In 1839 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect which explains

how electricity can be generated from sunlight. He claimed that “shining light on an
electrode submerged in a conductive solution would create an electric current.”
However, even after much research and development subsequent to the discovery,
photovoltaic power continued to be very inefficient and solar cells were used mainly for
the purposes of measuring light.
Over 100 years later, in 1941, Russell Ohl invented the solar cell, shortly after the
invention of the transistor.

Light (photons) striking certain compounds, in particular metals, causes the surface of the
material to emit electrons. Light striking other compounds causes the material to accept
electrons. It is the combination of these two compounds that can be made use of to cause
electrons to flow through a conductor, and thereby create electricity. This phenomenon is called
the photo-electric effect. Photovoltaic (or PV) means sunlight converted into a flow of electrons
(electricity).

Solar power is a rapidly developing energy source in Australia and around the world.
The potential for using the sun to directly supply our power needs is huge.
Solar panels can generate electricity without any waste or pollution, or dependence on
the Earths natural resources once they are constructed. They have no moving parts so
modules are very reliable and have a long life span. Solar panels are relatively easy to
install and are very low maintenance.
A useful characteristic of solar photovoltaic power generation is that it can be installed
on any scale as opposed to conventional forms of power generation that require large
scale plant and maintenance.
Solar panels can be installed to generate power where it is needed, which removes the
need to transport and distribute electricity over long distances to remote areas.
Though solar energy has found a dynamic and established role in today’s clean energy economy,
there’s a long history behind photovoltaics (PV) that brought the concept of solar energy to fruition.
With the way the cost of solar has plummeted in the past decade, it’s easy to forget that going solar
had a completely different meaning even just 15 years ago. Let’s go back a few centuries to the
origins of solar PV and explore the history of solar energy and silicon solar technology.

In theory, solar energy was used by humans as early as 7th century B.C. when history tells us that
humans used sunlight to light fires with magnifying glass materials. Later, in 3rd century B.C., the
Greeks and Romans were known to harness solar power with mirrors to light torches for religious
ceremonies. These mirrors became a normalized tool referred to as “burning mirrors.” Chinese
civilization documented the use of mirrors for the same purpose later in 20 A.D.

Another early use for solar energy that is still popular today was the concept of “sunrooms” in
buildings. These sunrooms used massive windows to direct sunlight into one concentrated area.
Some of the iconic Roman bathhouses, typically those situated on the south-facing side of buildings,
were sunrooms. Later in the 1200s A.D., ancestors to the Pueblo Native Americans known as the
Anasazi situated themselves in south-facing abodes on cliffs to capture the sun’s warmth during cold
winter months.

In the late 1700s and 1800s, researchers and scientists had success using sunlight to power ovens
for long voyages. They also harnessed the power of the sun to produce solar-powered steamboats.
Ultimately, it’s clear that even thousands of years before the era of solar panels, the concept of
manipulating the power of the sun was a common practice.

The development of solar panel technology was an iterative one that took a number of contributions
from various scientists. Naturally, there is some debate around when exactly they were created and
who should be credited for the invention. Some people credit the invention of the solar cell to French
scientist Edmond Becquerel, who determined light could increase electricity generation when two
metal electrodes were placed into a conducting solution. This breakthrough, defined as the
“photovoltaic effect,” was influential in later PV developments with the element selenium.

In 1873, Willoughby Smith discovered that selenium had photoconductive potential, leading to
William Grylls Adams’ and Richard Evans Day’s 1876 discovery that selenium creates electricity
when exposed to sunlight. A few years later in 1883, Charles Fritts actually produced the first solar
cells made from selenium wafers – the reason some historians credit Fritts with the actual invention
of solar cells.

However, solar cells as we know them today are made with silicon, not selenium. Therefore, some
consider the true invention of solar panels to be tied to Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald
Pearson’s creation of the silicon photovoltaic (PV) cell at Bell Labs in 1954. Many argue that this
event marks the true invention of PV technology because it was the first instance of a solar
technology that could actually power an electric device for several hours of a day. The first ever
silicon solar cell could convert sunlight at four percent efficiency, less than a quarter of what modern
cells are capable of.

