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Dynamic Scale Modelling (DSM) of Transfer Chutes

Conference Paper · November 2011

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Peter Donecker
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 Dynamic Scale Modelling (DSM) of Transfer Chutes

Peter Donecker, Bulk Solids Modelling

Abstract

Dynamic scale modelling (DSM) of transfer chutes was begun as a technique in the early 1990s and
has been in use continuously since that time. It is based on dimensional analysis and uses the
Froude Number as the basis of scaling. The dimensional analysis approach requires that the ratio of
the major forces in the system be kept constant. In the case of transfer chutes, which operate in the
dense granular flow regime, this means the ratio of the inertial forces to the gravitational forces.
The theoretical basis of the technique is applicable to cohesionless materials. Extension into the
modelling of cohesive materials requires empirical methods to be adopted, since cohesive and
adhesive properties of ores do not scale with the Froude Number when the size range of an ore is
scaled down. Validation of the technique was conducted during the initial development and has
been ongoing. A wide variety of parameters can be used to provide the basis for validation. Some
examples of these are discussed.

Introduction

Conveyor belts have been in use for over a century and conveyor transfer chutes have therefore
been in use for the same amount of time. Basic design concepts for chutes have been developed
and are included as small sections in texts that have been published on conveyor design, going back
to the 1920s. Some theoretical work has been published since the late 1960s to assist design, but
this has had limited application and has involved a 2 dimensional approach and approximation. The
development of the hood and spoon chutes in the coal industry has represented a significant step
forward in chute design, but these chutes are of limited application. Many other generic chute types
have evolved to fill the various niches, but it is true to say that transfer chute design in often poorly
conceived and executed.

Prior to the development of DSM it has been a common practice of designers to make models of
chutes from Perspex or cardboard and pour material such as vermiculite through them to gain some
understanding of how the ore might behave in 3 dimensional flows. DSM is a formalisation of this
ad-hoc approach. It involves the construction of a scale model of the chute, normally in transparent
acrylic and the continuous circulation of material through the chute. Chute performance can be
visualised using this technique, and design modifications can be explored quickly and cheaply before
a final design is selected.

Theoretical Background

The fundamental variables involved in the flow of granular material through a transfer chute are
listed below.

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Mass flow rate m Coefficient of restitution e
Bulk density ρ
Particle shape factor fs
Belt velocity V
Linear scale factor L
Gravitational acceleration g

Angle of repose ∝ Particle diameter d

By application of the Buckingham Pi theory to this set of variables, the following Л groups can be
delineated.

Л =∝
1

Л = ݂‫ݏ‬
2

ௗ
Л=3
௅

௏మ
Л = , the Froude Number, Fr
4
௚௅

ఘ௏௅
Л=5
௠

௠
Using the relationship that the volumetric throughput, ܳ = ఘ
we can write this last group as the
Capacity Number:
ொ
‫ = ܥ‬௏ ௅మ

The Capacity number is merely an expression of the fact that the volumetric capacity of the chute
varies with the velocity and the cross sectional area.

Of importance here is to note that none of the Л groups contains a density term. So the flow is
independent of density. This is an important point and one which people often find difficult to grasp
intuitively.

The Froude Number, which appears throughout the literature on granular flow, expresses the ratio
of inertial to gravitational forces.

The angle of repose, which is an expression of inter-particle friction, can be simply maintained
through the scaling process, as can the particle shape factor. The coefficient of restitution of real
materials varies over a small range and, as will be shown, is of negligible influence unless it is at the
extreme of the range.

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Flow regimes

When modelling granular flow by any means, it is important to recognize that there are different
flow regimes occurring within the granular material. There has been much discussion on this topic in
the literature, with many theoretical models being put forward, but the two models that dominate
the discussion are the Bagnold model and the Coulomb model. These are discussed in turn here in
relation to chute flow and the implications for Froude Number scaling.

The work of Bagnold (1954)

Bagnold, a man who developed his interest in sand by way of his adventures in the deserts of
Northern Africa in a model T Ford in the 1930s was one of the first people to investigate the flow of
dry granular materials. Using an annular shear cell and wax spheres suspended in a fluid so as to
maintain neutral buoyancy, he defined a new flow regime, known as the inertial regime, and then
went on to develop the mathematics to describe that flow. He applied this mathematics to the flow
of sand in an inclined chute, amongst other things.

