Environmental Engineering I

SKP Engineering College
Tiruvannamalai – 606611
A Course Material
on
Environmental Engineering-I
By
R.Muralidaran
Assistant Professor
Civil Department
S.K.P. Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai V SEM
Quality Certificate
This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material
Subject Code: CE6503
Subject Name: Environmental Engineering-I
Year/Sem:III/V
Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: R.Muralidaran
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.R.Muralidaran is of the
adequate quality. He has referred more than five books and one among them is from abroad
author.
Signature of HD Signature of the Principal
Name: A.Saravanan Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi
Seal: Seal:
Civil Department Environmental Engineering-I

CE6503 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVS :
To make the students conversant with principles of water supply, t reatment and
distribution
UNIT I PLANNING FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM 8
Public water supply system -Planning - Objectives -Design period - Population forecasting -Water demand -
Sources of water and their characteristics -Surface and Groundwater- Impounding Reservoir Well hydraulics
-Development and selection of source - Water quality - Characterization and standards- Impact of climate
change.
UNIT II CONVEYANCE SYSTEM 7
Water supply -intake structures -Functions and drawings -Pipes and conduits for water- Pipe materials -
Hydraulics of flow in pipes -Transmission main design -Laying, jointing and testing of pipes - Drawings
appurtenances - Types and capacity of pumps -Selection of pumps and pipe materials.
UNIT III WATER TREATMENT 12
Objectives - Unit operations and processes - Principles, functions design and drawing of Chemical feeding,
Flash mixers, flocculators, sedimentation tanks and sand filters - Disinfection- Residue Management -
Construction and Operation & Maintenance aspects of Water Treatment Plants.
UNIT IV ADVANCED WATER TREATMENT 9
Principles and functions of Aeration - Iron and manganese removal, Defluoridation and demineralization -
Water softening - Desalination - Membrane Systems - Recent advances
UNIT V WATER DISTRIBUTION AND SUPPLY TO BUILDINGS 9
Requirements of water distribution -Components -Service reservoirs -Functions and drawings - Network
design -Economics -Computer applications -Analysis of distribution networks - Appurtenances -operation
and maintenance -Leak detection, Methods. Principles of design of water supply in buildings -House
service connection -Fixtures and fittings -Systems of plumbing and drawings of types of plumbing.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:
The students completing the course will have an insight into the structure
of drinking water supply systems, including water transport, treatment and distribution
an understanding of water quality criteria and standards, and their relation to public health,
the ability to design and evaluate water supply project alternatives on basis of chosen
selection criteria
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Garg, S.K., "Environmental Engineering", Vol.1 Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2005.
2. Modi, P.N. "Water Supply Engineering", Vol. I Standard Book House, New Delhi, 2005.
3. Punmia, B.C., Ashok K Jain and Arun K Jain, "Water Supply Engineering", Laxmi
Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2005
REFERENCES:
1. Government of India, "Manual on Water Supply and Treatment", CPHEEO, Ministry of
Urban Development, New Delhi, 2003
2. Syed R. Qasim and Edward M. Motley Guang Zhu, "Water Works Engineering Planning",
Design and Operation, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2006.

CONTENTS
S.No Particulars Page
1 Unit – I 1
2 Unit – II 29
3 Unit – III 61
4 Unit – IV 101
5 Unit – V 129

S.K.P.Engineering College,Tiruvannamalai V Sem
UNIT 1-PLANNING FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
PART-A
1. What are the main objectives of treating water? (CO1-L1) (Apr/May-2011)

(i) To remove colour, dissolved gases, and murkiness of water
(ii) To remove objectionable tastes and odour
(iii) To remove disease producing micro organism to provide safe drinking water
(iv) To remove hardness of water
(v) To make water suitable for many industrial purposes brewing, dyeing and steam
generation
2. Enumerate the components of a water supply scheme. (CO1-L1) (Apr/May-2011)
(Apr/May-2013)
Collection works, Treatment works, Transmission works, Distribution works
3. What is Design Period? List any two factors influencing it. (CO1-L1) (Nov/Dec-
2011) (Nov/Dec-2012) (Nov/Dec-2013) (Nov/Dec-2010)
This time after completion of the project is called ―design period‖. It is expressed in years.
During design period, the structures, equipment and components should be adequate to
serve the requirements. As per normal procedure water works is designed for a period of
30 years.
Influencing factors:
i) Useful life of pipes, equipment and structures.
ii) The anticipated rate of growth. If rate is more, design period will be less.
iii) The rate of inflation during the period of repayment of loans when inflation rate is
high, a longer design period is adopted.
iv) Efficiency of component units. The more the efficiency, the longer will be design
period.
4. State the Purposes of carrying out water quality characterisation? (CO1-L1)

