MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 It is a series of cyclic changes occurring in the reproductive tract of female with the periodicity of 28
days

 It is also known as menstrual cycle,

 also known as endometrial cycle

 It occur From puberty to menopause

 It is characterized by loss of vaginal blood (breaking of endometrium wall of uterus)

 The cycle is under Influenced of hormones secreted by pituitary gland (FSH and LH), and
ovary (progesterone and oesterogen).

 The first menstrual cycle begins at puberty called menarche in girls at around 10-13 years.

Complete in 3 phase these are as follows

1. Menstrual phase

2. Proliferative phase or follicular or ovulatory phase

3. Luteal or secretory phase

Menstrual phase

 This phase is characterized by discharge of blood, connective tissues and mucus due to cast off of
epithelial lining of endometrium wall

 It Lasts for 3-5 days

 Ovum remain unfertilized,

 At this time level of oestrogen and progesterone is very low in blood resulting in Breaking of
endometrium wall of uterus

 About 50-100 ml blood with mucus are discharges as menstrual flow.

Proliferative phase

 This phase is characterized by rapid proliferation and repair of damaged endometrium wall

 It Lasts for 9-10 days (5th – 14thdays)

 Anterior pituitary gland release Follicular stimulating Hormone (FSH) which stimulates
development and maturation of grafian follicle. So, it is also known as Follicular Phase.

 Mature grafian follicle secrete oestrogen. Its level gradually increases and maximize at 12thday
  Oestrogen stimulate endometrium repair and proliferation. It also stimulate Ovulation

 Endometrium become 2-3 mm thick and highly vascular

 The LH stimulates ovulation. It occurs usually on the 14th day or midway during the menstrual cycle
which is called as the ovulatory phase.

Luteal or secretory phase

 This phase is characterized by release of Ovum from mature graffian follicle which is stimulated by
the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) by pituitary gland.

 It Lasts for 12-14 days (14th-28th day)

 LH along with FSH stimulate ovulation.

 Mature graffian follicle release ovum and the rapture follicular cell form corpus luteum

 Corpus luteum secrete progesterone, high level of progesterone inhibit maturation of any other
follicles

 Progesterone also stimulate thickening of endometrium wall

 When ovum remain unfertilized, corpus luteum degenerate; level of both hormone (progesterone and
oestrogen) decreases, causing breaking of endometrium wall continuing the menstrual phase.

 if fertilization does not take place corpus luteum starts regressing and ultimately transforms into a
white body, called corpus albicans.

 This causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to menstruation, the beginning of a new cycle.

 In human, menstrual cycle ceases around 45-50 years of age, termed as menopause.

FERTILIZATION

 It is the process of Fusion of sperm and ovum to form Zygote.

 Fertilization usually take place in oviduct. Ovum is in secondary oocyte stage during fertilization.
 The union leads to the fusion of two gametic nuclei in a process called amphimixis or syngamy.
 The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus and finally reach the
ampullary-isthmic junction of the fallopian tube.
 The secondary oocyte secretes a chemical substance called fertilizin. The sperm secretes another
chemical substance, anti-fertilizin. The reaction between them called as agglutination reaction.
 Before fertilization, sperm undergoes capacitation and acrosomal reaction. Acrosomal reaction
involves the release of sperm lysins like (i) hyaluronidase, (ii) corona penetrating enzyme (CPE)
and (iii) zonalysin or acrosin from the acrosome.
 Secondary oocyte is surrounded by two layer-zona pellucida and zona reticulate. Sperm move
toward the secondary oocyte and bind to the receptor on zona pellucida.
 After sperm enter the oocyte, the zona pellucida become fertilization membrane preventing other
sperm to enter.
 It is the entry of sperm that stimulate second meiotic division of Oocyte to produce Ovum.
 Meiosis II starts soon after the release, but it is temporarily arrested in metaphase II because of the
release of MPF (M-phase Promoting Factor) completes the second meiotic division.
  The nucleus of the ovum now condenses and turns into a female pronucleus. At the same time the
head of the spermatozoon separates off from the middle piece and tail, and transforms into a male
pronucleus.
 The male and female pronuclei fuse to from the zygote nucleus (2n = 46 chromosomes).

