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Definition, Conventions
• A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
• These objects are called elements and are said to be members of the set.

The Nature of Mathematics • We shall use capital letters to represent sets and lowercase letters to
represent elements.

Mathematical Language and Symbols 03 A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

B = {2, 4, 4, 6, 6, 10, 8}
(The Language of Sets) C = {x ϵ ℤ | x is even and less than 11}

• Axiom of Extension: A set is completely determined by what its elements

are – order and repetition of elements do not matter.

Notations Special Sets

• For a set 𝐴, we write
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 if 𝑥 is an element of 𝐴, and
𝑦 ∉ 𝐴 if 𝑦 is not an element of 𝐴.
• Set-roster notation - A = { 1, 2, 3, …, 100}
• Set-builder notation - B = {x ϵ ℤ | 1 < x < 100}
• ℤ = the set of integers {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, … }
• ℕ or ℤ = the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, … }
• ℤ = the set of negative integers {−1, −2, −3, … }
• ℝ = the set of real numbers
• ℝ = the set of positive real numbers
• ℝ = the set of negative real numbers

• The null set, or empty set is the (unique) set containing no elements.
It is denoted by  or { }.

EXERCISE: Which of the following sets are equal? Subsets

• A = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3} If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B,
• B = {0, 1, 2, 3} if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.
• C = {1, 2, 3} (Or, if x ϵ A, then x ϵ B.)
• D = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| − 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 4} S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
• E = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| − 1 < 𝑥 < 4} T = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
• F = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ| − 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 4} U = {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6}
• G = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ | − 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 4} V = {1, 3, 5}

NOTE: ⊆ vs ⊂ (Subset vs Proper Subset)

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EXERCISE: Which of the following are true? Ordered Pairs

a. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 (a, b)
b. 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 • denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b together
• a is the first element; b is the second element
c. 𝑥 ∈ {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
d. 𝑥 ⊆ {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
NOTE: (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d
e. 𝑥∈ 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧
f. 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧
A = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2)}
g. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 B = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
h. 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 C = {(3, 2), (1, 2), (2, 2)}

Cartesian Product EXERCISE

• Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B • Let 𝐴 = {𝑚, 𝑛} and 𝐵 = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Use the set-roster notation to
write each of the following sets:
A×B (“A cross B”)
a. 𝐴×𝐵
b. 𝐵×𝐴
is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B. c. 𝐴×𝐴
d. 𝐵×𝐵
A × B = {(a, b) | a ϵ A and b ϵ B}

Textbook exercises you can

work on independently:
Exercise Set 2.2, p. 38

DEFINITION: Relation
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A relation 𝑹 from 𝑨 to 𝑩 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.
Given an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝐴 × 𝐵
The Nature of Mathematics 𝑥𝑅𝑦 if and only if (𝑥, 𝑦) ϵ 𝑅
Mathematical Language and Symbols 04 (“x is related to y”)
(The Language of Relations and Functions)
The set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑅 and 𝐵 is the co-domain.
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Ways to Expressing a Relation EXERCISE

• As a set of ordered pairs Let 𝐴 = {1, 2}, 𝐵 = 2, 3, 4 .
• Given 𝐴 = 1,2 , 𝐵 = 1,2,3 , we define 𝑅 = { 1,1 , 1,3 , 2,2 }. Define a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 as follows: Given any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵,
• As an expression or equation 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 means 𝑥 < 𝑦.
• Given any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵, we say 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if is an integer.
• As an arrow diagram (i.e., mapping) a) Which ordered pairs are in 𝐴 × 𝐵 and which ones are in 𝑅?
b) Is 1𝑅2? 2𝑅3? 2𝑅2?
c) What are the domain and co-domain of 𝑅?
d) Draw an arrow diagram for 𝑅.

EXERCISE DEFINITION: Function

Define a relation 𝐺 from ℤ to ℤ as follows: Given any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ × ℤ, A function 𝑭 from a set 𝑨 to a set 𝑩 is a relation with domain 𝐴 and
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 means is an integer. co-domain 𝐵 that satisfies the following two properties:

a) Is 1𝐺2? 2𝐺3? 2𝐺2?
b) What are the domain and co-domain of 𝐺?
c) Suppose (4, k) ϵ 𝐺. What can you conclude about k?
1. For every element 𝑥 in 𝐴, there is an element 𝑦 in 𝐵 such that
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹.
2. For all elements 𝑥 in 𝐴 and 𝑦 and 𝑧 in 𝐵, if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹 and
𝑥, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹, then 𝑦 = 𝑧.

𝑦=𝑓 𝑥
(“f of x”)

EXERCISE: Which of the following relations EXERCISE

are functions?
• Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝑌 = {1,2,3,4}, which of the relations 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶
a) For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ × ℝ, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶 means that 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4. defined below are functions from 𝑋 to 𝑌?

a) 𝐴 = {(𝑎, 1), 𝑏, 2 , 𝑐, 3 }
b) M: {(2, 4), (3, 6), (5, 10), (6, 12), (7, 10)} b) For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 × 𝑌, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 means that 𝑥 is a vowel and 𝑦 is even
c) 𝐶 is defined by the arrow diagram
c) D is the relation defined by the
following arrow diagram: A B
1
2 2
3 4
4
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Definition Example
• Define functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 from ℝ to ℝ by the following formulas: for
Let 𝑓 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵|𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 } and all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑔 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵|𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 } be two functions. 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 =
Is 𝑓 = 𝑔? Explain.
Then 𝒇 equals 𝒈, written 𝑓 = 𝑔 if and only if
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in 𝐴.

Textbook exercises you can

work on independently:
Exercise Set 2.3, p. 49-50