = 2- t1 = 1- t2 = 0V 2b u=2 p
, rmin = 2emin 1
, rmax = 2emax 1
(1 2 p
).
000
f (c 2h) 4f (c h) + 3f (c) f (⇠) 2 1M bBKTH2 T`2+BbBƦM- 2H pHQ` /2 H mMB// /2 `2/QM/2Q 2b u = 2 24
⇡ 5.96 ⇥
f 0 (c) = + h .
2h 3 10 8 v 2M /Q#H2 T`2+BbBƦM u = 2 53 ⇡ 1.11 ⇥ 10 16 X
G 7Ʀ`KmH +2Mi`/ 2M j TmMiQb +QM t0 = 1- t1 = 0- t2 = 1- HH2p Hb aB x0 , x1 bQM `2T`2b2Mi#H2b 2t+iK2Mi2 2M `BiKûiB+ /2 +QK ~QiMi2-
+QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ Hb QT2`+BQM2b `BiKûiB+b 2M 2H Q`/2M/Q` p2`B}+M
a0 + a1 + a2 = 0, a0 + a2 = 1, a0 + a2 = 0. fl(x0 ⇧ x1 ) = (x0 ⇧ x1 )(1 + ), | |  u,
193 194
/QM/2 ⇧ /2MQi +mH[mB2` /2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b +, , ⇥, /X 0.001
lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K

0.0008
n
X
0 1
f (c) = h ai f (c + ti h) + Rc,h [f ],
i=0
0.0006
/QM/2 2H 2``Q` p2`B}+ mM +Qi+BƦM /2H iBTQ

n
X 0.0004
K̄Mk+1 hk
|Rc,h [f ]|  , Mk+1 = máx |f k+1 (x)|, K̄ := |ai tk+1
i |,
(k + 1)! x2[a,b]
i=0
0.0002
/QM/2 [a, b] 2b mM BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb T` HQb pHQ`2b /2 h
+QMbB/2`/QbX G 7Ʀ`KmH +QMp2`;2 +mM/Q h ! 0- HQ [m2 T`2+2 BM/B+` [m2 H
2H2++BƦM /2 h iM T2[m2ƢQ +QKQ b2 TQbB#H2 b2` p2MiDQbX 1bi +QMbB/2`+BƦM 0
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
MQ iB2M2 2M +m2Mi 2H 2``Q` /2 `2/QM/2QX
6B;m` eXRX *Qi /2 H bmK /2 2``Q`2b /2 `2/QM/2Q v /2 i`mM++BƦM
*mM/Q b2 2pHȹ mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 h T` f 0 (c) ⇡ (2h) 1 (f (c + h) f (c h))X
Pn
ai f (c + ti h) hőTB+K2Mi2 |d(h)
ˆ d(h)| mK2Mi H /BbKBMmB` h v mM 2H2++BƦM /2 mM T`@
d(h) := i=0
h K2i`Q h /2KbB/Q T2[m2ƢQ- / Hm;` 2``Q`2b /2 ;`M iKƢQX G 2H2++BƦM
/2 h /2#2 2[mBHB#`` K#b 7m2Mi2b /2 2``Q`, 2H 2``Q` /2 T`QtBK+BƦM v 2H
+QK2i2KQb mM 2``Q` /2#B/Q H `2/QM/2Q v 2H pHQ` d(h)ˆ +H+mH/Q TQ` 2H Q`/2@ 2``Q` /2 `2/QM/2QX
M/Q` MQ b2` 2H KBbKQ [m2 2H pHQ` d(h) [m2 ?m#Bû`KQb Q#i2MB/Q `2HBxM/Q
S` BHmbi`` 2bi2 ?2+?Q +QMbB/2`2KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+
+H+mHQb 2t+iQb TìB2M/Q /2 pHQ`2b 2t+iQb /2 H 7mM+BƦMX SQ` iMiQ- 2H 2``Q`
+QK2iB/Q H THB+` H 7Ʀ`KmH Tm2/2 /2b+QKTQM2`b2 +QKQ bmK /2 /Qb 2``Q`2b f (c + h) f (c h)
f 0 (c) = + Rc,h [f ],
/2 /BbiBMi BMi2`T`2i+BƦM 2h
+QM Rc,h [f ] = f 000 (⇠)h2 /6X GHKM/Q M3 := máxx2[a,b] |f 000 (x)|- b2 /2/m+2 H
f 0 (c) ˆ = Rc,h [f ]
d(h) ˆ
(d(h) d(h)). bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi /2H `2bB/mQ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
1H T`BK2` iû`KBMQ Rc,h [f ] ?+2 `272`2M+B H 2``Q` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM- |Rc,h [f ]| 

M3 2
h .
bmTQMB2M/Q [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH b2 ?v 2pHm/Q 2t+iK2Mi2X 1H b2;mM/Q iû`KBMQ 6
ˆ
d(h) d(h) 2b 2H 2``Q` /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH- i2MB2M/Q 2M S` bBKTHB}+` Mm2bi`Q MHBbBb bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 TìBKQb /2 pHQ`2b
+m2Mi H +mKmH+BƦM bm+2bBp /2 HQb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b 2``Q`2b /2 `2/QM/2Q h- x0 = c h v x1 = c + h 2t+iQb v `2T`2b2Mi#H2b 2M `BiKûiB+ /2 +QK
v H BKTQbB#BHB// /2 TìB` /2 pHQ`2b 2t+iQbX hQKM/Q pHQ`2b #bQHmiQb ~QiMi2X SQ` Kmv 2bi#H2 [m2 b2 mM H;Q`BiKQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2 mM 7mM+BƦM-
Q#i2M2KQb mM +Qi /2H 2``Q` iQiH [m2 BM+Q`TQ` K#b 7m2Mi2b /2 2``Q` bB2KT`2 ?#` mM /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 HQb pHQ`2b y0 := f (x0 )- y1 := f (x1 ) v HQb
pHQ`2b +H+mH/Qb ŷi - /2 KM2` [m2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb ⌘i := ŷi yi p2`B}+M
ˆ K̄Mk+1 hk ˆ
|f 0 (c) d(h)|  + |d(h) d(h)|.
(k + 1)! |⌘i |  Lu|yi |, i = 0, 1, (6.5)
195 196
/QM/2 u 2b H mMB// /2 `2/QM/2Q /2 H `BiKûiB+ v L mM +QMbiMi2 KvQ` /QM/2 M1 := máxx2[a,b] |f 0 (x)|X liBHBxM/Q H /2bB;mH// Mi2`BQ` 2M UeXdV-
Q B;mH [m2 R- [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 f - c v h v iK#BûM /2H KûiQ/Q /2 2pHm+BƦM Q#i2M2KQb H +Qi
miBHBx/Q T` +H+mH` HQb pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM f X 1M 2H +bQ /2 H;Q`BiKQb ⇣
2bi#H2b- 2bi +QMbiMi2 L MQ b2` /2KbB/Q ;`M/2X aB H 7mM+BƦM f Tm2/2 M0 Lu ⌘
|r(h)|  u(2 + u) M1 + . (6.8)
2pHm`b2 +QM ;`M T`2+BbBƦM 2M mM BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 c h, c, c + h- h
i2M/`2KQb L ⇡ 1X
S` +Qi` H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 H /2`Bp/ d(h) v 2H
oKQb +Qi` H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 2H pHQ` i2Ʀ`B+Q /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`B@
pHQ` +H+mH/Q d(h)-
ˆ Q#b2`pKQb [m2
p+BƦM MmKû`B+
y1 y 0
d(h) := ŷ1 ŷ0 ŷ1 ŷ0 ⌘1 ⌘0
2h ˆ
d(h) d(h) = ˆ
d(h) + d(h) = + r(h),
v 2H Q#i2MB/Q bmbiBimv2M/Q HQb pHQ`2b y0 , y1 TQ` HQb 272+iBpK2Mi2 +H+mH/Qb 2h 2h 2h
ŷ0 , ŷ1 X lbM/Q UeX8V v HHKM/Q M0 := máxx2[a,b] |f (x)|- Q#i2M2KQb v +QK#BMM/Q Hb /2bB;mH//2b UeXeV v UeX3V- /2/m+BKQb H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi+BƦM
ŷ1 ŷ0 |⌘1 ⌘0 | |y0 | + |y1 | M0 Lu M0 Lu ⇣ M0 Lu ⌘
d(h) =  Lu  . (6.6) ˆ
|d(h) d(h)|  + u(2 + u) M1 +
2h 2h 2h h h h
⇣ ⌘
2 M0 L
.2#B/Q H 2``Q` /2 HQb +H+mHQb 2M `BiKûiB+ /2 +QK ~QiMi2- 2H pHQ` +H@ = u (2 + u)M1 + (1 + u) .
h
+mH/Q d(h)
ˆ b2` /B72`2Mi2 /2H pHQ` (2h) 1 (ŷ1 ŷ0 )X *QKQ h 2b `2T`2b2Mi#H2
2t+iK2Mi2 2M `BiKûiB+ /2 +QK ~QiMi2 i2M2KQb SQ` iMiQ 2H 2``Q` iQiH /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH Tm2/2 +Qi`b2
⇣ ⌘ ⇣
ˆ = fl fl(ŷ1 ŷ0 ) ˆ ˆ M3 h2 M0 L ⌘
d(h) |f 0 (c) d(h)|  |Rc,h [f ]|+|d(h) d(h)|  +u (2+u)M1 +(1+u)2 .
2h 6 h
GQb KQ/2HQb /2 `BiKûiB+ /2 +QK ~QiMi2
Zm2`2KQb Q#i2M2` mM pHQ` /2 h [m2 MQb T2`KBi /` mM +Qi /2H 2``Q`
⇣ fl(ŷ ŷ0 ) ⌘
fl
1
=
ŷ1 ŷ0
(1 + | 1 |, | 2 | < u, ƦTiBK- HQ [m2 2[mBpH2 KBMBKBx` H 7mM+BƦM
1 )(1 + 2 ),
2h 2h
M3 h2 M0 L
T2`KBi2M +Qi` 2H 2``Q` /2 `2/QM/2Q /2 2bib /Qb QT2`+BQM2b /2 `2bi v + u(1 + u)2 .
6 h
/BpBbBƦM
ŷ1 ŷ0 ŷ1 ŷ0
ˆ
r(h) := d(h) = ( 1 + 2 + 1 2) .2`BpM/Q `2bT2+iQ h 2 B;mHM/Q +2`Q Q#i2M2KQb
2h 2h
2M H 7Q`K M3 h M0 L
|ŷ1 ŷ0 | u(1 + u)2 = 0,
|r(h)|  u(2 + u) . (6.7) 3 h2
2h
[m2 +Q``2bTQM/2
lbM/Q UeXeV v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 ŷ1 ŷ0 = y1 y0 + ⌘ 1 ⌘0 - s
Q#i2M2KQb 3 3u(1 + u)2 M0 L
h0 =
M3
|ŷ1 ŷ0 | |y1 y0 | |⌘1 ⌘0 | M0 Lu
2h

2h
+
2h
 M1 +
h
, 2M /QM/2 H +Qi /2H 2``Q` iQiH b2 ?+2 KőMBKX
197 198
p
1M HQb KQ/2HQb `BiKûiB+Qb mbmH2bp u << 1 v h0 ⇡ 3 3uLM
p 0 /M3 X 1M [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 H +bQ k = 1X
bBKTH2 T`2+BbBƦM u = 2 24 v h0 ⇡ 2 8 3 3LM0 /M3 ⇡ 0.00563 3 LM0 /M3 X .2H amTQM;KQb ?Q` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b pHB/ T` k 1- 2MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
MHBbBb Mi2`BQ`- b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 `2+QK2M/+BƦM T`+iB+ T` +H+mHQb
2M bBKTH2 T`2+BbBƦM, MQ /2#2M miBHBx`b2 pHQ`2b /2 h Km+?Q K2MQ`2b [m2 +BM+Q dk
[x0 , . . . , xn , x]f
KBHûbBKb 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ (2h) 1 (f (c + h) f (c h))- dxk
MQ b2` [m2 LM0 << M3 X 1M 2H +bQ LM0 << M3 v h > 0.00563- 2H 2``Q` /2 [x0 , . . . , xn , (x + h)[k] ]f [x0 , . . . , xn , x[k] ]f
= (k 1)! lı́m =
T`QtBK+BƦM iQ/pő Tm2/2 b2` ;`M/2 2M +QKT`+BƦM +QM 2H /2 `2/QM/2Q- h!0 h
HQ [m2 #`2 H TQbB#BHB// /2 +QMbB/2`` pHQ`2b /2 h K2MQ`2b T` K2DQ`` 2H = k![x0 , . . . , xn , x[k+1] ]f.
2``Q` iQiHX
S` /2/m+B` 2H ȹHiBKQ TbQ H HőKBi2- #bi +QM i2M2` 2M +m2Mi [m2
TöM/B+2, /2`Bp/ /2 mM /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/
[x0 , . . . , xn , xn+1 + h, . . . , xn+k + h]f [x0 , . . . , xn , xn+1 , . . . , xn+k ]f
S` TQ/2` /2`Bp` 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH
h
E(x) = [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f !n+1 (x), +QBM+B/2 +QM
k
X
/2KQbi``2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/QX [x0 , . . . , xn+1 , . . . , xn+j , xn+j + h, . . . , xn+k + h]f,
j=1
S`QTQbB+BƦM eXRRX
v miBHBxM/Q H +QMiBMmB// /2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b `2bT2+iQ bmb `;m@
dk K2MiQb- p2KQb [m2 H 2tT`2bBƦM Mi2`BQ` +QMp2`;2
[x0 , . . . , xn , x]f = k![x0 , . . . , xn , x[k+1] ]f,
dxk k
X
[x0 , . . . , xn+1 , . . . , xn+j , xn+j , . . . , xn+k ]f,
/QM/2 x[k+1] BM/B+ [m2 2H TmMiQ x 2bi `2T2iB/Q k + 1 p2+2b +QKQ `;mK2MiQ
j=1
/2 H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/X
+mM/Q h ! 0X
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` /2}MB+BƦM /2 /2`Bp/ i2M2KQb
1H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ` MQb T`QTQ`+BQM 7Ʀ`KmHb /2H 2``Q` 2M /2`Bp+BƦM
d
[x0 , . . . , xn , x]f = lı́m
[x0 , . . . , xn , x + h]f [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f MmKû`B+X THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp/ /2 mM T`Q/m+iQ H 2tT`2bBƦM
dx h!0 h /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
= lı́m [x0 , . . . , xn , x, x + h]f.
h!0 E(x) = [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f !n+1 (x),
G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 >2`KBi2@:2MQ++?B /2Km2bi` [m2 Hb /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b bQM Q#i2M2KQb

7mM+BQM2b +QMiBMmb /2 bmb `;mK2MiQb- Hm2;Q
E 0 (x) = [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f !n+1
0
(x) + [x0 , . . . , xn , x, x]f !n+1 (x)
lı́m [x0 , . . . , xn , x, x + h]f = [x0 , . . . , xn , x, x]f,
h!0 v- 2pHmM/Q 2M x = c- /2/m+BKQb H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2
/2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ
v TQ` iMiQ
d R[f ] = E 0 (c) = [x0 , . . . , xn , c]f !n+1
0
(c) + [x0 , . . . , xn , c, c]f !n+1 (c).
[x0 , . . . , xn , x]f = [x0 , . . . , xn , x, x]f,
dx
199 200
dX *m/ìm` LmKû`B+X THB+`2KQb H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` 7mM+BQM2b +QMiBMmb /2}MB/b 2M mM
BMi2`pHQ J [m2 +QMi2M; I v iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX G +QMiBMmB//
G BMi2`TQH+BƦM b2 `2p2H ȹiBH MQ bQHK2Mi2 2M H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 pHQ`2b /2
2b M2+2b`B T` /Qi` /2 b2MiB/Q MmKû`B+Q H 2pHm+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/QbX
/2`Bp/b bBMQ iK#BûM 2M 2H T`Q#H2K /2 T`QtBK` Qi`Qb 7mM+BQMH2b- +QKQ
H;mMb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2H 2``Q` `2[mB2`2M [m2 H 7mM+BƦM i2M; /2`Bp/b +QMiBMmb
pHQ`2b /2 /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M Kb HiQ- Q BMi2;`H2b TQM/2`/bX
?bi +B2ìQ Q`/2M 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ JX
lM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+ 2b mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H iBTQ R
S` TQ/2` T`QtBK` 2H pHQ` /2 H BMi2;`H I f (x)w(x)dx- H 7mM+BƦM
Z n
X f w /2#2 b2` BMi2;`#H2- 2b /2+B`-
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ], Z
I i=0
|f |w(x)dx < +1.
I
/QM/2 w(x) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp 2 BMi2;`#H2 bQ#`2 I v MQ MmH 2M +bB
iQ/Q TmMiQX GQb pHQ`2b w0 , . . . , wn b2 HHKM T2bQb- /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH- HQb TmMiQb aB f 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm v +Qi/-
x0 , . . . , xn `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 MQ/Qb v R[f ] 2b 2H `2bB/mQ Q 2``Q` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
/2 +m/ìm`X |f (x)|  M w(x),
1M 2H +bQ 2M [m2 I = [a, b] 2b mM BMi2`pHQ +QKT+iQ v w(x) = 1- i2M2KQb
mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+ [m2 2biBK 2H pHQ` /2 H BMi2;`H /2 f 2M /QM/2 M := supx2I |f (x)|- 2MiQM+2b H 7mM+BƦM f (x)w(x) 2bi +Qi/ 2M
2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X 1H +bQ 2M 2H [m2 I 2b mM BMi2`pHQ MQ +Qi/Q Q w(x) +QM@ KƦ/mHQ TQ` mM 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp 2 BMi2;`#H2X SQ` iMiQ- f w 2b mM
iB2M2 bBM;mH`B//2b T2`KBi2 2bi#H2+2` `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` T` BMi2;`H2b 7mM+BƦM BMi2;`#H2X 1M TìB+mH`- bB I = [a, b] 2b mM BMi2`pHQ +2``/Q v
BKT`QTBbX +Qi/Q- H BMi2;`#BHB// /2 f w 2b miQKiB+- v [m2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm
H;mMQb miQ`2b miBHBxM 2H iû`KBMQ /2 `2;H /2 +m/ìm` K2+MB+ T` 2bi +Qi/ 2M [a, b]X
`272`B`b2 Hb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+X GQb T2bQb K#BûM `2+B#2M 2H 1M 2H +bQ ;2M2`H /2 7mM+BQM2b +QMiBMmb 2M BMi2`pHQb MQ +2``/Qb Q
MQK#`2 /2 MȹK2`Qb /2 *Qi2b 2M ?QMQ` H Ki2KiB+Q _Q;2` *Qi2b [m2 2bim/BƦ MQ +Qi/Qb- H BMi2;`#BHB// MQ 2b miQKiB+ v 2b M2+2b`BQ BKTQM2` H
2bi2 iBTQ /2 7Ʀ`KmHbX BMi2;`#BHB// /2 |f |wX
1H MQK#`2 /2 T2bQb T`2+2 bm;2`B` [m2 iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b w0 , . . . , wn bQM
KvQ`2b Q B;mH2b [m2 +2`QX mM[m2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb Kb miBHBx/b iB2M2M iQ/Qb *QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/
bmb T2bQb TQbBiBpQb- H;mMb 7Ʀ`KmHb Tm2/2M i2M2` T2bQb M2;iBpQbX P#b2`p2@ .2+BKQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i 2M Pk bB |p|w 2b BMi2;`#H2 2M I v R[p] = 0-
KQb [m2 H T`2b2M+B /2 mM T2bQ MmHQ wi = 0 +Q``2bTQM/2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2M H T` iQ/Q p 2 Pk X aB |p|w 2b BMi2;`#H2 2M I T` iQ/Q p 2 Pk+1 - H 7Ʀ`KmH
[m2 MQ BMi2`pB2M2 2H MQ/Q xi X 1HBKBMM/Q HQb MQ/Qb +QM T2bQb MmHQb Tm2/2 bm@ 2b 2t+i 2M Pk T2`Q MQ 2b 2t+i 2M Pk+1 - /2+BKQb [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
TQM2`b2 2M +bQ M2+2b`BQ [m2 iQ/Qb HQb T2bQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH bQM MQ MmHQbX SQ` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b kX
Qi`Q H/Q- Ƣ/B` MQ/Qb +QM T2bQb MmHQb mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` T2`KBi2
*QMpB2M2 B/2MiB}+` 2bT+BQb /2 TQHBMQKBQb Pk T` HQb [m2 b2 Tm2/2
/` BMi2`T`2i+BQM2b /B72`2Mi2b /2 H KBbK 7Ʀ`KmH +QM /B72`2Mi2b pHQ`2b /2
;`MiBx` H BMi2;`#BHB//X
n [m2 Tm2/2M +QM/m+B` /B72`2Mi2b 7Ʀ`KmHb /2H 2``Q`X
Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` miBHBxM ;2M2`HK2Mi2 MQ/Qb xi - i = 0, . . . , n- G2K dXRX a2 w mM 7mM+BƦM K2/B#H2 MQ M2;iBpX G +QM/B+BƦM M2+2b`B
/2H BMi2`pHQ /2 BMi2;`+BƦM IX G KvQ`ő /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb b2 2tiB2M/2M v bm}+B2Mi2 T` [m2 |p|w b2 mM 7mM+BƦM BMi2;`#H2 2M I T` iQ/Q p 2 Pk
7+BHK2Mi2 H +bQ 2M [m2 H;ȹM MQ/Q 2biû bBim/Q 7m2` /2H BMi2`pHQ /2 BMi2@ 2b [m2 Z
;`+BƦMX a2 /p2ìB` 2M bm +bQ +mM/Q H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 [m2 xi 2 I- T` iQ/Q
(1 + |x|k )w(x)dx < +1.
i = 0, . . . , n- 2b M2+2b`B T` [m2 b2 p2`B}[m2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH Q mM i2Q`2KX I
201 202
.2KQbi`+BƦMX aB |p|w- T` iQ/Q p 2 Pk - 2MiQM+2b iQKM/Q p(x) = 1 v 1H pHQ` Z
p(x) = xk - i2M2KQb [m2 w(x) v w(x)|xk | bQM 7mM+BQM2b BMi2;`#H2b- v TQ` iMiQ mj := xj w(x)dx,
bm bmK b2` BMi2;`#H2X I
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- bB 0  j  k `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 KQK2MiQ j@ûbBKQ /2 H K2/B/ dµ(x) = w(x)dx 2M 2H

BMi2`pHQ IX
|xj |  1  1 + |x|k , |x|  1, SQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` 2bib +QM/B+BQM2b 2M H 7Q`K
v 0
1 1 ··· 1
10
w0
1 0
m0
1
|xj |  |x|k  1 + |x|k , |x| 1. B x0 x1 ··· xn C B w1 C B m1 C
B X XX XX XX C B X C = B X C.
SQ` iMiQ iQ/Qb HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb xj - j = 0, . . . , k- 2biM @ XX X X X A @ XX A @ XX A
+Qi/Qb 2M KƦ/mHQ TQ` H 7mM+BƦM 1 + |x|k - HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 xk0 xk1 ··· xkn wn mk
Z
P#b2`pKQb [m2 bB k = n- H Ki`Bx 2b H i`bTm2bi /2 mM Ki`Bx /2 oM@
|xk |w(x)dx < +1.
I /2`KQM/2 v TQ` HQ iMiQ- 2b mM Ki`Bx MQ bBM;mH`X 1M 2b2 +bQ- HQb T2bQb
[m2/M /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` HQb MQ/QbX
a2 /2/m+2 [m2 |p|w 2b BMi2;`#H2 2M I- T` iQ/Q p 2 Pk X
6Ơ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v bm 2``Q`
G 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i T` +QMbiMi2b bB v bƦHQ bB b2 p2`B}+ H +QM/B+BƦM lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BMi2;`+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ bB |w|p 2b
n Z BMi2;`#H2 T` +mH[mB2` p 2 Pk v
X
wi = w(x)dx. n Z
i=0 I X
wi f (xi ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)w(x)dx.
I
*QKQ w MQ 2b MmH 2M +bB iQ/Q TmMiQ /2 I- i=0
Z 1b /2+B`- H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` b2 Q#iB2M2 +H+mHM/Q H BMi2;`H TQM/2`/

w(x)dx > 0. /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 f 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX
I
P#b2`pKQb [m2 bB H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ- 2MiQM+2b HQb T2bQb
SQ` iMiQ H bmK /2 HQb T2bQb 2b TQbBiBpX [m2/M mMőpQ+K2Mi2 /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` HQb MQ/QbX 1M 272+iQ- BMi2;`M/Q H
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ 2M Pk 2[mBpH2M BKTQM2` H 2t+iBim/ /2 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2
+mH[mB2` #b2 /2 Pk X hQKM/Q H #b2 n
X
P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)dx = f (xi )li (x),
1, x, . . . , xk i=0
Hb +QM/B+BQM2b b2 `2/m+2M Q#i2M2KQb

n
X Z Z n
X Z
wi xji = xj w(x)dx. P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)w(x)dx = f (xi ) li (x)w(x)dx,
i=0 I I i=0 I
203 204
HQ [m2 /2i2`KBM HQb T2bQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ aB mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ i2M2KQb
Z
wi = li (x)w(x)dx, i = 0, . . . , n. Z n
X Z
I R[f ] := f (x)w(x)dx wi f (xi ) = (f (x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x))w(x)dx,
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 I i=0 I
!n+1 (x)
li (x) = 0
!n+1 (xi )(x xi ) 2b /2+B`- 2H 2``Q` /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ b2 Q#iB2M2 BMi2;`M/Q
2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦMX
+QM !n+1 (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn )- TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` HQb T2bQb K2/BMi2 H
7Ʀ`KmH Hi2`MiBp SQ` iMiQ- i2M2KQb
Z b
1 !n+1 (x) Z
wi = 0 w(x)dx, i = 0, . . . , n.
!n+1 (xi ) a x xi R[f ] = [x0 , . . . , xn , x]f !n+1 (x)w(x)dx,
*QKQ 2M 2H +bQ /2 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+- i2M2KQb [m2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH
I
2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ bB v bƦHQ bB H+Mx mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBQM KvQ` Q /QM/2 !n+1 (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn )X
B;mH [m2 nX
.2 2bi 7Ʀ`KmH b2 /2/m+2M +Qib /2H 2``Q`X 1bib +Qib bQM ȹiBH2b bB
h2Q`2K dXkX lM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+ 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2b 2t+iK2Mi2 nX 1M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q Q7`2+2KQb
Z Xn
mM +Qi /2H 2``Q` [m2 `2~2D 2H p2`//2`Q Q`/2M /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH bB 2H ;`/Q /2
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ] T`2+BbBƦM 2b KvQ` [m2 nX
I i=0
2b 2t+i 2M Pn bB v bƦHQ bB 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX h2Q`2K dXjX aB mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`@ Z n
X
TQHiQ`BQX 1MiQM+2b f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ]
Xn Z I i=0
wi f (xi ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)w(x)dx.
I
i=0 2b 2t+i 2M Pk +QM k n- 2MiQM+2b 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ `2bT2+iQ H
aB p 2 Pn - i2M2KQb [m2 P (p; x0 , . . . , xn )(x) = p(x)- /2 /QM/2 T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 +mH[mB2` bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb
Xn Z Z /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM x0 , . . . , xn , xn+1 , . . . , xk [m2 +QMi2M; HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn
wi p(xi ) = P (p; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)w(x)dx = p(x)w(x)dx. v 2H 2``Q` /KBi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
i=0 I I
Z
SQ` iMiQ R[p] = 0 T` iQ/ 7mM+BƦM p 2 Pn v H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i 2M Pn X
R[f ] = [x0 , . . . , xk , x]f (x x0 ) · · · (x xk )w(x)dx.
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- b2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2t+i 2M Pn X *QKQ I
p := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )
a2
Qk J 2H K2MQ` BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 I v iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xk X aB
2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 Pn iH [m2 p(xi ) = f (xi )- i = 0, . . . , n- i2M2KQb xi |w(x) 2b BMi2;`#H2- 2MiQM+2b 2H 2``Q` p2`B}+ H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi
Z Z i=0 |x
Xn n
X
wi f (xi ) = wi p(xi ) = p(x)w(x)dx = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )(x)w(x)dx, Z Y
k
I I Mk+1
i=0 i=0
|R[f ]|  |x xi |w(x)dx, Mk+1 := máx |f (k+1) (x)|,
HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX (k + 1)! I i=0 x2J
205 206
T` iQ/ f 2 C n+1 (J)X h2Q`2K US`BK2` h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2H *H+mHQ AMi2;`HVX
a2 w BMi2;`#H2 2M mM BMi2`pHQ I v +QMiBMm 2M 2H BMi2`BQ` /2 IX G 7mM+BƦM w
.2KQbi`+BƦMX G /2KQbi`+BƦM bB;m2 HQb KBbKQb `;mK2MiQb [m2 2M 2H MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2M 2H BMi2`BQ` /2H BMi2`pHQ I bB v bƦHQ bB T` +/ f 2 C(I)
h2Q`2K dXkX *QKQ 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 v +Qi/- 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 I iH [m2
Z Z
p(x) := P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , xn+1 , . . . , xk )(x)
f (x)w(x)dx = f (⇠) w(x)dx.
I I
T2ì2M2+2 H 2bT+BQ Pk X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 p(xi ) = f (xi )- i = 0, . . . , n-
H 2t+iBim/ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH BKTHB+ [m2 .2KQbi`+BƦMX aB H T`QTB2// /2H pHQ` K2/BQ b2 p2`B}+ T` w iK#BûM
n n Z b2 p2`B}+ T` wX SQ` iMiQ- MQ ?v Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB// 2M bmTQM2` [m2
X X w 0X
wi f (xi ) = wi p(xi ) = p(x)w(x)dx.
i=0 i=0 I aB w(x) = 0 2b +bB iQ/Q RTmMiQ /2 I 2MiQM+2b 2H `2bmHi/Q 2b i`BpBHX
amTQM/`2KQb [m2 w 0 v [m2 I w(x)dx > 0X
v H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ `2bT2+iQ H T`Q#H2K /2 >2`KBi2 +QM
*QKQ f 2bi +Qi/
MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xk X 1H `2biQ /2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` /KBi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
Z n Z |f (x)w(x)|  w(x) sup |f (x)|,
X x2I
R[f ] = f (x)w(x)dx wi f (xi ) = (f (x) P (f ; x0 , . . . , xk )(x))w(x)dx,
I i=0 I HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2 f w 2b BMi2;`#H2X
.2 H KQMQiQMő /2 H BMi2;`H b2 /2/m+2 [m2
+mH2b[mB2` [m2 b2M HQb MQ/Qb /B+BQMH2b xn+1 , . . . , xk X
Z Z Z
aB f 2 C n+1 (J)- TQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q ı́nf f (x) w(x)dx  f (x)w(x)dx  sup f (x) w(x)dx.
i2M2KQb [m2 x2I I I x2I I
|f (k+1) (⇠)| R
|[x0 , . . . , xk , x]f | = , ⇠ 2 J. *QKQ I
w(x)dx > 0- i2M2KQb
(n + 1)!
R
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2 f (x)w(x)dx
IR
ı́nf f (x)   sup f (x)
x2I
I
w(x)dx x2I
Mk+1
|[x0 , . . . , xn , x]f |  ,
(k + 1)! aB Hb /2bB;mH//2b
R bQM 2bi`B+ib-
R i2M2KQb TQ` /2}MB+BƦM /2 őM}KQ v /2 bm@
T`2KQ [m2 I f (x)w(x)dx/ I w(x)dx b2 2M+m2Mi` 2Mi`2 /Qb pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM@
v b2 Q#iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi /2H 2``Q` +BƦMX THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 "QHxMQ- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 iQ/ 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm
Z Y iQK +mH[mB2` pHQ` BMi2`K2/BQ 2Mi`2 /Qb pHQ`2b //QbX SQ` iMiQ- 2tBbiB`
k
Mk+1 ⇠ 2 I iH [m2 R
|R[f ]|  |x xi |w(x)dx.
(k + 1)! I i=0
f (x)w(x)dx
IR
= f (⇠).
I
w(x)dx
aB H;mM /2bB;mH// MQ 2b 2bi`B+i
S` Q#i2M2` mM 2tT`2bBƦM 2t+i 2H 2``Q` 2M iû`KBMQb /2 /2`Bp/b /2 f R R
/2 Q`/2M bmT2`BQ`- miBHBx`2KQb 2H h2Q`2K /2H oHQ` J2/BQ /2H +H+mHQ BMi2;`H f (x)w(x)dx f (x)w(x)dx
IR
= ı́nf f (x) Q IR
= sup f (x)
+mv /2KQbi`+BƦM 2b#QxKQbX I
w(x)dx x2I
I
w(x)dx x2I
207 208
2MiQM+2b f (x) b2` +QMbiMi2 2M I +QBM+B/B2M/Q +QM bm pHQ` őM}KQ Q bmT`2KQ- SQ` 2H h2Q`2K dXj-
`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- v i2M/`2KQb Z
R R[f ] = [x0 , . . . , xk , x]f !k+1 (x)w(x)dx
f (x)w(x)dx I
IR
= f (⇠), 8⇠ 2 I. Z Z
I
w(x)dx +
= [x0 , . . . , xk , x]f !k+1 (x)w(x)dx [x0 , . . . , xk , x]f !k+1 (x)w(x)dx.
I I
S` 2H `2+őT`Q+Q- bmTQM;KQb [m2 w iQK mM pHQ` MQ MmHQ 2M x0 2 THB+M/Q 2H T`BK2` h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ 2M +/ iû`KBMQ Q#i2M2KQb
Int(I)X a2 s 2 { 1, 1} iH [m2 sw(x0 ) > 0X *QKQ w 2b +QMiBMm- 2tBbiB`
Z
> 0 iH [m2 (x0 , x0 + ) ⇢ Int(I) v +
R[f ] = [x0 , . . . , xk , c1 ]f !k+1 (x)w(x)dx
I
sw(x) > sw(x0 )/2 > 0, x 2 (x0 , x0 + ). Z
[x0 , . . . , xk , c2 ]f !k+1 (x)w(x)dx
*QMbB/2`M/Q H 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f0 (x) = máx( x0 |, 0)- i2M2KQb
I
|x
Z Z v 2M pBìm/ /2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q
2
sf0 (⇠) w(x)dx = s f0 (x)w(x)dx > s w(x0 )/2 > 0, Z Z
I I f (k+1) (⇠1 ) + f (k+1) (⇠2 )
R[f ] = !k+1 (x)w(x)dx !k+1 (x)w(x)dx,
R R (k + 1)! I (k + 1)! I
v +QKQ f0 2b MQ M2;iBp- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 s I w(x)dx > 0- 2b /2+B` I w(x)dx
Rb
2b MQ MmH v s 2b 2H bB;MQ /2 a w(x)dxX *QKQ x0 2` mM TmMiQ `#Bi``BQ /2H T` iQ/ f 2 C k+1 (J)X
BMi2`pHQ- p2KQb [m2 iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b /2 w iB2M2M 2H KBbKQ bB;MQ MQ 2bi`B+iQ
*K#BQ /2 BMi2`pHQ
sX
Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` 2M mM BMi2`pHQ Tm2/2M THB+`b2 Qi`Qb BMi2`p@
1H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` Tm2/2 THB+`b2 /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Q`K T` /2/m+B` HQbX amTQM;KQb [m2 i2M2KQb mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` /2 H 7Q`K
7Ʀ`KmHb 2t+ib /2H 2``Q` /2 mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ Z n
+QM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM k nX a2 x0 , . . . , xk mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb X
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + RI [f ],
[m2 +QMiB2M2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH x0 , . . . , xn v J mM BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 I i=0
I v iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xk X .2}MKQb
v ↵ : _ ! _ 2b mM THB++BƦM 7őM #Bv2+iBp +mH[mB2`- +mv /2`Bp/
k
Y +QMbiMi2 v MQ MmH /2MQiKQb TQ` ↵0 X
!k+1 (x) := (x xi )
i=0
J2/BMi2 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b
v t = ↵(x), x=↵ 1
(t),
+
!k+1 (x) := máx(!k+1 (x), 0), !k+1 (x) := máx( !k+1 (x), 0).
TQ/2KQb i`Mb7Q`K` iQ/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 C(I) 2M mM 7mM+BƦM g 2 C(J)- +QM
SQ` iMiQ- i2M2KQb J := ↵(I) [m2 iQK HQb KBbKQ pHQ`2b 2M TmMiQb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b- /2}MB2M/Q
+ + 1
!k+1 (x) = !k+1 (x) !k+1 (x), |!k+1 | = !k+1 (x) + !k+1 (x) g(t) := f (↵ (t)), t 2 J.
209 210
a2 /2/m+2 H `2H+BƦM BMp2`b TQ`[m2 p ↵ 1 2b iK#BûM mM TQHBMQKBQ /2H KBbKQ ;`/QX SQ` iMiQ 2H ;`/Q
/2 T`2+BbBƦM b2 +QMb2`p H THB+` mM i`Mb7Q`K+BƦM 7őMX
f (x) = g(↵(x)), x 2 I. 1M 2H +bQ 2M [m2 2H BMi2`pHQ /2 TìB/ b2 I = [a, b] v 2H BMi2`pHQ /2
HH2;/ J = [c, d]- TQ/2KQb iQK` H THB++BƦM 7őM +`2+B2Mi2
GQb MQ/Qb b2 i`Mb7Q`KM i`pûb /2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b 2M
d c
ti = ↵(xi ), i = 0, . . . , n, ↵(x) = c + (x a), x 2 [a, b]
b a
v 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b 2M Hb BMi2;`H2b / Hm;`
+QM ↵0 = (d c)/(b a) v +mv BMp2`b 2b
Z Z
1
f (x)w(x)dx = 0 g(t)w(↵ 1 (t))dt. 1 b a
I |↵ | J ↵ (t) = a + (t c), t 2 [c, d].
d c
SQ` iMiQ-
1H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b
Z Z n
X t = ↵(x)
g(t)w(↵ 1
(t))dt = |↵0 | f (x)w(x)dx = |↵0 | wi f (xi ) + |↵0 | RI [f ]
J I i=0 bQ+B +/ TmMiQ x /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] mM TmMiQ t /2H BMi2`pHQ [c, d] iH [m2
H `xƦM bBKTH2 /2 t 2M [c, d] +QBM+B/2 +QM H /2 x 2M [a, b]
GHKM/Q
t c x a
ŵ(t) := w(↵ 1
(t)), t 2 J, ŵi := |↵0 | wi , i = 0, . . . , n, (t; c, d) = = = (x; a, b).
d c b a
Q#i2M2KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH i`Mb7Q`K/ GHKM/Q
Z d c
n
X ti = ↵(xi ) = c + (xi a), i = 0, . . . , n,
g(t)ŵ(t)dt = ŵi g(ti ) + RJ [g], 0
RJ [g] := |↵ |RI [g ↵]. b a
J i=0 HQb TmMiQb +mvb /BbiM+Bb `2HiBpb HQb 2ti`2KQb /2H BMi2`pHQ [c, d] +Q@
``2bTQM/2M Hb KBbKb [m2 Hb /2 HQb TmMiQb xi `2bT2+iQ H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]
1M 2H +K#BQ /2 BMi2`pHQ- HQb MQ/Qb b2 i`Mb7Q`KM i`pûb /2 H THB@
++BƦM 7őM v HQb T2bQb +QBM+B/2M bHpQ 2b+H/Q TQbBiBpQX (ti ; c, d) = (xi ; a, b),
G `2H+BƦM 2bi#H2+B/ 2Mi`2 HQb `2bB/mQb T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 H `2;H /2
+m/ìm` i`Mb7Q`K/ iB2M2 2H KBbKQ ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH i2M2KQb i2M2KQb [m2 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2 i`Mb7Q`K H `2;H /2 +m/ìm`
BMB+BHX 1M 272+iQ- bB H 7Ʀ`KmH Q`B;BMH 2b 2t+i 2M Pk - i2M2KQb Z n
b X
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[a,b] [f ].
RJ [p] = |↵0 | RI [p ↵] = 0, 8p 2 Pk , a i=0
v [m2 p ↵ 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2H KBbKQ ;`/Q [m2 pX _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2 bB H 2M H `2;H /2 +m/ìm`