 Solar panels in outer space – Some of the earliest uses of solar technology were actually
in outer space where solar was used to power satellites. In 1958, the Vanguard I satellite
used a tiny one-watt panel to power its radios. Later that year the Vanguard II, Explorer III
and Sputnik-3 were all launched with PV technology on board. In 1964, NASA was
responsible for launching the first Nimbus spacecraft, a satellite able to run entirely on a 470
watt solar array. In 1966, NASA launched the world’s first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory,
powered by a one-kilowatt array.
  First solar residence – In 1973, the University of Delaware was responsible for constructing
the first solar building, named “Solar One.” The system ran on a hybrid supply of solar
thermal and solar PV power. It was also the first instance of building integrated photovoltaics
(BIPV) – the array didn’t use solar panels but instead had solar integrated into the rooftop,
similar to the design for Tesla’s new roof product.
 Achievements in solar conversion efficiency – Between 1957 and 1960, Hoffman
Electronics made a number of breakthroughs with photovoltaic efficiency, improving the
efficiency record from 8% to 14%. The next major achievement was in 1985 when the
University of South Wales achieved 20% efficiency for silicon cells. In 1999, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory collaborated with SpectroLab Inc. to create a solar cell with
33.3% efficiency. The University of South Wales broke that record again in 2016 when
researchers reached 34.5% efficiency.
 Solar-powered airplanes – In 1981, Paul MacCready built Solar Challenger, the first aircraft
to run on solar power, and flew it across the English Channel from France to the U.K. In
1998, the remote-controlled solar airplane “Pathfinder” set an altitude record after reaching
80,000 feet. NASA broke that record in 2001 when they reached 96,000 feet with their non-
rocket aircraft. In 2016, Bertrand Piccard completed the first zero-emissions flight around the
world with Solar Impulse 2, the world’s largest and most powerful solar-powered airplane
today.
 Solar-powered presidencies – In 1979, President Jimmy Carter had solar panels installed
on the White House during his term as president. However, in 1981, President Ronald
Reagan ordered the White House solar panels to be removed. In 2010, President Barack
Obama requested that solar panels and a solar water heater be installed on the White
House. Both were installed during Obama’s first term.
 Cost of solar over time – Prices for solar panels have dropped substantially over the past
few decades, leading to a surge in consumer demand that has produced more than one
million U.S. installations as of early 2016. In 1956, solar panels cost roughly $300 per watt.
By 1975, that figure had dropped to just over $100 a watt. Today, a solar panel can cost as
little as $0.50 a watt. Consider this: since the year 1980, solar panel prices have dropped by
at least 10 percent every single year. The plummeting cost of solar is largely responsible for
the growing popularity of solar and the legitimacy of PV as a reliable energy source in
today’s world.

Regardless of why solar power is interesting to you, there is a robust and fascinating history behind
solar’s rise to relevant status. Solar has a long list of meanings in today’s day and age. It spans
various industries and contributes power to hundreds of different gadgets and technologies.
700 BC – Sunlit Fires

We know that all the way back to the 7th century B.C., humans figured out how to make fires by concentrating the

sunlight with magnifying glass.

214–212 B.C. – Archimedes’ Heat Ray

Historians claim that Archimedes, a Greek inventor, put solar energy to use already in the 3rd Century BC. He

destroyed enemy ships with fire during the Siege of Syracuse with a “heat ray”, which supposedly was a collection of

mirrors that concentrated sunlight onto the ships. Whether or not Archimedes’ invention has any root in reality is

uncertain. Several experiments have been carried out to verify or bust the story, most of which concluded in the
phenomena being possible, but highly unlikely.

[adrotate group=”7″]’

[adrotate group=”1″]

1767 – The First Solar Oven

A solar oven, or solar cooker, uses sunlight to heat meals or drinks. Today’s solar ovens are cheap and popular

solutions to prepare meals in parts of the world where access to electricity is limited. These devices are only reliant
on sunlight to work – there is no fuel required.

Already in 1767, the first solar oven was invented. The credit goes to Horace de Saussure, a Swiss physicist, which
probably had no idea his invention would help people prepare their dinner two and a half centuries into the future.

