Endocrine

System

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 Functions
1. Regulates metabolism and growth

2. Control of food intake and digestion

3. Tissue development

4. Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium)

5. Maintains water balance

6. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure

7. Monitors blood glucose levels

8. Reproductive functions

9. Controls uterine contractions and milk production

10. Aids the immune system

 Components of Endocrine System

• Endocrine glands
• secrete their product directly into blood stream

• Chemical signal
• molecules that are released from one location, move to
another location, and produce a response

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 Types of Chemical Signals

• Intracellular
• produce in one of part a cell and move to another part
of same cell

• Intercellular
• released from one cell and bind to receptors on another
cell

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 Types of Intercellular Signals
• Autocrine
• released by original cells and a have local effect on same
cell type
• Ex. Eicosanoids (released in response to inflammation)

• Paracrine
• released by cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity
• Ex. Histamine à vasodilation of nearby blood vessels
• Somatostatin (inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion)

• Neurotransmitter
• secreted by nerve cells
• Ex. Nervous system function
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• Pheromones
• secreted into environment and modify behavior and
physiology of other individual in same species
• Ex. Women and menstrual cycles

• Hormones and neurohormones

• secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
• Ex. Epinephrine and insulin

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 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Endocrine Glands*

• Endocrine Cells*

• *responsible for secreting

minute amount of
chemical messengers
called HORMONES.

ENDOCRINOLOGY – study of the endocrine system

 Components of Hormones
• Receptor site
• location on a cell where hormone binds (lock)

• Target tissues
• group of cells that respond to specific hormones

• Specificity
• specific hormones bind to specific receptor sites

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 Chemical hormones based on
the chemical structure

• Steroid hormones – Lipid soluble

• derived from cholesterol, thyroid hormones which are
derived from the amino acid tyrosine

• Amino acid derivatives, peptides or proteins –

Water soluble
 Types of Hormones
• Water soluble
• Polar molecules
• most common –includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
• Relatively half short lives- degraded by proteases or lysosomal
enzymes
• Regulate activities that a rapid onset and short duration
• STABLE – attached to a carbohydrates or proteins- avoid
proteases
• Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin

• Lipid hormones
• Non-polar
• includes steroids, thyroid and fatty acid derivative: eicosanoids
• Attached to binding proteins that transport the hormones
• Diffused out of the capillaries and degraded by the circulating
hydrolytic enzymes; enzymes from liver and lungsà urine
• Ex. LH, FSH, androgens 13
 How does this work?
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands
directly into bloodstream

2. Hormones travel to all parts of body

3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on

target tissue

4. Response occurs

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 How do hormones cause change?
1. Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing or
decreasing cell’s normal processes

2. Change permeability of cell membrane by opening or

closing ion channels

3. Synthesis of proteins

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 Regulation of Hormones
1. HUMORAL STIMULI
• Blood levels of chemicals that circulate in the blood (Ca,
Na, glucose)
• Ex. Blood glucose levels (insulin)
• potassium level (aldosterone)

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2. NEURAL STIMULI

• Nervous system
• Ex. Epinephrine and
fight or flight response

• NEUROPEPTIDES
• Secreted neuronal
hormones which go to
the blood directly

• Releasing hormones
• specialized
neuropeptides
reserved for hormones
from the hypothalamus
3. HORMONAL STIMULI

• Stimulates other
hormones
• Tropic Hormones
• stimulated by the
releasing hormone

• Ex. TSH signals thyroid

gland to release thyroid
hormone
 Inhibition of Hormones
• HUMORAL
• Companion hormone’s which oppose the effect of the
secreted hormone.

• NEURAL
• Stimulate the target which does not secrete its hormone

• HORMONAL
• Inhibiting hormones
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood

• Negative Feedback
• tells body when homeostasis is reached

• Positive Feedback
• stimulated by a tropic hormone which will promote
synthesis of proteins and secretion of additional tropic
hormones.
 Classes of Hormone Receptors
• Water soluble hormones bind to membrane bound
receptors
• Cannot passed through the cell membrane, interact with
membrane bound receptors.