7Ʀ`KmH i`Mb7Q`K/ 2b 2t+i 2M Pk - 2MiQM+2b
Z d n
X
1 1 g(t)ŵ(t)dt = ŵi g(ti ) + R[c,d] [g].
RI [p] = RJ [p ↵ ] = 0, 8p 2 Pk ,
|↵0 | c i=0
211 212
+QM hQ/ 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ 2b 2t+i 2M Pn - v [m2
⇣ b a ⌘ d c
ŵ(t) = w a + (t c) , t 2 [c, d], ŵi = wi , i = 0, . . . , n p = P (p; x0 , . . . , xn ), p 2 Pn
d c b a
v HQ [m2 BKTHB+ H 2t+iBim/ 2M Pn /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ
d c
R[c,d] [g] := R[a,b] [g ↵]. n
X
b a
ai i (p) = P (p; x0 , . . . , xn ) = p.
1H +K#BQ /2 BMi2`pHQ T2`KBi2 i`Mb7Q`K` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb 2M mM BMi2`pHQ i=0
+mH[mB2` 7Ʀ`KmHb 2M mM BMi2`pHQ 2biM/` v `2+őT`Q+K2Mi2X LQ`KH@
K2Mi2 b2 2HB;2 +QKQ BMi2`pHQ 2biM/` 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1]X 1M +B2ìQb +QMi2tiQb- _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2t+i 2M Pn +QBM+B/2 M2+2b`BK2Mi2 +QM H
2H BMi2`pHQ 2biM/` 2b [ 1, 1]X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2M H i2Q`ő /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb ȹMB+ 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v [m2 i f = i P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )- T`
QìQ;QMH2b 2b +QMp2MB2Mi2 `2bHi` H bBK2i`ő `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M- TQ` HQ [m2 iQ/Q i = 0, . . . , n- Hm2;Q
H 2H2++BƦM /2 mM BMi2`pHQ +mvQ +2Mi`Q 2b 2H Q`B;2M T`2b2Mi +B2ìb p2MiDbX
n
X n
X
1H i2Q`2K /2H Lȳ+H2Q /2 S2MQ ai i (f ) = ai i P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ).
Gb +QMbB/2`+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b bQ#`2 H 2t+iBim/ /2 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm`
i=0 i=0
Tm2/2M 2ti2M/2`b2 bBM /B}+mHi/ H T`Q#H2K /2 T`QtBK` mM 7mM+BQMH HBM2H Pn

`#Bi``BQ TQ` 7mM+BQMH2b i - i = 0, . . . , n- +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b mM T`Q#H2K 1H 2``Q` R[f ] = f i=0 i f /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
/2 >2`KBi2 +mv bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb 2b x0 , . . . , xn X G 7Ʀ`KmH k Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H /2`Bp/ (k + 1)@ûbBK +QKQ Km2bi`
mM BKTQìMi2 `2bmHi/Q bQ#`2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b +QMQ+B/Q
n
X +QKQ h2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQX
⇡ ai i ,
*QK2Mx`2KQb +QM mM +bQ TìB+mH` BKTQìMi2- 2H 2``Q` /2H TQHBMQKBQ
i=0
/2 hvHQ` /2 ;`/Q k /KBi2 mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM +QKQ mM BMi2;`H /2 H
2b 2t+i 2M Pk bB b2 p2`B}+ H B;mH// /2`Bp/ (k + 1)@ûbBKX
n
X h2Q`2K dX9 U6Ʀ`KmH /2 hvHQ` +QM `2biQ BMi2;`HVX a2 f 2 C k+1 (I)-
(p) = ai i (p), p 2 Pk , c 2 I- 2MiQM+2b
i=0
k
X Z t
v 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ bB (t c)j (j) 1
f (t) = f (c) + (t x)k f (k+1) (x)dx.
j=0
j! k! c
n
X
ai i (f ) = P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ).
i=0 .2KQbi`+BƦMX S` +/ t 2 I- +QMbB/2`2KQb H /2T2M/2M+B /2H `2biQ /2
H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 hvHQ` `2bT2+iQ c
P#b2`pKQb [m2 bB H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b ai [m2@
/M /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` HQb MQ/Qb k
X (t c)j (j)
g(c) := f (t) f (c).
ai = (li ). j=0
j!
213 214
1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2 g(t) = 0 v /2`Bp+BƦM Q BMi2;`+BƦM MmKû`B+ bQM 7mM+BQMH2b /2 2bi2 iBTQX 1b#QxKQb
+QMiBMm+BƦM Hb HőM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 2bi /2KQbi`+BƦM 2H2K2MiHX
k k
X (t c)j 1 (j) X (t c)j (j+1) (t c)k (k+1) a2 R mM 7mM+BQMH HBM2H MmHQ bQ#`2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q kX aB t 2 [a, b]-
g 0 (c) = f (c) f (c) = f (c).
(j 1)! j! k! H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 hvHQ` +QM `2biQ BMi2;`H +2Mi`/ 2M a Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H
j=1 j=0
7Q`K
SQ` iMiQ Xk Z
(t a)j (j) 1 b
Z c Z t f (t) = f (a) + (t x)k+ f (k+1) (x)dx, t 2 [a, b].
1 1 j! k! a
g(c) = (t x)k f (k+1) (x)dx = (t x)k f (k+1) (x)dx. j=0
k! t k! c
a2
k
X Z b
(t a)j (j) 1
lM 7mM+BQMH HBM2H R : C k [a, b] ! _ b2 /B+2 +QMiBMmQ bB E(t) := f (t) f (a) = (t x)k+ f (k+1) (x)dx, t 2 [a, b],
j=0
j! k! a
lı́m R[fn ] = R[f ],

n!1 H 7mM+BƦM 2``Q` /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 hvHQ`X THB+M/Q R H
7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` i2M2KQb
T` +mH[mB2` bm+2bBƦM /2 7mM+BQM2b fn 2 C k [a, b] [m2 +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2@ Z b
K2Mi2 2M [a, b] f 2 C k [a, b]- /2 KM2` [m2 iQ/b Hb /2`Bp/b fn +QMp2`@
(j) (· x)k+ (k+1)
R[f ] = R[E] = R f (x)dx.
;2M mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f - +QM j  k- 2b /2+B`-
(j)
a k!
lı́m kfn(j) f (j) k1 = 0, j = 0, . . . , k. SQ` iMiQ- bB R 2b mM +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 7mM+BQMH2b [m2 Tm2/2M BMi2`@
n!1 +K#B`b2 +QM H BMi2;`H
Z b Z b 
liBHBxM/Q 2H `2biQ BMi2;`H /2 hvHQ` TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM (· x)k+ (k+1) (· x)k+ (k+1)
f (x)dx = f (x)dx,
/2 S2MQ /2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b +QMiBMmQb 2M C k [a, b] v MmHQb bQ#`2 TQHB@ a k! a k!
MQKBQb /2 ;`/Q kX
TQ/2KQb }`K` [m2
h2Q`2K dX8 Uh2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQVX hQ/Q 7mM+BQMH +QMiBMmQ Z b
R : C k [a, b] ! _ v MmHQ bQ#`2 Pk /KBi2 mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM BMi2;`H /2 H R[f ] = K(x)f (k+1) (x)dx,
7Q`K Z a
b
R[f ] = K(x)f (k+1) (x)dx, f 2 C k+1 [a, b], +QM
1 ⇥ ⇤
⇥
a
⇤ K(x) := R (· x)k+ .
k!
/QM/2 K(x) := 1
k! R (· x)+ 2b 2H HHK/Q Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2H 7mM+BQMH RX
k
S` +QM+HmB` H /2KQbi`+BƦM #bi +QM +QKT`Q#` [m2 T` HQb 7mM+BQ@
1H h2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /KBi2 mM /2KQbi`+BƦM 2H2K2MiH 2M MH2b 2pHm+BƦM- 2pHm+BƦM /2 /2`Bp/b- BMi2;`H2b TQM/2`/b /2 H 7mM+BƦM
2H +bQ /2 7mM+BQMH2b [m2 bQM +QK#BM+BQM2b HBM2H2b /2 2pHm+BQM2b 2M TmM@ Q bmb /2`Bp/b- TQ/2KQb BMi2`+K#B` 2H 7mM+BQMH +QM H BMi2;`H- 2b /2+B`
iQb /2H BMi2`pHQ- 2pHm+BQM2b /2 /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 k 2 Z b 
BMi2;`H2b TQM/2`/b /2 H 7mM+BƦM Q /2 bmb /2`Bp/bX S`2+BbK2Mi2- H K@ (· x)k+ (k+1)
[E] = f (x)dx
vQ`ő /2 HQb 7mM+BQMH2b [m2 /2b+`B#2M 2H 2``Q` 2M T`Q#H2Kb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM- a k!
215 216
*QK2M+2KQb +QM 2H +bQ 2M [m2 2b mM 7mM+BQMH /2 H 7Q`K [f ] = f (t)- h2Q`2K dXeX a2 L : C k [a, b] ! _ mM 7mM+BQMH HBM2H v +QMiBMmQ- 2MiQM@
+QM t 2 [a, b]X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb +2b 2tBbi2M +QMbiMi2b c0 , . . . , ck v mM 7mM+BƦM K(x) /2 p`B+BƦM +Qi/-
Z b Z b  +QMiBMm TQ` H /2`2+? +QM K(a) = K(b) = 0- iH [m2
(t x)k+ (k+1) (· x)k+ (k+1)
[E] = E(t) = f (x)dx = f (x)dx. k Z
a k! a k! X b
L[f ] = cj f (j) (a) + K(x)f (k+1) (x)dx, 8f 2 C (k+1) [a, b],
aB [f ] = f (t)- +QM ⌧ 2 [a, b] v k
0
1- i2M2KQb j=0 a
Z b
d (t x)k (k+1) /QM/2
[E] = E 0 (t) = f (x)dx.
dt t k! 1 ⇥ ⇤ 1 ⇥ ⇤
cj = L (· a)j , j = 0, . . . , k, K(x) = L (· x)k+ .
G 7mM+BƦM (t x) /k!- x 2 [a, b]- 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm v +Qi/X am /2@
k j! k!
`Bp/ `2bT2+iQ H T`K2i`Q t 2b (t x)k 1 /(k 1)! v iK#BûM 2bi +Qi/X
.2KQbi`+BƦMX o2KQb T`BK2`Q 2H +bQ k = 0X SQ` 2H h2Q`2K /2 `2T`2@
SQ` iMiQ 2H BMi2;`M/Q (t x)k f (k+1) (x)/k! v H /2`Bp/ `2bT2+iQ H T`K2@
b2Mi+BƦM /2 _B2bx- T` +/ 7mM+BQMH HBM2H v +QMiBMmQ L : C[a, b] ! _-
i`Q (t x)k 1 f (k+1) (x)/(k 1)! Tm2/2M /QKBM`b2 TQ` 7mM+BQM2b +QMbiMi2b-
2tBbi2 mM 7mM+BƦM /2 p`B+BƦM +Qi/ ↵(x)- +QMiBMm TQ` H /2`2+? iH [m2
[m2 bQM BMi2;`#H2bX .2 +m2`/Q +QM 2H i2Q`2K /2 /2`Bp+BƦM /2 BMi2;`H2b
↵(a) = 0 /2 KQ/Q [m2
T`Kûi`B+b- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 Z b
Z Z b L[f ] = f (x)d↵(x).
d b (t x)k (k+1) d (t x)k (k+1) a
f (x)dx = f (x)dx
dt t k! t dt k! Rb
Z b Z b  a2 K(x) = ↵(b) ↵(x) = x d↵(x)X 1MiQM+2b K(a) = ↵(b) ↵(a) = L[1] = 0
(t x)k 1 (k+1) (· x)k+ (k+1) v K(b) = 0X aB f 2 C 1 [a, b]- TQ/2KQb BMi2;`` TQ` Tì2b- Q#i2MB2M/Q H
= f (x)dx = f (x)dx.
t (k 1)! a k! `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
Z b
THB+M/Q bm+2bBpK2Mi2 2H i2Q`2K /2 /2`Bp+BƦM /2 BMi2;`H2b `2bT2+iQ L[f ] = L[1]f (a) + K(x)f 0 (x)dx
T`K2i`Qb p2KQb [m2 Tm2/2 BMi2`+K#B`b2 R v 2H bB;MQ BMi2;`H +mM/Q a
2b mM 7mM+BQMH /2 H 7Q`K [f ] = f (j) (t)- +QM j  k- t 2 [a, b]X P#b2`p2KQb [m2
Z
1H i2Q`2K /2 6m#BMB T2`KBi2 BMi2`+K#B` R +QM 2H bB;MQ BMi2;`H bB R 2b
b
Rb L[(· x)0+ ] = d↵(t) = K(x),
mM 7mM+BQMH /2 H 7Q`K [f ] = a w(t)f (t)dtX 6BMHK2Mi2- mbM/Q +QMDmMi@ x
K2Mi2 HQb i2Q`2Kb /2 /2`Bp+BƦM /2 BMi2;`H2b T`Kûi`B+b v 2H h2Q`2K /2 v 2H +bQ k = 0 [m2/ /2KQbi`/QX
Rb
6m#BMB TQ/2KQb BMi2`+K#B` R +QM 2H bB;MQ BMi2;`H bB [f ] = a w(t)f (j) (t)dt- amTQM;KQb ?Q` [m2 k > 0X THB+M/Q 2H 7mM+BQMH L H `2T`2b2Mi@
bB2M/Q w mM 7mM+BƦM BMi2;`#H2 v j  kX +BƦM /2 hvHQ` +QM `2biQ BMi2;`H +2Mi`/ 2M a
SQ` iMiQ- [m2/ /2KQbi`/Q [m2 2H h2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ 2b Z
pHB/Q T` 7mM+BQMH2b [m2 bQM +QK#BM+BQM2b HBM2H2b /2 2pHm+BQM2b 2M
k
X1 b
(t a)j (j) 1
f (t) = f (a) + (t x)k+ 1 f (k) (x)dx, t 2 [a, b],
TmMiQb /2H BMi2`pHQ- 2pHm+BQM2b /2 /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 j! (k 1)! a
k 2 BMi2;`H2b TQM/2`/b /2 H 7mM+BƦM Q /2 bmb /2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M K2MQ` Q
j=0
B;mH [m2 kX Q#i2M2KQb

1H +bQ ;2M2`H /2H h2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ b2 /2/m+2 /2H bB;mB2Mi2 Z
1 h i
k
X1 b
`2bmHi/Q [m2 T`QTQ`+BQM mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 +mH[mB2` 7mM+BQMH +QMiBMmQ 1
L[f ] = L[(· a)j ]f (j) (a) + L (· x)k+ f (k+1) (x)dx .
2M C k [a, b]X j=0
j! k! a
217 218
liBHBxM/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 H *QMp2`;2M+B .QKBM/- Tm2/2 /2/m+B`b2 [m2 Lȳ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2 `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` MmKö`B+
Z 1H h2Q`2K /2H Lȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ b2 miBHBx T` 2tT`2b` 2H 2``Q` R[f ] /2
1 b
T : g 2 C[a, b] 7! (t x)k+ g(x)dx 2 C k [a, b], 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+
k! a
Z b
i`Mb7Q`K bm+2bBQM2b /2 7mM+BQM2b mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 +QMp2`;2Mi2b 2M bm+2bBQM2b n
X
/2 7mM+BQM2b +QMp2`;2Mi2b 2M C k [a, b]X SQ` iMiQ T 2b mM QT2`/Q` +QMiBMmQ v f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ]
a i=0
g 7! L[T [g]]
+QM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM kX a2 [c, d] 2H K2MQ` BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 [a, b] v
2b mM 7mM+BQMH +QMiBMmQ 2M C[a, b]X THB+M/Q H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM- Q#i2MB/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn v k 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX 1MiQM+2b 2H 2``Q`
2H +bQ k = 0- /2/m+BKQb [m2 /2}M2 mM 7mM+BQMH 2M C k [c, d]- MmHQ bQ#`2 Pk - [m2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ
Z b Z b
+QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 H BMi2;`H +mvQ T2bQ 2b w(x)R[a,b] - v /2 7mM+BQMH2b
L[T [g]] = g(x)dK(x) = ck g(a) + K(x)g 0 (x), 8g 2 C 1 [a, b]. 2pHm+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/QbX THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ- i2M2KQb
a a
H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM BMi2;`H /2H 2``Q`
GHKM/Q cj = L[(· 1- i2M2KQb
a)j ]/j!- j = 0, 1 . . . , k
Z d
k
X1 k
X Z b
(j) (k) (j) R[f ] = K(x)f (k+1) (x)dx,
L[f ] = cj f (a) + L[T [f ]] = cj f (a) + K(x)f (k+1) (x)dx c
a
+QM
j=0 j=0
T` iQ/ f 2 C k+1 [a, b]X /2Kb ck = L[T [1]] = L[(· x)k+ ]/k! v Z
1⇣ ⌘
b n
X
Z b Z b K(x) = (t x)k+ w(t)dt wi (xi x)k+ , x 2 [c, d].
1 k!
L[(· x)k+ ] = L[T [(· x)0+ ] = (t x)0+ dK(t)dt = dK(t)dt = K(x), a i=0
k! a x
HQ [m2 /2Km2bi` 2H `2bmHi/QX .2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM BMi2;`H /2H 2``Q`- /2/m+BKQb H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi
Z b
LQiX 1H 2MmM+B/Q /2H h2Q`2K /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ T`2+2 +QMi`/B+iQ`BQ
|R[f ]|  Mk+1 |K(x)|dx, Mk+1 = máx |f (k+1) (x)|.
v [m2 (· x)k+ MQ 2b mM 7mM+BƦM /2 +Hb2 C k [a, b] v MQ TQ/`ő THB+`b2 2bi a x2[c,d]
7mM+BƦM 2H 7mM+BQMH LX 1M `2HB//- iQ/Qb HQb 7mM+BQMH2b HBM2H2b v +QMiBMmQb
bQ#`2 C k [a, b] /KBi2M mM 2ti2MbBƦM Mim`H H +QMDmMiQ /2 7mM+BQM2b +mv o2KQb [m2 bB 2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQ- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B`
/2`Bp/ k@ûbBK 2b BMi2;`#H2 `2bT2+iQ H K2/B/ /2 "Q`2H `2H dK(x)X 1M mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` Kb bBKTH2X
2bi2 +bQ
1 dk S`QTQbB+BƦM dXdX a2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+
(t x)k+ = (t x)0+ ,
k! dtk Z b Xn
2b H 7mM+BƦM +`+i2`őbiB+ /2H BMi2`pHQ (x, b] v TQ` iMiQ 2b BMi2;`#H2X Jb f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ]
ȹM- R[(· x)k+ /k!] +Q``2bTQM/2 H K2/B/ /2H bm#BMi2`pHQ (x, b]X aB H /2}@ a i=0
MB+BƦM /2H 7mM+BQMH R MQ T`QTQ`+BQM mM +H` B/2 /2 2bi 2ti2MbBƦM- bB2K@
T`2 TQ/2KQb /2}MB` T` +/ x 2 [a, b] 2H pHQ` /2 R[(· x)k+ /k!] +QKQ +QM w +QMiBMm 2 BMi2;`#H2 2M (a, b) v ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM kX a2 [c, d] 2H K2MQ`
lı́mn!1 R[fn ]- /QM/2 fn 2b mM bm+2bBƦM /2 7mM+BQM2b 2M C k [a, b] [m2 +QM@ BMi2`pHQ [m2 +QMiB2M2 [a, b] v iQ/Qb HQb MQ/QbX 1H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2H 2``Q`
p2`;2 H 7mM+BƦM (· x)k+ /k!- iH2b [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b fn (t) 2biM /QKBM/b
(k) Z
1⇣ ⌘
b n
X
TQ` mM 7mM+BƦM BMi2;`#H2 v +QMp2`;2M H 7mM+BƦM 2b+HƦM mMBi`BQ (· x)0+ X K(x) = (t x)k+ w(t)dt wi (xi x)k+ , x 2 [c, d],
k! a i=0
219 220
MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [c, d] bB v bƦHQ bB T` +/ f 2 C k+1 [c, d]- 1M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` /2 [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM b2 2t+iK2Mi2 n-
2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 [c, d]- iH [m2 2H 2``Q` biBb7+2 TQ/2KQb THB+` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` Mi2`BQ` H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = !n+1 (x)-
Z b Z b
Kk+1 (k+1) (n + 1)! K(x)dx = R[!n+1 ] = !n+1 (x)w(x)dx,
R[f ] = f (⇠),
(k + 1)! a a
Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH T` H +QMbiMi2

/QM/2
Z b n
X Z b
Kk+1 := xk+1 w(x)dx wi xk+1
i Kn+1 = !n+1 (x)w(x)dx.
a i=0 a
2b 2H 2``Q` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH T` H 7mM+BƦM xk+1 X aB 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2b k > n- TQ/2KQb BMi`Q/m+B` mM TQHBMQKBQ KƦMB+Q
`#Bi``BQ p /2 ;`/Q 2t+iK2Mi2 k n- v- THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q`
.2KQbi`+BƦMX THB+M/Q 2H T`BK2` i2Q`2K /2 H K2/B H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM !n+1 (x)p(x)- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH T` H +QMbiMi2
/2 S2MQ Z b
Z d
Kk+1 = !n+1 (x)p(x)w(x)dx.
R[f ] = K(x)f (k+1) (x)dx, a
c
p2KQb [m2 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2 }`K` [m2 2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQ *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H BKTQìMi2 +bQ TìB+mH` w(x) = 1- x 2 [a, b]X h2@
}`K` [m2 T` +/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 C k+1 [c, d]- 2tBbi2 ⇠ 2 [c, d]- iH [m2 MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
Z
Z b
b
(b x)k+1
+ (a x)k+1
+
(k+1) (t x)k+ dt =
R[f ] = f (⇠) K(x)dx. a k+1
a
Rb 2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` +QM w(x) = 1 2b