1839 – The Discovery of the Photovoltaic Effect

1839 marks a big year in the history because Edmund Becquerel, a French physicist, only 19 years old at the time,

discovered that there is a creation of voltage when a material is exposed to light. Little did he know, that his discovery

would lay the foundation of solar power.

1873 – Photoconductivity in Selenium

Willoughby Smith, an English engineer, discovered photoconductivity in solid selenium.

1876 – Electricity from Light

Building on Smith’s discovery three years before, professor William Grylls Adams, accompanied by his student,

Richard Evans Day, were the first to observe an electrical current when a material was exposed to light. They used

two electrodes onto a plate of selenium, and observed a tiny amount of electricity when the plate was exposed to
light.

1883 – The First Design of a Photovoltaic Cell

An American inventor, Charles Fritts, was the first that came up with plans for how to make solar cells. His simple

designs in the late 19th century were based on selenium wafers.

1905 – Albert Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect

Albert Einstein is famous for a wide variety of scientific milestones, but most people are not aware of his paper on the

photoelectric effect. He formulated the photon theory of light, which describes how light can “liberate” electrons on a

metal surface. In 1921, 16 years after he submitted this paper, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for the scientific

breakthroughs he had discovered.

1918 – Single-Crystal Silicon

Jan Czochralski, a Polish scientist, figured out a method to grow single-crystal silicon. His discoveries laid the
foundation for solar cells based on silicon.

1954 – The Birth of Photovoltaics

David Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson of Bell Labs are credited with the world’s first photovoltaic cell (solar

cell). In other words, these are the men that made the first device that converted sunlight into electrical power. They
later pushed the conversion efficiency from 4% to 11%.

Though solar power as we know it is no more than 60 years old, the discoveries that led to the
solar cell began nearly 200 years ago. These discoveries about the properties of light and
conductivity have made solar power what it is today.

To help you better understand how solar cells came to be, we’ve provided a timeline of
the discoveries and inventions that led to their creation.

1839: Photovoltaic Effect Is Discovered

French scientist Edmond Becquerel first discovered the photovoltaic effect in 1839. This
process occurs when light is absorbed by a material and creates electrical voltage. Most
modern solar cells use silicon crystals to attain this effect.

1873–1876: Selenium’s Photoconductivity Is Discovered

English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity

of selenium, meaning it becomes electrically conductive when it absorbs light. Three
years later, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day learned that selenium could
produce electricity from light without heat or moving parts that could easily break down.
This discovery proved that solar power was easy to harvest and maintain, requiring
fewer parts than other energy sources — such as coal-fired plants.

1883: First Solar Cell Is Created

New York inventor Charles Fritts created the first solar cell by coating selenium with a
thin layer of gold. This cell achieved an energy conversion rate of 1–2%. Most modern
solar cells work at an efficiency of 15–20%.

1887: The Photoelectric Effect Is Observed

German physicist Heinrich Hertz first observed the photoelectric effect, where light is
used to free electrons from a solid surface (usually metal) to create power. Contrary to
expected results, Hertz found this process produced more power when exposed to
ultraviolet light, rather than more intense visible light. Albert Einstein later received the
Nobel Prize for further explaining the effect. Modern-day solar cellsrely on the
photoelectric effect to convert sunlight into power.

1953–1956: Silicon Solar Cells Are Produced Commercially

Physicists at Bell Laboratories discovered that silicon is more efficient than selenium,
creating the first practical solar cell — now 6% efficient. This discovery led to solar cells
capable of powering electrical equipment. In 1956, Western Electric began selling
commercial licenses for its silicon PV technologies, but the prohibitive costs of silicon
solar cells keep them from widespread market saturation.

1958: Solar Energy Is Used In Space

After years of experiments to improve the efficiency and commercialization of solar

power, solar energy gained support when the government used it to power space
exploration equipment. The first solar-powered satellite, Vanguard 1, has traveled
more than 197,000 revolutions around Earth in the 50 years it has been in orbit. This
application paved the way for more research to decrease costs and increase
production.