(Nov/Dec-2011)
o To identify physical, chemical and biological characteristic nature of water
o To analyse the water quality in comparison with drinking water standards
o To identify water quality for recommendation of treatment methods
o To identify pollution levels in water for protecting water sources
5. List out the various water demand encountered in society? (CO1-L2) (Apr/May-
2012)
Domestic demand, Public demand, Industrial demand, Commercial demand, Fire
demand, losses and wastes
6. What are the assumptions in an incremental increase method to forecast

population? (CO1-L1) (Apr/May-2012)
Growth rate is assumed to be progressively increasing or decreasing, depending upon
whether the average of the incremental increases in the past is positive or negative. The
population for a future decade is worked out by adding the mean arithmetic increase to
the last known population as in the arithmetic increase method and to this is added the
average of incremental increases, once for first decade, twice for second and so on.
Pn = P+nI + (n (n+1)/2)*r
1
7. What is the objective of water supply scheme? (CO1-L1) (Nov/Dec-2012)
(Nov/Dec-2013)(Nov/Dec-2014)
(i) To supply safe and wholesome water to consumers
(ii) To supply water in adequate quantity
(iii) To make water easily available for encouraging personal and household cleanliness.
8. What are the acceptable quality standards as per BIS 10500: 1983 for flouride
and nitrates? (CO1-L1) (Apr/May-2013)
Flourides – 1 mg/l, Nitrates – 45 mg/l
9. How to determine the storage need for an impounding reservoir? (CO1-L1)

(Apr/May-2014)
Mass curve diagram method
Analytical calculation method
10. Distinguish carbonate and non carbonate hardness? (CO1-L2) (Nov/Dec-2014)

Carbonate hardness non carbonate hardness
Caused by carbonate and bicarbonate salts Caused by sulphates and chlorides of
of calcium and magnesium calcium and magnesium salts
Causes temporary hardness Causes permanent hardness
Removed by heating and excess lime Removed by special water softening
treatment methods
11. Distinguish between Shallow and deep well? (CO1-L2) (Apr/May-2015)

Shallow well Deep well
A shallow well is one where the primary A deep well is one which is having water
source of water is an unconfined aquifer supply from a confined aquifer
Withdraws water from ground water table Withdraws water from deep under ground
and rain water percolates through soil to water table
improve yield in well
12. Give the maximum acceptable limit of the following for the public drinking
water
(a) Colour (b)pH (c) Chlorides (d) Sulphates (CO1-L1) (Nov/Dec-2010)
Colour – 5 to 25 cobalt units
pH – 6.5 to 8.5
Chlorides – 200 to 1000 mg/l
Sulphates – 200 to 400 mg/l
13.What is the objective of water supply system? (CO1-L1) [Nov/Dec 2013]

Supply safe and wholesome water to consumer standard of quality,supply water in
adequate quantity&water available at easy reach.
14.Define Design period. (CO1-L1) [Nov/Dec 2013]

Number of years for provision plans and design supply called design period.
2
16.List out various water demand encountered in society (CO1-L2) [May/June
2012].
Domestic water demand,commercial&industrial water demand,Public uses,fire
demand,Loass and waste of water.
17.What are the assumption in incremental increase method to forecast

population? (CO1-L1) [May/June 2012].
Types of industries,previous year population
18.State the function of water quality characterization. (CO1-L1) [Sep/Oct 2012]

The main function is to identify the water is suitable for drinking and maintaing with the
standards which is prescribed.
19.Enumerate component of water supply scheme (CO1-L1) [Apr/May 2011]

Source of water supply surface&subsurface,Intake for collecting surface water,water
treatment-filtration,service reservoir,distribution system-main,submain,branch-pipeline
and flushing street.
20. What is Turbidity and how we measure it? (CO1-L1)

It is used find out the clarity of solution by passing the light by using the instrument
called as Nephelometer,and unit is expressed in NTU.
21.(i)Explain about Total solids present in water? (CO1-L1)