The recognition of the inertial, or grain inertial flow regime, is of prime importance to the
understanding of flow in transfer chutes. It occurs at higher shear rates and velocities than the
quasi-static regime which is used in soil science and in hopper flow theory and the effective friction
varies with the square of the velocity or shear rate, while in the quasi-static regime the coefficient of
friction is constant. In the inertial regime, the particles are separated from each other and undergo
energy interchange by collision. We get this type of flow when granular material moves over the
surface of an existing deposit or a surface that has been intentionally made rough, such as by the
addition of wear bars.

Bagnold’s theoretical analysis led him to predict the flow velocity in an inclined chute to be given by
the expression
ଷ
2 ଵ ‫΄ ݕ‬ଶ
ܷ = ∗ 0.165 (݃ ‫)ߚ݊݅ݏ‬ଶ
3 ‫ܦ‬

This gave him results that were of the order of 50% too high, which was not unexpected, but they
did show the correct trend. He records that, in his experiments, there remained a fixed bed of
constant depth in the chute after all runs. Though unfortunately he does not record this thickness,
his flow height is measured above this fixed bed, which provided a rough surface. So his results are
all comparable with other tests conducted on chutes with rough surfaces.

If we look carefully at Bagnold’s expression, for the case of linear scaling, we can say that D ∝ y’ and
we can re-arrange the terms to come to the result

௎మ ௬ ᇲమ
௚௬ ᇲ
=‫×ܥ‬ ஽మ
= ܿ‫ = ݐ݊ܽݐݏ݊݋‬Froude Number

So we find that, coming from a purely theoretical approach, which is then compared with
experiment, the flow is described by the condition of constant Froude Number.

There have been many subsequent tests carried out on flow down inclined chutes of varying surface
roughness and inclination, and examination of the results of these investigations always reveals the

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underlying Froude Number relationship. The presence of granular jumps, analogous to hydraulic
jumps, has been shown by Savage (1979) to be dependent on the Froude Number also.

Brennen & Sabersky (1989) explored flows in smooth inclined chutes using a continuously
recirculated system of glass beads. They showed that the effective friction was a function of the
Froude Number. At low values of the Froude Number, corresponding to the quasi-static regime, the
effective friction was close to constant, while at a critical value of the square form of the Froude
Number, corresponding to the transition to the dense inertial flow regime, the effective friction rose
vertically. Thus the effective friction serves to hold the system to a constant Froude Number. These
results for two different particle sizes are shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1 Variation in effective friction in inclined chute flow with the square form of
the Froude Number, after Brennen & Sabersky (1989)

Coulomb Friction

The other model of flow in a chute is the classic friction approach of Coulomb. The Coulomb friction
model forms the basis of the well known analysis of Roberts (2001) which is used to describe the
flow in hood and spoon style chutes, so commonly used in the coal industry. A diagram showing the
force balance in the spoon section of such a chute is shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 2 Forces on element of material moving in curved chute, Roberts (2001)

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It can be from the diagram that most of the slip is happening at the chute interface and this fits with
the concept of Coulomb friction. Roberts therefore defines an equivalent friction ߤ௘ that he relates
to the chute geometry. By assuming that this friction is constant over the spoon section of the
chute, he derives the following expression for the velocity in the chute, as a function of the angle θ,
which it can be seen from inspection, is equal to the position around the curved element, starting
from where it is vertical.

2ܴ݃
‫ = ݒ‬ඨ ଶ ‫(ہ‬1 − 2ߤ௘ଶ ) sin ߠ + 3ߤ௘ cos ߠ ‫ ۂ‬+ ‫ି ݁ܭ‬ଶఓ೐ ఏ
4ߤ௘ + 1

We can declare a local value of v in relation to θ.