CLEAVAGE BLASTOCYST FORMATION AND IMPLANTATION

zygote undergoes cleavage to form 16 daughter cells called blastomeres and develops into a morula. It
moves into uterus.

The morula continues to divide and transforms into a blastocyst. The cavity of the blastocyst is called
blastocoel.

The blastomeres of the blastocyst are arranged in an outer layer trophoblast and inner group of cells
attached to the trophoblast the inner cell mass. Trophoblast attached to the wall of uterus (endometrium).

Then epithelial layer of endometrium dives rapidly and embedded blastocyst into endometrium called
implantation occur after 7 days of fertilization.

PREGNANCY AND PLACENTA FORMATION

Finger like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi, surrounded by the uterine tissue and
maternal blood.

The placenta a mateno-fetal organ which begins developing at implantation of the blastocyst and is delivered
with the fetus at birth.

The placenta is of haemochorial, metadiscoidal and deciduous type.

The umbilical cord of the embryo connected to placenta helps in the transport of materials between the
mother and the fetus.
The placenta also produces several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen, progesterone etc, relaxin is also secreted by the placenta. Hormones
such as hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women only during pregnancy.

Other hormones like cortisol, prolactin and thyroxin are increases in production and found in maternal blood
for supporting fetal growth, metabolic changes in mother and maintenance of pregnancy.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

the inner cell mass differentiates into an outer layer called epiblast (ectoderm and mesoderm) and the
inner layer called hypoblast (endoderm). This the starting stage of gastrulation which occur about after 17
days of fertilization.

Formation of ectoderm and endoderm marked by the appearance of primitive streak.

Organ formation in the embryo takes place through two composite process known as cell differentiation
and organogenesis.

By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the fetus develops limbs and digits.

By the end of 3 months, most of the major organ systems have developed.

The first movement of the fetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth
month.

By the end of 6 months the fetus is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate and eye lashes are formed.

PARTURITION

The average duration of human pregnancy is about nine months, called the gestation period.

Contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion of the fetus. This process of delivery of
fetus is called parturition.

The signals of parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and the placenta, which induce mild
uterine contraction called fetal ejection reflex.

This triggers the release of oxytocin from the mother’s pituitary gland. Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle
and causes stronger contraction, which in turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.this causes stronger
contraction results in expelled out of fetus.

MAMMARY GLANDS AND LACTATION

The mammary gland is a gland located in the breasts of females that is responsible for lactation, or the
production of milk.

develop after puberty. These glands proliferate during pregnancy and start producing milk towards the end
of pregnancy by the process called lactation.

It is induced by hormones like prolactin (PRL) and oxytocin secreted from the mother’s pitutary gland.

The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum, which contains
immunogloblin (Ig A). Ig A passively immunizes the baby.
These are modified sweat glands that lie over the pectoral muscles. Externally, the breast is covered with
skin and has a nipple surrounded by a pigmented area, the areola.

Each gland consists of glandular, fibrous and adipose tissues. The glandular part is constituted by 15-20
lobes. Each lobe is made up of a number of lobules, which end up in grape like clusters of milk secreting
glands called alveoli.

When milk is produced, it passes from alveoli into the mammary lobules and then into mammary ducts.
Near the nipple the milk ducts expanded called mammary ampulla, stores some milk.

Fibrous and adipose tissue helped in covering the milk gland and support.

Main function of mammary gland is secretion and ejection of milk. Milk production is stimulated by
hormone prolactin and ejection of milk by the hormone oxytocin.

Suckling of the baby acts as a reflex for the secretion of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin
brings about the contraction of the smooth muscle of the breast, which results in milk ejection.