(ii)Name the different types of Variation?
(iii)Write the types of spring?
(i) It is the solids which contain both dissolved solids and suspended solids in
the solution
(ii) Seasonal variation, Hourly variation, Monthly variation
(iii) Gravity and surface spring
22. What are the methods of population forecasting? (CO1-L1)
Arithmetic increase method
Geometric increase method
Method of varying increment(or) Incremental increase method
Decreasing rate of growth method
Simple graphical method
Comparative graphical method
Master plan method(or) zoning method
Thelogistic curve method
3
PART-B
1.Explain about the surface sources of water? (CO1-H1)
SURFACE SOURCES OF WATER
All sources of water can be broadly classified as
(i)Screens (ii) Lakes
(iii)Ponds (iv) Rivers
(v)Reservoirs (vi) Stored rain water
These can be further divided as:
(i) Springs
(ii) Infiltration galleries
(iii) Porous pipe galleries
(iv) Wells.
1) STREAMS.
 Streams in totally good except the water of first runoff.

 But sonic times turn-off water while flowing over grounds is mixed with day,
sand and mineral impurities.
 All the suspected impurities can be restored in settling tanks up to certain
extend, but the dissolved impurities require special treatments.
 The streams generally flow in valleys and are the main source of water
stipples 10 villages of hills which are situated near them.
2) LAKES.
4
 Lit mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious
beds. Water front springs and streams generally tows towards these basins
and ‗Lakes‘ are formed.
 The quantity of water in the lakes depends on its basin capacity,
catchments area, annual rainfall, porosity of the ground etc. The quality of
large lakes is good than that of the small lakes,
 But lakes which are situated at high altitudes cotton almost pure water
which cant he used without any treatment.
 Lake water is visible only to those towns tat cities which are situated near
them, such as Naini Taj
3) RIVERS.
 Rivers are born in the hills, when the discharge of large number of springs
and
 Streams combine together. In mountains the quantity of water in rivers
remains small, therefore at such places these are called as Sinai Rivers.
 But as the river moves forward more and more streams combine in it and it
increase it discharge.
 Therefore rivers grow bigger and bigger as they move forward due to
interface in their catchments area.
 Rivers are the only surface sources of water which have maximum quantity
of water which can be easily taken, therefore at the very ancient times the
town and cities started developing along the banks of rivers.
 Mostly all the cities which are situated near rivers discharge their used
water of sewage in the rivers, therefore much care should be taken while
drawing water from the river, River water has self-purification action, due to
which it automatically becomes clean in sonic distastes travel from the point
of disposal of sewage.
 In summer the quality of river water is belier titan that in monsoon, because
in rainy season water is better than that in monsoon, use the run—off water
also carries with it clay, silt, sand , which make the water turbid.
 River water should always be used after necessary treatment. Some rivers
are stowed and perennial, and have water throughout the year therefore
they do not require any arrangement to hold the water.
 But some rivers dry tip wholly or partly in stoner, therefore they require
special arrangement to tenets the water demand during hot weather.
4) PONDS
5
 These are depressions in plains like lakes of mountains, in which water is
collected during rainy season.
 Sometimes ponds arc formed wheat much excavation is done for
constructing houses in villages, embankment for road and railways, and of
bricks.
 Generally the quantity of water is very small and contains large amount of
impurities. In the villages mostly the used water flow towards ponds and
further contaminates its water.
 The water of ponds is used for washing clothes, animals bathing arid
drinking. In some backward villages people also take bath in the dirty water
of ponds.
 The water of ponds cannot be used fur water-supply purposes doe to its
limited quantity and large amount of impurities.
5) IMPONDED RESERVOIRS
 Mostly its is found that there is great variation in the quantity of river water
during and summer season.
 The discharge it some rivers remains sufficient to tutee the hot weather
demand, hut in sonic rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet
the requirements of hot weather.
 In such eases it beauties essential 10 store the water for summer season.
The water can he stored in the river by constructing a hand, a weir or a dam across the
river at such places where minimum area of land is submerged in the water and the
reservoir basin remits cup—shaped having maximum possible depth of water
2. List out 10 parameter of water quality standards as per the Tamilnadu pollution
control Board standards. (CO1-H2) [Nov/Dec 2012]
S.No Parameter Desirable limit Permissible limit in