1970s: Research Drives Costs Down

As oil prices rose in the 1970s, demand for solar power increased. Exxon Corporation
financed research to create solar cells made from lower-grade silicon and cheaper
materials, pushing costs from $100 per watt to only $20–$40 per watt. The federal
government also passed several solar-friendly bills and initiatives and created the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in 1977.

1982: The First Solar Parks Are Created

Arco Solar built the first solar park — basically a solar power plant — in
Hesperia, California, in 1982. This park generated 1 megawatt, or 1,000 kilowatts per
hour, while operating at full capacity. This could power a 100-kilowatt lightbulb for 10
hours. In 1983, Arco Solar built a second solar park in Carrizo Plains, California. At the
time, it was the largest collection of solar arrays in the world, containing 100,000 PV
arrays that generated 5.2 megawatts at full capacity. While these plants fell into disarray
with oil’s return to popularity, they demonstrated the potential for commercial solar
power production.

1995: Retractable RV Solar Panels Created

Solar research continued to expand into other commercial industries: Thomas Faludy
filed a patent in 1995 for a retractable awning with integrated solar cells. This was one
of the first times solar cells were used in recreational vehicles. Today, this feature is a
popular way to power RVs.

1994–1999: Photovoltaic Conversion Reaches New Levels

In 1994, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory developed a new solar cell from
gallium indium phosphide and gallium arsenide that exceeded 30% conversion
efficiency. By the end of the century, the laboratory created thin-film solar cells that
converted 32% of the sunlight it collected into usable energy.

2005: DIY Solar Panels Become Popular

As technology and efficiency of solar cells have increased, residential solar power has
become more popular. DIY solar panels started hitting the market in 2005 and have
become more prevalent with each new year. Today, there are many ways to make your
own solar panels, from putting together a solar panel kit to planning a solar array.

2015: Flexible Printed Solar Panels Hit the Market

Solar cells as thin as paper can now be manufactured using an industrial printer and
made into products such as roof tiles or shingles. They have 20% power conversion
efficiency, and a single strip can produce up to 50 watts per square meter, making the
cost of residential solar energy lower than ever. This is also great news for the 1.3
billion people in developing countries, as the strips are flexible and inexpensive to
produce.
2016: Sunless Solar Power Is Discovered

A research team from the University of California, Berkeley, and the Australian National
University discovered new properties of nanomaterial. One of these properties is called
magnetic hyperbolic dispersion, which means the material glows when heated. If
combined with thermophotovoltaic cells, it could turn heat into electricity without the
need for sunlight.

Solar power has come a long way in the past 200 years, from observing the properties
of light to finding new ways to convert it into power. This technology shows no signs of
slowing down — if anything, it is advancing at an unprecedented rate

From the 3rd Century BC when Archimedes fought off Roman ships
by concentrating the suns rays at them with brass shields (they burst into flame),
through work by some of the best known figures in the history of science,
harnessing the power of the sun has long been a goal of human innovation. Let’s
look at some of the highlights:

1767 – The Solar Oven

Swiss physicist, alpine explorer, and aristocrat Horace de Saussure is credited

with inventing the first working solar oven, amongst other discoveries.
Constructed from 5 layers of glass and measuring around 12 inches across, the
oven worked by allowing light to pass through the glass before being absorbed
by the black lining and turned into heat. The heat is then reflected by the glass,
therefore heating the space inside the box up to 87.5 degrees Celsius.

He wrote that “Fruits… exposed to this heat were cooked and became juicy.”

1839 – The Photovoltaic Effect

Edmond Bequerel, born in Paris in 1820, discovered that when two electrodes
were placed in an electrolyte (electricity-conducting solution), a voltage
developed when light fell upon the electrolyte. The basic principles of solar power
had been uncovered.

1873 – Selenium

An English Electrical engineer, Willoughby Smith, discovered the

photoconductivity of selenium entirely by accident. He was developing a method
for continually testing underwater telegraph cables as they were being laid and
chose selenium rods as a semi-conductor with high resistance for his test circuit.
Although selenium appeared to be up to the job, inconsistent results kept
occurring. Smith realised that the conductivity of selenium was affected by the
amount of light it was exposed to. He described the effect in a paper published
in Nature in February of that year.