S` Q#i2M2` 2H pHQ` /2 a K(x)dx MQ 2b M2+2b`BQ BMi2;`` H +QKTHB+/
n
2tT`2bBƦM /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQX THB+M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` H 7mM+BƦM (b x)k+1
+ (a x)k+1
+ 1 X
K(x) = wi (xi x)k+ , x 2 [c, d].
xk+1 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 (k + 1)! k! i=0
Z b Z b n
X SQ` iMiQ- 2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2 mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` +QM T2bQ mMBi`BQ 2b
(k + 1)! K(x)dx = R[xk+1 ] = xk+1 w(x) wi xk+1
i = Kk+1 , mM 7mM+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ i`QxQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 k + 1 v /2 +Hb2
a a i=0 C k 1 [c, d]X
aB /2Kb iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]- TQ/2KQb
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
iQK` [c, d] = [a, b] v H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ b2 bBKTHB}+
Kk+1 (k+1) n
R[f ] = f (⇠). (b x)k+1 1 X
(k + 1)! K(x) = wi (xi x)k+ , x 2 [a, b].
(k + 1)! k! i=0
221 222
G `2;H /2H `2+i{M;mHQ THB+M/Q +/ iû`KBMQ 2H T`BK2` h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2H *H+mHQ
BMi2;`H v 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q- /2/m+BKQb
1bim/B`2KQb ?Q` Hb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` Kb bBKTH2b +QM 7mM+BƦM T2bQ
[m2
w(x) = 1- +QM 2H Q#D2iQ /2 2M+QMi`` T`QtBK+BQM2b MmKû`B+b /2 BMi2;`H2b
v 2biBK` bm 2``Q`X Z x0 Z x0
f 0 (⇠1 )(x0 a)2
aB b2 miBHBx mM ȹMB+Q MQ/Q x0 2 [a, b]- i2M2KQb H HHK/ `2;H /2H [x, x0 ]f (x x0 )dx = [c1 , x0 ]f (x x0 )dx = ,
a a 2
`2+iM;mHQ Z b Z b
Z b f 0 (⇠2 )(b x0 ) 2
[x0 , x]f (x x0 )dx = [x0 , c2 ]f (x x0 )dx = ,
f (x)dx = (b a)f (x0 ) + R[f ], x0 x0 2
a
2H MQK#`2 /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH T`QpB2M2 /2H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 b2 T`QtBK 2H `2 /2H /QM/2 ⇠1 2b mM TmMiQ /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, x0 ] v ⇠2 mM TmMiQ /2H BMi2`pHQ [x0 , b]X
i`T2+BQ KBtiBHőM2Q [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 H BMi2;`H TQ` H /2 mM `2+iM;mHQ +mv SQ` HQ iMiQ- i2M2KQb
#b2 2H BMi2`pHQ v bm Him` 2b 2H pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2M x0 X G };m` dXR
f 0 (⇠2 )(b x0 ) 2 f 0 (⇠1 )(x0 a)2
BHmbi` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H `2+iM;mHQX R[f ] = .
2
G /Bb+mbBƦM /2H 2``Q` b2 bBKTHB}+ MQi#H2K2Mi2 +QM H 2H2++BƦM /2 x0 = a Q
x0 = b Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM y
Z b
f 0 (⇠)(b a)2
f (x)dx = (b a)f (a) + , ⇠ 2 [a, b],
a 2
Z b
f 0 (⇠)(b a)2
f (x)dx = (b a)f (b) , ⇠ 2 [a, b].
a 2
1M 2H +bQ /2 2H2;B` x0 = (a + b)/2- H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i 2M P1 X

a x0 b
Z b Z b
6B;m` dXRX 6Ʀ`KmH /2H `2+iM;mHQX dx = b a, xdx = (b a)
a+b
,
a a 2
1H 2``Q` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H `2+iM;mHQ b2` 1H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2b R v [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH MQ 2b 2t+i 2M P2
Z Z ⇣
b b
a + b ⌘2 (b a)3
R[f ] = [x, x0 ]f · (x x0 )dx. x dx = 6= 0.
a a 2 12
SQ/2KQb /2/m+B` mM 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q`- b2T`M/Q H BMi2;`H 2M /Qb S` /2/m+B` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H /2`Bp/ b2;mM/- BMi2@
;`KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 hvHQ` +2Mi`/ 2M (a + b)/2
Z x0 Z b ⇣a + b⌘ ⇣ a + b ⌘⇣ a + b⌘ ha + b a + b i ⇣ a + b ⌘2
R[f ] = [x, x0 ]f · (x x0 )dx + [x0 , x]f · (x x0 )dx. f (x) = f + f0 x + , ,x f x
a x0 2 2 2 2 2 2
223 224
Q#i2MB2M/Q G `2;H /2H i`T2+BQ
Z Z lM /2 Hb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ +QM /Qb MQ/Qb Kb
b ⇣a + b⌘ b ha + b a + b i ⇣ a + b ⌘2 mb/b 2b H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H i`T2+BQ- [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 H 2H2++BƦM x0 = a- x1 = bX
f (x)dx = (b a)f + , ,x f x dx.
a 2 a 2 2 2 SìB2M/Q /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 /2 ;`/Q R 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb
b x x a
f (x) = f (a) + f (b) + f [a, b, x](x a)(x b),
THB+M/Q 2H T`BK2` h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2H *H+mHQ BMi2;`H v 2H h2Q`2K b a b a
/2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q H ȹHiBKQ iû`KBMQ- /2/m+BKQb [m2 2 BMi2;`M/Q iû`KBMQ iû`KBMQ Q#i2M2KQb
Z b Z b
f (a) + f (b)
Z ha + b a + b i ⇣ f (x)dx = (b a) f [a, b, x](x a)(b x)dx
b
a + b ⌘2 a 2 a
R[f ] = , ,x f x dx
a 2 2 2 liBHBxM/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2H +H+mHQ BMi2;`H v 2H h2Q`2K /2H
Z pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q- Q#i2M2KQb
f 00 (⇠) b ⇣ a + b ⌘2 f 00 (⇠)
= x dx = (b a)3 , Z b Z
2 a 2 24 f 00 (⇠) b
R[f ] = f [a, b, x](x a)(b x)dx = (x a)(b x)dx,
a 2 a
/QM/2 ⇠ 2b mM TmMiQ /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] v H `2;H /2H TmMiQ K2/BQ /QTi H +QM ⇠ 2 [a, b]X >+B2M/Q 2H +K#BQ x = a + (b a)t 2M H BMi2;`H- Q#i2M2KQb
2tT`2bBƦM Z b Z 1
(b a)3
(x a)(b x)dx = (b a)3 t(1 t)dt = ,
Z a 0 6
b ⇣a + b⌘ f 00 (⇠)
f (x)dx = (b a)f + (b a)3 . U_2;H /2H TmMiQ K2/BQV Hm2;Q
a 2 24 (b a)3 f 00 (⇠)
R[f ] = ,
12
/2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb
Z b
f (a) + f (b) f 00 (⇠)
f (x)dx = (b a) (b a)3 . U_2;H /2H h`T2+BQV
a 2 12
1H MQK#`2 /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH b2 /2#2 [m2 bmbiBimBKQb 2H `2 #DQ H ;`}+ TQ`
H /2H i`T2+BQ 7Q`K/Q TQ` HQb TmMiQb bBim/Qb 2Mi`2 2H 2D2 /2 Hb XX 0 v H
HőM2 [m2 Tb TQ` (a, f (a)) v (b, f (b))X
a (a+b)/2 b
6B;m` dXkX 6Ʀ`KmH /2H TmMiQ K2/BQX
a b
6B;m` dXjX 6Ʀ`KmH /2H i`T2+BQX
225 226
G `2;H /2 aBKTbQM +QM ⇠ 2 [a, b]X S` bBKTHB}+` 2H +H+mHQ /2 H BMi2;`H Mi2`BQ`- ?+2KQb 2H
G `2;H /2 +m/ìm` /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ +QM MQ/Qb a- (a+b)/2 v b `2+B#2 +K#BQ x = ((a + b) + t(b a))/2
2H MQK#`2 /2 `2;H /2 aBKTbQM Z b ⇣ a + b ⌘2 ⇣ b a ⌘5 Z 1 ⇣b a ⌘5 4
Z b ⇣a + b⌘ (x a)(b x) x dx = t2 (1 t2 )dt = ,
f (x)dx ⇡ w0 f (a) + w1 f + w2 f (b). a 2 2 1 2 15
a 2
v TQ` iMiQ
a2M
wi
ŵi = , i = 0, 1, 2,
b a f (4) (⇠) ⇣ b a ⌘5 f (4) (⇠)
R[f ] = = (b a)5 ,
HQb T2bQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H BMi2`pHQ 2biM/` [0, 1] 90 2 2880
Z 1 G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQM +QM bm iû`KBMQ /2 2``Q` 2b
f (t)dt ⇡ ŵ0 f (0) + ŵ1 f (1/2) + ŵ2 f (1).
0 Z b ✓ ⇣a + b⌘ ◆
b a f (4) (⇠)
f (x)dx = f (a) + 4f + f (b) (b a)5 .
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ 2M P2 bQM a 6 2 2880
U_2;H /2 aBKTbQMV
ŵ1 1 ŵ1 1
ŵ0 + ŵ1 + ŵ2 = 1, + ŵ2 = , + ŵ2 = ,
2 2 4 3
G };m` dX9 Km2bi` mM BMi2`T`2i+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQM-
v `2bQHpB2M/Q 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b Mi2`BQ` Q#i2M2KQb ŵ0 = ŵ2 = 1/6- H 2biBK+BƦM /2 H BMi2;`H 2b 2H `2 /2 H T`#QH [m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb
ŵ1 = 2/3X S` /2i2`KBM` 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM- +QKT`Q#KQb Hb +QM/B+BQ@ (a, f (a))- ((a + b)/2, f ((a + b)/2) v (b, f (b))X
M2b /2 2t+iBim/ /2 ;`/Qb j v 9- Q#i2MB2M/Q
ŵ1 1 ŵ1 5 1
+ ŵ2 = , + ŵ2 = 6= .
8 4 16 24 5
SQ` iMiQ- 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQM 2b jX S` Q#@
i2M2` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` THB+KQb 2H h2Q`2K dXk Ƣ/B2M/Q +QKQ MQ/Q
/B+BQMH (a + b)/2- Q#i2MB2M/Q
Z h i ⇣
b
a+b a+b a + b ⌘2
R[f ] = a, , , b, x f (x a)(b x) x dx.
a 2 2 2 a (a+b)/2 b
6B;m` dX9X 6Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQMX
*QKQ H 7mM+BƦM (x a)(b x)(x (a + b)/2)2 MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQ- TQ/2KQb
THB+` 2H i2Q`2Kb /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2H +H+mHQ BMi2;`H v 2H i2Q`2K /2H pHQ`
K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q v /2/m+B` SQ/2KQb /` mM BMi2`T`2i+BƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQM 2M iû`KBMQb
/2H `2bmHi/Q Q#i2MB/Q TQ` `[mőK2/2b 2M bm HB#`Q aQ#`2 H +m/ìm` /2 H
Z ⇣
f (4) (⇠) b
a + b ⌘2 T`#QHX 1M /B+?Q i`#DQ `[mőK2/2b /2Km2bi` [m2 2H `2 /2 mM b2;K2MiQ
R[f ] = (x a)(b x) x dx,
4! a 2 /2 T`#QH 2b 9fj /2H `2 /2H i`BM;mHQ BMb+`BiQ ABC- /QM/2 C 2b 2H TmMiQ
227 228
A1 C B1 /QM/2 ⇣a + b⌘
q(a) + q(b)
MC = q ,
2 2
2b H HQM;Bim/ Q`B2Mi/ /2H b2;K2MiQ M C- /2 KQ/Q [m2 2H `2 2b TQbBiBp
Q M2;iBp /2T2M/B2M/Q /2 H Q`B2Mi+BƦM /2H i`BM;mHQ ABC Q /2H +Q``2bTQM@
A M C’ B /B2Mi2 b2;K2MiQ T`#ƦHB+QX
6B;m` dX8X *m/ìm` /2 H T`#QHX
/2 BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 H T`#QH +QM H `2+i T`H2H H 2D2 [m2 Tb TQ` 2H TmMiQ C y=q(x)
K2/BQ M /2 H #b2 ABX
B
1M 2H TmMiQ C- H `2+i iM;2Mi2 A1 B1 2b T`H2H H b2;K2MiQ #b2
AB /2 HQM;Bim/ `X SQ` iMiQ bB C 0 2b H T`Qv2++BƦM QìQ;QMH /2 C bQ#`2
AB- TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` [m2 H HQM;Bim/ CC 0 2b H Him` h /2H b2;K2MiQ /2 M
T`#QHX P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H `2 /2H `2+iM;mHQ A1 ABB1 [m2 +B`+mMb+`B#2 H
b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QH 2b `h- 2H /Q#H2 /2H `2 /2H i`BM;mHQ ABCX SQ` iMiQ- A
2H `2 /2H b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QH b2`
2 A’=(a,0) M’=((a+b)/2,0) B’=(b,0)

S= `h.
3 6B;m` dXeX 6Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQM v `2 /2 mM b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QHX
o2KQb [m2 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 `[mőK2/2b 2[mBpH2 }`K` [m2 H `2;H /2 Rb
aBKTbQM 2b mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` 2t+i T` TQHBMQKBQb +m/ìB+QbX P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H BMi2;`H a q(x)dx 2b 2H `2 Q`B2Mi/ /2H i`T2+BQ
KBtiBHőM2Q HBKBi/Q TQ` HQb b2;K2MiQb AA0 - A0 B 0 - BB 0 v 2H b2;K2MiQ /2 T@
*QKQ H T`QTB2// /2b+`Bi TQ` `[mőK2/2b 2b BMp`BMi2 TQ` KQpBKB2M@
`#QHX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 2bi `2 2b H bmK /2 Hb `2b /2H i`T2+BQ
iQb MQ ?v Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB// 2M bmTQM2` [m2 2H 2D2 /2 H T`#QH 2b
AA0 B 0 B v /2H b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QH i2M2KQb
T`H2HQ H 2D2 +QQ`/2M/Q Y Y 0 Up2` 6B;m` dXeVX aB 2H 2D2 /2 H T`#QH MQ
+QBM+B/2 +QM Y Y 0 - K2/BMi2 mM KQpBKB2MiQ /2 `Qi+BƦM T`QTB/Q HBM2`2@ Z ⇣ ⇣a + b⌘
b
q(a) + q(b) 2 q(a) + q(b) ⌘
KQb 2H b2;K2MiQ M C 2M H /B`2++BƦM /2H 2D2 /2 Y Y 0 X 1M 2b2 +bQ H T`#QH q(x)dx = (b a) + (b a) q ,
b2` H ;`}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM +m/ìB+ q v i2M/`2KQb [m2 a 2 3 2 2
⇣a + b ⇣ a + b ⌘⌘ v bBKTHB}+M/Q 2H b2;mM/Q KB2K#`Q b2 Q#iB2M2 H `2;H /2 aBKTbQMX

A = (a, q(a)), B = (b, q(b)), C=
2
,q
2
, _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- TìB2M/Q /2 H _2;H /2 aBKTbQM- b2 /2/m+2 [m2- 2H
⇣ a + b q(a) + q(b) ⌘ `2 /2H b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QH 2b
M= , .
2 2
b a⇣ ⇣a + b⌘ ⌘ q(a) + q(b)
S= q(a) + 4q + q(b) (b a) ,
1H `2 /2H i`BM;mHQ ABC 2b H KBi/ /2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 H HQM;Bim/ /2H b2;K2MiQ 6 2 2
M C- TQ` H HQM;Bim/ /2 H T`Qv2++BƦM A0 B 0 /2H b2;K2MiQ AB bQ#`2 2H 2D2 /2
Hm2;Q
Hb XX 0 X SQ` iMiQ ⇣a + b⌘
2 3S q(a) + q(b)
S = (b a)M C. =q = M C,
3 2(b a) 2 2
229 230
/QM/2 C 2b H BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 H T`#QH +QM H `2+i x = (a + b)/2- T`H2H GQb pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/Qb L2riQMĜ*Qi2b bm2H2M 2tT`2b`b2 2M
H 2D2 v [m2 Tb TQ` M - 2H TmMiQ K2/BQ /2H b2;K2MiQ #b2 ABX MQi+BƦM #`2pB/
o2KQb [m2 2H TmMiQ C 2b 2H ȹMB+Q TmMiQ /2H b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QH 2M fi = f (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n.
2H [m2 H iM;2Mi2 2b T`H2H H b2;K2MiQ #b2 ABX S` 2HHQ- i2M;KQb
1H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BMi2;`+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2M TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b
2M +m2Mi [m2 mM TmMiQ `#Bi``BQ /2 H T`#QH 2b /2 H 7Q`K (x, q(x))X
b2 2tT`2b 2M H 7Q`K
liBHBxM/Q H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 L2riQM
Z b n
Y
q(x) = q(a) + [a, b]q(x a) + [a, b, (a + b)/2]q(x a)(x b) R[f ] = [x0 , x0 + h . . . , x0 + nh, x]f (x x0 ih)dx.
a i=0
v /2`BpM/Q Q#i2M2KQb AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b x = x0 + th- ta = h 1 (a x0 )- tb =

h 1 (b x0 ) v 2H TQHBMQKBQ ⇡(t) := t(t 1) · · · (t n)- Q#i2M2KQb
q 0 (x) = [a, b]q + [a, b, (a + b)/2]q (2x a b).
Z tb
S` BKTQM2` [m2 H iM;2Mi2 b2 T`H2H AB- B;mHKQb Hb T2M/B2Mi2b R[f ] = hn+2 [x0 , x0 + h . . . , x0 + nh, x0 + th]f ⇡(t)dt,
ta
0
q (x) = [a, b]q, *QMbB/2`2KQb H Tì2 TQbBiBp v H Tì2 M2;iBp /2 ⇡(t)
Q#i2MB2M/Q H +QM/B+BƦM 2x = a + bX SQ` iMiQ x = (a + b)/2 v 2H ȹMB+Q TmMiQ ⇡ + (t) = máx(⇡(t), 0), ⇡ (x) = máx( ⇡(t), 0),
/2H b2;K2MiQ /2 T`#QH 2M 2H [m2 H iM;2Mi2 2b T`H2H H #b2 2b C- /2 KQ/Q [m2 ⇡(t) = ⇡+ (t) ⇡ (t)- 2biQ MQb T2`KBi2 /BpB/B` 2H 2``Q` 2M /Qb
H BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 H T`#QH +QM H `2+i T`H2H H 2D2 /2 [m2 Tb TQ` 2H iû`KBMQb HQb [m2 TQ/2KQb THB+` HQb i2Q`2Kb /2H pHQ` K2/BQ- Q#i2MB2M/Q
TmMiQ K2/BQ M /2H b2;K2MiQ #b2 ABX
bő [m2/ 2bi#H2+B/Q 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 `[mőK2/2b 2M 2H +bQ TìB+mH` f (n+1) (⇠1 )hn+2 f (n+1) (⇠2 )hn+2
E(x) = K1 K2 .
/2 [m2 2H 2D2 /2 H T`#QH b2 T`H2HQ Y Y 0 X *QKQ 2H 2MmM+B/Q iB2M2 (n + 1)! (n + 1)!
mM 7Q`KmH+BƦM BMp`BMi2 TQ` KQpBKB2MiQb- mM `Qi+BƦM T`QTB/ T2`KBi2 +QM Z Z
+QM+HmB` [m2 b2 p2`B}+ 2H `2bmHi/Q 2M ;2M2`HX tb tb
K1 := ⇡+ (t)dt, K2 := ⇡ (t)dt.
6Ơ`KmHb /2 L2riQM@*Qi2b ta ta
_2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQMĜ*Qi2b [m2HHb `2;Hb /2 +m/`@ 1M 2H +bQ /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQM@*Qi2b b2 Tm2/2M /2/m+B` 7Ʀ`KmHb
im` #b/b 2M MQ/Qb 2[mB/BbiMi2b Q#i2MB/Qb H `2HBx` mM TìB+BƦM mMB@ /2H 2``Q` /2 H 7Q`K
7Q`K2 /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b]X a2 /BbiBM;m2M /Qb +Hb2b /2 7Ʀ`KmHb, Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb Kf (k+1) (⇠)hk+2
R[f ] = ,
+2``/b #b/b 2M HQb MQ/Qb UBM+Hmv2M/Q HQb 2ti`2KQbV (k + 1)!
Rt Rt
+QM k = n v K = tab ⇡(t)dt- bB n 2b BKT` Q k = n + 1 v K = tab t⇡(t)dt- bB n
b a
xi = a + ih, i = 0, . . . , n, h := , 2b T`X
n
.2KQbi`2KQb 2bi T`QTB2// 2M 2H +bQ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM@*Qi2b
v Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb #B2ìb- #b/b 2M HQb MQ/Qb UbBM BM+HmB` HQb 2ti`2KQbV #B2ì +QM k TmMiQb
Z b
b a b a
xi = a + (i + 1)h, i = 0, . . . , n, h := . f (x)dx = (f (x0 ) + f (x1 )) + R[f ]
n+2 a 2
231 232
/QM/2 x0 = a + h v x1 = a + 2h- h = (b a)/3X 1H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 H SQ` iMiQ 2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2H 2``Q` MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQX bő [m2 TQ/2KQb
7Ʀ`KmH 2b R- v [m2 R[1] = R[x a] = 0 v THB+` 2H T`BK2` i2Q`2K /2 H K2/B 2M H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ
/2H 2``Q` Z Z
b b
(b a)3 b a 3 3
R[(x a)2 ] = (h2 + 4h2 ) = h 6= 0. R[f ] = K(x)f 00 (x)dx = f 00 (⇠) K(x)dx.
3 2 2 a a
1M T`BM+BTBQ- T` 2tT`2b` 2H 2``Q` /2 2bi 7Ʀ`KmH- /2#2`őKQb +H+mH` S` /2i2`KBM` 2H pHQ` /2 H BMi2;`H- THB+KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ`
f (x) = (x a)2 - Q#i2MB2M/Q
Z 2 Z 2
5 1 Z b
K1 = (t2 t)+ dt = , K2 = (t t2 )+ dt = , 3
1 3 1 6 2 K(x)dx = R[(x a)2 ] = h3 ,
a 2
Q#i2MB2M/Q H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
⇣ 5f 00 (⇠ ) Z
f 00 (⇠2 ) ⌘ 3
b
1 (b a)3 3h3 (b a)3
R[f ] = h = (10f 00 (⇠1 ) f 00 (⇠2 )). K(x)dx = = .
6 12 324 a 4 36
S` /2/m+B` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` Kb bBKTH2- +m/BKQb H h2Q`2K /2H P#i2MBûM/Qb2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q`
Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQX 1H Mȹ+H2Q /2 S2MQ /2H 2``Q` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 3h3 00 (b a)3 00
R[f ] = f (⇠) = f (⇠).
4 36
(b x)2 (b a)(x0 x)+ (b a)(x1 x)+
K(x) = .
2 1MmM+BKQb +QMiBMm+BƦM HQb `2bmHi/Qb bQ#`2 2H 2``Q` /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb
/2 L2riQM@*Qi2bX LQ BM+HmBKQb Hb /2KQbi`+BQM2b TQ`[m2 bQM /2KbB/Q
>+B2M/Q 2H +K#BQ x = a + th- h = (b a)/3- i2M2KQb iû+MB+b T` KQbi``Hb +QM /2iHH2X
h2 h2Q`2K dX3X 1H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMĜ*Qi2b +2``/ /2 n + 1

K(a + th) = ((3 t)2 3(1 t)+ 3(2 t)+ ), t 2 [0, 3]. MQ/Qb 2b
2 ( Cn+1
f (n+1) (⇠)hn+2 , bB n 2b BKT`-
aB t 2 (0, 1]- i2M2KQb R[f ] := (n+1)!
Cn+1 (n+2)
(n+2)! f (⇠)hn+3 , bB n 2b T`-
h2 h 2 t2 /QM/2 h := (b a)/n v
K(a + th) = ((3 t)2 3(1 t)+ 3(2 x)+ ) = > 0. 8Z n
2 2
>
>
< t(t 1) · · · (t n)dt < 0, bB n 2b BKT`-
S` t 2 [1, 2)- H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b Cn+1 := Z0 n
>
>
: t2 (t 1) · · · (t n)dt < 0, bB n 2b T`X
h2 h2 0
K(a + th) = ((3 t)2 3(2 t)+ ) = (3 3t + t2 ) > 0.
2 2
h2Q`2K dXNX 1H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQMĜ*Qi2b #B2ì /2 n + 1
6BMHK2Mi2 T` t 2 [2, 3)- i2M2KQb [m2 MQ/Qb 2b 8 0
< Cn+1 f (n+1) (⇠)hn+2 , bB n 2b BKT`
h2 R[f ] := (n+1)!
0
K(a + th) = (3 t)2 > 0. : Cn+1 f (n+2) (⇠)hn+3 , bB n 2b T`
2 (n+2)!
233 234
/QM/2 h := (b a)/(n + 2) v Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQM@*Qi2b MQ b2 miBHBxM 2M T`Q#H2Kb 2M HQb [m2 b2
8Z `2[mB2`2 mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2H2p/QX 1M T`BK2` Hm;`- H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2
HQb T2bQb 2b mM T`Q#H2K KH +QM/B+BQM/Q TQ` HQ [m2 HQb H;Q`BiKQb bBKTH2b
n+1
>
> t(t 1) · · · (t n)dt > 0, bB n 2b BKT`-
< #b/Qb 2M BKTQM2` Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ T`Q/m+2M `2bmHi/Qb TQ+Q
0 1
Cn+1 := Z
>
>
n+1 }#H2bX 1M b2;mM/Q Hm;`- T` pHQ`2b 2H2p/Qb /2 n- 2H +H+mHQ /2 H BMi2;`H
: t2 (t 1) · · · (t n)dt > 0, bB n 2b T`X K2/BMi2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` T`Q/m+2 ;`M/2b +M+2H+BQM2b /2 pHQ`2b-
1
KTHB}+M/Q +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 2H 2``Q` /2 `2/QM/2QX 1M 2H iìKB2MiQ /2
P7`2+2KQb +QMiBMm+BƦM Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQM@*Qi2b Kb +QKmM2b T`Q#H2Kb 2M HQb [m2 b2 `2[mB2`2 mM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2H2p/Q b2 miBHBxM Hb
+QM bmb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b iû`KBMQb /2 2``Q`X `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBMb [m2 b2 /2b+`B#B`M Kb /2HMi2X hK#BûM
T`QTQ`+BQMM #m2MQb `2bmHi/Qb T` HiQb ;`/Qb /2 T`2+BbBƦM Hb `2;Hb /2
G 7Ʀ`KmH +2``/ +QM n = 1 2b H _2;H /2H i`T2+BQ v +QM n = 2 2b 62Dû` v /2 *H2Mb?rĜ*mìBb- #b/b 2M MQ/Qb [m2 bQM +2`Qb Q 2ti`2KQb /2
H _2;H /2 aBKTbQMX G 7Ʀ`KmH +2``/ +QM n = 3 2b H HHK/ _2;H /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2pX
HQb 3/8 2M `272`2M+B bmb T2bQb +2Mi`H2b- iK#BûM `2+B#2 2H T2HiBpQ /2
TmH+?2``BK v b2 i`B#mv2 L2riQMX G 7Ʀ`KmH +2``/ +QM n = 4 `2+B#2 2H 6Ơ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` +QKTm2bib
MQK#`2 /2 _2;H /2 "QQH2 Q _2;H /2 JBHM2X G B/2 T`BM+BTH /2 Hb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` +QKTm2bib +QMbBbi2 2M T`QtB@
K` H BMi2;`H 2M mM ;`M BMi2`pHQ bmKM/Q Hb +QMi`B#m+BQM2b /2 `2;Hb /2
6Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQMĜ*Qi2b +2``/b h = (b a)/n +m/ìm` bQ#`2 HQb bm#BMi2`pHQb /2 mM TìB+BƦMX aB TìBKQb /2 mM `2;H
/2 +m/ìm` 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1]
3
h h (2)
(f0 + f1 ) f (⇠) _2;H /2H i`T2+BQ (n = 1)
2 12 Z 1 n
X
h h5 (4) f (t)dt ⇡ ŵi f (ti )
(f0 + 4f1 + f2 ) f (⇠) _2;H /2 aBKTbQM (n = 2)
3 90 0 i=0
3h 3h5 (4) TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` 7Ʀ`KmHb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b 2M mM BMi2`pHQ [a, b] +mH[mB2`
(f0 + 3f1 + 3f2 + f3 ) f (⇠) _2;H /2 HQb jf3 (n = 3)
8 80 Z b Xn
2h 8h7 (6)
(7f0 + 32f1 + 12f2 + 32f3 + 7f4 ) f (⇠) _2;H /2 "QQH2 (n = 4) f (x)dx = (b a) ŵi f (a + ti (b a)) + R[a,b] [f ].
45 945 a i=0
Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb #B2ìb b2 miBHBxM +QM K2MQb 7`2+m2M+B [m2 Hb +2``/bX *QKQ Hb +Qib /2H 2``Q` R[a,b] [f ] bQM 7mM+BQM2b +`2+B2Mi2b /2 H HQM;Bim/ b a-
G 7Ʀ`KmH #B2ì +QM n = 0 2b H _2;H /2H TmMiQ K2/BQX bB2KT`2 i2M/`2KQb BMi2`pHQb bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 KTHBQb T` HQb [m2 H THB+@
+BƦM /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH bBKTH2 MQ T`QTQ`+BQM2 `2bmHi/Qb }#H2bX
6Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQMĜ*Qi2b #B2ìb h = (b a)/(n + 2) aB ?Q` +QMbB/2`KQb mM TìB+BƦM /2H BMi2`pHQ [a, b] ;2M2`/ TQ` HQb
h3 Mm/Qb
2hf0 + f (2) (⇠) _2;H /2H TmMiQ K2/BQ (n = 0) a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xN 1 < xN = b,
3
3h
(f0 + f1 ) +
3h3 (2)
f (⇠) (n = 1) 2M N bm#BMi2`pHQb [xj , xj+1 ]- /2 KQ/Q [m2 hj := xj+1 xj - j = 0, . . . , N 1
2 4 b2 bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2Ƣ- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` MQb /` T`QtBK+BQ@
4h 14h5 (4) M2b /2 KvQ` T`2+BbBƦM 2M 2b2 bm#BMi2`pHQ
(2f0 f1 + 2f2 ) + f (⇠) (n = 2)
3 45 Z xj+1 Xn
5h 95h5 (4) f (x)dx ⇡ hj ŵi f (xj + ti hj ).
(11f0 + f1 + f2 + 11f3 ) + f (⇠) (n = 3) xj
24 144 i=0
235 236
*QKQ H BMi2;`H 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ +QKTH2iQ 2b bmK /2 Hb BMi2;`H2b 2M HQb .2H h2Q`2K dXj b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 +Qi /2H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH
bm#BMi2`pHQb /2 H TìB+BƦM bBKTH2 /2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM k n +mvQb MQ/Qb b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ
/2 BMi2;`+BƦM
Z b X1 Z xj+1
N
f (x)dx = f (x)dx Z k
1Y
K̄k+1 máxx2[a,b] |f (k+1) (x)|
a j=0 xj |R[a,b] [f ]|  (b a)k+2 , K̄k+1 := |t ti |dt,
(k + 1)! 0 i=0
T`2+2 HƦ;B+Q T`QTQM2` mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` /2H iBTQ
bB2M/Q t0 , . . . , tn HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, 1] v tn+1 , . . . , tk
Z b N
X1 n
X MQ/Qb /B+BQMH2b `#Bi``BQb 2M [0, 1]X H +QMbB/2`` H +QMi`B#m+BƦM H 2``Q`
f (x)dx = hj ŵi f (xj + ti hj ) + R[f ]. 2M +/ bm#BMi2`pHQ- b2 /2/m+2 [m2
a j=0 i=0
N
X1 N 1
K̄k+1 X k+2
1bi2 iBTQ /2 7Ʀ`KmHb `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 /2 `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` +QKTm2bibX |R[f ]|  |R[xj ,xj+1 ] [f ]|  h máx |f (k+1) (x)|,
(k + 1)! j=0 j x2[xj ,xj+1 ]
GHKM/Q xij := xj +ti hj - H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` +QKTm2bi Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 j=0
2M H 7Q`K
Z b N
X1 X n HHKM/Q Mk+1 := máxx2[a,b] |f (k+1) (x)|- v h = máxj=0,...,N 1 hj - i2M/`2KQb
f (x)dx = hj ŵi f (xij ) + R[f ].
a PN 1
j=0 i=0 K̄k+1 Mk+1 j=0 hk+2
j K̄k+1 Mk+1 hk+1
|R[f ]|   (b a) ,
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H 2``Q` /2 mM `2;H +QKTm2bi 2b H bmK /2 HQb 2``Q`2b (k + 1)! (k + 1)!
2M iQ/Qb HQb bm#BMi2`pHQb
[m2 iB2M/2 +2`Q- +mM/Q h ! 0X bő [m2 2H Q`/2M /2 +QMp2`;2M+B /2 mM
N
X1 7Ʀ`KmH +QKTm2bi b2 `2/m+2 2M mM mMB// `2bT2+iQ H +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2
R[f ] = R[xj ,xj+1 ] [f ], 7Ʀ`KmH bBKTH2 TQ` H +mKmH+BƦM /2 HQb 2``Q`2b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b +/
j=0 bmKM/QX aB +QMQ+2KQb mM +Qi /2 H /2`Bp/ (k+1)@ûbBK /2 H 7mM+BƦM [m2
pKQb BMi2;``- TQ/2KQb /2i2`KBM` H MQ`K /2 H TìB+BƦM [m2 ;`MiBx
v [m2 2biQb 2``Q`2b b2`M T2[m2ƢQb bB H MQ`K /2 H TìB+BƦM mM 2``Q` K2MQ` [m2 ✏
s
h= máx xj+1 xj ✏(k + 1)!
j=0,...,N 1 k+1
h .
(b a)K̄k+1 Mk+1
2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2ƢX S2`Q bB 2H MȹK2`Q /2 bm#BMi2`pHQb 2b /2KbB/Q
;`M/2 1M `b /2 mM KvQ` bBKTHB+B//- +QMbB/2``2KQb `2;Hb +QKTm2bib
bQ#`2 TìB+BQM2b mMB7Q`K2b /2H BMi2`pHQ
N
X1
R[f ] = R[xj ,xj+1 ] [f ]
j=0 b a
xj := a + j , i = 0, . . . , N,
TQ/`ő +mKmH`b2 2t+2bBpK2Mi2 2H 2``Q`X N
JQbi`2KQb [m2 2H 2``Q` Tm2/2 +QMi`QH`b2 272+iBpK2Mi2 2HB;B2M/Q mM Mȹ@ /2 KQ/Q [m2 iQ/Qb HQb bm#BMi2`pHQb iB2M2M H KBbK HQM;Bim/
K2`Q /2 bm#BMi2`pHQb /2+m/Q v [m2 i2M2KQb +QMp2`;2M+B H BMi2;`H
+mM/Q h ! 0 +QM Hb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` Kb +QKmM2bX h := xj+1 xj .
237 238
hK#BûM bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH bBKTH2 bQ+B/ bQM TmMiQb HQ [m2 / mM Q`/2M /2 +QMp2`;2M+B O(h2 )X liBHBxM/Q H MQi+BƦM /2 bm#őM/B@
/2H BMi2`pHQ /2 BMi2;`+BƦM 0  t0 < · · · < tn  1X 1M 2b2 +bQ HQb MQ/Qb /2 +2b TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` H `2;H /2H i`T2+BQ +QKTm2bi 2M H 7Q`K #`2pB/
Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb bQM
Z b ⇣f + f X1 ⌘
N
0 N f 00 (⇠) 2
xj + ti h = a + (j + ti )h, i = 0, . . . , n, j = 0, . . . , N 1, f (x)dx = h + fj (b a) h .
a 2 j=1
12
v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+ Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K
1bi2 MHBbBb b2 Tm2/2 THB+` H KvQ`ő /2 7Ʀ`KmHb 2bim/B/b Mi2@
Z b N
X1 X
n `BQ`K2Mi2- Q#i2MB2M/Q T` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H `2+iM;mHQ +QKTm2bi
f (x)dx = h ŵi f (a + (j + ti )h) + R[f ].
a Z b N
X1
j=0 i=0 f 0 (⇠)
f (x)dx = h fj + (b a) h,
S` 2tT`2b` Hb `2;Hb +QKTm2bib- miBHBx`2KQb H MQi+BƦM /2 őM/B+2b 7`+@ a j=0
2
+BQM`BQb T` HQb MQ/Qb
T` H /2H TmMiQ K2/BQ +QKTm2bi
xj+ti := a + (j + ti )h, i = 0, . . . , n, j = 0, . . . , N 1, Z b N
X1 f 00 (⇠) 2
v H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b f (x)dx = h fj+1/2 + (b a) h ,
a j=0
24
fj+ti := f (a + (j + ti )h), i = 0, . . . , n, j = 0, . . . , N 1.
v T` H /2 aBKTbQM +QKTm2bi
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB K#Qb 2ti`2KQb /2 HQb BMi2`pHQb bQM MQ/Qb /2 H Z ⇣f + f N 1 N 1 ⌘

b
1 X 2 X f (4) (⇠) 4
7Ʀ`KmH Ut0 = 0- tn = 1V- 2MiQM+2b 2H ȹHiBKQ bmKM/Q /2 mM BMi2`pHQ 2bi
0 N
f (x)dx = h + fj + fj+1/2 (b a) h .
6 3 j=1 3 j=0 2880
#b/Q 2M 2H KBbKQ MQ/Q [m2 2H T`BK2` BMi2`pHQ /2 H bB;mB2Mi2- TQ` HQ [m2 a
Tm2/2 `2/m+B`b2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 bmKM/Qb /2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm`X