‫ݒ‬ఏ = ඥ‫ ݒ‬ଶ − ‫ି ݁ܭ‬ଶఓ೐ ఏ

Taking the square of both sides and re-arranging, we get:

‫ݒ‬ఏ ଶ (1 − 2ߤ௘ଶ ) sin ߠ + 3 ߤ௘ cos ߠ

= 2
ܴ݃ 4ߤ௘ଶ + 1

We can clearly see that the LHS represents the Froude number, and that this is a constant for any
given position around the curve, independent of the scale. So, Froude Number scaling works nicely
for curved chutes.

Trajectories

Another form of motion in chutes that is not so strongly correlated with friction is the trajectory
from the head pulley. There are numerous versions of this calculation, but we will take as an
example that of Booth (1934).

He expresses the flow condition as a function of the departure angle from the head pulley, after
considering friction. He arrived at the expression below.

From this, we can clearly see that the LHS of the equation is the Froude Number, in this case related
to the variable ψ , the departure angle. Since the RHS of the equation does not contain any
quantities that depend on the size of the system, the Froude Number serves as a scaling criterion for
geometrically similar systems involving trajectories.

Similar Froude number relationships for cohesionless granular flows can be found in many other
geometries, such as flow from hoppers, flows in rotating drums, flows in high speed shear cells etc

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The effect of material parameters

If we look at the above expressions for the motion of granular material, we do not see any terms
involving such parameters as density, coefficient of restitution, rolling friction, shape factor, or
particle to particle friction coefficient. The closest we come is the lumped equivalent friction value
in Roberts’ equation, which is in itself an estimate. How then, we might ask, can any of this work
have any meaning? The answer perhaps lies in the fact that these parameters are of relatively minor
importance in the types of flow we are seeing. Furthermore, the range of these variables for real
particles is small.

In the case of DEM modelling these values represent parameters that can be adjusted to make the
model fit some desired outcome such as replicating a scale model of a particular flow regime, but
any cursory perusal of the literature will reveal that a wide range of these values is applied for
similar materials and that the actual value does not necessarily correspond with a real physical
measurement. Furthermore, the real world values of these parameters do not change as the flow
regime changes, as DEM requires.

In a comprehensive review of laboratory tests and computer simulations of flow in inclined chutes,
the Groupement De Recherche Milieux Divisés (G. D. R. Midi) (2004) investigated the influence of
the coefficient of restitution and the inter-particle friction μp on the velocity profiles in flows in
inclined chutes in the dense flow regime and came to the interesting conclusion that the flows did
not depend on the coefficient of restitution for values of e <0.8. This covers the range of interest for
transfer chutes. In the same study, they found that the dependence on the friction coefficient μp
was also weak, for real world values.

The author has conducted DEM simulations of funnel flows, where the above parameters were
varied by a factor of 2 or 3 and there was no discernable difference in the outcome.

Pouliquen (1999), in studying the flow of granular material down inclined chutes, determined a
scaling rule that he expressed as

ܷ ℎ
= ߚ
ඥ݃ℎ ℎ௦௧௢௣

Where hstop is the thickness of the material that is left behind when a granular material is allowed to
flow down a rough plane at any given angle of inclination. His single parameter hstop carries all the
variables associated with the particles and is a simple measurement to conduct, providing that the
particle size range is not too great. His expression is strikingly similar to Bagnold’s equation and is
yet another example of Froude Number scaling.

These results confirm the practical results on dynamic scale chute modelling that began 20 years
ago. They explain why it is possible to use simple synthetic materials to model chute behaviour.
These materials need only be selected on the basis of their particle size and shape and angle of

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repose, disregarding other parameters. There is no need or justification in using scaled samples of
the actual ore. We are, after all, using Perspex chutes.

Cohesive flow

The DSM technique was developed for cohesionless granular solids. Extension of the technique to
cohesive ores would require that the cohesive and adhesive forces in the circulating material be kept
in a constant ratio with the inertial forces. It is not possible to simply crush up a sample of ore,
maintaining constant moisture content and expect cohesion and adhesion to scale. These forces will
tend to be grossly overstated and very misleading results can be obtained by such an approach.