1876 – Electricity from Light

A King’s College Professor, William Grylls Adams, and his student, Richard
Evans Day, found in 1876 that selenium produced electricity when exposed to
light. They attached platinum electrodes to selenium and observed a current in
the electrodes when the selenium was exposed to light. Although there was not
enough electricity to power anything, they had shown that electricity could be
generated from light without the use of any moving parts.

1883 – The First Working Solar Cell

American inventor Charles Fritts developed the first solar cell, applying selenium
to a thin layer of gold. This method was only able to achieve 1% efficiency,
making it impractical for general use.

1904 – Einstein’s Paper on Light & Electrons

In the snappily titled “On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and
Transformation of Light,” Einstein set out for the first time the relationship
between light and electrons. Although controversial at the time, it was gradually
accepted by the scientific community and led to his winning of the Nobel Prize in
1921.

Later in 1916, Robert Millikan would experimentally prove Einstein’s theory of the
photoelectric effect.

1918 – Accidental Crystals

Jan Czochralski, a polish scientist, discovers a method for creating single-crystal

silicon entirely by accident — he mistakenly dipped his pen in a crucible of
molten tin rather than an inkwell. The result was a thin thread of solidified metal.
Single-crystal semi-conductors and metals became important throughout
electronics — their efficiency and stability not only contributing to the
development of silicon solar cells, but also crucial to the creation of transistors for
microprocessor units.

1954 – A Major Breakthrough

Three researchers at Bell Labs — Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald
Pearson — discover silicon solar cells.

Chapin had for several years been experimenting with selenium-based solar cells
but was unable to achieve an efficiency above 1% (for comparison, internal
combustion achieves around 20%). At the same time, Fuller and Pearson were
developing silicon transistors and found that one of these, when exposed to light,
generated electricity. The three scientists joined forces and in 1954 presented
their ‘solar battery’, powering a small toy windmill and a radio, at an efficiency of
6%. The key to this was their ability to diffuse boron into silicon, a process known
as doping. This first solar cell was the size of a small coin, and although not
commercially viable, is the basis for solar cell development ever since.

1956 — 213 Truman N.E., Albuquerque, NM

In the mid-50s, engineer Don Paxton and architect Frank Bridgers designed
the world’s first commercial solar building. Utilising a south-facing glass wall tilted
to 30 degrees, alongside mechanical and “passive” solar technologies, the
structure was well ahead of its time. Relying on mechanical solutions where
computer control would nowadays be used, they achieved a remarkable level of
efficiency through solar heating and thermal storage. The template that they
created is still utilised in creating energy-efficient homes and commercial
premises today.

Late 1950s – Increasing Efficiency

Throughout the late 50s, Hoffman electronics developed increasingly efficient

solar cells. It started out initially at an 8%-efficient cell in 1957, before eventually
increasing to a 14%-efficient, commercially available cell in 1960.

1950s and 60s – The Space Race

The burgeoning space industry’s need for a sustainable power source in the
earliest satellites led to investment and development in solar technology.
Satellites such as Explorer VI and VII and the first telecommunications satellite
Telstar 1 (launched by Bell Labs) utilised the most cutting edge (at the time) solar
cells, achieving up to 14 watts from their photovoltaic arrays.

1970s – Commercial Viability

Despite the great advances over twenty years or so, solar technology was still
too expensive to be commercially viable in terrestrial installations. In the early
70s, Dr. Elliot Berman (with funding from Exxon Corp.) designed a much lower
cost solar cell, using lower-grade silicon and cheaper housings which brought the
cost per watt down from $100 to just $20. Installations far from mains electricity
(i.e. oil rigs) used the cells over expensive and cumbersome batteries, giving
terrestrial solar technology the capital boost it needed to become a viable
mainstream solution.

1972 – The Institute of Energy Conversion

The first laboratory dedicated to the development of PV research is established

at the University of Delaware. A year later, this leads to one of the world’s first
PV-powered houses – ‘Solar One’. Using the model known today as the solar
‘feed-in’, surplus electricity generated during the day is fed back into the grid,
while at night the house can draw purchased power from the grid.