S` BHmbi`` 2bi B/2- /2b+`B#KQb H `2;H /2H i`T2+BQ +QKTm2bi 1ti`TQH+BƠM v KöiQ/Q /2 _QK#2`;
Z b N
X1 ⇣ f (a) + f (b) N
X1 ⌘ a2 F : (0, R] mM 7mM+BƦM iH [m2
h
f (x)dx ⇡ f (xj ) + f (xj+1 ) = h + f (xj ) ,
a 2 j=1
2 j=1 F (h) = a0 + a1 hm1 + · · · + ak hmk + Rk+1 (h),
+mvQ 2``Q` 2b /QM/2 Rk+1 (h) = O(hmk+1 )- 2b /2+B` p2`B}+ mM +Qi+BƦM /2 H 7Q`K
3 N
X1
h
R[f ] = f 00 (⇠j ), |Rk+1 (h)|  Ck+1 hmk+1 ,
12 j=0
/QM/2 ⇠j 2 [xj , xj+1 ]- j = 0, . . . , N 1X liBHBxM/Q 2H G2K eX3- TQ/2KQb +QM 0 = m0 < m1 < · · · < mk < mk+1 X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 lı́mh!0+ F (h) = a0 X
2tT`2b` 2H 2``Q` 2M H 7Q`K 6`2+m2Mi2K2Mi2 h 2b mM T`K2i`Q /2 /Bb+`2iBx+BƦM [m2 MQ Tm2/2 iQK`b2
B;mH yX hőTB+K2Mi2- T`2+2 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 F (h) mM /2MQKBM/Q` [m2
h3 00 f 00 (⇠) 2 iB2M/2 +2`Q +mM/Q h ! 0+ X 1M Qi`b Q+bBQM2b- +QKTH2DB// /2H T`Q#H2K
R[f ] = N
12
f (⇠) = (b a)
12
h , ⇠ 2 [a, b], [m2 ?v [m2 `2bQHp2` T` 2pHm` h 2b BMp2`bK2Mi2 T`QTQ`+BQMH H iKƢQ
239 240
/2 hX 1M +mH[mB2` +bQ- 2b BKTQbB#H2 /BbTQM2` /2H pHQ` /2H HőKBi2 a0 X S`2i2M@ G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 bmK+BƦM /2 1mH2`@J+Gm`BM BKTHB+ [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H i`@
/2KQb T`QtBK` 2H pHQ` /2H HőKBi2 a0 miBHBxM/Q pHQ`2b /2 F 2M TmMiQb h v T2+BQ +QKTm2bi /KBi2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
rh +QM 0 < r < 1X G 2ti`TQH+BƦM /2 _B+?`/bQM T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` 7mM+BQM2b Z b m
X B2k (f (2k 1) (b) f (2k 1) (a)) 2k
+QM KvQ` p2HQ+B// /2 +QMp2`;2M+B [m2 F X T (h) = f (x)dx + h
*QKT`M/Q HQb pHQ`2b /2 F (h) v F (rh) Q#i2M2KQb a (2k)!
k=1
B2m+2 (b a)f (2m+2) (⇠) 2m+2
F (rh) = a0 + a1 rm1 hm1 + · · · + ak rmk hmk + Rk+1 (rh) + h .
(2m + 2)!
bő [m2 GQb Bn bQM HQb HHK/Qb MȹK2`Qb /2P"2`MQmHHB- [m2 Tm2/2M /2}MB`b2 TìB2M/Q
/2 B0 = 1 K2/BMi2 H `2+m``2M+B k=0 n+1k Bk = 0X GQb T`BK2`Qb MȹK2`Qb
n
m1 m1 m2 m1 m2
F (rh) r F (h) = (1 r )a0 + (r r )a2 h + ··· /2 "2`MQmHHB /2 őM/B+2 T` bQM
mk m1 mk
+ (r r )ak h + O(hmk+1 ).
1 1 1 1
B2 = , B4 = , B6 = , B8 = ,...
SQ` iMiQ H 7mM+BƦM 6 30 42 30
F (rh) rm1 F (h) r m2 r m1 SQ/2KQb THB+` H 2ti`TQH+BƦM /2 _B+?`/bQM T` H bm+2bBƦM /2 2t@
F1 (h) := = a 0 + a 1 hm 2 + · · · TQM2Mi2b 2, 4, 6, . . . v r = 1/2X G 7Ʀ`KmH [m2 Q#i2M2KQb THB+M/Q 2H T`BK2`
1 r m1 1 r m1
r mk r m1 TbQ /2 2ti`TQH+BƦM
+ ak hmk + O(hmk+1 )
1 r m1 4T (h/2) T (h)
T1 (h) =
T`QTQ`+BQM T`QtBK+BQM2b a0 [m2 +QMp2`;2M Kb `TB/K2Mi2 y +mM/Q 3
h ! 0+ X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H 7mM+BƦM F1 (h) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM /2H iBTQ Mi2`BQ` +Q``2bTQM/2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 aBKTbQM +QKTm2biX GQb bm+2bBpQb TbQb /M
+QM mM iû`KBMQ K2MQb- bő [m2 2H T`Q+2bQ Tm2/2 `2T2iB`b2 ?bi Q#i2M2` mM Hm;` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb +QKTm2bib +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b 7Ʀ`KmHb bBKTH2b +/ p2x
7mM+BƦM Fk (h) = a0 +O(hmk+1 ) [m2 +QMp2`;2 a0 +QM mM p2HQ+B// O(hmk+1 )X +QM KvQ` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 HQb T2bQb /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+ /2 iBTQ
22k Tk 1 (h/2) Tk 1 (h)
BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ Tm2/2M /2i2`KBM`b2 `2bQHpB2M/Q mM bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2bX aB Tk (h) = .
2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2b HiQ- MQb 2M7`2MiKQb H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 bBbi2Kb 22k 1
/2 Hi /BK2MbBƦM [m2 Tm2/2M 2bi` KH +QM/B+BQM/Qb v +mvQ +H+mHQ Tm2/2 G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 2M H 7Q`K
b2` H#Q`BQbQ +QM `2bmHi/Qb TQ+Q T`2+BbQbX G 2ti`TQH+BƦM /2 _B+?`/bQM
MQb T2`KBi2 +QMbi`mB` BKTHő+BiK2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 HiQ ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM UMQ Tk 1 (h/2) Tk 1 (h)
Tk (h) = Tk 1 (h) + .
M2+2b`BK2Mi2 /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQV TìB2M/Q /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH //X 1H 22k 1
KûiQ/Q /2 _QK#2`; +QMbBbi2 2M THB+` H 2ti`TQH+BƦM /2 _B+?`/bQM H Sm2biQ [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH Tk (h) ? bB/Q Q#i2MB/ K2/BMi2 2ti`TQH+BƦM- Tm2/2
7Ʀ`KmH /2H i`T2+BQX +QMbB/2``b2 Kb T`2+Bb [m2 Tk 1 (h)- TQ` HQ [m2 2H pHQ`
a2 T (h) 2H pHQ` /2 H T`QtBK+BƦM H BMi2;`H /2 f 2M [a, b] miBHBxM/Q
N bm#BMi2`pHQb +QM h = (b a)/N Tk 1 (h/2) Tk 1 (h)
22k 1
⇣1 N
X1 ⌘
1 Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ mM 2biBK+BƦM /2H 2``Q` +QK2iB/Q TQ` Tk 1 (h)
T (h) := h f (a) + f (a + ih) + f (b) .
2 i=1
2 +mM/Q h 2b bm}+B2Mi2K2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQX
241 242
*QMp2`;2M+B Hm2;Q lı́mk!1 Rk [f qk ] = 0X SQ` H 2t+iBim/ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH k@ûbBK 2M Pk
lM +m2biBƦM [m2 b2 THMi2 i`b +QMbB/2`` 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` /2 ;`/Q i2M2KQb Rk [qk ] = 0- /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
/2 T`2+BbBƦM +/ p2x Kb HiQ 2b 2H T`Q#H2K /2 H +QMp2`;2M+B /2 mM Rk [f ] = Rk [f qk ] ! 0,
bm+2bBƦM /2 `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` H pHQ` /2 H BMi2;`HX 1H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q
+mM/Q k ! 1X
Km2bi` [m2 H +Qi+BƦM /2 HQb T2bQb 2b +`m+BH T` /2/m+B` H +QMp2`;2M+BX
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
h2Q`2K dXRy Uh2Q`2K /2 +QMp2`;2M+B /2 SƦHvVX a2 w mM 7mM+BƦM Z b nk
X
MQ M2;iBp 2 BMi2;`#H2 2M [a, b]X a2 kRk k1 = w(x)dx + |wi,k |,
a
Z b Xnk i=0
P nk
f (x)w(x)dx = wi,k f (xi,k ) + Rk [f ], k = 0, 1, . . . p2KQb [m2 bB H bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b i=0 |wi,k |- k = 0, 1, . . . MQ 2bi +Qi/-
a i=0 iKTQ+Q HQ 2bi` H bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ`Kb kRk k1 X .2H T`BM+BTBQ /2 +Qi+BƦM
mM bm+2bBƦM /2 `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` +QM mMB7Q`K2 Uh2Q`2K /2 "M+?@ai2BM?mbV b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2tBbi2 mM 7mM+BƦM
+QMiBMm f 2 C[a, b]PT` H [m2 Rk [f ] MQ 2bi +Qi/- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 H
bm+2bBƦM /2 pHQ`2b i=0 wi,k f (xi,k ) MQ b2` +QMp2`;2Mi2 T` /B+? 7mM+BƦMX
nk
xi,k 2 [a, b], i = 0, . . . , nk , k = 0, 1, . . . ,
/2 KM2` [m2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` k@ûbBK iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM H S` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 L2riQMĜ*Qi2b MQ 2b TQbB#H2 +Qi` H bmK /2 HQb
K2MQb kX 1MiQM+2b T2bQb H mK2Mi` 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM v MQ TQ/2KQb ;`MiBx` H +QMp2`;2M@
Z b nk
X +B H BMi2;`HX SQ` 2HHQ BMi`Q/m+B`2KQb Kb /2HMi2 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm`
f (x)w(x)dx = lı́m wi,k f (xi,k ) +mvQb T2bQb bQM iQ/Qb TQbBiBpQbX S` 2bi2 iBTQ /2 7Ʀ`KmHb 2bi ;`MiBx/
a k!1
i=0 H +QMp2`;2M+BX
T` +mH[mB2` 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm f 2 C[a, b] bB v bƦHQ bB 2tBbi2 mM +QMbiMi2 *Q`QH`BQ dXRR Uh2Q`2K /2 ai2FHQpVX a2 w mM 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp 2
K iH [m2 BMi2;`#H2 2M [a, b]X a2 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm`
Xnk
Z b nk
X
|wi,k |  K, 8k 0,
f (x)w(x)dx = wi,k f (xi,k ) + Rk [f ], k = 0, 1, . . .
i=0
a i=0
P nk
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 i=0 |wi,k |  K T` iQ/Q kX SQ` 2H +QM MQ/Qb 2M [a, b] v T2bQb MQ M2;iBpQb /2 KM2` [m2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm`
h2Q`2K /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2 q2B2`bi`bb- 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb P 2b k@ûbBK iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM H K2MQb kX 1MiQM+2b
/2MbQ 2M C[a, b]- 2b /2+B`- T` +/ 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[a, b]X SQ` HQ iMiQ- // f Z b nk
X
2tBbi2 mM bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb qk 2 Pk iH [m2 qk +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f (x)w(x)dx = lı́m wi,k f (xi,k ).
f X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2 a k!1
i=0
Z b Xnk
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ HQb T2bQb bQM MQ M2;iBpQb
|Rk [f qk ]| = (f (x) qk (x))w(x)dx wi,k (f (xi,k ) qk (xi,k )) nk nk Z b
a X X
i=0
Z nk
|wi,k | = wi,k = w(x)dx.
b X i=0 i=0 a
 w(x)dx kf qk k1 + |wi,k |kf qk k1 ,
a i=0
THB+M/Q 2H h2Q`2K /2 +QMp2`;2M+B /2 SƦHv- /2/m+BKQb [m2 Hb T`QtB@
⇣Z b ⌘ K+BQM2b Q#i2MB/b +QM H bm+2bBƦM /2 `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` +QMp2`;2M H
 w(x)dx + K kf qk k1 BMi2;`H T` +mH[mB2` 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMmX
a
243 244
3X T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/QbX Jb ;2M2`HK2Mi2 TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` T`Q/m+iQb 2b+H`2b [m2 +QK#BM2M
iû`KBMQb +QMiBMmQb v /Bb+`2iQb
1M H T`QtBK+BƦM /2 7mM+BQM2b 2b 7mM/K2MiH +QMi` +QM mM +`Bi2`BQ /2
Z
/BbiM+B [m2 T2`KBi b2H2++BQM` mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦMX lM +`Bi2`BQ Kmv
N
X
hu, vi = wi u(xi )v(xi ) + w(x)u(x)v(x)dx,
miBHBx/Q T` pHQ`` H +HB// /2 mM T`QtBK+BƦM 2b [m2 2H pHQ` /2H I
2``Q` +m/ìB+Q K2/BQ b2 T2[m2ƢQX 1M /B+?Q +bQ- 2H iKƢQ /2H 2``Q` /2
i=0
mM T`QtBK+BƦM b2 KB/2 K2/BMi2 mM MQ`K T`Q+2/2Mi2 /2 mM T`Q/m+iQ /QM/2 w 2b mM 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp BMi2;`#H2 2M I v wi 0- i = 0, . . . , N X
2b+H` v H #ȹb[m2/ /2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM b2 `2/m+2 mM T`Q#H2K G i2Q`ő /2 H K2/B/ MQb T2`KBi2 #Q`/` iQ/Qb +bQb H p2x- bBM Kb [m2
HBM2HX 1M H T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb b2 /BbiBM;m2M /Qb +bQb, H +QMbB/2`` mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
Z
T`QtBK+BƦM +QMiBMm v H /Bb+`2iX
hu, vi = u(x)v(x)dµ(x)
1M H T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb +QMiBMm H /BbiM+B 2Mi`2 I
/Qb 7mM+BQM2b b2 KB/2 miBHBxM/Q mM MQ`K `2bT2+iQ mM K2/B/ /2 "Q`2H }MBi v MQ M2;iBp bQ#`2 IX
1M /2i2`KBM/Qb +QMi2tiQb iB2M2M BMi2`ûb T`Q/m+iQb 2b+H`2b Kb ;2M2@
d(u, v) = ku vk `H2b [m2 miBHBxM pHQ`2b /2 /2`Bp/b v iK#BûM BMi2;`H2b TQM/2`/b /2
/2`Bp/b /2 Q`/2M bmT2`BQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦMX
T`Q+2/2Mi2 /2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
1bT+BQb /Qi/Qb /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
p
kuk := hu, ui *QMbB/2`` bQHK2Mi2 T`Q/m+iQb 2b+H`2b /2}MB/Qb TQbBiBpQb 2M HQb T`Q#H2Kb
/2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb 2b mM 7m2ì2 `2bi`B++BƦMX
/2 H 7Q`K 1M 2H +bQ /2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM +QMiBMm TQM/2`/ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2
Z b
mM 7mM+BƦM T2bQ MQ M2;iBp- Tm2/2M bm`;B` H;mMb /B}+mHi/2bX aB H
hu, vi := u(x)v(x)dx,
a
7mM+BƦM T2bQ w 2b MmH 2M mM bm#BMi2`pHQ J /2 I v u 2b mM 7mM+BƦM MQ MmH
/2H 2bT+BQ F iH [m2
Q Kb ;2M2`HK2Mi2 {x 2 I | u(x) 6= 0} ✓ J,
Z 2MiQM+2b x 2 I 7! u(x)2 w(x) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmH 2M I v
hu, vi := u(x)v(x)w(x)dx, Z
I u(x)2 w(x)dx = 0,
I
bB2M/Q w mM 7mM+BƦM T2bQ MQ M2;iBp 2 BMi2;`#H2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ IX HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 H 7Q`K #BHBM2H hu, vi :=
R
u(x)v(x)w(x)dx MQ /2}M2 mM
I
G T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb /Bb+`2i miBHBx `272`2M+B MQ`@ T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X
Kb T`Q+2/2Mi2b /2 T`Q/m+iQb 2b+H`2b /Bb+`2iQb- 2b /2+B`- /2 H 7Q`K 1bi2 KBbKQ T`Q#H2K iK#BûM T`2+2 2M H T`QtBK+BƦM /Bb+`2iX LQ
TQ/2KQb 2bT2`` i2M2` mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ /2 H 7Q`K hu, vi :=
N PN
i=0 wi u(xi )v(xi )- /2}MB/Q 2M 2H 2bT+BQ /2 iQ/Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb- MB bB[mB2`
X
hu, vi := wi u(xi )v(xi ), QN
i=0
2M PN +1 X 1H TQHBMQKBQ !N +1 (x) = i=0 (x xi ) 2b MQ MmHQ v p2`B}+
h!N +1 , !N +1 i = 0X
+QM w1 , . . . , wn > 0 v x0 , . . . , xN mM +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb /2 [a, b] HHK/Qb Gb Q#b2`p+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b KQiBpM 2H 2bim/BQ /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 KőMB@
MQ/QbX KQb +m/`/Qb 2M 2H +QMi2tiQ /2 2bT+BQb /Qi/Qb /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X
245 246
.2}MB+BƦM 3XRX lM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /2}MB/Q 2M 2H 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH F h2Q`2K 3XkX a2 U mM bm#2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH /2 mM 2bT+BQ F /Qi/Q /2 mM
2b mM 7Q`K #BHBM2H bBKûi`B+ b2KB/2}MB/ TQbBiBpX lM b2KBMQ`K k · k b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` v b2 f 2 F X 1MiQM+2b u0 2 U 2b mM K2DQ` T`QtBK@
mM THB++BƦM /2 F 2M HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- b2KB/2}MB/ TQbBiBp- bm#/BiBp- +BƦM f 2M U bB v bƦHQ bB b2 p2`B}+
bBKûi`B+ v TQbBiBpK2Mi2 ?QKQ;ûM2- 2b /2+B`- p2`B}+ Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2@
//2b u0 f 2 U ?.
UV kf k 0- 8f 2 F
U#V kf + gk  kf k + kgk- 8f, g 2 F .2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 u0 mM K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M U X a2 v 2 U -
v 6= 0- +mH[mB2`X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2
U+V ktf k = |t| kf k- 8t 2 _- f 2 F X
p(t) := ku0 + tv f k2 = kvk2 t2 + 2hu0 f, vit + ku0 f k2 ,
.Qb p2+iQ`2b u, v bQM QìQ;QMH2b- u ? v- bB hu, vi = 0X 1b 7`2+m2Mi2 miBHB@
x` H MQi+BƦM ? T` BM/B+` H QìQ;QMHB// 2Mi`2 p2+iQ`2b v bm#2bT+BQb-
H+Mx bm pHQ` KőMBKQ 2M t = 0- 2b /2+B` p(t) p(0) 0 T` iQ/Q tX
/2 KQ/Q [m2
v?U p(t) p(0) = (kvk2 t + 2hu0 f, vi)t 0,
bB;MB}+ [m2 v 2b QìQ;QMH H bm#2bT+BQ U /2 F - 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 [m2 v 2b
QìQ;QMH iQ/Qb HQb p2+iQ`2b /2 /B+?Q bm#2bT+BQX hK#BûM b2 BMi`Q/m+2 2H HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 hu0 f, viX *QKQ v 2b mM p2+iQ` `#Bi``BQ /2 U \ {0}-
+QKTH2K2MiQ QìQ;QMH /2 mM 2bT+BQ /2/m+BKQb [m2 u0 f 2 U ? X
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2 bB u0 f 2 U ? - i2M2KQb
U ? := {v 2 F | v ? U },
ku f k2 = k(u u0 ) + (u0 f )k2 = ku u0 k2 + ku0 f k2 ku0 f k2 ,
[m2 2b mM 2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BHX
./Q mM pb2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` h·, ·i- [m2/ /2}MB/ mM b2KBMQ`K K2@ HQ [m2 Km2bi` [m2 u0 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` 2H2K2MiQb /2 U X
/BMi2 kuk := hu, uiX LQi2KQb [m2 H b2KBMQ`K /2 mM p2+iQ` MQ MmHQ Tm2/2
b2` +2`QX GQb p2+iQ`2b +QM b2KBMQ`K MmH bQM p2+iQ`2b BbƦi`QTQb- 2b /2+B`- J2DQ` T`QtBK+BƠM 2M 2bT+BQb /2 /BK2MbBƠM 7BMBi
QìQ;QMH2b bő KBbKQbX o2KQb +ƦKQ TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 Kő@
J2DQ` T`QtBK+BƠM 2M T`Q#H2Kb /2 KŌMBKQb +m/`/Qb MBKQb +m/`/Qb /2 f 2 F TQ` 2H2K2MiQb /2 mM bm#2bT+BQ /2 /BK2MbBƦM
}MBi U X 1M T`BK2` Hm;` b2 2b+Q;2 mM #b2 u1 , . . . , un /2H 2bT+BQ v iQ/Q
a2 F mM 2bT+BQ /Qi/Q /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` v U mM bm#2bT+BQ /2
2H2K2MiQ /2 U b2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b` /2 KM2` ȹMB+ +QKQ +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H
F X .2+BKQb [m2 u0 2 U 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2 F TQ` 2H2K2MiQb /2
/2 2H2K2MiQb /2 H #b2X
U bB
kf u0 k  kf uk, 8u 2 U, SQ` 2H h2Q`2K 3Xk- bB u0 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2#2M p2`B}+`b2 Hb
`2H+BQM2b
2b /2+B`- u0 = arg mı́nu2U kf ukX GHKM/Q dist(f, U ) := ı́nf u2U kf uk- hu0 f, ui i = 0, i = 1, . . . , n. (8.1)
i2M2KQb [m2 u0 2 U 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2 F bB v bƦHQ bB
Gb +QM/B+BQM2b U3XRV bQM iK#BûM bm}+B2Mi2b v [m2 iQ/Q u 2 U Tm2/2 2tT`2@
kf u0 k = dist(f, U ). b`b2 +QKQ +QK#BM+BƦM /2 HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H #b2 u = c1 u1 + · · · + cn un -
n
X
o2KQb [m2 Hb `2H+BQM2b /2 QìQ;QMHB// bQM mM ?2``KB2Mi +Hp2 hu0 f, ui = ci hu0 f, ui i = 0
T` /2b+`B#B` Hb K2DQ`2b T`QtBK+BQM2b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM 2M mM bm#2bT+BQX i=1
247 248
v TQ` 2H h2Q`2K 3Xk- u0 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M U X S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XjX a2 U mM bm#2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH /2 /BK2MbBQM }MBi /2 mM
G K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM- bB 2tBbi2- Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 K2/BMi2 bmb +QQ`/2@ 2bT+BQ F /Qi/Q /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` h·, ·i v b2 k · k H b2KBMQ`K
M/b (c1 , . . . , cn ) `2bT2+iQ H #b2 (u1 , . . . , un ) 2M H 7Q`K bQ+B/X Gb bB;m2Mi2b +QM/B+BQM2b bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b
UV G `2bi`B++BƦM /2 k · k H bm#2bT+BQ U 2b mM MQ`KX
n
X
u0 = c j uj . U#V U \ U ? = 0X
j=1 U+V G Ki`Bx /2 :`K /2 mM #b2 +mH[mB2` 2b bBKûi`B+ v /2}MB/ TQbB@
iBpX
AKTQMB2M/Q Hb `2H+BQM2b U3XRV b2 Q#iB2M2 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b
.2KQbi`+BƦMX o2KQb [m2 UV v U#V bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b
n
X
huj , ui icj = hf, ui i, i = 1, . . . , n,
j=1
u 2 U \ U ? , hu, ui = 0 , kuk = 0.
[m2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M 7Q`K Ki`B+BH SQ` iMiQ ?v p2+iQ`2b MQ MmHQb +QM MQ`K MmH bB v bƦHQ bB U \ U ? +QMiB2M2
p2+iQ`2b MQ MmHQbX
0 1 0 1
hun , u1 i 0 c1 1 o2KQb mM #b2 u1 , . . . , un v c 2 _n \ {0}
Pn [m2 UV BKTHB+ U+VXP./
hu1 , u1 i ··· hf, u1 i
B XX XX XX C @ XX A B XX C i2M2KQb j=1 cj uj 6= 0- Hm2;Q k j=1 cj uj k > 0- /2 /QM/2
n
@ X X X A X = @ X A.
hu1 , un i ··· hun , un i cn hf, un i
n
X 2
G Ki`Bx /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H bBbi2K Mi2`BQ` b2 HHK Ki`Bx /2 :`K Q ;`@ cT G(u1 , . . . , un )c = c j uj > 0.
KBM /2H bBbi2K (u1 , . . . , un ) v- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi H bBK2i`ő /2H T`Q/m+iQ
j=1
2b+H`- Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K

SQ` iMiQ- G(u1 , . . . , un ) 2b /2}MB/ TQbBiBpX
0 1
hu1 , u1 i ··· hu1 , un i 6BMHK2Mi2 p2KQb [m2 U+V BKTHB+ UVX aB G(u1 , . . . , un ) 2b /2}MB/ TQ@
B XX XX XX C iB2M2 +QQ`/2M/b c 2 _n \ {0}-
bBiBp- +QKQ iQ/Q p2+iQ` MQ MmHQ u 2 U \ {0} P
G(u1 , . . . , un ) := @ X X X A.
TQ/`2KQb /2/m+B` [m2 H b2KBMQ`K /2 u = j=1 cj uj 2b
n
hun , u1 i ··· hun , un i
n
X q
G Ki`Bx ;`KBM 2b bB2KT`2 mM Ki`Bx bBKûi`B+ v b2KB/2}MB/ TQbBiBp-
c j uj = cT G(u1 , . . . , un )c > 0.
v [m2
n j=1
X
0 8c 2 _n .
2
cT G(u1 , . . . , un )c = c j uj
j=1
S` TQ/2` /2i2`KBM` mM bQHm+BƦM M2+2bBiKQb [m2 H Ki`Bx ;`KBM b2 aB k · k 2b mM MQ`K bQ#`2 U - 2MiQM+2b H ;`KBM /2 +mH[mB2` #b2
/2}MB/ TQbBiBpX +QMiBMm+BƦM p2KQb [m2 H Ki`Bx ;`KBM 2b /2}MB/ 2b mM mM Ki`Bx bBKûi`B+ v /2}MB/ TQbBiBpX 1biQ T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` H
TQbBiBp bB v bƦHQ bB H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 H b2KBMQ`K H 2bT+BQ U 2b mM MQ`K 2tBbi2M+B v mMB+B// /2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM 2M
/2H 2bT+BQ bm#2bT+BQb /2 /BK2MbBƦM }MBiX
249 250
h2Q`2K 3X9X a2 mM 2bT+BQ F /Qi/Q /2 mM b2KBMQ`K k · k [m2 T`QpB2M2 o2KQb [m2 HQb p2+iQ`2b +QM b2KBMQ`K MQ MmH /2 mM bBbi2K QìQ;QMH
/2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` h·, ·i v b2 f 2 F X a2 U mM bm#2bT+BQ p2+iQ`BH bQM BM/2T2M/B2Mi2bX
/2 /BK2MbBƦM }MBi iH [m2 k · k /2}M2 mM MQ`K bQ#`2 U X 1MiQM+2b H K2DQ`
T`QtBK+BƦM f 2M 2H bm#2bT+BQ U 2tBbi2 v 2b ȹMB+X S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XeX a2 (q1 , . . . , qn ) mM bBbi2K QìQ;QMH /2 p2+iQ`2b +QM b2@
KBMQ`K MQ MmH /2 mM 2bT+BQ F /Qi/Q /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` v
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K 3Xk- H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM b2 +`+i2`Bx U := hq1 , . . . , qn iX 1MiQM+2b
TQ` b2` H bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2bX SQ` H S`QTQbB+BƦM UV GQb p2+iQ`2b q1 , . . . , qn bQM BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b v 7Q`KM mM #b2 /2 U X
3Xj- H Ki`Bx /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b 2b /2}MB/ TQbBiBpX SQ` U#V 1H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /2}M2 mM MQ`K bQ#`2 U X
iMiQ- 2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b iB2M2 mM Ki`Bx /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b MQ
U+V G K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2 F 2M U 2b
bBM;mH` v /KBi2 bB2KT`2 mM bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ H 2tBbi2M+B v
n
mMB+B// /2 H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦMX X hf, qj i
qj .
j=1
kqj k2
aBbi2Kb QìQ;QMH2b v bmKb /2 6Qm`B2`
U/V aB f 2 U - 2MiQM+2b
G +QMbi`m++BƦM /2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b bmTQM2 n
X hf, qj i
2pHm` 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X G `2bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b f= qj .
kqj k2
Tm2/2 /` Hm;` `2bmHi/Qb +QM ;`M/2b 2``Q`2b /2#B/Q H KH +QM/B+BQM@ j=1
KB2MiQ /2 Hb Ki`B+2b /2 :`KX .2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM2` [m2 mM +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 HQb p2+iQ`2b 2b MmH
lM Ki`Bx `2H2pMi2 2M H T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb 2b H Xn
Ki`Bx /2 >BH#2ì ⇣ ⌘ cj qj = 0,
1
Hn = i + j 1 . j=1
i,j=1,...,n
KmHiBTHB+M/Q TQ` qi Q#i2M2KQb ci hqi , qi i = 0X *QKQ H b2KBMQ`K /2 +/
1bi Ki`Bx 2b H Ki`Bx /2 :`K /2 H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb (1, x, . . . , xn 1 ) p2+iQ` qi 2b MQ MmH- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 hqi , qi i > 0 v ci = 0- T` iQ/Q i = 1, . . . nX
R1
/2H 2bT+BQ Pn 1 - `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` hu, vi := 0 u(x)v(x)dxX S` S` /2KQbi`` U#V- i2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2 H QìQ;QMHB// BKTHB+ [m2
n = 10- 2H +QM/B+BQMKB2MiQ /2 H Ki`Bx /2 >BH#2ì 2b 2 (H10 ) ⇡ 1.6 ⇥ 1013 Xn X n
v- T` n = 15- 2 (H15 ) ⇡ 6.1 ⇥ 1020 X
2
c j qj = c2j kqj k2 ,
lM Hi2`MiBp H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 bBbi2Kb MQ`KH2b 2b 2H mbQ /2 #b2b j=1 j=1
QìQ;QMH2bX 1M 2b2 +bQ- H `2bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b 2b /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 HQb p2+iQ`2b /2 U MQ MmHQb /2#2M i2M2` b2KBMQ`K MQ
i`BpBH- v [m2 H Ki`Bx /2H bBbi2K 2b /B;QMHX 1M H;mMQb +bQb- Hb #b2b MmHX S` /2KQbi`` U+V v U/V- KmHiBTHB[m2KQb 2H p2+iQ`
QìQ;QMH2b 2biM +QKTH2iK2Mi2 /2b+`Bib v Tm2/2M b2` 2pHm/b +QM +B2ìQb Xm
hqj , f i
H;Q`BiKQbX 1M 2H +bQ /2 MQ /BbTQM2` /2 mM #b2 QìQ;QMH 2b T`2+BbQ b2;mB` f qj
kqj k2
mM T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦMX .2b``QHH`2KQb 2bib B/2b 2M 2H +QMi2tiQ /2 j=1
2bT+BQb /Qi/Qb /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X TQ` HQb p2+iQ`2b qi - i = 1, . . . , n- Q#i2MB2M/Q
hf, qi i
.2}MB+BƦM 3X8X a2 F mM 2bT+BQ /Qi/Q /2 mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X 1H hf, qi i hqi , qi i = 0,
bBbi2K /2 p2+iQ`2b (q1 , . . . , qn )- qi 2 F - i = 1, . . . , n- 2b QìQ;QMH bB hqi , qj i = kqi k2
Pn
0- T` iQ/Q i 6= jX 1H bBbi2K b2 /B+2 QìQMQ`KH bB 2b QìQ;QMH v kqi k = 1- HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 i=1 hqi , f i/kqi k2 qi 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f TQ`
T` iQ/Q i = 1, . . . , nX 2H2K2MiQb /2 U X
251 252
G 2tT`2bBƦM /2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 mM p2+iQ` f `2bT2+iQ mM /QM/2
#b2 QìQ;QMH q1 , . . . , qn /2H 2bT+BQ- Z ⇡ Z ⇡
1 1
ak = cos(kx)f (x)dx, bk = sen(kx)f (x)dx, k = 1, 2, . . .
n
X hqi , f i ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡
Sn [f ] := qi
i=1
kqi k2 v Z ⇡
1
a0 = f (x)dx.
`2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2 bmK /2 6Qm`B2`X aB H #b2 2b QìQMQ`KH- H 2tT`2bBƦM ⇡ ⇡
/2 H bmK /2 6Qm`B2` b2 bBKTHB}+-
G i`mM++BƦM /2 H b2`B2 Mi2`BQ`
n
X n
Sn [f ] = hqi , f i qi , a0 X
+ (ak cos(kx) + bk sen(kx)),
i=1 2
k=1
/2 KQ/Q [m2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 6Qm`B2` bQM T`2+BbK2Mi2 HQb T`Q/m+iQb 2b+@ `2T`2b2Mi H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f TQ` TQHBMQKBQb i`B;QMQKûi`B+Qb /2
H`2b /2 HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H #b2 TQ` 2H p2+iQ` //Q f X ;`/Q n `2bT2+iQ H MQ`K 2M K2/B +m/ìB+
aB i2M2KQb mM bm+2bBƦM /2 QìQ;QMH /2 p2+iQ`2b q1 , . . . , qn , . . . +QM b2@ ⇣ 1 Z ⇡ ⌘1/2
KBMQ`K MQ MmH- TQ/2KQb +QMbB/2`` H b2`B2 7Q`KH kf k2 = f (x)2 dx .
2⇡ ⇡
1
X hqi , f i
S[f ] := qi ,
i=1
kqi k2 PìQ;QMHBx+BƠM
u ?2KQb K2M+BQM/Q [m2 Km+?b #b2b QìQ;QMH2b BKTQìMi2b /2 7mM+BQM2b
HHK/ b2`B2 /2 6Qm`B2` /2 f `2bT2+iQ H bBbi2K QìQ;QMH q1 , . . . , qn , . . . G
2biM /2b+`Bib v [m2 2tBbi2M H;Q`BiKQb [m2 T2`KBi2M +H+mH` v 2pHm` /B+?b
i`mM++BƦM /2 2bi b2`B2 /2 Hm;` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M 2H bm#2bT+BQ
#b2bX 1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 MQ +QMQx+KQb mM /2b+`BT+BƦM /2 H #b2 QìQ;QMH-
hq1 , . . . , qn iX
TQ/2KQb +H+mH`H i`pûb /2 mM T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦMX
lM 2D2KTHQ +HbB+Q /2 2bi2 iBTQ /2 b2`B2b bQM Hb b2`B2b /2 6Qm`B2` i`B;Q@
MQKûi`B+b 2M C[ ⇡, ⇡] Q L2 [ ⇡, ⇡] `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` h2Q`2K 3Xd UPìQ;QMHBx+BƦM /2 :`KĜa+?KB/iVX a2M u1 , . . . , un
Z p2+iQ`2b HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b /2 mM 2bT+BQ F /Qi/Q +QM mM b2KB@
1 ⇡
T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` v b2 Un := hu1 , . . . , un iX aB 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /2}M2
hu, vi := u(x)v(x)dx.
2⇡ ⇡ mM MQ`K bQ#`2 2H bm#2bT+BQ Un - 2MiQM+2b 2tBbi2 mM #b2 QìQMQ`KH /2
(q1 , . . . , qn ) /2 Un iH [m2
1bib b2`B2b b2 Q#iB2M2M /2H bBbi2K QìQMQ`KH /2 7mM+BQM2b
i
X
p p p p
1, 2 cos x, 2 sen x, 2 cos(2x), 2 sen(2x), . . . ui = rij qj , i = 1, . . . , n,
j=1
/2H 2bT+BQ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb i`B;QMQKûi`B+QbX G b2`B2 /2 6Qm`B2` i`B;QMQKû@