the absence of
(mg/L) alternate sources
1 Colour(Hazen units) 5 25
2 Odour Unobjectionable -
3 Taste Agreeable -
4 Turbidity 5 10
5 pH 6.5-8.5 No relaxation
6 Total Hardness as CaCO3 300 600
6
7 Iron as Fe 0.3 1.0
8 Chloride 250 1000
9 Free residual chlorine 0.2 -
10 Total Dissolved solids 500 2000
11 Calcium as Ca 75 200
12 Copper as Cu 0.05 1.5
13 Manganese as Mn 0.1 0.3
14 Sulphate as SO42- 200 400
15 Nitrate as NO3- 45 100
16 Fluoride as F- 1.0 0.002
17 Phenols as C 6H5OH 0.001 0.3
18 Mercury as Hg 0.001 No relaxation
19 Cadmium as Cd 0.01 No relaxation
20 Selenium as Se 0.01 No relaxation
21 Arsenic as As 0.05 No relaxation
22 Cyanide as Cn 0.05 No relaxation
23 Lead as Pb 0.05 No relaxation
24 Zinc as Zn 5 15
25 Anionic detergents as 0.02 1.0

MBAS
26 Chromium as Cr(VI) 0.05 No relaxation
27 Mineral oil 0.01 0.03
28 Pesticides Nil 0.001
29 Radioactive materials
-Alpha emitters,Beq/1 - 0.1
-Beta emitters,Pci/1 - 1.0
30 Alkalinity as CaCO3 200 600
31 Aluminium as Al 0.03 0.2
32 Boron 1 5
7
33 Faecal Streptococci Nil -
34 M.P.N(in 100 mL) 1 10
35 Cyclopes(or Guinea worms) Nil Nil
3. Write a short notes on types of water demand? (CO1-H1)
TYPES OF DEMANDS
 While designing the water supply schemes of the town, it is also necessary
to determine the total yearly demand as well as monthly demand variations
in the demand rates.
 But as there are so many factors involved in demand of water, it is not
possible to accurately determine the actual demand.
 Certain empirical formulae and thumb rules are employed iii determining the
water demand, which is very near to the actual demand.
Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town
(i) Domestic water demand.

(ii) Fire-demand.
(iii) Commercial and Industrial demand.
(iv) Demand for public uses.
(v) Compensate losses demand
DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND
 It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for draining, bathing,
cooking, washing etc.
 The quantity of water required for domestic use mainly depends on the
habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the people.
 In India on an average, the domestic consumption of water under normal
conditions is about 135 liters/day/capita as per IS: 1172-1171. In developed
countries this figure may be as high as 350 liters/day/capita.
 The increase in water consumption in developed countries is mainly due to
use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic
household appliances such as home laundries, dishwashers etc.
The details of the domestic consumption are as Lows
8
FIRE DEMAND:
 Fires generally break in thickly populated localities and the industrial area,
and cause serious damages of properties and some-times lives of the
people are lost.
 Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire
catching materials, explosions, bad intention of criminal people or any other
unforeseen mis happenings.
 If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible
time, they lead to serious damages and may burn the cities.
 All the big cities have full tire-fighting squads. As during fire-breakdowns
large quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish it,
therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient quantity of
water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.
In the cities fire- hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 in. apart.
Fire brigade, men immediately connect these fire-hydrants with their engines
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEMAND:
 Commercial buildings and commercial centre include office buildings,

warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centers, health centers, schools,
temples, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc.
 The water requirements of commercial and public places may be up to 45
liters/day/capita. Table 5.1 gives the water demand for buildings other than
residences as per IS: 1172-1963.
 The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of
industries which are existing in the city.
 The quantity of water required by industries is also expressed in terms of
per capita demand. The water required by factories, paper mills, cloth mills,
cotton mills, breweries, sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use .
The quantity of water demand for industrial purposes is around 20 to 25%
of the total demand of the city.
9
 Most of the big industries, universities and institutions generally have their
own water supply arrangements from the private tube-wells.
4 . The following is the population data of a city, available from past census
records. Determine the population of the city in 2011 by
(a) Arithmetical increase method
(b) geometrical increase method
(c) incremental increase method
(d) graphical method
(e) decreased rate of growth method (CO1-H2)
Year 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991