Instead, it has been found by experience that it is possible to formulate mixtures that simulate the
behaviour of cohesive ores very effectively, displaying such behaviour as avalanching flow, cohesive
build-up and slow adhesive accumulation of fines. By varying the proportions of the components in
the mix, it is possible to simulate a range of properties from free-flowing to highly cohesive. Once
the model is constructed and mounted, it can be challenged with a range of materials very quickly.
It is rare for testing to take more than a day. By this means, chute behaviour under a wide range of
conditions, such as is frequently found in the real world, can be quickly evaluated.

The complexity of cohesive granular materials means that even the behaviour under quasi-static
conditions is not well defined in a mathematical sense. The behaviour under inertial flow conditions
is even less well defined (Mitarai & Nori, 2006). The importance of inertial effects can be
appreciated by anyone who has observed the simple fact that a sticky ore containing large particles
is easier to handle than one which is comprised entirely of fines. Translation of results from tests
conducted in the quasi-static regime into the dynamic domain is clearly not a viable approach in this
case.

Validation

An important consideration in any modelling technique is to be able to validate the test model
results against the full scale chute results. There exist a large number of parameters that can be
used for verification and some of these are listed in table 1 below.

Table 1. Parameters that can be used for model validation

Wear scratches Choked flow condition Ore trajectory Adhesive build-up

Cohesive build-up Segregation effects Surcharge angle Loading bias
Wear pattern Dust effects Free surface shape Wash line

Validation example 1

The first dynamic scale model tested was an iron ore chute at Hamersley Iron in 1992. A view of this
chute, looking from the discharge end of the v-feeder is shown in figure 4.

7
 Figure 4 Iron ore chute, 1992

In the case of this chute, information about the performance in two configurations was known. The
first configuration incorporated a v-feeder that was 100mm wider than the second configuration. It
was known that this change in width led to a complete alteration of the flow pattern from choked
flow in the first case, to free flow in the second case at a flow rate of 7200 tonnes per hour.

Investigation by modelling, using cracked wheat as the ore, showed the same transition from choked
to free flow happening at the same equivalent tonnage. By removal of the liner plates in the v-
feeder, it was possible to determine the flow streams against the surface by overlaying the liners
with transparent film and marking the direction of the wear scratches on the liner surfaces, which
served as flow vectors. The flow pattern in the full scale chute and the model chute were shown to
be identical. A third feature in both cases was the existence of a fast flowing stream on the surface
of the ore, which was evidenced by accentuated localised wear in the full scale chute and could be
observed through the transparent model chute. So, three separate parameters provided validation
between model and full scale.

It is noted here that the wear surfaces in this chute, when examined by scanning electron
microscope, did not show a predominance of micro-cutting as one might expect, but instead had the
appearance of being hammered by millions of small blows, leading to a surface fatigue wear
mechanism. This is consistent with the concept of inertial energy transfer between the rocks and
the liner surfaces.

Validation example 2

In May, 1995, a chute handling washed bauxite for a stacker was modelled, again using cracked
wheat. The model is shown in figure 5.

8
 Figure 5 Chute handling washed bauxite, modelled using cracked wheat, 1995

In this case, the model predicted that the ore would flow down the cylindrical section of the chute
with a bias to one side, before stagnating in the inverted conical section and then bifurcating as it
loaded onto the outgoing belt. A flow bias from to the far side of the belt was predicted.

When the full scale chute was commissioned, the effects shown in the model were duplicated
exactly, despite the fact that the cracked wheat was slightly more angular than the washed bauxite.
So, in this case, the overall flow patterns together with the belt loading indicate the validity of the
model.

Another factor not mentioned in table 1 was back-spill. Similar back-spill issues were shown to exist
in the model and the full scale chute, depending on the angle of the belt representing the boom.
These effects are difficult to quantify.

Validation example 3

In 2009, a large bifurcated chute handling primary crusher product was modelled. This project
involved two phases. The first was modelling of the existing chute and the second was the modelling
of the proposed design revision.

In figure 6, the model of the existing chute is shown. This image is taken from a video clip, so the
clarity is less than optimal, but it is enough to show that the two outgoing belts are showing biased
loading due to segregation of lump to one side. The inset clarifies this segregation. This is the same
effect that was observed in the full scale chute. Of interest in this case is that the chute was
modelled elsewhere using a sample of crushed ore and the segregation issue was not identified. In
figure 7 the segregation is quite clear. That material used in this case for the large lumps was dog
biscuits!