/QM/2 rii 6= 0- i = 1, . . . , nX
i`B+ 2b
1
a0 X .2KQbi`+BƦMX oKQb /2KQbi`` 2H `2bmHi/Q TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX *H@
+ (ak cos(kx) + bk sen(kx)),
2
k=1 `K2Mi2- /2#2KQb iQK` q1 = ku1 k 1 u1 v r11 = hq1 , u1 iX a2 2  k  n v
253 254
bmTQM;KQb [m2 ?2KQb +QMbi`mB/Q p2+iQ`2b q1 , . . . , qk 1 QìQ;QMH2b v 2b+H@ H;Q`BiKQ UJûiQ/Q /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM /2 :`KĜa+?KB/iVX
`2b rij - 1  j  i  k 1 iH2b [m2 [m2 b2 p2`B}+ S` i = 1, . . . , n
i S` j = 1, . . . , i 1
X
ui = rij qj , i = 1, . . . , k 1. rij hui , uj i
j=1 ui ui rij uj
a2 rii kui k
rkj := hqj , uk i, j = 1, . . . , k 1. ui = rii 1 ui
Pk 1
1MiQM+2b j=1 rkj qj 2b H bmK /2 6Qm`B2` [m2 T`QTQ`+BQM H K2DQ` T`Q@ 1bi2 H;Q`BiKQ T`2b2Mi T`Q#H2Kb /2 2bi#BHB// /2 +H+mHQX lM KQ/B}@
tBK+BƦM /2 uk TQ` 2H2K2MiQb /2 Uk 1 = hu1 , . . . , uk 1 i /2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 ++BƦM /2 2bi2 H;Q`BiKQ K2DQ` +QMbB/2`#H2K2Mi2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 2bi#B@
[m2 HB//X 1M 2bi2 H;Q`BiKQ /2 :`K@a+?KB/i KQ/B}+/Q- b2 MQ`KHBx 2H T`BK2`
k
X1 p2+iQ` q1 := r111 u1 - r11 := ku1 k- v Hm2;Q b2 Q#iB2M2M Hb T`Qv2++BQM2b QìQ;Q@
uk rkj qj 2 Uk \ Uk? 1 . MH2b uj := uj r1j q1 - r1j := hq1 , uj i- j = 2, . . . , n- /2 HQb p2+iQ`2b ui bQ#`2
(1)
j=1
2H bm#2bT+BQ U1? X 1bib T`Qv2++BQM2b (u2 , . . . , un ) 7Q`KM mM #b2 /2H 2b@
(1) (1)
*QKQ HQb p2+iQ`2b u1 , . . . , un bQM HBM2HK2Mi2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b- i2M2KQb [m2 T+BQ Un \ U1? H +mH b2 H2 THB+ /2 Mm2pQ 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦMX 1M
/ Uk 1 - Hm2;Q
uk 2 +/ TbQ /2 2bi `2+m`bBƦM H /BK2MbBƦM /BbKBMmv2 v 2H T`Q+2bQ i2`KBM H Q#@
k
X1 i2M2` mM 2bT+BQ mMB/BK2MbBQMH- +mvQ ȹMB+Q p2+iQ` #bB+Q bQHK2Mi2 `2[mB2`2
rkk := uk rkj qj 2 6= 0. mM MQ`KHBx+BƦMX
j=1
H;Q`BiKQ UJûiQ/Q /2 :`KĜa+?KB/i KQ/B}+/QVX
1H p2+iQ`
⇣ k
X1 ⌘ S` i = 1, . . . , n
qk := rkk1 uk rkj qj 2 Uk \ Uk? 1 rii kui k2
j=1
Pk ui = rii 1 ui
iB2M2 MQ`K R v b2 p2`B}+ uk = j=1 rkj qj X S` j = i + 1, . . . , n
1H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ` Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M 7Q`K Ki`B+BH +QKQ mM +K#BQ rij hui , uj i
/2 #b2b uj uj rij ui
(u1 , . . . , un ) = (q1 , . . . , qn )R,
1H T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM iK#BûM Tm2/2 THB+`b2 mM bBbi2K Mm@
/QM/2 R 2b H Ki`Bx i`BM;mH` bmT2`BQ` +mvQb 2H2K2MiQb bQM rij X *QKQ K2`#H2 /2 p2+iQ`2b BM/2T2M/B2Mi2b /2 mM 2bT+BQ F /2 /BK2MbBƦM BM}MBi
(q1 , . . . , qn ) 2b mM #b2 QìQMQ`KH- H Ki`Bx /2 :`K +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 2b H u1 , . . . , u n , . . .
Ki`Bx B/2MiB//- G(q1 , . . . , qn ) = In X /2Kb G(u1 , . . . , un ) = RT R- TQ` HQ
a2 Un = hu1 , . . . , un iX 1H 2bT+BQ 2M;2M/`/Q TQ` H bm+2bBƦM /2 p2+iQ`2b 2b
[m2 H Ki`Bx R T`QTQ`+BQM H 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM /2 *?QH2bFB /2 H Ki`Bx ;`KBM
/2 H #b2 /2 TìB/ G(u1 , . . . , un )X
U = [1 n=1 Un X bQ+B/ 2bi bm+2bBƦM Tm2/2 +QMbi`mB`b2 mM #b2 QìQMQ`KH
/2 U - K2/BMi2 mM T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM
1H T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M 7Q`K /2 H;Q`BiKQX
q1 , . . . , q n , . . .
1H bBbi2K //Q u1 , . . . , un b2 KQ/B}+ bm+2bBpK2Mi2 ?bi +QMp2ìB`b2 2M mM
bBbi2K QìQ;QMHX /2 7Q`K [m2 q1 , . . . , qn 2b #b2 QìQMQ`KH /2 Un T` iQ/Q n 1X
255 256
PìQ;QMHBx+BƠM v `2bQHm+BƠM /2 T`Q#H2Kb /Bb+`2iQb G `2bQHm+BƦM /2P
mM T`Q#H2K /Bb+`2iQ iK#BûM Tm2/2 /2b+`B#B`b2 2M 7Q`K
Ki`B+BHX a2 u = j=1 cj uj H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f `2bT2+iQ H T`Q@
n
1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` b2 /Bb+`2iQ
/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQX SQ/2KQb i`/m+B` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 2M+QMi`` H K2DQ`
N
X T`QtBK+BƦM /Bb+`2i H T`Q#H2K /2 2M+QMi`` c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) [m2 KBMBKB+2
hu, vi = wi u(xi )v(xi ), H 2tT`2bBƦM
i=1
n
X N
X ⇣ n
X ⌘2
2H T`Q+2bQ /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM /2 mM #b2 /KBi2 mM 7Q`KmH+BƦM Ki`B+BHX f c j uj
2
= wi f (xi ) cj uj (xi ) .
a2 u1 , . . . , un H #b2 /2 TìB/ v b2 q1 , . . . , qn H #b2 QìQMQ`KH iH [m2 j=1 i=1 j=1
(u1 , . . . , un ) = (q1 , . . . , qn )R- /QM/2 R 2 _n⇥n 2b mM Ki`Bx i`BM;mH` bmT2@
`BQ`X G Ki`Bx /2 :`K /2 H #b2 (q1 , . . . , qn ) 2b H B/2MiB//- HQ [m2 /KBi2 1H T`Q#H2K +Q``2bTQM/2 KBMBKBx` H MQ`K 2m+Hő/2 /2H p2+iQ` r(c) 2 _N -
H bB;mB2Mi2 BMi2`T`2i+BƦM Ki`B+BH //Q TQ`
⇣p p X n ⌘
✓ ◆T ✓ ◆
q1 , . . . , q n q1 , . . . , q n r(c) := wi f (xi ) wi cj uj (xi ) .
M WM = In , j=1
i=1,...,N
x1 , . . . , x N x1 , . . . , xN
1H p2+iQ` r(c) 2b 2H `2bB/mQ /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b bQ#`2/2i2`KBM/Q Ac = b-
/QM/2 W = diag(w1 , . . . , wN ) v
/QM/2 0 1
0 1 ✓ ◆ f (x1 )
q1 (x1 ) ··· qn (x1 )
, b := W 1/2 @ XXX A .
✓ ◆ u 1 , . . . , u n B C
q1 , . . . , q n B XX XX XX C A := W 1/2 M
A2_
N ⇥n
M
x1 , . . . , x N
=@ X X X x1 , . . . , xN
f (xN )
q1 (xN ) ··· qn (xN )
1H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b AT Ac = AT b /QTi H 7Q`K
2b H Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM /2 H #b2 q1 , . . . , qn 2M HQb TmMiQb x1 , . . . , xN X
p p 0 1
.2}MB2M/Q W 1/2 = diag( w1 , . . . , wN )- H Ki`Bx f (x1 )
✓ ◆T ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆T
W @ XXX A .
✓ ◆ u1 , . . . , u n u1 , . . . , un u1 , . . . , un B C
q1 , . . . , q n M WM c=M
Q=W M 1/2
2 _N ⇥n , x1 , . . . , x N x1 , . . . , x N x1 , . . . , x N
x1 , . . . , x N f (xN )
2b mM Ki`Bx BbQKûi`B+ 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 [m2 QT Q = In X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi 1M Hm;` /2 `2bQHp2` 2bi2 bBbi2K- 2b T`272`B#H2
Pn 2tT`2b` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM
[m2 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H #b2 QìQ;QMH u = j=1 dj qj X GQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b dj bQM
u1 , . . . , u n q1 , . . . , q n +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 6Qm`B2` `2bT2+iQ H #b2 (q1 , . . . , qn )
M =M R,
x1 , . . . , x N x1 , . . . , x N
dj = hqj , f i, j = 1, . . . , n,
/2/m+BKQb [m2 ✓ ◆
u1 , . . . , u n HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM 2tTHő+Bi /2H p2+iQ` /2 +Q2}+B2M@
W 1/2 M = QR,
x1 , . . . , x N i2b 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb /iQb
2b /2+B` H Ki`Bx /2 +K#BQ /2 #b2 R Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`b2⇣ i`pûb
⌘ /2 H 7+@ 0 1 0 1
✓ ◆T f (x1 ) f (x1 )
iQ`Bx+BƦM Z_ `2/m+B/ /2 H Ki`Bx A := W M x1 ,...,xN X G Ki`Bx /2
u1 ,...,un
W @ XXX A = QT W 1/2 @ XXX A = QT b.
1/2
q1 , . . . , qn B C B C
⇣ ⌘ d=M
x1 , . . . , x N
+QHQ++BƦM /2 H #b2 QìQMQ`KH 2b M xq11,...,x
,...,qn
N
= W 1/2 QX f (xN ) f (xN )
257 258
1M H;mMQb +bQb H #b2 QìQMQ`KH /2H T`Q#H2K /Bb+`2iQ +QBM+B/2 +QM 1H T`Q+2bQ /2 :`K@a+?KB/i +QM/m+2 mM bBbi2K QìQMQ`KH /2 TQHBMQKBQb
H #b2 QìQMQ`KH /2 mM T`Q#H2K +QMiBMmQ +mv #b2 2b #B2M +QMQ+B/ v
/2 H [m2 /BbTQM2KQb /2 H;Q`BiKQb 2}+B2Mi2b /2 2pHm+BƦMX 1M Qi`Qb +bQb q0 , q 1 , q 2 , . . . , q n ,
H #b2 QìQMQ`KH ;Qx /2 #m2Mb T`QTB2//2b v TQ/2KQb KMBTmH` +QM
+QKQ/B// Hb 7mM+BQM2b Q#i2MB/b H +QK#BM` HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H #b2X 1M iH2b [m2 qj iB2M2 ;`/Q 2t+iK2Mi2 j v 2b QìQ;QMH Pj 1 - T` +/
2biQb +bQb 2bT2+BH2b j = 0, 1, . . . , n- 2b /2+B`- +/ qj 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q j +QM
Pn `2bmHi p2MiDQbQ 2tT`2b` H bQHm+BƦM 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H MQ`K mMBi`BX
#b2 QìQMQ`KH j=1 dj qj X
hK#BûM 2b TQbB#H2 [m2 H #b2 QìQMQ`KH Q#i2MB/ /û Hm;` mM bBb@ 1H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q 2b ȹiBH T` /2KQbi`` H 2tBbi2M+B /2 TQHBMQKBQb
i2K /2 7mM+BQM2b /2 +QKTHB+/ /2b+`BT+BƦM /B}+mHiM/Q H KMBTmH+BƦM v QìQ;QMH2b bQ+B/Qb +B2ìQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m@
2pHm+BƦM /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2bX aB H #b2 BMB+BH (u0 , . . . , un ) 2b T`QTB/ T` /`/QbX
2tT`2b` Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2H 2bT+BQ v T2`KBi2 H 2pHm+BƦM 2}+B2Mi2 /2 Hb 7mM@
G2KR 3X3X a2 w mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M Int(I)- MQ M2;iBp- BMi2;`#H2 iH
+BQM2b- TQ/2KQb THMi2`MQb H TQbB#BHB// Pn /2 2tT`2b` H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM [m2 I w(x)dx > 0X aB r 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ MQ M2;iBpQ 2M I v MQ B/ûMiB+K2Mi2
2M iû`KBMQb /2 H #b2 /2 TìB/ j=1 cj uj X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H `2H+BƦM
MmHQ iH [m2 rw 2b BMi2;`#H2 2M I- 2MiQM+2b
2Mi`2 Hb #b2b (u1 , . . . , un ) = (q1 , . . . , qn )R +QM/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 `2H+BƦM
2Mi`2 HQb p2+iQ`2b /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b Z
r(x)w(x)dx > 0.
I
Rc = d.
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 x0 2 Int(I) iH [m2 w(x0 ) > 0X SQ` +QMiBMmB//- 2tBbi2
SQ` iMiQ- bB ?2KQb Q#i2MB/Q d v [m2`2KQb 2M+QMi`` 2H p2+iQ` /2 +Q2}+B2M@
> 0 iH [m2 w(x) > w(x0 )/2- T` iQ/Q x 2 (x0 , x0 + )X 1H TQHBMQKBQ r
i2b c `2bT2+iQ H #b2 BMB+BH- #bi` +QM `2bQHp2` 2H bBbi2K i`BM;mH` /2
bQHK2Mi2 Tm2/2 MmH`b2 2M mM MȹK2`Q }MBiQ /2 TmMiQb /2 (x0 , x0 + )X
2+m+BQM2b Rc = dX
Gm2;Q 2tBbiB` ⇠ 2 (x0 , x0 + ) iH [m2 r(⇠) 6= 0 v TQ/`2KQb 2M+QMi`` 0 iH
SQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b [m2 (⇠ 0 , ⇠+ 0 ) ⇢ (x0 , x0 + ) v r(x) > r(⇠)/2 T` iQ/Q x 2 (⇠ 0 , ⇠+ 0 )X
a2 /2/m+2 [m2
./Q mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M mM 2bT+BQ /2 7mM+BQM2b [m2 +QMiB2M2
HQb TQHBMQKBQb UQ TQHBMQKBQb ?bi mM ;`/Q /2i2`KBM/QV- HHKKQb TQ@ Z Z ⇠+ 0
0
r(⇠)w(x0 )
HBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b [m2HHQb TQHBMQKBQb +QM b2KBMQ`K MQ MmH [m2 bQM r(x)w(x)dx r(x)w(x)dx > 0.
QìQ;QMH2b iQ/Qb HQb /2 ;`/Q BM72`BQ`X .2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2 I ⇠ 0 2
T` [m2 2tBbi 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n- H `2bi`B++BƦM /2H b2KBT`Q@
/m+iQ 2b+H` H 2bT+BQ Pn /2#2 b2` mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` Q 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2
Pn \ Pn? = 0X LQiX 1H `2bmHi/Q 2b pHB/Q mM[m2 w MQ b2 mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMmX aB rw 2b
GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b [m2/M /2i2`KBM/Qb bHpQ mM +QMbiMi2 MQ M2;iBp v iB2M2 BMi2;`H MmH- 2MiQM+2b Tm2/2 /2/m+B`b2 [m2 rw 2b MmH 2M
/2 T`QTQ`+BQMHB//X 1b +QKȹM mb` +`Bi2`BQb /2 MQ`KHBx+BƦM /BbiBMiQb +bB iQ/Q TmMiQX *QKQ r b2 MmH HQ bmKQ 2M mM MȹK2`Q R }MBiQ /2 TmMiQb-
BKTQM2` MQ`K mMBi`BX *QM 7`2+m2M+B b2 T`2b+`B#2 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ`- b2 iB2M2 [m2 w 2b MmH 2M +bB iQ/Q TmMiQX SQ` iMiQ I w(x)dx = 0- 2M
H MQ`K Q 2H pHQ` /2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M H;ȹM 2ti`2KQ /2H BMi2`pHQX +QMi`/B++BƦM +QM H ?BTƦi2bBbX
GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b Tm2/2M +QMbi`mB`b2 K2/BMi2 mM T`Q+2bQ /2 *QMbB/2`KQb 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM TìB2M/Q /2 H #b2 /2 KQMQKBQb Z
hu, vi = u(x)v(x)w(x)dx,
1, x, x2 , . . . , xn . I
259 260
/QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M Int(I)- MQ M2;iBp- BMi2@ Pi`Qb 2D2KTHQb MQi#H2b 2M BMi2`pHQb BHBKBi/Qb bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2
;`#H2 v MQ B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmHX S` [m2 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2biû /2}MB/Q G;m2``2 2M (0, +1)- QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
2M 2H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb 2b M2+2b`BQ BKTQM2` [m2 Z +1
Z hu, vi := u(x)v(x) exp( x)dx.
0
|p(x)|w(x)dx < +1,
I
v HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 >2`KBi2 [m2 bQM TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b 2M H `2+i `2H
`2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
T` iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ pX .2H G2K 3X3 b2 /2/m+2 [m2
Z +1
Z
hu, vi := u(x)v(x) exp( x2 )dx.
p(x)2 w(x)dx > 0 1
I
GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +HbB+Qb 2biM bmD2iQb /B72`2Mi2b MQ`KHBx@

T` iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ pX SQ` iMiQ- H `2bi`B++BƦM /2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` H
+BQM2bX SQ/2KQb TìB` /2 mM #b2 QìQMQ`KH q0 , . . . , qn , . . . 1M 2b2 +bQ 2H
2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb 2b /2}MB/ TQbBiBp v iB2M2 b2MiB/Q /2}MB` TQHBMQKBQb
+`Bi2`BQ /2 MQ`KHBx+BƦM miBHBx/Q 2b H MQ`K /2H 2bT+BQ bQ+B/ H T`Q@
QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ 2b2 b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X
/m+iQ 2b+H` ⇣Z ⌘
1H BMi2`pHQ I Kb miBHBx/Q 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1]X Sm2/2M /2}MB`b2 TQ@
1/2
kqn k := qn2 (x)w(x)dx = 1.
HBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b 2M BMi2`pHQb MQ +Qi/Qb- mbmHK2Mi2 [0, 1) Q BM+HmbQ I
iQ/ H `2+i `2H ( 1, 1)X GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b b2 +H+mHM 2M mMQ *QKQ qn (x) v qn (x) bQM TQHBMQKBQb /2 H KBbK MQ`K- b2 iQK +QKQ
/2 2biQb BMi2`pHQbX aB 2H T`Q#H2K b2 7Q`KmH 2M H;ȹM Qi`Q BMi2`pHQ- b2 `2@ TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH MQ`KHBx/Q 2H [m2 iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2M xn TQbBiBpQX
HBx mM +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b [m2 i`Mb7Q`K2 2H T`Q#H2K H BMi2`pHQ 2biM/`X
lM i`Mb7Q`K+BƦM [m2 Dm2; mM TT2H BKTQìMi2 2M H +QMbi`m++BƦM /2
hK#BûM ?v [m2 MQi` [m2 bB HQb BMi2`pHQb bQM BHBKBi/Qb Q Hb 7mM+BQM2b T2bQ
TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b 2b H KmHiBTHB++BƦM TQ` H p`B#H2 x v [m2 T2`KBi2 bQ@
iB2M2M bBM;mH`B//2b 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ- Hb BMi2;`H2b bQM BKT`QTBbX
+B` +/ TQHBMQKBQ p(x) 2H TQHBMQKBQ xp(x)X 1bi i`Mb7Q`K+BƦM T`2b2`p
GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +HbB+Qb `2+B#2M /B72`2Mi2b MQK#`2b /2T2M@ 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` /2H TQHBMQKBQ- mK2MiM/Q 2H ;`/Q 2M mM mMB//X SQ`
/B2M/Q /2 H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w(x) v /2H BMi2`pHQ 2H2;B/QX GQb TQHBMQKBQb Q`@ 2HHQ- H;mMb 7Ʀ`KmHb `2bmHiM Kb bBKTH2b bB Hb 2tT`2bKQb 2M iû`KBMQb /2
iQ;QMH2b 2M [ 1, 1] `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w(x) = 1 `2+B#2M 2H MQK#`2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b p0 , . . . , pn , . . . +mvQ +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ`
/2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2X Pi`Qb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b miBHBx/Qb +QM 7`2@ 2b RX .2 Hb `2H+BQM2b
+m2M+B bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p /2p T`BK2` 2bT2+B2 2M [ 1, 1] +Q``2b@
TQM/B2Mi2b H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w(x) = 1/ 1 x2 v HQb /2 b2;mM/ 2bT2+B2- 1 1
p pn (x) = qn (x), qn (x) = pn (x),
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b w(x) = 1 x X GQb +bQb Mi2`BQ`2b bQM +bQb TìB+m@
2 coe↵(qn (x), xn ) kpn k
H`2b /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B- [m2 bQM TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ H
b2 /2/m+2 [m2 coe↵(qn (x), xn ) = kpn k 1
X
T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
1H T`Q#H2K /2H +H+mHQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b Tm2/2 p2`b2 +QKQ mM
Z 1 T`Q#H2K /2 KBMBKBx+BƦM 2M mM bm#2bT+BQ i`bH//QX
hu, vi := u(x)v(x)(1 x)↵ (1 + x) dx, ↵, > 1.
1 h2Q`2K 3XNX a2 pn 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ`
RX 1MiQM+2b- T` iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ p 2 Pn +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` R- b2 iB2M2
J2/BMi2 mM +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b TQ/2KQb /2}MB` TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B 2M
+mH[mB2` BMi2`pHQ +Qi/QbX kpn k  kpk
261 262
.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` /2}MB+BƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH- b#2KQb [m2 pn 2b JQbi`2KQb mM T`QTB2// MQi#H2 /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b, 2b TQ@
QìQ;QMH iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ /2 Pn 1 X aB p 2 Pn iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` R- bB#H2 Q#i2M2`HQb K2/BMi2 mM `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQbX .2/m@
2MiQM+2b p pn 2 Pn 1 v +B`2KQb 2bib `2H+BQM2b T` HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM MQ`K mMBi`B
hpn , p pn i = 0, v Hm2;Q Hb THB+`2KQb bm+2bBQM2b /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b MQ M2+2b`B@
K2Mi2 MQ`KHBx/QbX
/2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2 [m2
h2Q`2K
R 3XRRX a2 µ mM K2/B/ /2 "Q`2H MQ M2;iBp- iH [m2 hu, vi :=
kpk2 = kpn k2 + kp pn k2 kpn k2 . I
u(x)v(x)dµ(x) /2}M2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M PN X a2 q0 , q1 , . . . , qN H bm@
+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM MQ`K mMBi`B v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ`
TQbBiBpQX a2M
Z
1Mi`2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b /2bi+M Hb T`QTB2@ ↵n := xqn (x)2 dµ(x), n = 0, . . . , N 1,
//2b /2 Qb+BH+BƦMX 1H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2M 2H ZI
BMi2`pHQ 2M 2H [m2 2bi /2}MB/Q 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` H K2MQb n p2+2bX coe↵(qn (x), xn )
n := xqn (x)qn+1 (x)dµ(x) = > 0, n = 0, . . . , N 1,
I coe↵(qn+1 (x), xn+1 )
h2Q`2K 3XRyX a2 w mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M Int(I)- MQ M2;iBp- BMi2;`#H2
v MQ B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmH- iH [m2 |p|w 2b BMi2;`#H2 2M I- T` iQ/Q p 2 P2n - 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
/2 KQ/Q [m2 Z 0 q1 (x) = (x ↵0 )q0 (x),
hu, vi = u(x)v(x)w(x)dx v T` iQ/Q 1  n  N 1- b2 p2`B}+ H bB;mB2Mi2 `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B
I
i`2b iû`KBMQb
/2}M2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` bQ#`2 Pn X a2 pn mM TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q
nX 1MiQM+2b pn iB2M2 2t+iK2Mi2 n `ő+2b `2H2b v /BbiBMib v iQ/b b2 2M@ n qn+1 (x) = (x ↵n )qn (x) n 1 qn 1 (x).
+m2Mi`M 2M Int(I)X
.2KQbi`+BƦMX 1H T`BK2` TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH 2b q0 (x) = h1, 1i 1/2 X 1M
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2M ⇠1 , . . . , ⇠r - r  n- Hb `ő+2b /2 KmHiBTHB+B// BKT` 2M ;2M2`H i2M2KQb [m2 xqn (x) 2 Pn+1 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H #b2
Int(I)X 1MiQM+2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ q0 , . . . , qn+1 K2/BMi2 mM bmK /2 6Qm`B2`
pn (x)(x ⇠1 ) · · · (x ⇠r ) n+1
X
xqn (x) = hxqn , qj iqj (x).
MQ +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ IX a2 s 2 { 1, 1} 2H bB;MQ /2 /B+?Q j=0
TQHBMQKBQ 2M IX .2H G2K 3X3- b2 /2/m+2 [m2
Z aB n = 0- i2M2KQb
s pn (x)(x ⇠1 ) · · · (x ⇠r )w(x)dx > 0.
I xq0 (x) = 0 q1 (x) + ↵0 q0 (x).
SQ` iMiQ pn MQ 2b QìQ;QMH H TQHBMQKBQ (x ⇠1 ) . . . (x ⇠r )X *QKQ pn 2b S` n 1vj<n 1- b2 iB2M2 xqj (x) 2 Pn 1- Hm2;Q qn ? xqj X SQ` iMiQ-
QìQ;QMH iQ/Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` [m2 n- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 r = nX
hxqn , qj i = 0, j = 0, . . . , n 2,
263 264
v b2 MmHM iQ/Qb HQb bmKM/Qb /2 H bmK /2 6Qm`B2`- 2t+2TiQ HQb i`2b ȹHiBKQbX ?Q` TQ/2KQb THB+` 2H h2Q`2K 3XRR
1 1 1
n+1 pn+1 (x) = (x ↵n )pn (x) n 1 pn 1 (x)
n 1 = hxqn , qn 1 i, ↵n = hxqn , qn i, n = hxqn , qn+1 i, kpn+1 k kpn k kpn 1 k
H bmK /2 6Qm`B2` b2 `2/m+2 v KmHiBTHB+M/Q H `2H+BQM Mi2`BQ` TQ` kpn k /2/m+BKQb H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m@
``2M+B T` TQHBMQKBQb KƦMB+Qb
xqn (x) = n qn+1 (x) + ↵n qn (x) + n 1 qn 1 . 2
pn+1 (x) = (x ↵n )pn (x) n 1 pn 1 (x),
6BMHK2Mi2- +QKT`M/Q HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /B`2+iQ`2b 2M Hb `2H+BQM2b M@ [m2 T2`KBi2 +H+mH` H bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b TìB2M/Q /2
i2`BQ`2b /2/m+BKQb [m2
p0 (x) = 1, p1 (x) = x ↵0 .
coe↵(qn (x), xn )
n = > 0.
coe↵(qn+1 (x), xn+1 ) 6BMHK2Mi2 bB rn /2MQi mM TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH +mvQ +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+@
iQ` 2b an - TQ/2KQb /2}MB` kn = an+1 /an T` +/ nX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi
[m2 rn (x)/an 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` R- TQ/2KQb
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 Hb `2H+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b T2`KBi2M 2tT`2b` HQb +Q2}+B2M@ THB+` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb Mi2`BQ`2bX GQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 H `2+m``2M+B b2 2tT`2bM
i2b 2M xn /2 qn (x) 2M iû`KBMQb /2 Hb +QMbiMi2b 0 , . . . , n 1 2M H 7Q`K
hxrn , rn i 1 krn k
↵n = , n 1 = .
q0 hrn , rn i |kn 1 | krn 1 k
coe↵(qn (x), xn ) = .
0 ··· n 1 v H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B /QTi H 7Q`K ;2M2`H
1M 2H +bQ /2 [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b p0 , . . . , pn i2M;M +Q2}+B2Mi2 rn+1 (x) = kn (x ↵n )rn (x) kn kn 2
1 n 1 rn 1 (x).
/B`2+iQ` R Tm2/2 THB+`b2 H `2H+BƦM Mi2`BQ`X SìB2M/Q /2 H `2H+BƦM
1 G B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQ772H@.`#Qmt
qn (x) = pn . R
kpn k *QMbB/2`2KQb mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` hu, vi := I u(x)v(x)dµ(x) bQ+B/Q
mM K2/B/ MQ M2;iBp µX G bmK /2 6Qm`B2` n@ûbBK `2bT2+iQ mM bBbi2K
v +QKT`M/Q +Q2}+B2Mi2b /B`2+iQ`2b Q#i2M2KQb QìQ;QMH /2 TQHBMQKBQb
1 n
X
coe↵(qn (x), xn ) = . hpj , f i
kpn k Sn [f ](x) = pj (x)
j=0
kpj k2
liBHBxM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 H `2H+BƦM

Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ mM BMi2;`H `2bT2+iQ mM Mȹ+H2QX hQKM/Q
/2 `2+m``2M+B 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb pn
n
X
hxpn , pn i kpn k pj (x)pj (y)
↵n = , = . Kn (x, y) := ,
kpn k2
n 1
kpn 1 k j=0
kpj k2
265 266
i2M2KQb v THB+M/Q H ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM Q#i2M2KQb 2H `2bmHi/QX
n R Z
X p (y)f (y)dµ(y)
Sn [f ](x) = I j
pj (x) = Kn (x, y)f (y)dµ(y) G B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#Qmt /KBi2 H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM 2M
j=0
kpj k2 I iû`KBMQb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b pn +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` 1
Q 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2 n
X pj (x)pj (y) 1 pn+1 (x)pn (y) pn+1 (y)pn (x)
Sn [f ](x) = hKn (x, ·), f i. = .
kpj k2 kpn k2 x y
G 2tT`2bBƦM /2H Mȹ+H2Q `2bT2+iQ mM bBbi2K QìQMQ`KH qj = pj /kpj k j=0
b2 `2/m+2
n
X G B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#Qmt T2`KBi2 2bi#H2+2` `2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2
Kn (x, y) := qj (x)qj (y). HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b v bmb /2`Bp/bX hQKM/Q HőKBi2b +mM/Q y ! x
j=0 2M H B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#Qmt Q#i2M2KQb
G B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#Qmt T`QTQ`+BQM mM 7Ʀ`KmH T` 2H Mȹ+H2Q n
X
bQ+B/Q mM bmK /2 6Qm`B2` v T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` H;mMb 7Ʀ`KmHb [m2 BM@ qj (x)2 = 0
qn+1 (x)qn0 (x)).
n (qn+1 (x)qn (x)
pQHm+`M BMi2;`H2b v /2`Bp/b /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2bX j=0
S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XRk UA/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#QmtVXR a2 µ mM K2@ SQ` iMiQ H Ki`Bx r`QMbFBM /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QMb2+miBpQb
/B/ /2 "Q`2H MQ M2;iBp- iH [m2 hu, vi := I u(x)v(x)dµ(x) /2}M2 mM T`Q@ iB2M2 /2i2`KBMi2 TQbBiBpQ
/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M Pn+1 X a2M q0 , . . . , qn - qn+1 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM
MQ`K mMBi`B v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` TQbBiBpQX 1MiQM+2b b2 iB2M2 [m2 ✓ ◆ n
X
qn (x) qn+1 (x) 1
Xn det W (qn , qn+1 )(x) = det = qj (x)2 > 0.
qn+1 (x)qn (y) qn+1 (y)qn (x) qn0 (x) 0
qn+1 (x) n
qj (x)qj (y) = n , j=0
j=0
x y
/QM/2 n = hxqn (x), qn+1 (x)iX S`QTB2//2b /2 b2T`+BƠM /2 +2`Qb
.2KQbi`+BƦMX .2KQbi``2KQb H B/2MiB// TQ` BM/m++BƦM bQ#`2 nX S` GQb +2`Qb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH b2 2M+m2Mi`M b2T`/Qb TQ` HQb +2`Qb
n = 0 i2M2KQb [m2 q0 2b mM +QMbiMi2 v 0 q1 (x) = (x ↵0 )q0 (x)- /QM/2 /2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q BM72`BQ` 2M mM mMB//X SQ/2KQb miBHBx`
↵0 = hxq0 (x), q0 (x)iX SQ` iMiQ H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb T` /2KQbi`` 2bi BKTQìMi2
T`QTB2// [m2 T2`KBi2 HQ+HBx` HQb +2`Qb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b v
q1 (x)q0 (y) q1 (y)q0 (x) q02
0 = [(x ↵0 ) (y ↵0 )] = q02 = q0 (x)q0 (y). THB+` 2H KûiQ/Q /2 #Bb2++BƦM T` /2i2`KBM`HQbX
x y x y
S` 2H +bQ ;2M2`H- bmTQM/`2KQb H B/2MiB// +B2ì T` n 1X AMb2ìM/Q S`QTQbB+BƦM
R 3XRjX a2 µ mM K2/B/ /2 "Q`2H MQ M2;iBp- iH [m2 hu, vi :=
H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B n qn+1 (x) = (x ↵n )qn (x) n 1 qn 1 (x) 2M 2H I
u(x)v(x)dµ(x) /2}M2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M Pn X a2M pk - k = 0, 1, . . . , n-
KB2K#`Q /2`2+?Q /2 H B/2MiB// Q#i2M2KQb mM bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2bX 1MiQM+2b pk+1 iB2M2 k +1 +2`Qb `2H2b
qn+1 (x)qn (y) qn+1 (y)qn (x) v bBKTH2b [m2 2biM b2T`/Qb TQ` HQb +2`Qb /2 pk - k = 1, . . . , n 1X
n
x y
.2KQbi`+BƦMX aBM Tû`/B/ /2 ;2M2`HB// TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` [m2 2H TQHBMQ@
(x ↵n ) (y ↵n ) qn 1 (x)qn (y) qn 1 (y)qn (x) KBQ pk (x) iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2 2M xk B;mH RX aB k = 1- 2H ȹMB+Q +2`Q x0,1 = ↵0
= qn (x)qn (y) n 1
x y x y /2 p1 p2`B}+ 2M pBìm/ /2 H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B H /2bB;mH//
qn (x)qn 1 (y) qn (y)qn 1 (x)
= qn (x)qn (y) + n 1 p2 (x0,1 ) = (x0,1 ↵1 )p1 (x0,1 ) 2 2
x y 0 p0 (x0,1 ) = 0 <0
267 268
v- +QKQ lı́mx! 1 p2 (x) = lı́mx!+1 p2 (x) = +1- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 p2 iB2M2 k .2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2 Pn 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ T` bB n 2b T` 2 BKT` bB
+2`Qb bBKTH2b mMQ +/ H/Q /2 x0,1 X SQ` ?BTƦi2bBb /2 BM/m++BƦM TQ/2KQb n 2b BKT`X
bmTQM2` [m2 HQb +2`Qb x0,k 1 , . . . , xk 2,k 1 /2 pk 1 bQM bBKTH2b v b2T`M THB[m2KQb H `2;H /2 G2B#MBx
HQb +2`Qb x0,k , . . . , xk 1,k /2 pk - 2b /2+B`
n
x0,k < x0,k < x1,k < x1,k < · · · < xk < xk < xk dn ⇥ ⇤ X n! dk dn k
1 1 2,k 2,k 1 1,k . (x 1)n (x + 1)n = (x + 1)n n (x 1)n
dxn k!(n k)! dx k dx k
k=0
*QKQ HQb +2`Qb /2 pk 1 bQM bBKTH2b- pk 1 +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2Mi`2 +/ /Qb
+2`Qb +QMb2+miBpQb /2 pk - v +QKQ T` Q#i2M2` 2H /2b``QHHQ
2
pk+1 (xi,k ) = k 1 pk 1 (xi,k ), i = 0, . . . , k 1,
1 dn ⇥ ⇤
Pn (x) = (x 1)n (x + 1)n
b2 /2/m+2 [m2 pk+1 +K#B /2 bB;MQ 2Mi`2 +/ /Qb +2`Qb +QMb2+miBpQb /2 pk X 2n n!
dxn
n
*QKQ pk 1 iQK pHQ`2b TQbBiBpQb 2M (xk 2,k 1 , +1)- p2KQb [m2 X 1 n! n!
=2 n (x + 1)n k (x 1)k
2
k!(n k)! k! (n k)!
pk+1 (xk k=0
1,k ) = k 1 pk 1 (xk 1,k ) <0
Xn ✓ ◆2
n
v +QKQ lı́mx!1 pk+1 (x) = +1 v - b2 /2/m+2 [m2 pk+1 iB2M2 H K2MQb mM =2 n (x + 1)n k (x 1)k
k
+2`Q H /2`2+? /2 xk 1,k X MHQ;K2Mi2- +QKQ ( 1)k 1 pk 1 (x) > 0- x 2 k=0
( 1, x0,k 1 )- i2M2KQb H /2bB;mH//

v 2pHmM/Q 2M x = 1 Q#i2M2KQb Pn (1) = 1- KB2Mi`b [m2 Pn ( 1) = ( 1)n X
k+1 2 k 1
( 1) pk+1 (x0,k ) = k 1( 1) pk 1 (x0,k ) <0 a2 ?Q` Z ✓ ◆n
1
x2 1
v- +QKQ lı́mx!1 ( 1) pk+1 (x) = +1- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 pk+1 iB2M2 H K2MQb
k+1 In := dx.
2
mM +2`Q H Bx[mB2`/ /2 x0,k X a2 /2/m+2 [m2 pk+1 iB2M2 k + 1 +2`Qb `2H2b v 1
bBKTH2b- b2T`/Qb TQ` HQb /2 pk X AMi2;`M/Q TQ` Tì2b i2M2KQb

+QMiBMm+BƦM T`2b2MiKQb H;mMQb 2D2KTHQb /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b Z 1 ✓ ◆n Z 1 ✓ 2 ◆n 1
d x2 1 x 1
In = x dx = n x2 dx
SQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 1 dx 2 1 2
R1 Z 1✓ 2 ◆n 1  ✓ 2 ◆
aQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 1
u(x)v(x)dxX x 1 x 1
1b mbmH 2H2;B` +QKQ +QM/B+BƦM /2 MQ`KHBx+BƦM Pn (1) = 1X = n
2
2
2
+ 1 dx = 2nIn nIn 1.
1
.2}MKQb
✓ ◆n 1b /2+B`
1 dn x2 1 n
Pn (x) = . U6Ʀ`KmH /2 _Q/`B;m2bV In = In 1
n! dxn 2 2n + 1
Sm2/2 +QKT`Q#`b2 [m2 Pn (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+@ v TìB2M/Q /2 I0 = 2- Q#i2M2KQb TQ` `2+m``2M+B
iQ`
(2n)! n(n 1) · · · 1 (n!)2 2n+1
an = n . In = ( 1)n 2 = ( 1)n .
2 (n!)2 (2n + 1)(2n 1) · · · 3 (2n + 1)!
269 270
AMi2;`M/Q TQ` Tì2b bm+2bBpK2Mi2 Tm2/2 +QKT`Q#`b2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 Q`@ /QM/2
iQ;QMHB//X amTQMB2M/Q [m2 n  m i2M2KQb kn =
an+1
=
(2n + 2)(2n + 1)
=
2n + 1
.
Z 1 Z 1 n ✓ 2 ◆n m ✓ 2 ◆m an 2(n + 1)2 n+1
1 d x 1 d x 1
Pn (x)Pm (x)dx = dx *QKQ xPn (x)2 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ BKT`
1 n!m! 1 dxn 2 dxm 2
Z 1 n+1 ✓ 2 ◆n m 1 ✓ 2 ◆m Z 1
1 d x 1 d x 1
= dx hxPn , Pn i = xPn (x)2 dx = 0,
n!m! 1 dxn+1 2 dxm 1 2 1
Z ✓ ◆n m n ✓ 2 ◆m
( 1)n 1 d2n x2 1 d x 1 v
= dx.
n!m! 1 dx
2n 2 dxm n 2 hxPn , Pn i
↵n = = 0.
hPn , Pn i
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q
✓ ◆n p
d2n x2 1 n
=2 (2n)!, 1 kPn k n 2n + 1 n
dx2n 2 n 1 = = p =p
|kn 1 | kPn 1 k 2n 1 2n 1 4n2 1
/2/m+BKQb
Hm2;Q
Z 1 n Z 1 m n
✓ 2
◆m
( 1) (2n)! d x 1
Pn (x)Pm (x)dx = dx. 2 n2 (2n 1)(2n + 1) n
1 2n n!m! 1 dxm n 2 kn kn 1 n 1 = = .
(2n 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1) n+1
aB n < m- H BMi2;`H 2b MmH
SQ` iMiQ H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H
Z 1 n
( 1) (2n)! d m n 1
✓
x 2
1
◆m 1 7Q`K
Pn (x)Pm (x)dx = = 0, 2n + 1 n
2n n!m! dxm n 1 2 Pn+1 (x) = xPn (x) Pn 1 (x). (8.2)
1 1 n+1 n+1
HQ [m2 Km2bi` H QìQ;QMHB// /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb Pn `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM SìB2M/Q /2 P0 (x) = 1- P1 (x) = x- TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` mM HBbi /2 HQb T`BK2`Qb
T2bQ w(x) = 1X aB m = n- i2M2KQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2
Z 1 Z 1 ✓ ◆n 3 2 1 5 3 3 35 4 15 2 3
( 1)n (2n)! x2 1 ( 1)n (2n)! P2 (x) = x , P3 (x) = x x, P4 (x) = x x + .
Pn (x)2 dx = dx = In 2 2 2 2 8 4 8
1 2n (n!)2 1 2 2n (n!)2
o2KQb [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 bQM bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM /B72@
v bmbiBimv2M/Q 2H pHQ` Q#i2MB/Q /2 In - i2M2KQb
`2M+BH /2 G2;2M/`2
Z 1
2
Pn (x)2 dx = . (1 x2 )p00 (x) 2xp0 (x) + n p(x) = 0,
1 2n + 1
/QM/2 n = n(n + 1)X S`BK2`Q /2}MBKQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ mtBHB`
G `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb T` HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 ✓ 2 ◆n
2b x 1
2 un (x) := .
Pn+1 (x) = kn (x ↵n )Pn (x) kn kn 1 n 1 Pn 1 (x), 2
271 272
/2 KQ/Q [m2 Pn (x) = un (x)/n!X .2`BpM/Q i2M2KQb u0n (x) = nxun 1 (x) /2
(n)
TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n- [m2 bm +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` 2b 2n 1 T` n 1 v [m2
/QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2 /2Kb Tn (1) = 1 T` iQ/Q n 0X G `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B T2`KBi2
x2 1 0
un (x) = nxun (x). +H+mH` HQb T`BK2`Qb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p
2
T2 (x) = 2x2 1, T3 (x) = 4x3 3x, T4 (x) = 8x4 8x2 + 1.
>HHM/Q H /2`Bp/ /2 Q`/2M n + 1 /2 HQb /Qb KB2K#`Qb /2 K2/BMi2 H `2;H
/2 G2B#MBx i2M2KQb o2KQb ?Q` [m2 bQM QìQ;QMH2b 2M ( 1, +1) `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ
w(t) = (1 x2 ) 1/2 X lM +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2b Km2bi` [m2
x2 1 (n+2) n(n + 1) (n) Z +1 Z ⇡
un (x) + (n + 1)xu(n+1)
n (x) + un (x) Tm (x)Tn (x)
2 2 p dx = cos m✓ cos n✓d✓ = 0,
= nxu(n+1) (x) + n(n + 1)u(n) 1 1 x2 0
n n (x).
T` m 6= n- +QM}`KM/Q H QìQ;QMHB// /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2pX
.2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2 aB n = m = 0- i2M2KQb
Z +1 Z ⇡
x2 1 n(n + 1) (n) 1
u(n+2)
n (x) + xu(n+1)
n (x) un (x) = 0 kT0 k2 = p dx = d✓ = ⇡.
2 2 1 1 x2 0
v bB n = m > 0
v- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 Pn (x) = un (x)/n!- /2/m+BKQb [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2
(n)
Z +1 Z ⇡
G2;2M/`2 Pn - p2`B}+ H HHK/ 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BH /2 G2;2M/`2 T (x)2 ⇡
kTn k2 = pn dx = cos2 n✓ d✓ = .
1 1 x 2
0 2
(1 x2 )Pn00 (x) 2xPn0 (x) + n(n + 1)Pn (x) = 0.
GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p biBb7+2M H 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BH /2
*?2#vb?2p
SQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p (1 x2 )p00 (x) xp0 (x) + µn p(x) = 0,
GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 T`BK2` 2bT2+B2 Tn bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ /QM/2 µn = n2 X S` +QKT`Q#`HQ- ?+2KQb 2H +K#BQ /2 p`B#H2 BM/2T2M@
R1
H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 1 u(x)v(x)(1 x2 ) 1/2 dx- MQ`KHBx/Qb TQ` H +QM/B+BƦM /B2Mi2 x = cos ✓ v H 2+m+BƦM /2 *?2#vb?2p b2 i`Mb7Q`K 2M
Tn (1) = 1X .2}MKQb d2 p
+ n2 p = 0.
d✓2
Tn (x) := cos(n arc cos x), x 2 [ 1, 1].
[m2 /KBi2 +QKQ bQHm+BƦM Tn (cos ✓) = cos(n✓)X
.2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2 GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p /2 b2;mM/ 2bT2+B2
sen((n + 1) arc cos x)
Tn+1 (x) = cos(n arc cos x) cos(arc cos x) sen(n arc cos x) sen(arc cos x), Un (x) :=
sen(arc cos x)
Tn 1 (x) = cos(n arc cos x) cos(arc cos x) + sen(n arc cos x) sen(arc cos x).
p2`B}+M mM `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb
amKM/Q Hb 2+m+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b Q#i2M2KQb Un+1 (x) + Un 1 (x) = 2xUn (x),
Tn+1 (x) + Tn v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 U0 (x) = 1- U1 (x) = 2x- Tm2/2 /2KQbi``b2 TQ` BM@
1 (x) = 2xTn (x),
/m++BƦM [m2 bQM TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q n v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` 2n X 1H +K#BQ /2
[m2 2b mM `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQbX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 p`B#H2b x = cos ✓- T2`KBi2 +QKT`Q#` [m2 2biQb TQHBMQKBQb bQM QìQ;QMH2b
T0 (x) = 1 v [m2 T1 (x) = x TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` TQ` BM/m++BƦM [m2 Tn 2b mM `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w(x) = (1 x2 )1/2 X
273 274
SQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B ambiBimv2M/Q TQ` Hb /2}MB+BQM2b /2 Hn v Hn+1 - b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 `2H+BƦM
GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb Pn (x) QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ
(↵, ) /2 `2+m``2M+B,
H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` +QM 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w(x) = (1 x)↵ (1 + x) - x 2 [ 1, 1]- Hn+1 (x) = 2xHn (x) 2nHn (x). (8.4)
↵, > 1 v MQ`KHBx/Qb +QM H +QM/B+BƦM Pn n X GQb TQHBMQKBQb THB+M/Q H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B Mi2`BQ` TQ/2KQb +H+mH` HQb T`BK2K`Qb
(↵, )
(1) = n+↵
/2 G2;2M/`2 bQM mM +bQ TìB+mH` /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B TQHBMQKBQb /2 >2`KBi2 TìB2M/Q /2 H0 (x) = 1- H1 (x) = 2x
Pn (x) = Pn(0,0) (x). H2 (x) = 4x2 2, H3 (x) = 8x3 12, H4 (x) = 16x4 48x2 + 12.
hK#BûM HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p Tn v Un +QMp2MB2Mi2K2Mi2 MQ`KHBx@ aB B;mHKQb Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b /2 Hn+2 [m2 b2 /2/m+2M /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb U3XjV
/Qb Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B Pn
( 1/2, 1/2)
(x) v U3X9V- Q#i2M2KQb
v Pn (x)- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
(1/2,1/2)
0
2xHn+1 (x) 2(n + 1)Hn (x) = 2xHn+1 (x) Hn+1 (x),
SQHBMQKBQb /2 >2`KBi2
v bBKTHB}+M/Q
GQb TQHBMQKBQb
R 1/2 >2`KBi2 bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ H T`Q@ 0
Hn+1 (x) = 2(n + 1)Hn (x).
/m+iQ 2b+H` 1 u(x)v(x) exp( x2 )dx +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` 2n X a2
aB +QKT`KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` +QM H Q#i2MB/ H /2`Bp` U3XjV
dn
Hn (x) := ( 1) exp(x ) n exp( x2 ).
n 2
0
2(n + 1)Hn (x) = Hn+1 (x) = 2Hn (x) + 2xHn0 (x) Hn00 (x),
dx
.2`BpM/Q H 2+m+BƦM b2 /2/m+2 [m2
n Hn00 (x) 2xHn0 (x) + 2nHn (x) = 0.
2 d n
exp( x )Hn (x) = ( 1) exp( x2 )
dxn Gm2;Q Hn 2b bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 /B72`2M+BH /2 >2`KBi2
Q#i2M2KQb p00 (x) 2xp0 (x) + ⌫n p(x) = 0,
dn+1 +QM ⌫n = 2nX
exp( x2 )(Hn0 (x) 2xHn (x)) = ( 1)n+1 exp( x2 )
dxn+1
6BMHK2Mi2- T` +QKT`Q#` H QìQ;QMHB// ?v [m2 p2`B}+`
v KmHiBTHB+M/Q H 2+m+BƦM Mi2`BQ` TQ` exp(x2 )- Z +1
exp( x2 ) Hn (x) Hm (x)dx = 0, m 6= n.
Hn+1 (x) = 2xHn (x) Hn0 (x). (8.3) 1
*QKQ H0 (x) = 1- 2bi 7Ʀ`KmH T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` TQ` BM/m++BƦM [m2 Hn (x) lbM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BMi2;`+BƦM TQ` Tì2b TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B`
2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` 2n X Z +1
lbM/Q H /2}MB+BƦM /2 Hn+1 v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G2B#MBx- TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` exp( x2 )Hn0 (x) Hm
0
(x)dx =
1
n+1 dn = lı́m exp( x)2 Hn0 (x)Hm (x) lı́m exp( x)2 Hn0 (x)Hm (x)+ (8.5)
Hn+1 (x) = ( 1) exp(x ) n ( 2x exp( x2 )) =
2
x!+1 t! 1
dx Z +1
⇣ dn dn 1 ⌘
= ( 1) exp(x ) 2x n exp( x2 ) + 2n n
n 2
exp( x2 ) . + ( exp( x2 )Hn0 (x))0 Hm (x)dx,
dx dx 1 1
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v- +QKQ Hn (x) v Hm (x) bQM TQHBMQKBQb- Q#i2M2KQb SQHBMQKBQb /2 G;m2``2
lı́m exp( x 2
)Hn0 (x)Hm (x) = 0, lı́m exp( x 2
)Hn0 (x)Hm (x) = 0. GQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;m2``2 L
R n1(x) bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b 2M (0, +1)
x!+1 x! 1
`2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 0 u(x)v(x) exp( x)dx [m2 p2`B}+M Ln (0) = 1
?Q` i2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M v Tm2/2M /2}MB`b2 i`pûb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
7Q`K miQ/DmMi
( exp( x2 )Hn0 (x))0 = 2n exp( x2 )Hn (x), exp(x) dn
Ln (x) := (exp( x)xn ).
[m2- bmbiBimB/ 2M H BMi2;`H /2H b2;mM/Q KB2K#`Q /2 U3X8V- / Hm;` H n! dxn
`2H+BƦM
Z +1 Z +1 J2/BMi2 BMi2;`+BƦM TQ` Tì2b b2 /2/m+2 [m2 7Q`KM mM #b2 QìQMQ`KH
exp( x2 )Hn0 (x) Hm
0
(x)dx = 2n exp( x2 )Hn (x) Hm (x)dx. Z
1 1 1
AMi2`+K#BM/Q HQb TT2H2b /2 n v m Q#i2M2KQb /Qb 2tT`2bBQM2b /BbiBMib T` Ln (x)Lm (x) exp( x)dx = n,m .
0
H KBbK BMi2;`H
Z +1 Z +1
G `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb T` 2biQb TQHBMQKBQb 2b
2n exp( x2 ) Hn (x) Hm (x)dx = 2m exp( x2 ) Hn (x) Hm (x)dx,
1 1
v- +QKQ n 6= m- /2/m+BKQb [m2 (n + 1)Ln+1 (x) = (2n + 1 x)Ln (x) nLn 1 (x).
Z +1
exp( x2 ) Hn (x) Hm (x)dx = 0. liBHBxM/Q 2bi `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B TQ/2KQb +H+mH` HQb T`BK2`Qb TQHBMQ@
1 KBQb /2 G;m2``2- TìB2M/Q /2 L0 (x) = 1- L1 (x) = 1 x
SQ` HQ iMiQ- ?2KQb /2/m+B/Q H QìQ;QMHB// /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 >2`KBi2
`2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ exp( x2 )X x2 4x + 2 x3 + 9x2 18x + 6
L2 (x) = , L3 (x) = .
aB n = m i2M2KQb 2 6
Z +1 Z +1
1
exp( x2 )Hn (x)2 dx = exp( x2 )Hn0 (x)2 dx
1 2n 1 _2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` v QìQ;QMHB// /Bb+`2i
v- +QKQ Hn0 (x) = 2nHn 1 (x)- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` [m2 Gb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` T`QTQ`+BQMM mM +ƦKQ/ ?2``KB2Mi T` `2bQHp2`
Z +1 Z +1
HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb- 2tT`2bM/Q Hb K2DQ`2b T`QtBK+BQM2b
exp( x2 )Hn (x)2 dx = 2n exp( x2 )Hn 1 (x)2 dx.
1 1 +QKQ bmKb /2 6Qm`B2` `2bT2+iQ H #b2 /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2bX SQ`
SQ` HQ iMiQ- iMiQ bB p0 , . . . , pn , . . . 2b H bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b bQ+B/Qb H
Z +1 Z +1 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w i2M2KQb [m2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M Pn b2 2tT`2b
2 2
exp( x )Hn (x) dx = 2 n! n
exp( x2 )dx i`pûb /2 H bmK /2 6Qm`B2`
1 1
R
v +QKQ Z Xn
pj (x)f (x)w(x)dx
+1 p Sn [f ] = cj pj (x), cj = IR .
exp( x2 )dx = (1/2) = ⇡ j=0
p (x)2 w(x)dx
I j
1
Q#i2M2KQb Z +1 p S` H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 6Qm`B2` 2b M2+2b`BQ /BbTQM2` /2
exp( x2 )Hn (x)2 dx = 2n n! ⇡. 7Ʀ`KmHb [m2 T2`KBiM /2i2`KBM` Hb BMi2;`H2b TQM/2`/b [m2 T`2+2M 2M
1
2H MmK2`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q`X
277 278
1M H T`+iB+ MQ 2b TQbB#H2 +H+mH` Hb BMi2;`H2b 2t+iK2Mi2X lM B/2 +QM T2bQb MQ M2;iBpQb v 2t+i 2M P2n X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
TQbB#H2 +QMbBbi2 2M miBHBx` mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` [m2 T`QtBK2 H BMi2;`H UV 1H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ h·, ·iN //Q TQ` U3XdV +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H
Z T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` +QMiBMmQ h·, ·i //Q TQ` U3XeV 2M Pn ⇥ Pn X
N
X
f (x)w(x)dx ⇡ wi f (xi ), U#V N n v 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ U3XdV /2}M2 mM MQ`K 2M Pn X
I i=0 U+V GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM MQ`K mMBi`B v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` TQ@
bBiBpQ q0 , . . . , qn `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` +QMiBMmQ h·, ·i //Q TQ` U3XeV
bmbiBimv2M/Q 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` +QMiBMmQ +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM MQ`K mMBi`B v +Q2}+B2Mi2
Z /B`2+iQ` TQbBiBpQ `2bT2+iQ H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ h·, ·iN //Q TQ`
hf, gi := f (x)g(x)w(x)dx (8.6) U3XdVX
I
.2KQbi`+BƦMX UV v U+V aB p, q 2 Pn - pq 2 P2n - v THB+M/Q H 2t+iBim/ /2
TQ` mM b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` i2M2KQb
N
X N
X Z
hf, giN := wi f (xi )g(xi ). (8.7)
hp, qiN = wi p(xi )q(xi ) = p(x)pq(x)w(x)dx = hp, qi
i=0 I
i=0
S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XR9X a2 wi > 0- i = 0, . . . , N - 2MiQM+2b 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ SQ` iMiQ /Qb TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pn bQM QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ hf, giN //Q TQ` U3XdV /2}M2 mM MQ`K 2M Pn bB v bƦHQ bB +QMiBMmQ bB v bƦHQ bQM QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ- v Hb
n  NX MQ`Kb T`Q+2/2Mi2b /2 K#Qb T`Q/m+iQb 2b+H`2b +QBM+B/2M bQ#`2 Pn X
.2KQbi`+BƦMX aB n  N v p 2 Pn +QM kpkN = 0- 2MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2 U#V *QKQ Hb b2KBMQ`Kb /Bb+`2ib /2 H #b2 QìQ;QMH bQM MQ MmHb-
/2/m+BKQb /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM 3Xe U#V [m2 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ /2}M2
p(xi ) = 0, i = 0, . . . , N. mM MQ`K 2M Pn X G /2bB;mH// N n b2 /2/m+2 /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XR9X
QN
1MiQM+2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ !N +1 (x) = i=0 (x xi ) /BpB/2 pX *QKQ p 2 Pn ✓
LQiX G /2bB;mH// N n- BKTHB+ [m2 MBM;mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` +QM
PN - +QKT`M/Q ;`/Qb b2 /2/m+2 [m2 p = 0X
K2MQb /2 n MQ/Qb v T2bQb MQ M2;iBpQb Tm2/2 H+Mx` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2nX
aB n > N 2MiQM+2b !N +1 2 PN +1 ✓ Pn p2`B}+ kpkN = 0- /2 /QM/2 Sm2/2 +QKT``b2 2bi /2/m++BƦM +QM 2H 2MmM+B/Q /2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM NXk /2H
/2/m+BKQb [m2 2H b2KBT`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` MQ /2}M2 mM MQ`K 2M Pn X +TőimHQ bB;mB2Mi2X
1M H bB;mB2Mi2 T`QTQbB+BƦM b2 T`2b2MiM +QM/B+BQM2b #DQ Hb +mH2b HQb GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ mM ;`M p`B2// /2 T`Q/m+iQb
TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ h·, ·iN +QBM+B/2M 2b+H`2b +QMiBMmQb bQM #B2M +QMQ+B/Qb v b2 /BbTQM2 /2 `2H+BQM2b [m2 T2`KB@
+QM HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` +QMiBMmQX i2M +H+mH`HQb 2}+B2Mi2K2Mi2X SQ` iMiQ- mM /2+m/ b2H2++BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb
/2 mM T`Q#H2K /Bb+`2iQ /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb MQb 2pBi` i2M2` [m2 `2bQHp2`
S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XR8X a2 mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm`
2+m+BQM2b MQ`KH2b- THB+` T`Q+2bQb /2 QìQ;QMHBx+BƦM Q /2/m+B` `2H+BQM2b
Z N /2 `2+m``2M+B T` 2H +H+mHQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b- TQ`[m2 HQb TQHBMQ@
X
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ], KBQb QìQ;QMH2b bQ+B/Qb H T`Q#H2K /Bb+`2iQ +QBM+B/2M +QM Qi`Qb v +QMQ@
I i=0 +B/QbX _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- Hb /B}+mHi/2b /2H iìKB2MiQ MmKû`B+Q /2 H;mMQb
279 280
Pn
T`Q#H2Kb /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb +QMiBMmQb Tm2/2M bQbHv`b2 +QMbB/2`M/Q /QM/2 2H Mȹ+H2Q Kn (x, y) := j=0 qj (x)qj (y) 2b B/ûMiB+Q H miBHBx/Q 2M H `2@
mM T`Q#H2K /Bb+`2iQ +mv bQHm+BƦM b2 T`ƦtBK H T`Q#H2K T`QTm2biQX T`2b2Mi+BƦM +QMiBMm- v [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b [m2 b2 miBHBxM bQM
MHB+2KQb H `2H+BƦM [m2 2tBbi2 2Mi`2 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb 2t+iK2Mi2 HQb KBbKQbX G /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BQM /2 H T`QtB@
+QMiBMmQ, Z K+BƦM +QMiBMm v H /Bb+`2i 2bi`B# 2M [m2 2H +H+mHQ /2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2
6Qm`B2` b2 #b 2M 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ 2M Hm;` /2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`
mı́n (f (x) p(x))2 w(x)dx
p2Pn I +QMiBMmQX
v 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb /Bb+`2iQ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 aB N = n 2MiQM+2b 2H T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb /Bb+`2iQ miBHBx
2H K2MQ` MȹK2`Q /2 MQ/Qb TQbB#H2bX *QKQ kf P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )kN = 0- b2
N
X /2/m+2 [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2b H bQHm+BƦM /2H
mı́n wi (f (xi ) p(xi ))2 . T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb /Bb+`2iQbX SQ` iMiQ-
p2Pn
i=0
n
X
*QMbB/2`2KQb 2M T`BK2` Hm;` H bmK /2 6Qm`B2` +QMiBMm P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = Snn [f ] = wi f (xi )Kn (x, xi ).
i=0
n
X Z
Sn [f ](x) = cj qj (x), cj := hqj , f i = qj (y)f (y)w(y)dy. *QKT`M/Q +QM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 i2M2KQb [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G@
j=0 I ;`M;2 bQ+B/Qb x0 , . . . , xn Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2H Mȹ+H2Q Kn
.2}MB2M/Q 2H Mȹ+H2Q li (x) = wi Kn (x, xi ), i = 0, . . . , n.