Population 12000 16500 26800 41500 57500 68000 74100
Solution:
Year Population Increment % increment Incremental Decrease in

per
per decade increase % increment
decade
10
1931 12000
4500 37.50
1941 16500
5800
10300 62.42
1951 26800
4400 7.57
14700 54.85
1961 41500
1300 16.30
16000 38.55
1971 Total
57500 62100 220.55 1600 53.45
-5500 20.29
10500 18.26
Average = 62100/6 = 220.55/6 = 1600/5 = 53.45/4
1981 68000
-4400 9.29
= 10350 = 36.76% = 320 = 13.36%
6100 8.97
1. Arithmetical Increase Method
1991 74100
Pn = P + nI
P = population in 1991 = 74,100
n = number of decades = 1991-1771/10 = 2

I = average increase per decade = 10350
Pn = 74100 + 2 x 10350 = 94800
2. Geometrical Increase Method

n
Pn=P(1+(i/100)^n)
i = average percent increase per decade = 36.76%
Pn= 74100 = 138590
(1+(36.76/100)^2)
i by geometric average
method
Ig=(A1*A2*A3*……An)^(1/n)
= (37.50 x 62.42 x 54.85 x 38.55 x 18.26 x 8.97)1/6

= 30.54
Pn = 74100 (1 + = 126
30.54/100)2
11
3. Incremental increase method
Pn = P+nI + (n (n+1)/2)*r
I = 10350, r = average incremental increase = 320
Pn= 74100 + 2 x 10350 + (2(2+1)/2) x 320 = 95760
4. Graphical Extension Method
2011 = 80,000
5. Decreased Rate of Growth Method

Year Average increment Average rate of Net increment rate
per decade decrease in (% )
2001 36.76 the
13.36 23.40
2011 23.40 13.36
increment 10.0 4
2001 = 74100 + 23.04% of 74100 =

91439
2011 = 91439 + 10.04% of 91439 =

100619
5. Explain about Population Forecasting Methods ? (CO1-H1)
Population is one of the most important factors for design of the

water systems, so it should be estimated, so as to know
the increasing demand and ensure continuous supply to them.
Population data is obtained by previous records and the

rate of increase is found out and this used for further analysis,
which may be by using the methods described below
1. Arithmetic growth method
2. Geometric growth method
3. Curvilinear method
4. Logistic method
5. Decline growth method
6. Ratio growth
12
Arithmetic growth method:

It is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of population is
constant. It
means that the each year population increase by the same increment.
Mathematically
; dp / dt = Ka
Where,
dp / dt is the rate of change of population
Ka = the constant arithmetic increment
Ka can be determined by finding the slop of the graph of

population against time. The population in the future is thus estimated.
Geometric method:
It is based on the hypothesis that rate of change of population is proportional

to the population. According to this, method it is assumed that the rate of increase of
population growth in a community is proportional to the present population.
Mathematically:
dP /dt ∝ P => dp / dt = Kg where Kg =

Geometric Growth constant.
If P0 is the population at any time t0 and Pf is

the population at time tf then
∫Pf P0 dp/p = Kg ∫ tf t0 dt = Ln (Pf/P0 = Kg (tf/t0)
=> Ln (Pf/P0 = Kg Δt
=> (Pf/P0 = (e) Kg Δt and Pf = P0 (e) Kg Δt

This method gives somewhat larger value as compared to arithmetic method and can
be used for new cities with rapid growth. In normal practice, arithmetic and geometric
growth average is taken.
Curvilinear method:
13
In this it is assumed that the population of a city will grow, in the same
manner as in other cities in the past. This similarity between the cities includes
geographical proximity, similarity of economic base, access to similar transportation
system etc. In practice it is difficult to find similar cities.
Logistic
method:
When the growth rate of population due to birth, death and migration are under normal
situation and not subjected to extraordinary changes due to unusual situation
like war, epidemics earth quakes and refugees etc. Then this method is used:
According to this method
P = P sat / (1+ ea+ bΔt), where P sat is the saturation population, of the community
and a, b are constants. P sat, a and b can be determined from three successive
census populations and the equations are
Psat = 2 P0 P1P2 - P12 (P0 + P21) /