9
 Figure 6 Model of bifurcated chute, showing segregation on outgoing belts (2009)

Validation example 4

In 2011, a chute handling copper ore was modelled using a proprietary mixture of materials
including attapulgite and wood flour. The model chute is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7 Model of chute handling copper ore

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The chute comprised an inclined rear wall covered in ledges to prevent wear by retaining a coating
of ore. The belt was a ‘slow belt’ case, the most difficult of trajectories to predict.

This was a chute designed to replace an existing chute, so there was information from the existing
chute regarding the trajectory as well as the considerable cohesive and adhesive build-up that was
occurring. Stage one of the modelling process was to duplicate the effects seen in the existing
chute. These details will not be gone into here, but suffice to say, the effects in the existing chute
were verified, as was the trajectory.

The trajectory was critical in this case, and careful positioning of the model of the revised design was
used to work out how far to move the head pulley so that the deflector was not needed and the flow
could be sufficiently centred to load the outgoing belt without bias. In DSM we can set the
transition geometry up to match the actual belt. DEM packages at this stage do not allow this
feature, allowing only the one simple transition geometry where the head pulley is in the plane of
the troughing idlers. This is an uncommon configuration in the real world and does not allow
accurate trajectory prediction.

When the chute was built, the flow patterns were seen to match the full scale chute perfectly.
However, perhaps the most impressive feature of the validation in this case was the duplication of
the form of the adhesive build-up on the back wall over time. A comparison of this build-up in the
model and the full scale chute is shown in figure 8

Figure 8 Comparison of adhesive build-up on back wall between model, left, and full scale
chute, right (with permission from Gulf Conveyor Systems)

There are many other examples that could be used to illustrate the validation techniques mentioned
in table1, but there is not space here to provide more. The four cases shown illustrate not only how
well validated the modelling method is, but how long ago the validation process was achieved and
how it applies even to complex features seen in chutes handling highly variable and cohesive ores.

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 This is far in advance of what we are seeing published on DEM at present, with validation still
lingering within the realm of tentative laboratory scale bench tests, beginning to extend into meso-
scale tests and being confined almost exclusively to hood and spoon style chutes.

Conclusion

Dynamic scale modelling of transfer chutes has been in successful, validated operation for nearly 20
years in Australia and has been applied to a wide variety of ores, both free-flowing and cohesive as
well as the full range of chute designs. It is not necessary to use scaled down versions of the actual
ore. In fact the relevant ore properties do not scale in the cohesive case. Instead, synthetic ores can
be made from a variety of mixtures of materials and these can be used to successfully model the
flow of ores in full scale chutes.

References

Bagnold RA, 1954, ‘Experiments on a Gravity-Free Dispersion of Large Solid Spheres in a Newtonian
Fluid under Shear.’ Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A, 225, 49-63.

Brennen CE , Sabersky RH, 1989 ‘Shear Flows of Rapidly Flowing Granular Materials’ Trans ASME,.J.
Applied Mechanics, Vol 54, 801-805

G. D. R Midi, 2004, ‘On dense granular flows’, Eur. Phys. J. E, 14, 341-365

Mitarai N, Nori F,2006, ‘Wet granular materials’, Advances in Physics, Vol 55, Nos 1-2, 1-55

Roberts AW, 1969, ‘An Investigation of the Gravity Flow of Non-cohesive Granular Materials through
Discharge Chutes’, Trans. A.S.M.E,.,J Engrg. Ind.,91,373

Roberts AW, 2001, ‘Chute Design Considerations for Feeding and Transfer’, Proceedings of the
BeltCon 11 conference, Randburg, Republic of South Africa

Savage, SB. 1979, ‘Gravity flow of cohesionless granular materials in chutes and channels’, J. Fluid
Mech, vol. 92, part 1, 53-96

Booth, E.P.O.1934 ‘Trajectories from conveyors - method of calculating them corrected. Engineering
and Mining Journal, Vol. 135, No. 12, pp. 552-554

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