1977 – 500 Kilowatts and Counting

Photovoltaic manufacturing production exceeds 500 kilowatts for the first time

1978 – First Feed-In Tariff Implemented

The first form of feed-in tariff was implemented in the US in 1978 under President
Jimmy Carter, after signing the National Energy Act (NEA). Its purpose was to
encourage energy conservation and the development of new energy resources,
including renewables such as solar, wind, and geothermal power.

1980s – Solar Hits the Mainstream

Throughout the 1980s, solar developments continued at apace. Thin-film solar

cells allowed for smaller, cheaper, and more-efficient solar installations, on
buildings, vehicles, and consumer items (such as hand-held calculators).

1982 – Solar-Powered Vehicles

German automobile manufacturer Volkswagen start testing solar PV arrays on

the tops of Dasher station wagons. An array generate approximately 160 watts
for the vehicle’s ignition system.

1986 – Kramer Junction

World’s largest solar thermal facility scheduled to be built in Kramer Junction,

California. The facility consisted of rows of mirrors that concentrated energy from
the sun into a system of pipes that circulated a heat transfer fluid. This fluid was
then used to produce steam, which would power a conventional turbine with
which to generate electricity.
1990 — Start of the 1000 Roof Program in Germany, Accompanied by the
National Power Feed-in Law

As in the case of the Carter feed-in tariff scheme, the tariffs were below end-
consumer prices, with the high cost of PV at that time, and it did much for PV
development.

1990s – Dawn of the Grid

First grid-supported photovoltaic system is completed and installed in Kerman,

California by Pacific Gas & Electric, the world’s first ‘distributed power’ effort.

1996 – Flight of the Icare

The Icare, which at the time was the world’s most advanced solar-powered
plane, flew over Germany in 1996. Over 3,000 super-efficient solar cells covered
the wings and tail surfaces of the plane.

Later on that year, development began on Solar Two, an upgrade of its 1973
Solar One project. Solar Two was a huge advancement in that it demonstrated
the ability to produce power even when the sun wasn’t shining. This also helped
foster commercial interest in power towers.

1999 – 32.3% Efficiency

Spectrolab, Inc. worked with the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory to develop a photovoltaic solar cell that converted 32.3 percent
of received sunlight into electricity.

1999 — 100,000 Solar Roofs Program Starts in Germany

A “100,000 Solar Roofs” program was started in Germany with the goal of
creating a PV power capacity of 300 MW within six years. The program was
initiated by Dr. Hermann Scheer, member of the German Parliament and
president of EUROSOLAR.

2000 — Hermann Scheer Introduces the National Renewable Energy Act in

German Parliament

It’s unique property were technology-dependent feed-in tariffs. For PV, the tariff
levels were way above end-consumer prices. This created an (artificial) market
that allowed the PV industry to grow from a niche player to an adult industry. The
second unique part is the continuous reduction in the tariffs baked into the law
that forces the industry to stay on its toes.

2000s — Largest Residential Solar Installation Complete

A family in Colorado installed largest residential installation to be registered

under the ‘Million Solar Roofs’ program. The system is measured at 12 kilowatts,
providing most of the energy for the 6,000-square-foot home.

2004 — 1 GW of PV Installed in Germany

‘nuf said.

2004 – One Million Solar Roofs

California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposes Solar Roofs Initiative for

one million solar roofs in California by 2017.

2006 — Polysilicon Use in Photovoltaics Exceeds All Other Polysilicon Use

for the First Time

Contributing to this is the lower cost of manufacture than monocrystalline

counterparts.
Later that year, new world record achieved in solar cell technology when a
new solar cell breaks the “40 Percent Efficient” sunlight-to-electricity barrier.

2007 — 42.8% Efficiency

University of Delaware claims to achieve new world record of 42.8% in solar cell
technology without independent confirmation.

2008 — CleanTechnica Launched

CleanTechnica starts publishing articles on cheap solar panels and solar power.
(OK, maybe not as notable as the above.)

2008 and Beyond

Solar power has seen a huge surge in popularity as a renewable form of energy
in recent years, largely attributable to government incentives such as feed-in
tariffs. Whilst the amount that the homeowner is paid for each kilowatt is being
reduced in a number of countries this year, other companies are jumping into the
game, and the incentives still make a lot of sense in terms of finances and
the environment.