(P0 P2 - P 2)
Decline growth
method:
This method like, logistic, assumes that the city has some limiting saturation
population and that its rate of growth is a function of population deficit;
Ratio method:
Ratio method of fore casting is based on the assumption that the population of a
certain area or a city will increase in the same manner to a larger entity like a
province, or a country. It requires calculation of ratio of locals to required population in
a series of census years.
Projection of the trend line using any of the technique and application of projected ratio
to the estimated required population of projected ratio to the estimated required
population in the year of interest. This method of forecasting does not take into
account some special calculations in certain area.
6.Explain the consumption of water uses?What are the factor affecting

water uses? (CO1-H1)
Consumption of water
Uses
1. Domestic use
2. Commercial use
14
3. Public use
4. Loss and waste
Domestic use of water:
Domestic uses of water include the consumption of water for drinking,

washing, cooking, toilets, livestock etc. the domestic average use per
capita per day is 50 – 90 gallons (70 – 380 liters per capita per day).
This use is increasing by 0.5% - 1.0% per year and at this time
comprises 50% of all the uses of water.
Water uses are for drinking, cooking, meeting of sanitary needs in

houses and hotels, irrigating lawns etc. Residential water use rates
fluctuate regularly.
Average daily winter consumption is less than annual daily average, whereas summer
consumption averages are greater. Similarly, peak hourly demand, is higher than
maximum. No universally applied rule for prediction
Commercial and
industrial:
This is the amount of water used by the shops, markets, industries,

factories etc. It contributes
15 – 24% of total use of water.
It includes factories, offices and commercial places demand. It is based on either

having a separate or combined water supply system. Demand of water based on unit
production: No. of persons working and floor area
Public use:
The public use of water is that one which is used by city halls, jails, hospitals, offices,
schools etc. This consumes 9% of total use of water. Its water demand is 50 – 75 liters
per capita per day. Fire protection's need of water is also fulfilled by this sector. The
fire demand does not greatly affect the average consumption but has a considerable
effect on peak rates. Schools, hospitals, fire fighting etc
Loss and
wastes:
Unauthorized, connections; leakage in distribution system, Hydrant flushing, major

line breakage and cleaning of streets, irrigating parks. Total consumption is sum of the
15
above demands. The water which is not intended for specific purpose or use is also
called "Un- accounted for". Loss and wastage of water is due to:
1. Errors in measurements
2. Leakages, evaporation or overflow
3. Un-metered uses e.g. fire fighting, main flushing
4. Un-authorized connections
Factors affecting the use of

water
Size of the city
Industry and commerce
Climate
Time of the day
Day of the week or month
7 Explain in detail about Sub surface source of water(CO1-H1)
SUBSURFACE SOURCES
These are further divided
into i Infiltration galleries
ii Inf iltration wells

iii Springs etc
INFILTRATION GALLERIES
A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water bearing

strata for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are called
―Infiltration galleries‖. The yield from the galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 104
lit/day/metre length of infiltration gallery. For maximum yield the galleries may be
placed at full depth of the acquifer. Infiltration galleries may be constructed with
masonary or concrete with
weep holes of 5cm x 10cm.
INFILTRATION WELLS
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series
16
in the blanks of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They
are constructed by brick masonary with open joints
For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover.
The water filtrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through
sand bed, it gets purified to some extent. The infiltration well inturn are connected
by porous pipes to collecting sump called jackwell and there water is pumped to
purification plant for treatment.
SPRINGS:
Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs.
Springs generally supply small springs. Springs generally supply small quantity of
water and hence suitable for the hill towns. Some springs discharge hot water due
to presence of sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin disease patients.
Types of springs:
1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing
stratum is exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs are formed
2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is

supporting the ground water reservoir becomes out crops
3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper
impervious stratum When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient
and is closedbetween two imperious stratum, the formation of Artesian spring from
deep seated spring
WELLS:
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of
tapping water. In India 75 to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for
its water supply.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earth‘s surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different

layers. The following are different types of wells
1. Shallow wells
17
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells
Shallow Wells :
Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth‘s