• Lipid soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors

• Relatively small
• Diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to nuclear
receptor which are usually at the cell nucleus or cytoplasm
Action of Nuclear Receptors in lipid-soluble hormones
 Membrane-bound receptors

1. Alteration of the activity of the G protein at the

inner surface of the plasma membrane

2. Directly altering the activity of the intercellular

enzymes.

• Secondary Messengers
• Chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone bind to a
certain membrane bound receptors.

• “Second messenger system”

Membrane bound receptors that activate G
proteins
 Membrane-bound receptors

• Secondary Messengers
• Chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone bind to a
certain membrane bound receptors.

• “Second messenger system”

G proteins that interact with Adenylate cyclase
 Signal
Amplification

• Single hormones activate

many second messengers
which also produces
enormous amount of the final
product.
Endocrine Glands and
their hormones
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
• Small gland in brain
• Also called as hypophysis”
• Controlled by hypothalamus
• important ANS and endocrine
control center of the brain.
• Connected by a stalk called
infundibulum
• Divided into 2 regions:
• anterior – epithelial cells
derived from embryonic oral
cavity
• posterior-- extension of the
brain and composed of nerve
cells
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 Hypothalamic-Pituitary Portal
System
• Anterior Pituitary
• capillary beds and veins that transport the releasing
and inhibiting hormones

inhibiting or capillary bed in capillary bed in

transported
releasing the the anterior
through veins
hormone hypothalamus pituitary

• Posterior Pituitary
• direct innervation
• stimulation of neurons within the hypothalamus
control its secretion
 Anterior Pituitary Gland
1. Growth Hormone
• Target tissues
• most

• Functions:
• stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and other organs

Abnormalities
• Too much GH causes giantism
• Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
• Acromegaly
• abnormal growth of the hands, feet, and face, caused by
overproduction of growth hormone by the pituitary gland.
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2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

• Target tissues
• thyroid gland

• Functions
• regulates thyroid gland secretions

• Abnormalities
• Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges
• Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

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Figure 10.14
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

• Target tissues
• Cortex of the adrenal gland

• Functions
• secretion of cortisol also known as “hydrocortisone”
which is required in keeping the adrenal cortex from
degeneration.
• binds to melanocytes in the skin à increase pigmentation

• Abnormalities
• Too much ACTH, darkening of the skin
4. GONADOTROPINS

A. LH (Luteinizing hormone) for females

• Target tissue
• Ovaries

• Function
• promotes ovulation of oocytes
• estrogen and progesterone production

• LH (Luteinizing hormone) for males

• Target tissue
• Testes

• Function
• sperm production and testosterone
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B. FSH (Follicle-Stimulating)

FSH for females:

• Target tissue
• follicles in ovaries

• Function
• follicle maturation and estrogen secretion

FSH for males:

• Target tissue
• seminiferous tubules (testes)

• Function
• sperm production 40
5. Prolactin:

• Target tissues
• mammary glands and ovaries

• Functions
• milk production during pregnancy

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6. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

• Target tissues
• many

• Functions
• producing colored pigmentation found in the skin, hair and
eyes

• Abnormalities
• Too much MSH, darkening of the skin
 Posterior Pituitary Gland
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
• Target tissues
• Kidneys

• Functions
• conserve water
• Vasopressin
• promote the retention of water by the kidneys and increase blood
pressure.

• Abnormalities
• Diabetes insipidus
• low ADH
• kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute (watery) urine
• can lead to dehydration and thirst
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2. Oxytocin:

• Target tissues
• uterus

• Functions
• increases uterine contractions during labor
• milk “let-down” during lactation

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 Thyroid Gland
• 2 lobes connected by a narrow band called Isthmus
• One of largest endocrine glands
• Requires iodine to synthesized

• Target tissues
• most

• Functions
• secrete thyroid hormones stored in thyroids follicles filled
with protein thyroglobulin to which thyroid hormones are
attached
• regulates metabolic rates and is needed for growth
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 Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland
• Hypothyroidism • Hyperthyroidism

• Decreased metabolism • Increased metabolism

• Weight gain, reduced • Weight loss, increased

appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness

• Low temperature and pulse • Higher temp. and pulse

• Dry, cold skin • Warm, flushed skin

• Myxedema in adults • Graves’ disease

• leads to goiter
• Cretinism in infants
• Exopthalmia
• bulging of the eyes47
Calcitonin
• Target tissues
• bones