n
X
Kn (x, y) := qj (x)qj (y), a2
j=0 1 1
n (x) := = Pn
H bmK /2 6Qm`B2` Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 2M H 7Q`K Kn (x, x) 2
j=0 qj (x)
Z H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2HX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
Sn [f ](x) = Kn (x, y)f (y)w(y)dy = hKn (x, ·), f i.
I 1 = li (xi ) = wi Kn (xi , xi ), i = 0, . . . , n,
G T`QTQbB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` Km2bi` [m2 bB 2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2bi #b/Q 2M /2/m+BKQb [m2 HQb T2bQb +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H
mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` /2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM KvQ` Q B;mH [m2 2n- 2MiQM+2b 2M HQb MQ/Qb
H 2tT`2bBƦM /2 H bmK /2 6Qm`B2` /Bb+`2i 2b MHQ; H bmK /2 6Qm`B2`
1
+QMiBMm wi = n (xi ) = Pn 2
, i = 0, . . . , n.
j=0 qj (xi )
n
X N
X
SnN [f ](x) = cN
j qj (x), cN
j := hqj , f iN = wi qj (xi )f (xi ). SQ` iMiQ- HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b /KBi2M H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
j=0 i=0 Pn
Kn (x, xi ) j=0 qj (xi )qj (x)
Q#i2MBûM/Qb2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM li (x) = = Pn 2
, i = 0, . . . , n.
Kn (xi , xi ) j=0 qj (xi )
N
X
SnN [f ] = wi f (xi )Kn (x, xi ) = hKn (x, ·), f iN , aB N > n- MQ TQ/2KQb 2bT2`` [m2 H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM SnN [f ] BMi2`@
i=0 TQH2 2M iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQbX G K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM SnN [f ] `2+B#2 2H MQK#`2 /2
281 282
?BT2`BMi2`TQHMi2 v [m2- 2M +B2ìQ b2MiB/Q- H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMB@ h2Q`2K NXRX G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` UNXRV 2b 2t+i 2M Pn+m+1 - m 0
KQb +m/`/Qb iB2M2 T`QTB2//2b bBKBH`2b HQb BMi2`TQHMi2bX GQb TQHBMQKBQb bB v bƦHQ bB Q
2b mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ #b/ 2M MQ/Qb iH2b [m2
7mM/K2MiH2b /2H T`Q#H2K /2 KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb li - i = 0, . . . , N - Tm2/2M !n+1 (x) = i=0 (x xi ) p2`B}+
n
/2}MB`b2 +QKQ Hb K2DQ`2b T`QtBK+BQM2b H +QMDmMiQ /2 /iQb f (xj ) = ij - Z

j = 0, . . . , N - v T2`KBi2M 2tT`2b` H bQHm+BƦM K2/BMi2 H bB;mB2Mi2 ;2M2`HB@ xj !n+1 (x)w(x)dx = 0, j = 0, . . . , m,
x+BƦM /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2 I
N
2b /2+B` !n+1 ? Pm X
X
SnN [f ](x) = f (xi )li (x), li (x) = wi Kn (x, xi ), i = 0, . . . , N. .2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b 2t+i 2M Pn+m+1 +QM m 0X
i=0 SQ` 2H h2Q`2K dXk- /2#2 b2` /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQX /2Kb- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2#2
H MQ i2M2` ;`MiBx/ H T`QTB2// /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM T` 2bib T`QtBK@ b2` 2t+i T` iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ /2 H 7Q`K !n+1 q- +QM q 2 Pm - Hm2;Q
+BQM2b- MQ TQ/2KQb ;`MiBx` [m2 li (xi ) pH; R MB iKTQ+Q [m2 li (xj ) iQK2 Z Xn
2H pHQ` MmHQ T` j 6= i- bBMQ [m2 i2M2KQb !n+1 (x)q(x)w(x)dx = wi q(xi )!(xi ) = 0.
I i=0
li (xj ) = wi Kn (xi , xj ), i, j = 0, . . . , N.
/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 !n+1 ? Pm X
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- bmTQM;KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v
NX 6Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBMbX !n+1 ? Pm X a2 p 2 Pn+m+1 X 1MiQM+2b /BpB/B2M/Q 2bi2 TQHBMQKBQ T` !n+1
"mb+KQb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` i2M2KQb
Z n p(x) = !n+1 (x)q(x) + r(x),
X
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ], (9.1) /QM/2 r 2 Pn v q 2 Pm X *H`K2Mi2
I i=0
r(xi ) = p(xi ), i = 0, . . . , n,
2M mM BMi2`pHQ I [m2 H+M+2M 2H KvQ` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM TQbB#H2X 1M 2bi2
+TőimHQ bmTQM/`2KQb [m2 H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M Int(I)- TQ` HQ [m2 TQ/2KQb }`K` [m2 r = P (p; x0 , . . . , xn ) 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BM@
MQ M2;iBp- v MQ B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmH- iH [m2 i2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 /2 p 2M x0 , . . . , xn X *QKQ H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ
Z BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ i2M2KQb
|p(x)|w(x)dx < +1 Z X n
I r(x)w(x)dx = wi p(xi ).
T` iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ pX 1H G2K 3X3 T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 I i=0
⇣Z ⌘1/2 .2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 QìQ;QMHB// !n+1 ? Pm - /2/m+BKQb [m2

hp, qi := p(x)q(x)w(x)dx , Z
I !n+1 (x)q(x)w(x)dx = 0.
/2}M2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M 2H 2bT+BQ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb v iB2M2 b2MiB/Q I
+QMbB/2`` TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ /B+?Q T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H`X amKM/Q Hb `2H+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b Q#i2M2KQb
S` +/ bm+2bBƦM /2 MQ/Qb x0 < · · · < xn - HQb T2bQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 Z Xn
iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ /M Hm;` mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` UNXRV 2t+i 2M Pn X p(x)w(x)dx = wi p(xi ),
I
"DQ /2i2`KBM/b +QM/B+BQM2b bQ#`2 HQb MQ/Qb- Tm2/2 }`K`b2 [m2 H `2;H i=0
/2 +m/ìm` 2b 2t+i 2M 2bT+BQb /2 TQHBMQKBQb Pk +QM k > nX 2b /2+B` H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` 2b 2t+i T` 2H TQHBMQKBQ pX
283 284
o2KQb [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` MmKû`B+ w(x) = (1 x)↵ (1 + x) / Hm;` Hb HHK/b 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 :mbbĜC+Q#BX
+QM n MQ/Qb 2b K2MQ` [m2 2n + 1X 1M 2H BMi2`pHQ [0, +1)- 2H T2bQ w(x) = exp( x) +Q``2bTQM/2 Hb 7Ʀ`Km@
Hb /2 :mbbĜG;m2``2X 1M 2H BMi2`pHQ ( 1, +1) i2M2KQb Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2
S`QTQbB+BƦM NXkX 1H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM /2 mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` +QM n+1 :mbbĜ>2`KBi2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b w(x) = exp( x2 )X */ mM /2 2bib
MQ/Qb 2b K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 2n + 1X 7Ʀ`KmHb iB2M2 bQ+B/Qb mM bBbi2K /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2bX
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 !n+1 (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn )X SQ` 2H G2K 3X3- o2KQb [m2 HQb T2bQb /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb ;mbbBMb bQM TQbBiBpQbX
Z h2Q`2K NX9X GQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM bQM

2
R[!n+1 ]= !n+1 (x)2 w(x)dx > 0 TQbBiBpQbX
I
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ H 7Ʀ`KmH iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2n + 1- H 7Ʀ`KmH
v H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` MQ 2b 2t+i T` 2H TQHBMQKBQ !n+1
2
2 P2n+2 X /2 +m/ìm` 2b 2t+i T` HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 lk (x)2 2 P2n - Hm2;Q
Z Xn
a2 pn+1 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n + 1 v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` R
lk (x)2 w(x)dx = wi lk (xi )2 = wk , (9.2)
v b2M x0 , . . . , xn HQb +2`Qb /2 pn+1 X SQ` 2H h2Q`2K 3XRy- HQb +2`Qb /2 pn+1 I i=0
bQM `2H2b- /BbiBMiQb v b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M Int(I)X G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm`
;mbbBM /2 n + 1 MQ/Qb 2b H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ +mvQb MQ/Qb bQM TQ` iMiQ wk = klk k > 0X
2
HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH pn+1 X

*QMbB/2`2KQb ?Q` 2H T`Q#H2K /2 /2i2`KBM` HQb T2bQb /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH
LQi2KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH ;mbbBM Tm2/2 T`2b2Mi`b2 +QM /B72`2Mi2b Q`/2@ ;mbbBMX *QKQ Hb 7Ʀ`KmH ;mbbBMb bQM /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ- HQb T2bQb
M+BQM2b /2 HQb MQ/QbX SQ` 2HHQ- +mM/Q ?#HKQb /2 H mMB+B// /2 Hb `2;Hb bQM Hb BMi2;`H2b /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 G;`M;2
/2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBMb- +QMbB/2`KQb [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH Q#i2MB/ H `2Q`/2M` Z
HQb MQ/Qb 2b 2b2M+BHK2Mi2 H KBbK wk = lk (x)w(x)dx, k = 0, . . . , n.
o2KQb [m2 Hb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM H+MxM ;`/Q /2 T`2+B@ I
bBƦM 2n + 1X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 !n+1 (x) := (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) = pn+1 (x) 2b 2H

TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n + 1- /2/m+BKQb [m2
h2Q`2K NXjX G ȹMB+ `2;H /2 +m/ìm` [m2 H+Mx ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
2n + 1 2b H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBMX lk (x) =
pn+1 (x)
, k = 0, . . . , n,
Qn p0n+1 (xk )(x xk )
.2KQbi`+BƦMX S` H `2;H ;mbbBM !n+1 (x) = i=0 (x xi ) +QBM+B/2
+QM pn+1 (x)- 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH KƦMB+Q /2 ;`/Q nX SQ` 2H h2Q`2K NXR- /2 /QM/2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH T` HQb T2bQb /2 mM `2;H /2 +m@
H `2;H 2b 2t+i 2M P2n+1 X _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- bB mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` 2b /ìm` ;mbbBM
2t+i 2M P2n+1 - TQ` 2H h2Q`2K NXR- iB2M2 [m2 b2` /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v Z
1 pn+1 (x)
!n+1 ? Pn X SQ` iMiQ !n+1 (x) = pn+1 (x) v H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` +QBM+B/2 wk = 0
pn+1 (xk ) I x xk
w(x)dx, k = 0, . . . , n.
+QM H ;mbbBMX
.2 H 7Ʀ`KmH UNXkV b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH Hi2`MiBp T` HQb
Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb ;mbbBMb `2+B#2M p`BQb MQK#`2b- /2T2M/B2M/Q /2H T2bQ T2bQb /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH ;mbbBM
w(x)X 1M 2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1] i2M2KQb Hb HHK/b 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 :mbbĜG2@ Z
;2M/`2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b w(x) = 1X G 2H2++BƦM /2 w(x) = (1 x2 ) 1/2 1 pn+1 (x)2
wk = 0 w(x)dx, k = 0, . . . , n.
/ Hm;` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 :mbbĜ*?2#vb?2p 2M [ 1, 1]X Jb ;2M2`HK2Mi2 pn+1 (xk ) I (x xk )2
2
285 286
mM[m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2 HQb T2bQb bQM TQbBiBpQb- h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 qn+1 (xi ) = 0- b2 /2/m+2 /2 H B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@
MQ bBKTHB}+ 2H +H+mHQ /2 HQb KBbKQbX S` 2tT`2b` HQb T2bQb /2 Hb `2;Hb .`#Qmt [m2
/2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM- /2}MBKQb H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H
n
X qn+1 (x)qn (xi )
1 K(x, xi ) = qj (x)qj (xi ) = n
n (x) := Pn 2
, x xi
j=0 qj (x)
j=0
/QM/2 q0 , . . . , qn+1 bQM TQHBMQKBQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b /2 MQ`K mMBi`B v iQKM/Q HőKBi2b +mM/Q x ! xi i2M2KQb
v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` TQbBiBpQX SQ` /2}MB+BƦM n 2b mM 7mM+BƦM TQbBiBpX GQb
pHQ`2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H 2M HQb +2`Qb x0 , . . . , xn /2 qn+1 `2+B#2M 2H n
X
0
MQK#`2 /2 MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2H K(xi , xi ) = qj (xi )2 = n qn+1 (xi )qn (xi ).
j=0
1
n (xi ) = Pn , i = 0, . . . , n.
j=0 qj (xi )
2 SQ` iMiQ- TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 2M H 7Q`K
G B/2MiB// /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#Qmt T2`KBi2 2tT`2b` H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H qn+1 (x) K(x, xi )

li (x) = = = n (xi )K(x, xi ).
2M H 7Q`K (x 0
xi )qn+1 (xi ) K(xi , xi )
1
n (x) = 0
n (qn+1 (x)qn (x) qn+1 (x)qn0 (x))
G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` T`QTQ`+BQM mM 7Ʀ`KmH 2tTHő+Bi /2H /2b``QHHQ /2 6Qm@
v- +QKQ qn+1 (xi ) = 0- HQb MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2H p2`B}+M `B2` /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2
1 ⇣ n
X ⌘
n (xi ) = , i = 0, . . . , n. li (x) = q02 +
0
n qn+1 (xi )qn (xi ) n (xi ) qj (xi )qj (x) .
j=1
GQb MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2H iK#BûM Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb
TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` R K2/BMi2 H 7Ʀ`KmH *QKQ H `2;H 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ- HQb T2bQb b2 Q#iB2M2M BMi2;`M/Q HQb
TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2bX AMi2;`M/Q H `2H+BƦM Mi2`BQ` Q#@
1 kpn k2 i2M2KQb Z
n (xi ) = Pn pj (xi )2
= 0 , i = 0, . . . , n.
pn+1 (xi )pn (xi ) wi = li (x)w(x)dx =
j=0 kpj k2 n (xi ), i = 0, . . . , n.
I
h2Q`2K NX8X GQb T2bQb /2 mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM bQM HQb Mȹ@
K2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2HX
1M H 6B;m` NXR 2bi `2T`2b2Mi/ H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2M q0 (x), . . . , qn (x), qn+1 (x) HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b /2 /2 :mbb@G2;2M/`2 /2 Re MQ/Qb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 n = 15X Gb HőM2b p2ìB@
MQ`K mMBi`B v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` TQbBiBpQ v b2 +H2b iB2M2M #b+Bbb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH v Hb Him`b
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b bQM HQb MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2HX
n
X
K(x, y) := qj (x)qj (y). H H+Mx` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2n + 1- Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb ;mbbBMb /KBi2M
j=0 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H /2`Bp/ (2n + 2)@ûbBK /2 f X
287 288
AMi2;`M/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM
0.11
0.1
0.09
n
Y
0.08
f (x) p(x) = [x0 , x0 , . . . , xn , xn , x]f (x xi ) 2 .
i=0
0.07
0.06 Q#i2M2KQb
0.05
Z n
Y
0.04
R[f ] = [x0 , x0 , . . . , xn , xn , x]f (x xi )2 w(x)dx.
0.03 I i=0
0.02
Qn
0.01
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 i=0 (x xi )2 w(x) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM MQ M2;iBp +QM BM@
0
i2;`H TQbBiBp- TQ/2KQb THB+` 2H T`BK2` h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2H +H+mHQ
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
BMi2;`H v 2H h2Q`2K /2H pHQ` K2/BQ /2 G;`M;2 ;2M2`HBx/Q T` /2/m+B`
6B;m` NXRX 6mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H v MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2H
Z Y
/2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@G2;2M/`2 +QM Re MQ/QbX
n
f (2n+2) (⇠)
R[f ] = (x xi )2 w(x)dx.
(2n + 2)! I i=0
h2Q`2K NXeX 1H 2``Q` /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM 2b
6BMHK2Mi2 Q#b2`pKQb [m2
f (2n+2) (⇠)
R[f ] = kpn+1 k2 , Z Y
(2n + 2)! n
1
(x xi )2 w(x)dx = kpn+1 k2 = .
/QM/2 pn+1 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n + 1 v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` RX I i=0 coe↵(qn+1 (x), xn+1 )2
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QMbB/2`2KQb mM T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2

+HbB+Q 2M HQb TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn /2 Int(I) K2/BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q 2n+1X
*/ MQ/Q b2 2M+m2Mi` 2t+iK2Mi2 /Qb p2+2b 2M H bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ 6Ơ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM 2 BMi2`TQH+BƠM
a2 Z
x0 = x0 < x 1 = x1 < · · · < x n = xn . n
X
f (x)w(x)dx = wi,n f (xi,n )
a2 p(x) = P (f ; x0 , x0 , x1 , x1 , . . . , xn , xn )(x)X *QKQ H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` I i=0
iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2n + 1 Q#i2M/`2KQb H THB+`H p 2 P2n+1
H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM bQ+B/ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w(x)X a2M
Z n
X n
X q0 , . . . , qn , qn+1 , . . . HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b /2 MQ`K mMBi`B bQ+B/Qb
p(x)w(x)dx = wi p(xi ) = wi f (xi ). H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` Z
I i=0 i=0
hf, gi = f (x)g(x)w(x)dx.
SQ` iMiQ I
Z n
X Z Gb 7Ʀ`KmH ;mbbBMb bQM /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v bmb MQ/Qb
R[f ] = f (x)w(x) wi f (xi ) = (f (x) p(x))w(x)dx.
I i=0 I x0,n , . . . , xn,n
289 290
bQM T`2+BbK2Mi2 HQb +2`Qb /2 qn+1 X .2 H S`QTQbB+BƦM 3XR9- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 1pHmM/Q 2M x = xi,n - Q#i2M2KQb wi,n Kn (xi,n , xi,n ) = 1- HQ [m2 T2`KBi2
/2/m+B` [m2 HQb T2bQb bQM HQb MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2H Upûb2 h2Q`2K NX8V
n
X
hf, gin = wi,n f (xi,n )g(xi,n ), 1
wi,n = = n (xi,n )
i=0 Kn (xi,n , xi,n )
/2}M2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M Pn /2 KQ/Q [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b v 2tT`2b` HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 2M iû`KBMQb /2H Mȹ+H2Q
bQ+B/Qb bQM T`2+BbK2Mi2 q0 , . . . , qn X
Kn (x, xi,n )
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb MQ/Qb x0,n , . . . , xn,n li,n (x) = n (xi,n )Kn (x, xi,n ) = .
Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f 2M 2H 2bT+BQ Pn+1 Kn (xi,n , xi,n )
`2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQX a2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM
/2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH mMBi`BQ G bmK /2 HQb k + 1 T`BK2`Qb iû`KBMQb /2H /2b``QHHQ /2 P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn )
qn+1 2b H H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /Bb+`2i /2 f TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pk
n
X k
X
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x) = hqj , f in qj (x).
Skn [f ] = hqj , f in qj .
j=0
j=0
h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n +QBM@ S2`Q iK#BûM Tm2/2 p2`b2 +QKQ H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM +QMiBMm /2H TQHBMQKBQ
+B/2 +QM bm T`QTBQ TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM Q#i2M2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2M@ P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 Pk v [m2
i+BƦM /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +QKQ +QK#BM+BƦM HBM2H /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b-
2M iû`KBMQb /2H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ hqj , f in = hqj , P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )in = hqj , P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )i.
n
X SQ` iMiQ- H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM TQ` KőMBKQb +m/`/Qb /Bb+`2i /2 f 2M
p(x) = hqj , pin qj (x), p 2 Pn . Pk - k  n- +QBM+B/2 +QM H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM +QMiBMm /2 bm TQHBMQKBQ /2
j=0
BMi2`TQH+BƦM
Skn [f ] = Sk [P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )].
liBHBxM/Q 2H Mȹ+H2Q
bm p2x- 2H TQHBMQKBQ P (f ; ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) 2b mM T`QtBK+BƦM /2 f [m2
n
X K2DQ` H mK2Mi` 2H ;`/Q nX Gb T`QTB2//2b /2 K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM /Bb@
Kn (x, y) = qj (x)qj (y)
+`2i /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) b2 i`/m+2M 2M
j=0
T`QTB2//2b /2 T`QtBK+BƦM +QMiBMm miBHBxM/Q H 2t+iBim/ /2 Hb `2;Hb /2
TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` 2H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M H 7Q`K +m/ìm` ;mbbBMX 1biQ T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` H +QMp2`;2M+B 2M K2/B +m@
/ìB+ /2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) H 7mM+BƦM f X
n
X
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x) = hKn (x, ·), f in = wi,n Kn (x, xi,n )f (xi,n ). h2Q`2K NXd UErdős@hm`MVX a2M p0 , p1 , . . . , pn , . . . mM bBbi2K /2 TQHB@
j=0 MQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b 2M [a, b] +QM `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ w 2 C(a, b)- MQ
M2;iBp- BMi2;`#H2 v MQ B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmHX a2M ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n HQb +2`Qb
*QKT`M/Q +QM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 G;`M;2- TQ/2KQb 2bi#H2+2` mM `2H+BƦM /2 pn+1 X 1MiQM+2b
2Mi`2 2H Mȹ+H2Q bQ+B/Q v HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`@
Z b
TQH+BƦM
lı́m |f (x) P (f ; ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x)|2 w(x)dx = 0.
li,n (x) = wi,n Kn (x, xi,n ), i = 0, . . . , n. n!1 a
291 292
.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2M li,n - i = 0, . . . , n HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2X h2MB2M/Q Gb `2H+BQM2b /2 QìQ;QMHB// /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p b2 2tT`2bM
2M +m2Mi H 2t+iBim/ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH ;mbbBM T` TQHBMQKBQb /2 P2n+1 - b2 2M H 7Q`K Z
/2/m+2 H QìQ;QMHB// /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G;`M;2 1 1 dx ✏j
Tk (x)Tj (x) p = jk ,
Z ⇡ 1 1 x 2 2
b n
X
lj,n (x)lk,n (x)w(x)dx = wi,n lj,n (xi,n )lk,n (xi,n ) /QM/2 jk 2b 2H bőK#QHQ /2Hi /2 E`QM2+F2` v ✏j 2b 2H 7+iQ` /2 L2mKMM +mvQ
a i=0 pHQ` 2b k bB j = 0 v R bB j 6= 0X G K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM +QMiBMm /2 mM
Xn 7mM+BƦM f 2 C[ 1, 1] Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ mM bmK /2 6Qm`B2`@*?2#vb?2p
= wi,n ik ij = wk,n jk n Z 1
i=0
X 2 f (x)Tj (x)dx
Sn [f ] = cj Tj (x), cj = p .
✏ ⇡ 1 x2
hQKM/Q j = k 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` b2 Q#iB2M2M Hb `2H+BQM2b UNXkV v- j=0 j 1
bmKM/Q /B+?b `2H+BQM2b- i2M2KQb

G `2;H /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 w(x) = (1 x2 ) 1/2
n Z Z
X b n
X b 2b H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` /2 :mbb@*?2#vb?2p
li,n (x)2 w(x)dx = wi,n = w(x)dx.
Z n
i=0 a i=0 a
1 1 f (x) 1 X
p dx = f (xi ) + R[f ],
a2 p⇤n H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2 TQ` TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q n /2 f X SQ` ⇡ 1 1 x2 n + 1 i=0
2H h2Q`2K /2 T`QtBK+BƦM /2 q2B2`bi`bb- p⇤n +QMp2`;2 mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 f
#b/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p /2H BMi2`pHQ [ 1, 1]
2M [a, b]X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb
Z (2i + 1)⇡
b xi,n = cos ✓in , ✓i,n = ⇡ , i = 0, . . . , n.
kp⇤n P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )k = |p⇤n (x) 2
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x)| w(x)dx = 2(n + 1)
a
Z b hX
n i2 P#b2`p2KQb [m2 iQ/Qb HQb T2bQb /2 H `2;H /2 :mbb@*?2#vb?2p bQM B;mH2b
(p⇤n (xi,n ) f (xi,n ))li,n (x) w(x)dx = 1
a i=0 wi,n = i = 0, . . . , n.
n Z n+1
X b
(p⇤n (xi,n ) f (xi,n ))2 li,n (x)2 w(x)dx  1H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ /QTi H 7Q`K
i=0 a
n Z
X b Z b 1 X
n
kp⇤n f k21 2
li,n (x) w(x)dx = dist1 (f, Pn ) 2
w(x)dx ! 0. hf, gin = f (xi,n )g(xi,n ).
n + 1 i=0
i=0 a a
GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQ bQM iK#BûM

a2 /2/m+2 [m2 P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) v p⇤n +QMp2`;2M mMB7Q`K2K2Mi2 H KBbKQ
HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p Tj (x)- j = 0, . . . , nX 1H TQHBMQKBQ /2 BMi2`TQH@
HőKBi2 f X
+BƦM /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f 2M HQb MQ/Qb /2 *?2#vb?2p 2b H K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM
lM 2D2KTHQ BKTQìMi2 /2 T`QtBK+BQM2b /2 2bi2 iBTQ bQM Hb bmKb /2 /2 f `2bT2+iQ H T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` /Bb+`2iQX SQ` iMiQ Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ
6Qm`B2`@*?2#vb?2pX GQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b bQ+B/Qb H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ mM bmK /2 6Qm`B2`
w(x) = (1 x2 ) 1/2 - x 2 ( 1, 1)- bQM HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 *?2#vb?2p n
X
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) = cjn Tj (x),
Tn (x) = cos(n arc cos x), x 2 [ 1, 1]. j=0
293 294
/QM/2 h2Q`2K NX3X a2 w mM 7mM+BƦM T2bQ +QMiBMm 2M (a, b)- MQ M2;iBp- BMi2@
;`#H2 v MQ B/ûMiB+K2Mi2 MmHX ./Qb x0 = a v xn = b- 2tBbi2M x1 , . . . , xn 1
X n
2
cjn = f (xi,n )Tj (xi,n ), 2M (a, b) v T2bQb w0 , . . . , wn TQbBiBpQb iH2b [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm`
✏j (n + 1) i=0
Q#i2MB2M/Q H bB;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH T` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 Z b n

X
f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ],
n n X
n a i=0
1 X 2 X
P (f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n ) = f (xi,n ) + f (xi,n )Tj (xi,n )Tj (x).
n+1 i=0
n+1 j=1 i=0 H+Mx 2H KtBKQ ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM TQbB#H2 2n 1X /2Kb Hb ȹMB+b
7Ʀ`KmHb [m2 H+MxM ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2n 1 bQM [m2HHb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 iBTQ
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 HQb pHQ`2b Tj (xi,n ) Tm2/2M +H+mH`b2 +ƦKQ/K2Mi2 bB HQb BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ +mvQb MQ/Qb bQM HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q
2tT`2bKQb 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb M;mHQb ✓i,n - Tj (xi,n ) = cos(j✓i,n )X 1H Mȹ+H2Q n 1- `2bT2+iQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ ŵ(x) := w(x)(x a)(b x)X
bQ+B/Q H bmK /2 6Qm`B2`Ĝ*?2#vb?2p /Bb+`2i 2b
.2KQbi`+BƦMX o2KQb [m2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , xn - /QM/2 x0 = a
n
X v xn = b- MQ Tm2/2 b2` 2t+i 2M P2n X a2
Kn (x, y) = 1 + 2 Tj (x)Tj (y) = Dk (arc cos x arc cos y),
j=0
p(x) := (x a)(b x)(x x1 )2 · · · (x xn 1)
2
2 P2n .
/QM/2 Dn (✓) 2b 2H HHK/Q Mȹ+H2Q /2 .B`B+?H2i Pn

SQ` +QMbi`m++BƦM- p b2 MmH 2M iQ/Qb HQb MQ/Qb v i=0 wi p(xi ) = 0X *QKQ p
Rb
n
X 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ MQ M2;iBpQ- b2 /2/m+2 /2H G2K 3X3 [m2 a p(x)w(x)dx > 0X
sen(n + 1/2)✓
Dn (✓) = 1 + 2 cos(j✓) = . SQ` iMiQ
sen(✓/2) Z b Xn
j=0
R[p] = p(x)w(x)dx wi p(xi ) > 0,
a i=0
liBHBxM/Q 2H Mȹ+H2Q Kn (x, y) Mi2`BQ`- TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b` H bmK /2 6Qm`B2`
/Bb+`2i 2M H 7Q`K v H 7Ʀ`KmH MQ 2b 2t+i T` 2H TQHBMQKBQ pX SQ` iMiQ 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM
/2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2bi #B2M /2}MB/Q v 2b K2MQ` [m2 2nX
n
1 X G 7mM+BƦM ŵ(x) = (b x)(x a)w(x) 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +QMiBMm 2M (a, b) MQ
Snn [f ] = Kn (x, xi,n )f (xi,n ) = hKn (x, ·), f in .
n + 1 i=0 M2;iBp 2 BMi2;`#H2 v Tm2/2 miBHBx`b2 +QKQ 7mM+BƦM T2bQ /2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b@
+H`- /M/Q Hm;` mM bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b p̂0 , p̂1 , . . . , p̂n , . . .
+QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ` mMBi`BQ- /B72`2Mi2b /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b `2b@
6Ơ`KmHb /2 :mbbėGQ#iiQ T2+iQ H T2bQ w(x)X a2M x1 , . . . , xn 1 HQb +2`Qb /2 p̂n 1 - /2 KQ/Q [m2
p̂n 1 (x) = (x x1 ) · · · (x xn 1 )X SQ` 2H h2Q`2K 3XRy- x1 , . . . , xn 1 bQM
K2Mm/Q H;mMQb MQ/Qb 2biM T`2}D/Qb v Qi`Qb Tm2/2M 2H2;B`b2X lM 2H2+@
`2H2b- /BbiBMiQb v b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ #B2ìQ (a, b)X o2KQb [m2 H
+BƦM /2 HQb MQ/Qb HB#`2b [m2 ?; [m2 !n+1 (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) b2
7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ
QìQ;QMH H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 KvQ` ;`/Q TQbB#H2 Pk Tm2/2 /` Hm@
;` 7Ʀ`KmHb [m2 T`2b2MiM +B2ì bBKBHBim/ Hb ;mbbBMbX Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 Z n
b X
:mbbĜGQ#iiQ bQM Hb [m2 H+MxM KvQ` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM 2Mi`2 [m2HHb f (x)w(x)dx = wi f (xi ) + R[f ],
[m2 mbM +QKQ MQ/Qb HQb 2ti`2KQb /2H BMi2`pHQ /2 BMi2;`+BƦM I = [a, b]X a i=0
295 296
#b/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn 1 < xn = b iB2M2 ;`/Q /2 MHQ;K2Mi2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM b2 /2/m+2 H bB@
T`2+BbBƦM 2n 1X SQ` H QìQ;QMHB// /2 p̂n 1 `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ ŵ- ;mB2Mi2 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q`
i2M2KQb Z bn
Y1
Z b Z b f (2n) (⇠)
R[f ] = (x xi )2 (x a)(b x)w(x)dx.
!n+1 (x)q(x)w(x)dx = p̂n 1 (x)q(x)ŵ(x)dx = 0, 8q 2 Pn 2 , (2n)! a i=1
a a
1M 2H +bQ /2 w(x) = 1- x 2 [ 1, 1]- i2M2KQb [m2 HQb MQ/Qb BMi2`BQ`2b
/QM/2
/2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbbĜGQ#iiQ x1 , . . . , xn 1 bQM HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHBMQKBQ /2
C+Q#B Pn 1 - [m2 2b 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n 1- `2bT2+iQ /2 H
(1,1)
!n+1 (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) = (x a)(b x)p̂n 1 (x).
7mM+BƦM T2bQ ŵ(x) = 1 x2 - x 2 [ 1, 1]X
SQ` 2H h2Q`2K NXR- H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ #b/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb 1M 2bi2 +bQ HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B Pn 1 Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 2M iû`@
(1,1)
a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn 1 < xn = b 2b 2t+i 2M P2n 1 v- +QKQ MQ Tm2/2 b2` KBMQb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 Pn 1 v Pn+1
2t+i 2M P2n - 2H ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM b2` 2n 1X iQKM 2H KBbKQ pHQ` 2M x = 1 v x = 1- b2 Tm2/2 /2/m+B` [m2 x2 1 /BpB/2
_2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- bB mM `2;H /2 +m/ìm` #b/ 2M HQb MQ/Qb a = Pn+1 (x) Pn 1 (x) v 2b QìQ;QMH iQ/Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q
x0 < x1 < · · · < xn 1 < xn = b H+Mx 2H KvQ` ;`/Q /2 T`2+BbBƦM TQbB#H2 B;mH [m2 n 2X SQ` iMiQ- 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x2 1)Pn 1 (x) 2b T`QTQ`+BQMH
(1,1)
2n 1- /2/m+BKQb /2H h2Q`2K NXR [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH 2b /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ v Pn+1 (x) Pn 1 (x)X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 Pn (1) = n(n + 1)/2- T` iQ/Q
0
[m2 !n+1 (x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn ) 2b QìQ;QMH Pn 2 X 1MiQM+2b n 0- /2/m+BKQb [m2
Z b Z b 2 0
(x x1 ) · · · (x xn 1 )q(x)ŵ(x)dx = !n+1 (x)q(x)w(x)dx = 0, lı́m (Pn+1 (x) Pn 1 (x)) = Pn+1 (1) Pn0 1 (1) = 2n + 1.
a a
x!1 x2 1
G +QM/B+BƦM /2 MQ`KHBx+BƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 C+Q#B Pn = n MQb