surface. The diameter of well varies from 2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m.
Shallow wells may be lined or unlined from inside. . These wells are also called
draw wells or gravity wells or open wells or drag wells or percolation wells.
Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply
is uppermost layer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence
they are not suitable for public water supply schemes. The quantity of water
obtained from shallow wells is better than the river water but requires purification.
The shallow wells should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc
because of the contamination of effluent The shallow wells are used as the source
of water supply for small villages, undeveloped municipal towns, isolated buildings
etc because of limited supply and bad quality of water.
Deep Wells :
The Deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious
layer as shown in fig No. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from
the outcrop to the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is
exposed to the atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly
purified when it reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and
therefore become hard. In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to
remove the hardness of water.
The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is
not very near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric
pressure, therefore deep wells are also reffered to as a pressure wells.
8.Explain in detail about physical characteristics of water(CO1-H1)
For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into
the following three categories.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
18
The following are the physical characteristics
1. Turbidity
2. Colour and temperature
3. Taste and odour
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the
water. The character and amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over which
the water has moved ground waters are less turbed than the surface water.
Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through it.

Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units or PPM (parts per
million) or Milligrams per litre (mg/l. Turbidity is measured by
1) Turbidity rod or Tape 2) Jacksons Turbidimeter 3) Bali‘s Turbidimeter
The Sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and units of
turbidity is read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display. Drinking water
should not have turbidity more than 10 N.T.U. This test is useful
in determining the detension time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants
required to remove turbidity.
COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE
Colour in water is usually due to organic matter in colloidal condition but some
times it is also due to mineral and dissolved organic impurities. The colour produced
by one milligram of platinum in a litre of water has been fixed as the unit of colour.
The permissible colour for domestic water is 20ppm on platinum cobalt scale. The
colour in water is not harmful but objectionable.
Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The

temperature of surface water is generally at atmospheric temperature, while that of
ground water may be more or less than atmospheric temperature. The most desirable
temperature for public supply between 4.4°C to 10°C. The temperature above 35°C
are unfit for public supply, because it is not palatable.

TASTE AND ODOUR
Taste and odour in water may be due to presence of dead or live micro-organisms,
19
dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide or oxygen

combined with organic matter, mineral substances such as sodium chloride, iron
compounds and carbonates and sulphates of other substances. The tests of these
are done by sense of
smell and taste because these are present in such small proportions that it is difficult
to detect them by chemical analysis. The water having bad smell and odour is
objectionable and should not be supplied to the public.
The intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold number. This
number is numerically equal to the amount of sample of water in C.C‘s required to be
added to one litre of fresh odourless water.
9.Explain Indetail About Chemical Characteristics Of Water (CO1-H1)
In the chemical analysis of water, these tests are done that will reveal the sanitary
quality of the water. Chemical tests involve the determination of Hardness of water,
Chloride content etc.
TOTAL SOLIDS AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Total solids includes the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The
quantity of suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine
filter, drying and weighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined
by evaporating the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing
the residue. The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by
evaporating the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing
the residue. The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by
evaporating the water and weighing the residue of the residue of total solids is fused
in a muffle furnace the organic solids will decompose where as only inorganic solids
will remain. By weighing we can determine the inorganic solids and deducting it from
the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.
PH VALUE OF WATER
PH value denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water and it is a
measure of acidity or alkanity of a substance. PH = - log 10[H+] or 1 / log 10[H+]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
20
Acidity ← Neutral→ Alkalinity
Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and minerals, the PH value ranges
from 0 to 14. For pure water, PH value is 7 and 0 to 7 acidic and 7 to 14 alkaline
range. For public water supply PH value may be 6.5 to 8.5. The lower value may
cause tubercolation and corrosion, where as high value may produce incrustation,
sediment deposits and other bad effects.
PH value of water is generally determined by PH papers or by using PH meter. PH can

read directly on scale or by digital display using PH meter.
HARDNESS OF WATER
It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap. Hardness is of
two types.
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates

of calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of

calcium and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method.
Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water.

Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For potable water hardness
ranges from 5 to 8 degrees.
HARDNESS REMOVABLE
Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/litre is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to

the
following effects.
1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing
2. Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
3. Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream
manufactures.
4. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes the skin rough
5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
6. It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency and cause in
erustations
21
7. Very hard water is not palatable
When softening is practices when hardness exceed 300mg/lit. Water hardness more
than
600 mg/lit have to rejected for drinking purpose.