• Functions
• secreted when blood Ca2+ levels are high

• If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone matrix

and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

• If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break down bone

matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

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 Parathyroid gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Target tissues
• bones and kidneys

• Functions
• regulates blood Ca2+ levels
(more than calcitonin) by
binding to osteoblast to
increase osteoclast activity
• increase active form of
Vitamin D to increase Ca2+
absorption
• decreases the rate of Ca2+
loss in urine
• to raise Ca2+ to normal
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• Abnormalities
• Hyperparathyroidism
• High rate of PTH secretion
• Tumor in the parathyroid gland
• High amount of calciumà bones become soft, deformed and
easily fractured.
• Excess calcium can cause inflammation to soft tissues leading to
kidney stones.

• Hypoparathyroidism
• Surgical removal of thyroid and parathyroid glands
• Low level of calciumà reduction in bone reabsorption and
formation of vitamin D.
• Spontaneous action potential could also be generated leading to
tetanus resulting to death
 Adrenal Glands
• near or on kidneys
• 2 regions:
• medulla
• cortex

Adrenal Medulla (inner portion):

• Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
• Target tissues
• heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
• Functions
• released as part of fight or flight response
• prepare the body for vigorous physical activity
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Adrenal Cortex (outer portion)
• Aldosterone
• Type of mineralocorticoids

• Target tissues
• Kidneys

• Functions
• causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and K+ to be secreted,
indirectly involved with blood pressure and blood volume

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• Cortisol
• Type of glucocorticoids
• secreted by middle layer

• Target tissues
• most

• Functions
• increases breakdown of fat and protein for energy uses
• reduces inflammatory and immune responses

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• Androgens
• secreted by third layer

• Target tissues
• most

• Functions
• Males: secondary sexual characteristic development
• Females: sex drive

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 Pancreas
• Consist of
Pancreatic
islets
• Secretes 3
hormones
• Alpha cells –
secretes
glucagon

• Beta cells –
secretes
insulin

• Delta cells-
secretes
somatostatin
 1. Insulin
• Release from Beta cells

• Target tissues
• liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and satiety center of
hypothalamus.

• Functions
• regulates blood glucose levels
• after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted
• extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

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• Abnormalities

• Diabetes mellitus
• Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
• Symptoms: exaggerated appetite, excess urine,
dehydration, thirst, fatigue

• Type I: insulin dependent

• daily injections required
• Hyperglycemia

• Type II: insulin independent

• insufficient number of insulin receptors
• often found in obese people, can be treated with diet
but can turn into type I

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 Glucagon
• Target tissues
• liver

• Function
• regulates blood glucose levels
• between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is
secreted
• glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into
glucose

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 Somatostatin

• Released by delta cells

• Function
• Inhibiting the secretion of insulin and glucagon and
inhibits gastric tract activity.

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 Testes
Testosterone

• Target tissues
• most

• Functions
• aids in sperm and reproductive organ development and
function
• growth and development of male reproductive structures

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 Ovaries
Estrogen and Progesterone

• Target tissues
• most

• Functions
• involved in uterine and mammary gland development
and menstrual cycle

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 Thymus gland

• Target tissues
• immune system tissues

• Functions
• secretes Thymosin which
aids in the development of
WBC called T-cells

• promotes immune system

development and function

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 Pineal Gland
• Target tissues
• hypothalamus

• Functions
• secretes Melatonin
• decrease the secretion of LH and FSH

• plays a role in onset of puberty and controls circadian

rhythms.

• Light affects its function.

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 Other Hormones
• Prostaglandins
• Distributed in all parts of the body
• Some cause relation of smooth muscles – dilation of BV
• Contraction of smooth muscles – delivery of baby
• Medically used to initiate abortion

• Erythropoietin
• secreted by the kidneys if reduced oxygen level to it
• à bone marrow to increase the production of RBC

• Human Chorionic gonadotropin

• Secreted usually by pregnant women to maintain it and
stimulate breast development.
Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System

1. Age related changes including gradual decrease in

• GH in people who do not exercise
• Melatonin
• Thyroid hormone decrease
• Reproductive hormones
• Thymosin

2. PTH increases if Vitamin D and Calcium level

decrease

3. Increase in Type 2 diabetes in people with a familial

tendency.