(1,1)
T` iQ/Q q 2 Pn 2 - HQ [m2 BKTHB+ [m2 (x x1 ) · · · (x xn 1 ) +QBM+B/2 +QM 1 (1)
p̂n 1 - 2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH /2 ;`/Q n 1 `2bT2+iQ H 7mM+BƦM T2bQ ŵ(x)X T2`KBi2 /2/m+B` [m2
*QKQ HQb T2bQb /2 mM 7Ʀ`KmH /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ 2biM /2i2`KBM/Qb- (1,1) 2n
/2/m+BKQb H mMB+B// /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@GQ#iiQX (x2 1)Pn 1 (x) = (Pn+1 (x) Pn 1 (x)).
2n + 1
G TQbBiBpB// /2 HQb T2bQb b2 /2/m+2 +QMbi`mv2M/Q TQHBMQKBQb MQ M2@
SQ` iMiQ- HQb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbbĜGQ#iiQ bQM HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHB@
;iBpQb 2M P2n 1 +mvQb pHQ`2b 2M HQb MQ/Qb +QBM+B/M +QM HQb TQHBMQKBQb
MQKBQ Pn+1 (x) Pn 1 (x)X liBHBxM/Q H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B j iû`KBMQb
7mM/K2MiH2b /2 G;`M;2X THB+M/Q 2H G2K 3X3 i2M/`2KQb
/2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 U3XkV- Q#i2M2KQb H 7Ʀ`KmH Hi2`MiBp
Z b
(x x1 )2 · · · (x xn 1 )2 (b x) (1,1) 2n Pn 1 (x) xPn (x)
w0 = w(x)dx > 0, Pn
(x1 a)2 · · · (xn 1 a)2 (b a) 1 (x) = .
a
Q n+1 1 x2
Z b (x a)(b x) j2{0,...,n}\{i} (x xj )2
wi = Q w(x)dx > 0, 0 < i < n, o2KQb ?Q` [m2 HQb MQ/Qb BMi2`BQ`2b /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@GQ#iiQ
a (xi a)(b xi ) j2{0,...,n}\{i} (xi xj )2 +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb +2`Qb /2 Pn0 (x)- H /2`Bp/ /2H n@ûbBKQ TQHBMQKBQ /2 G2;2M@
Z b
(x a)(x x1 )2 · · · (x xn 1 ) 2 /`2X AMi2;`M/Q TQ` Tì2b Q#i2M2KQb
wn = w(x)dx > 0.
a (b a)(b x1 )2 · · · (b xn 1 ) 2 Z 1 Z 1
Pn0 (x)(x2 1)q(x)dx = Pn (x)(2xq(x) + (x2 1)q 0 (x))dx = 0
1 1
297 298
T` iQ/Q q 2 Pn 2 - /2 /QM/2 /2/m+BKQb [m2 Pn0 (x) 2b T`QTQ`+BQMH Pn
(1,1)
1 (x) i2M/`2KQb
v +QKQ Pn0 (1) = n(n + 1)/2- i2M2KQb [m2
1 2
wi = 0 = 0 .
n + 1 (1,1) n(Pn 1 (x) xPn (x)) q (x )q
n n+1 i n i(x ) (n + 1)Pn+1 (xi )Pn (xi )
Pn0 (x) = Pn (x) = . (9.3)
2 1 x2
liBHBxM/Q H B/2MiB// UNXjV
SQ` iMiQ- HQb MQ/Qb BMi2`BQ`2b /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbbĜGQ#iiQ bQM T`2+Bb@
K2Mi2 HQb Hm;`2b 2M HQb [m2 Pn H+Mx bmb 2ti`2KQb `2HiBpQbX .2H h2Q`2K 0 n+1
Pn+1 (x) = (Pn (x) xPn+1 (x))
/2 _QHH2- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 2Mi`2 /Qb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbbĜG2;2M/`2 +QM 1 x2
n MQ/Qb- bB2KT`2 i2M2KQb mM MQ/Q BMi2`BQ` /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbbĜGQ#iiQ
/2 n+1 MQ/QbX _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2 p2KQb [m2 2Mi`2 +/ /Qb MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH v 2pHmM/Q 2M x = xi - i2M2KQb Pn+1 (xi ) = 0 v
/2 :mbbĜGQ#iiQ /2 n + 1 MQ/Qb b2 2M+m2Mi` 2t+iK2Mi2 mM MQ/Q /2 H 0
7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@G2;2M/`2X 1bi T`QTB2// Tm2/2 b2` ȹiBH T` HQ+HBx` v (n + 1)Pn (xi ) = (1 x2i )Pn+1 (xi ),
2biBK` MmKû`B+K2Mi2 HQb MQ/Qb /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 :mbbĜGQ#iiQX
/2 /QM/2 TQ/2KQb 2HBKBM` Pn+1
0
(xi )- Q#i2MB2M/Q
*{H+mHQ 27B+B2Mi2 /2 HQb MQ/Qb v T2bQb /2 mM 7Ơ`KmH ;mbbBM
2(1 x2i )
Zm2`2KQb Q#i2M2` mM 2tT`2bBƦM /2 HQb T2bQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@G2;2M/`2 wi = .
2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb MQ/QbX h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 (n + 1)2 Pn (xi )2
r 1bi 7Ʀ`KmH bQHK2Mi2 `2[mB2`2 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQ n@ûbBKQ /2 G2;2M/`2 2M
2
kPn k = , HQb MQ/QbX hK#BûM TQ/2KQb 2HBKBM` Pn (xi ) v 2tT`2b` HQb T2bQb 2M iû`KBMQb
2n + 1
/2 Pn+1
0
(xi )
i2M2KQb [m2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 +QM MQ`K mMBi`B bQM 2
wi = 0
r (1 x2i )Pn+1 (xi )2
2n + 1
qn (x) =
2
Pn , v i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2
v H 7mM+BƦM /2 *?`BbiQz2H 2b 0
n
Y (2n + 2)!
Pn+1 (xi ) = an+1 (xi xj ), an+1 = ,
1 2 2n+1 (n + 1)!2
j6=i
n (x) = Pn 2
= Pn 2
.
j=0 qj (x) j=0 (2j + 1)Pj (x)
b2 /2/m+2 H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM 2tTHő+Bi /2 HQb T2bQb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@
a2 xi 2H i@ûbBKQ +2`Q /2 Pn+1 (x)- 2MiQM+2b G2;2M/`2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQb MQ/Qb
2 2 (2n + 2)!
wi = n (xi ) = Pn . wi = Q , an+1 = .
(2j + 1)Pj (xi )2 a2n+1 (1 x2i ) )2 2n+1 (n + 1)!2
j=0 j6=i (xj xi
1H +H+mHQ `2[mB2`2 2pHm` iQ/Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 2M xi X S2`Q bB
miBHBxKQb H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 *?`BbiQz2H@.`#Qmt- i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 *QM 2bi2 2D2KTHQ p2KQb [m2 2H +H+mHQ /2 HQb T2bQb 2bi `2H+BQM/Q +QM H
2pHm+BƦM 2}+B2Mi2 /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b 2M HQb MQ/QbX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q
=p
n+1
, H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 HQb T`QTBQb MQ/Qb +QKQ +2`Qb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b
iK#BûM 2bi HB;/Q H 2pHm+BƦM 2}+B2Mi2 /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2bX
n
(2n + 1)(2n + 3)
299 300
*mM/Q 2H ;`/Q +`2+2- H 2pHm+BƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b i`pûb Tm2/2M 2tT`2b`b2 Ki`B+BHK2Mi2 2M H 7Q`K
/2 H `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb 2b +/ p2x Kb BM2bi#H2- HQ [m2 Tm2/2 0 q (x) 1 0 q (x) 1 0 1
BM+B/B` 2M H 2t+iBim/ /2 MQ/Qb v T2bQbX 0 0 0
X XX XX
1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 :QHm#Ĝq2Hb+? T` 2H +H+mHQ /2 HQb MQ/Qb v T2bQb /2
B X
X
C B
X
C B X C
xB
@
C = Tn+1 B
A @
C+
A n
B
@
C.
A
H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 :mbb@G2;2M/`2 T`2i2M/2 2pBi` 2bi /B}+mHi/ i`/m+B2M/Q 2H qn 1 (x) qn 1 (x) 0
+H+mHQ /2 T2bQb v MQ/Qb mM T`Q#H2K Ki`B+BHX 1H H;Q`BiKQ Tm2/2 2ti2M@ qn (x) qn (x) qn+1 (x)
/2`b2 Qi`Qb iBTQb /2 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM- miBHBxM/Q T`QTB/@
K2Mi2 H `2H+BƦM /2 `2+m``2M+B i`2b iû`KBMQb /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b a2M x0 , . . . , xn HQb +2`Qb /2 qn+1 X G 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2`BQ` MQb T2`KBi2 /2/m+B`
bQ+B/QbX [m2 xj 2b mM pHQ` T`QTBQ /2 Tn+1 v [m2 (q0 (xj ), . . . , qn (xj )) 2b 2H p2+iQ` T`QTBQ
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2X *QKQ mM Ki`Bx (n + 1) ⇥ (n + 1) iB2M2 HQ bmKQ n + 1
S`QTQbB+BQM
R NXNX a2 µ mM K2/B/ /2 "Q`2H MQ M2;iBp- iH [m2 hu, vi := pHQ`2b T`QTBQb /BbiBMiQb- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 HQb pHQ`2b T`QTBQb /2 Tn+1 +QBM+B/2M
I
u(x)v(x)dµ(x) /2}M2 mM T`Q/m+iQ 2b+H` 2M Pn+1 X a2 q0 , q1 , . . . , qn+1 H +QM HQb +2`Qb /2 qn+1 X
bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM MQ`K mMBi`B v +Q2}+B2Mi2 /B`2+iQ`
TQbBiBpQX a2M 1M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `2bmHi/Q KQbi`KQb H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 HQb p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQb
MQ`KHBx/Qb v HQb MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2HX
Z
↵j = xqj (x)2 dµ(x), j = 0, . . . , n + 1, S`QTQbB+BƦM NXRyX G Ki`Bx
I
Z
⇣ qi (xj ) ⌘
j := xqj (x)qj+1 (x)dµ(x), j = 0, . . . , n. Qn+1 = pPn ,
2
i=0 qi (xj )
I i,j=0,...,n
G Ki`Bx i`B/B;QMH bBKûi`B+ 2b mM Ki`Bx QìQ;QMH +mvb +QHmKMb bQM HQb p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQb /2 Tn+1
0 1 MQ`KHBx/Qb v +QM T`BK2` +QKTQM2Mi2 TQbBiBpX 1H MȹK2`Q /2 *?`BbiQz2H
↵0 0 0 ··· 0
B XX C 1
B 0 ↵1 1 X 0 C (xj ) := Pn ,
B XX XX C 2
=B C j=0 qi (xj )
Tn+1 B 0 1 X X 0 C
B X XX C
@ X
X 0 X ↵n
A +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H +m/`/Q /2H T`BK2` 2H2K2MiQ /2H p2+iQ` T`QTBQ
R MQ`KHBx/Q
1 n 1
0 ··· 0 ↵n +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 H pHQ` T`QTBQ xj - KmHiBTHB+/Q TQ` q0 2 = I dµ(x) = µ(I)X
n 1
.2KQbi`+BƦMX *QKQ H Ki`Bx Tn+1 2b bBKûi`B+- HQb p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQb bQ@

iB2M2 n + 1 pHQ`2b T`QTBQb `2H2b /BbiBMiQb x0 < x1 < · · · < xn 2M ( 1, 1)-
+B/Qb pHQ`2b T`QTBQb /BbiBMiQb bQM QìQ;QMH2bX SQ` +QMbi`m++BƦM- Hb +QHmK@
[m2 +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH qn+1 X 1H p2+iQ` T`Q@
Mb /2 H Ki`Bx Qn+1 bQM HQb p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQb MQ`KHBx/Qb- HQ [m2 /2Km2bi`
TBQ bQ+B/Q xj MQ`KHBx/Q T` [m2 bm T`BK2` +QKTQM2Mi2 b2 q0 2b
[m2 H Ki`Bx Qn+1 2b mM Ki`Bx QìQ;QMHX GQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H T`BK2` }H
(q0 (xj ), . . . , qn (xj ))T X
2H2p/Qb H +m/`/Q bQM
.2KQbi`+BƦMX Gb `2H+BQM2b /2 `2+m``2M+B q02
Pn 2
= q02 (xj ), j = 0, . . . , n.
(x ↵0 )q0 = 0 q1 (x), i=0 qi (xj )
(x ↵j )qj (x) = j qj+1 (x) + j 1 qj 1 (x), j = 1, . . . , n,
301 302
*QMbB/2`2KQb `2;Hb /2 +m/ìm`b ;mbbBMb bQ+B/b mM 7mM+BƦM GQb T2bQb bQM HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H T`BK2` +QHmKM /2 2bi Ki`Bx /BpB/B/Qb
T2bQ wX >2KQb pBbiQ Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 [m2 T2bQb /2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` ;mb@ T` 2H 7+iQ` q0 - 2b /2+B`-
bBM bQM HQb MȹK2`Qb /2 *?`BbiQz2HX liBHBxM/Q HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b +QM 0 1
dµ = w(x)dx- TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` mM /2KQbi`+BƦM Hi2`MiBp /2 2bi2 ?2+?QX pP n q 0 0P 1 1 0 1
0 1 n
(x0 )
w0 B qi (x0 )2
C B i=0 qi (x0 )
2
1M 272+iQ- Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 2t+iBim/ 2M Pn `2bT2+iQ H #b2 q0 , . . . , qn - @ XXX A = 1 D B

i=0
XX C B X C B X C
XX C = @ X A,
/M Hm;` q0 @
B X C=@
A A X
wn pP n q 0 Pn 1 (xn )
Xn Z qi (xn )2
2
i=0
qi (xn )
i=0
i0
wj qi (xj ) = qi (x)w(x)dx = , i = 0, . . . , n.
j=0 I q 0 HQ [m2 +QM}`K Ki`B+BHK2Mi2 [m2 HQb T2bQb +QBM+B/2M +QM HQb MȹK2`Qb /2
*?`BbiQz2HX
SQ` iMiQ 2H p2+iQ` /2 T2bQb 2b H bQHm+BƦM /2H bBbi2K /2 2+m+BQM2b
*QKQ H Ki`Bx Tn+1 2b i`B/B;QMH bBKûi`B+ TQ/2KQb THB+` H KvQ`ő
0 1 0 1
w0 1/q0 /2 KûiQ/Qb mbmH2b T` 2H +H+mHQ /2 pHQ`2b v p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQbX /2Kb HQb
✓ ◆T
q0 , . . . , q n B w1 C B 0 C H;Q`BiKQb Kb ;2M2`H2b +QKQ 2H KûiQ/Q Z_ /KBi2M mM 7Q`KmH+BƦM bBK@
B X C = B X C,
M
x0 , . . . , x n @ XX A @ XX A THB}+/ ;`+Bb H bBK2i`ő v H 2bi`m+im` /2 #M/X GQb MQ/Qb /2 H `2;H
0 /2 +m/ìm` ;mbbBM bQM HQb pHQ`2b T`QTBQb /2 Tn+1 v HQb T2bQb bQM HQb
wn
+m/`/Qb /2 Hb T`BK2`b +QKTQM2Mi2b /2 HQb p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQb MQ`KHBx/Qb-
/QM/2 0 1 KmHiBTHB+/b TQ` 2H 7+iQ` q0 2 X
✓ ◆ q0 (x0 ) ··· qn (x0 ) .2b+`B#KQb ?Q` 2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 :QHm#@q2Hb+? T` 2H +H+mHQ /2 HQb
q0 , . . . , q n B XX XX XX C
M =@ X X X A T2bQb
q v MQ/Qb /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 +m/ìm` /2 :mbb@G2;2M/`2X a2M qn (x) =
x0 , . . . , x n
2 Pn (x)- HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 G2;2M/`2 /2 MQ`K mMBi`BX h2M2KQb [m2
q0 (xn ) ··· qn (xn ) 2n+1
p
2b H Ki`Bx /2 +QHQ++BƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb QìQ;QMH2b +QM MQ`K mMBi`B ↵n 1 = 0- n 1 = n(4n2 1) 1/2 - n 1- v q0 = 1/ 2X G Ki`Bx i`B/B;QMH
q0 , . . . , qn 2M HQb +2`Qb /2H TQHBMQKBQ QìQ;QMH qn+1 X SQ` iMiQ- 2H p2+iQ` bBKûi`B+ Tn+1 /QTi H 7Q`K
/2 T2bQb (w0 , . . . , wn )T 2b H T`BK2` +QHmKM /2 H BMp2`b /2 M xq00 ,...,q n
T
,...,xn 0 1
/BpB/B/ T` H +QMbiMi2 q0 X 0 p1
3
0 ··· 0
B XX C
G Ki`Bx Qn+1 2b H Ki`Bx [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H MQ`KHBx` +/ +QHmKM B p1 0 p2 X 0 C
⇣ ⌘T B 3 C
B 15 C
/2 M xq00 ,...,q n
- 2b /2+B` B XX XX C
,...,xn Tn+1 =B 0
B p2 X X 0 C.
C
15
✓ ◆T B X C
B X XX C
Qn+1 = M
q0 , . . . , q n
D @ X 0 X 0 p n
A
4n2 1
x0 , . . . , x n 0 ··· 0 p n 0
4n2 1
+QM ⇣ ⌘
D = diag pP n 1 , . . . , pPn 1
. GQb pHQ`2b T`QTBQb /2 Tn+1 bQM HQb MQ/Qb /2 H `2;H /2 +m/ìm` ;mb@
qi (x0 )2 qi (xn )2
i=0 i=0
bBM v HQb T2bQb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b 2H /Q#H2 /2 HQb +m/`/Qb /2 Hb T`BK2`b
.2#B/Q H QìQ;QMHB// /2 H Ki`Bx Qn+1 /2/m+BKQb [m2 +QKTQM2Mi2b /2 HQb p2+iQ`2b T`QTBQb MQ`KHBx/QbX
⇣ ⇣ q , . . . , q ⌘T ⌘ 1
0 n
M = DQTn+1 .
x0 , . . . , xn
303 304

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Analisis Numerico 17

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MHBbBb LmKû`B+Q iM +QKTH2DQ [m2 bƦHQ Tm2/ b2` HH2p/Q  +#Q TQ` Ki2KiB+Qb 2bT2+BHBbibX

S2`Q bB bƦHQ b2 `2[mB2`2 mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM /2H p2`//2`Q pHQ` /2 H

[m2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`QTQ`+BQM `2bmHi/Qb Kb 2t+iQb [m2 H 2ti`TQH+BƦM

[m2 2b mM THB++BƦM HBM2HX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 2M mM

UV G ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , x n

p0 (x) = (x x0 )q 0 (x) + q(x) b3 = 1, b2 = 3 + ( 2) = 1, b1 = 2 + ( 2) = 4, b0 = ( 2)( 4) = 8,

p(x) = (x x0 ) · · · (x xn )q0 (x), n

bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QMbB/2`/QX

bB2M/Q ⇢i mM +QMbiMi2 [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 HQb TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn X .2 H +QM/B+BƦM

li (xi ) = 1- b2 /2/m+2 [m2

mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M Pn - 2H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH

0 (x; x0 , x1 )x0 + 1 (x; x0 , x1 )x1

1H /2i2`KBMMi2 /2 oM/2`KQM/2 HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` TQ` BM/m++BƦM

0 1 x · · · xn 1 Gb 7mM+BQM2b #bB+b /2 G;`M;2 /KBi2M H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M

G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2 T2`KBi2 +QMbi`mB` v 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x,p11(x)) (x2,p11(x))

/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQ` `2+m``2M+BX >v p`Bb 7Q`Kb /2 2tT`2b` 2bib `2+m@

T`QtBK+BƦM #mb+/ b2` 2H pHQ` /2 p0,3 (1/2)X S`iB2M/Q /2 HQb pHQ`2b

b2 iB2M2 [m2 q2 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n 2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2

miBHBxM/Q Hb `2H+BQM2b /2 `2+m``2M+B 2Mi`2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b

2M H bm+2bBƦM Q`/2M/ /2 MQ/Qb x (0) , . . . , x (n) 1 2

!k (x) = (x x (0) ) · · · (x x (k 1) ), k = 0, . . . , n, G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b

6mM+BQMH2b v #b2b /mH2b

1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2

o2KQb [m2 si 2b mM bm+2bBƦM +mvQ iû`KBMQ ;2M2`H +Q``2bTQM/2  mM 0 = d0 = d1 = d2 = · · ·

/QM/2 fi = f (x0 + ih), i2w

/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2

/2 /QM/2 b2 /2/m+2 [m2 p(j) (xi ) = f (j) (xi ), j = 0, 1, . . . , m(xi ) 1, i = 0, . . . , n.

HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2i2`KBM` H 7mM+BƦM 0.4

l2i+1 (x) = (x ⇠i )Li (x)2 . 0.2

AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q Hb +QQ`/2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b /2H BMi2`pHQ [⇠0 , ⇠1 ] (x xi )ri 1

T` k = 1, . . . , nX *mM/Q HQb TmMiQb xi , . . . , xi+k +QBM+B/2M- i2MB2M/Q 2M U#V aB x0 6= xn - 2MiQM+2b

S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRRX a2 x0 , . . . , xn mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb v b2

+QM őM/B+2b +QMb2+miBpQb- 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2#2 i2M2` őM/B+2 Mi2`BQ` H 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

.2KQbi`+BƦMX G 7mM+BƦM f P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) iB2M2 H K2MQb n + 1 +2@

(xn x0 )[x0 , . . . , xn ](f g) = [x1 , . . . , xn ](f g) [x0 , . . . , xn 1 ](f g) =

`2M+B#H2b- x0 , . . . , xn 2 I- 2MiQM+2b (xj x0 )[x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g+

[P0 , . . . , Pn ] := ti Pi | t0 , . . . , tn 0, ti = 1 , voln Sn = ··· dsn · · · ds1 .

amTQM;KQb +B2`i H 7Ʀ`KmH T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M n 1 v

2tT`2b H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H

G /2~2tBƦM /2 mM pB; TQv/ 2M /Qb bQTQ`i2b v bQK2iB/  mM /2MbB@

bB2M/Q f 2b mM bQHm+BƦM T`iB+mH` /2 H 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BHX AKTQM2` Hb +QM@

/2 GB/biQM2, 2M+QMi`` p 2 P3 iH [m2

1H TQHBMQKBQ a2 /2/m+2 /2 HQ Mi2`BQ` 2tT`2bBƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b 2M mM

1M +B2`i KM2` TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2 s(x) BMi2`TQH  H 7mM+BƦM y(x) 2M 2H

1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+ K2/BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb i`i /2 bmbiB@ 1

1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+

P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , y)(y) = f (y), .2KQbi`+BƦMX S`iB2M/Q /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q` Q#i2MB/ 2M 2H h2Q`2K

[m2 K#b +Qib b2 H+MxMX

hQKM/Q f = !n+1 - i2M2KQb E(!n+1 ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = !n+1 (x) v k!n+1 k1 =

1D2KTHQX Zm2`2KQb +Qi` 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) =

⇡ 5 sen(⇡⇠) 3 (n 1)! n! n+1

o2KQb [m2 bB2KT`2 2tBbi2- H K2MQb- mM K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2

p⇤ (0) = f (0) + b = b, p⇤ (1) = f (1) + b = 1 + b,

x1 , . . . , xn bQM +2`Qb /Q#H2b TQ`[m2 t0 (xi ) = 0- i = 1, . . . , nX SQ` iMiQ

t0 (x0 ) 6= 0, t0 (xn+1 ) 6= 0, cos(n + 1)✓ = Tn+1 (cos ✓), ✓ 2 [0, ⇡].

/2 Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p- bQHK2Mi2 2tBbi2 mM ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ t(x) +QM !n+1

Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- Hm2;Q t(x) = 2 n Tn+1 (x)X

TQ/2KQb /` mM T`QtBK+BƦM bBMiƦiB+ /2 H +Qi U9XjV

[m2 /2}M2 /BbiM+Bb T`QTQ`+BQMH2b  Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 HQb `+Qb /2 H b2KB@

2.5 En (x) := E(f ; x0,n , . . . , xn,n )(x) = f (x) pn (x).

2 G +QMp2`;2M+B TmMimH b2 T`Q/m+B` bB TQ/2KQb ;`MiBx` [m2 En (x) ! 0-

0.5 aB H 7mM+BƦM 2b C 1 [a, b]- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` H +QM/B+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2 /2 +QMp2`@

6B;m` 9X8X *QMp2`;2M+B /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH

MHBbBb LmKû`B+Q iM +QKTH2DQ [m2 bƦHQ Tm2/ b2` HH2p/Q +#Q TQ` Ki2KiB+Qb 2bT2+BHBbibX

S2`Q bB bƦHQ b2 `2[mB2`2 mM #m2M T`QtBK+BƦM /2H p2`//2`Q pHQ` /2 H

[m2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM T`QTQ`+BQM `2bmHi/Qb Kb 2t+iQb [m2 H 2ti`TQH+BƦM

[m2 2b mM THB++BƦM HBM2HX 1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 2M mM

UV G ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 G;`M;2 +QM MQ/Qb x0 , . . . , x n

bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM +QMbB/2`/QX

bB2M/Q ⇢i mM +QMbiMi2 [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 HQb TmMiQb x0 , . . . , xn X .2 H +QM/B+BƦM

mM ȹMB+ bQHm+BƦM 2M Pn - 2H 2bT+BQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH

1H /2i2`KBMMi2 /2 oM/2`KQM/2 HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2KQbi`` TQ` BM/m++BƦM

0 1 x · · · xn 1 Gb 7mM+BQM2b #bB+b /2 G;`M;2 /KBi2M H bB;mB2Mi2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M

G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 BiF2M@L2pBHH2 T2`KBi2 +QMbi`mB` v 2pHm` 2H TQHBMQKBQ (x,p11(x)) (x2,p11(x))

/2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM TQ` `2+m``2M+BX >v p`Bb 7Q`Kb /2 2tT`2b` 2bib `2+m@

T`QtBK+BƦM #mb+/ b2` 2H pHQ` /2 p0,3 (1/2)X S`iB2M/Q /2 HQb pHQ`2b

b2 iB2M2 [m2 q2 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n 2 bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2

miBHBxM/Q Hb `2H+BQM2b /2 `2+m``2M+B 2Mi`2 /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b

2M H bm+2bBƦM Q`/2M/ /2 MQ/Qb x (0) , . . . , x (n) 1 2

!k (x) = (x x (0) ) · · · (x x (k 1) ), k = 0, . . . , n, G 7Ʀ`KmH /2 L2riQM /2H BMi2`TQHMi2 2b

6mM+BQMH2b v #b2b /mH2b

o2KQb [m2 si 2b mM bm+2bBƦM +mvQ iû`KBMQ ;2M2`H +Q``2bTQM/2 mM 0 = d0 = d1 = d2 = · · ·

HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2i2`KBM` H 7mM+BƦM 0.4

AMi`Q/m+B2M/Q Hb +QQ`/2M/b #`B+ûMi`B+b /2H BMi2`pHQ [⇠0 , ⇠1 ] (x xi )ri 1

T` k = 1, . . . , nX *mM/Q HQb TmMiQb xi , . . . , xi+k +QBM+B/2M- i2MB2M/Q 2M U#V aB x0 6= xn - 2MiQM+2b

S`QTQbB+BƦM jXRRX a2 x0 , . . . , xn mM bm+2bBƦM 2ti2M/B/ /2 MQ/Qb v b2

+QM őM/B+2b +QMb2+miBpQb- 2H TmMiQ /2 2pHm+BƦM /2#2 i2M2` őM/B+2 Mi2`BQ` H 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

.2KQbi`+BƦMX G 7mM+BƦM f P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn ) iB2M2 H K2MQb n + 1 +2@

`2M+B#H2b- x0 , . . . , xn 2 I- 2MiQM+2b (xj x0 )[x0 , . . . , xj ]f [xj , . . . , xn ]g+

amTQM;KQb +B2`i H 7Ʀ`KmH T` /B72`2M+Bb /BpB/B/b /2 Q`/2M n 1 v

2tT`2b H bQHm+BƦM /2H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2 >2`KBi2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H

G /2~2tBƦM /2 mM pB; TQv/ 2M /Qb bQTQ`i2b v bQK2iB/ mM /2MbB@

bB2M/Q f 2b mM bQHm+BƦM T`iB+mH` /2 H 2+m+BƦM /B72`2M+BHX AKTQM2` Hb +QM@

/2 GB/biQM2, 2M+QMi`` p 2 P3 iH [m2

1H TQHBMQKBQ a2 /2/m+2 /2 HQ Mi2`BQ` 2tT`2bBƦM /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 7mM/K2MiH2b 2M mM

1M +B2`i KM2` TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2 s(x) BMi2`TQH H 7mM+BƦM y(x) 2M 2H

1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+ K2/BMi2 TQHBMQKBQb i`i /2 bmbiB@ 1

1H T`Q#H2K /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM ?BbiQ;`KB+

P (f ; x0 , . . . , xn , y)(y) = f (y), .2KQbi`+BƦMX S`iB2M/Q /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM /2H 2``Q` Q#i2MB/ 2M 2H h2Q`2K

[m2 K#b +Qib b2 H+MxMX

hQKM/Q f = !n+1 - i2M2KQb E(!n+1 ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = !n+1 (x) v k!n+1 k1 =

1D2KTHQX Zm2`2KQb +Qi` 2H 2``Q` /2 BMi2`TQH+BƦM /2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) =

o2KQb [m2 bB2KT`2 2tBbi2- H K2MQb- mM K2DQ` T`QtBK+BƦM mMB7Q`K2

x1 , . . . , xn bQM +2`Qb /Q#H2b TQ`[m2 t0 (xi ) = 0- i = 1, . . . , nX SQ` iMiQ

/2 Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p- bQHK2Mi2 2tBbi2 mM ȹMB+Q TQHBMQKBQ t(x) +QM !n+1

Hi2`MM+B /2 *?2#vb?2p 2M n + 2 MQ/Qb- Hm2;Q t(x) = 2 n Tn+1 (x)X

TQ/2KQb /` mM T`QtBK+BƦM bBMiƦiB+ /2 H +Qi U9XjV

[m2 /2}M2 /BbiM+Bb T`QTQ`+BQMH2b Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 HQb `+Qb /2 H b2KB@

2 G +QMp2`;2M+B TmMimH b2 T`Q/m+B` bB TQ/2KQb ;`MiBx` [m2 En (x) ! 0-

0.5 aB H 7mM+BƦM 2b C 1 [a, b]- TQ/2KQb /2/m+B` H +QM/B+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2 /2 +QMp2`@

6B;m` 9X8X *QMp2`;2M+B /2 HQb BMi2`TQHMi2b /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH

1M RNyR- *X _mM;2 Tm#HB+Ʀ mM `iő+mHQ bQ#`2 H BMi2`TQH+BƦM 2M TmMiQb 0

2[mB/BbiMi2b v HH2;Ʀ H +QM+HmbBƦM /2 [m2 H bm+2bBƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2

H 7mM+BƦM- BM+HmbQ mM[m2 H 7mM+BƦM 7m2` C 1 Q BM+HmbQ MHőiB+ 2M /B+?Q -1

xi,n = 5 + 10i/n- i = 0, . . . , n v +QMbi`mBKQb 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 pn (x) 2M /B+?Qb

L[L[f ]] = L[f ], 8f 2 C[a, b]. v H+Mx bm pHQ` KőMBKQ 2M HQb MQ/Qb-

1H QT2`/Q` 2``Q` 2b 2H QT2`/Q` E = I L- 2b /2+B` (xj ; x0 , . . . , xn ) = 1, j = 0, . . . , n.

+BQM2b MmHb bQ#`2 HQb /iQbX 1M 272+iQ

HQ [m2 T`m2# H T`BK2` /2bB;mH//X 1MiQM+2b i2M2KQb [m2

T` nX aB t 2 [0, n 1]- i2M2KQb liBHBxM/Q Hb /2bB;mH//2b

6B;m` 9X3X *`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H +QMbiMi2 /2 G2#2b;m2 2M TmMiQb 2[mB/BbiMi2b

T`2+BbBƦM MB bmT2`BQ`2b 8y 2M /Q#H2 T`2+BbBƦMX 2b H /BbiM+B /2 f H bm#2bT+BQ U X

aB u⇤ 2 U p2`B}+ 1H h2Q`2K /2 G2#2b;m2 THB+/Q mM bm+2bBƦM /2 QT2`/Q`2b /2 BMi2`@

6B;m` 8XkX AMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb

S` 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 MQ/Qb x0 < · · · < xn - b2 s(x) 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H

< 0, bB x < xn 1- a2 f 2 C [a, b]- s 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb 2M x0 , . . . , xn v E(x) =

1MiQM+2b TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` 2H BMi2`TQHMi2 HBM2H i`QxQb 2M H 7Q`K (xi+1 xi ) 2

.2H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ`- b2 /2/m+2 H +QMp2`;2M+B mMB7Q`K2 /2H BMi2`TQ@

DmMiQ +QM Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ /QM/2

[m2 Tm2/2M 2b+`B#B`b2 2M H 7Q`K /QM/2 hi = xi+1 xi - di = (yi+1 yi )/hi i = 0, . . . , n 1X

Q#i2M2KQb mM bBbi2K /2 n + 1 2+m+BQM2b +QM n + 1 BM+Ʀ;MBib zn d0 dn 1

v Hb +QM/B+BQM2b /2 +QMiQ`MQ -0.25

i=0 xi *QKQ v 00 2b +QMiBMm- b2 /2/m+2 [m2 v 00 (x) = 0c Hm2;Q v 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2

2M 2H TmMiQ K2/BQ- Q#i2M2KQb H +Qi+BƦM T`QTm2biX

h2 (4) *X X >HH v qX qX J2v2` /2KQbi``QM 2M RNde [m2 H +QMbiMi2 5/384 2b H

f 2b +QMbiMi2- p2KQb [m2 [0, 0, 1, 1, x]f = 1 v H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H 2``Q` b2 bBKTHB}+

T` MQ/Qb a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = bX GQb wi 0- i = 0, . . . , n- bQM T2bQb 0.6

bQ+B/Qb +/ MQ/Q v q > 0 2b 2H T`K2i`Q /2 bmpBx/QX

H 2pHm+BƦM /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2M /Qb TmMiQb f (c) v f (c + h)X S`2+2 HƦ;B+Q [m2 bB

2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 n iH [m2

H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /2`Bp+BƦM MmKû`B+ /2 iBTQ BMi2`TQHiQ`BQ H+M+2 ;`/Q /2 f (c) X

v H 2biBK+BƦM /2 H /2`Bp/ +QBM+B/2 +QM H /B72`2M+B /BpB/B/ [x0 , x1 ]f 2M

_2bQHpB2M/Q 2H bBbi2K b2 Q#iB2M2 a0 = 3/2- a1 = 2- a2 = 1/2- /2 /QM/2 b2 fl(x) = x(1 + ), | | < u,