METHODS OF REMOVAL OF HARDNESS
1. Boiling
2. Freezing
3. Lime addition
4. Lime soda process
5. Excess Lime treatment
6. Caustic soda process
7. Zeolete process
8. Dimineralisation or exchange process.
Methods 1,2 and 3 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 4 to 8 for both
temperory and permanent hardness. The temporary hardness is removed as follows.
Boiling
heat
CaHCO3)2 -----------> CaCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O
heat
MgHCO32 -----------> MgCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O
Addition of lime
Ca (HCO3)2 + CaOH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O MgHCO32 + CaOH)2 -----------

> CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O Removal of permanent Hardness:
1. Lime soda process : In this method, the lime and is sodium carbonate or soda as
have
used to remove permanent hardness from water. The chemical reactions involved in
this process are as follows.
CO2 + CaOH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + H2O (removal of CO2)
22
CaHCO3) + CaOH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3 + 2H3O removal of temporary hardness
MgHCO3 + CaOH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + MgCO3) + 2H2O
MgSO4 + CaOH)2 ----------> MgOH2 + CaSO4 { conversion of MgSO4 to CaSO4}

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 ----------> CaCO3 + Na2SO4 {removal of sulphates}
CaCl2 + CaOH)2 --------------> CaOH2 + CaCl2
MgCl2 + CaOH)2 --------------> Mg(OH2 + CaCl2 { removal of chlorides} CaCl2 +

Na2CO3 --------------> CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> Mg CO3 + 2NaCl {removal of chlorides}
Advantages of lime soda process
1. The PH value of water treated by this process bring down to 9 and which results in
decrease in corrosion of the distribution system.
2. Less quantity of coagulant will be required, if this process is adopted
3. Removal of iron and manganese to some extent
4. Reduction of total mineral content of water
5. Hardness of water is reduced to 40mg/lit (of CaCO3) and magnesium upto 10mg/lit
6. The process is economical
7. This process is most suitable for tubed and acidic waters where it will not possible
to adopt zeolite process.
Disadvantages
1. Large quantity of sludge formed during this process to be disposed off by some
suitable method
2. This process requires skilled supervision for its successful working
3. If recarbonation is omitted, a thick layer of calcium carbonate will be deposited in

the filtering media, distribution pipes etc.
Zeolite process
This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness
may be completely removed by this process.
23
Principle
Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium which replace
sodium Ions with calcium and magnesium Ions when hardwater is passes through a
bed of zeolites. The zeolite can be regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of
sodium chloride through the bed. The chemical reactions involved are
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaHCO3)2 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaHCO3
Zeolite
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + Na2SO4
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaC12 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaCl
Regeneration
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + 2NaCl ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaCl2
2SiO2 Al2O3 MgO + 2NaCl ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + MgCl2
Advantages
1. In this process, the sludge is not formed hence problem of sludge disposal does not
arise
2. It can be operated easily and no skilled supervision required
3. The hardness of water reduces to zero and hence used for boiler and texile
industries
4. The process is economical where salt is cheaply available
5. The load on Zeolite can be reduced by combining it with lime or aeration process
Disadvantages
1. The Zeolite process cannot be used for turbed or acidic water
2. The Zeolite process is unsuitable for water containing Iron and Manganese
3. The Zeolite should be operated carefully to avoid injury or damage to the equipment
Demineralisation
Both cations and anions are removed by resins similar to zeolites in two columns
24
by iron exchange method. Resins may be regenerated with sulpuric acid and sodium
carbonate. This process is used in industries to get distilled water or quality water
motion of water through the atmosphere, earth, plants, trees, rivers and oceans in a
cyclic motion through liquid, solid and gaseous phases is called HYDROLOGICAL
CYCLE. CHLORIDE CONTENT
The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and also
presence of chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water.
Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by
diluting the water. Chlorides above 250p.p.m. are not permissible \
NITROGEN CONTENT
The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of organic matters in
the water. The nitrogen may be present in the water may be in one or more of the
following forms.
1. Nitrates 2. Nitrates 3. Free ammonia 4. Albuminoid nitrogen.
Excess presence of nitrogen will cause ―MATHEMOGLOBINEMIA‖ disease to the
children.
METALS AND OTHER CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Water contains various minerals or metal substances such as iron, manganese,
copper, lead, barium, cadmium, selenium, fluoride, arsenic etc.
The concentration of iron and manganese should not allow more than 0.3 ppm .
Excess will cause discolouration of clothes during washing and incrustation in water
mains due to deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and berium
are very toxic, low p.p.m of these are allowed. Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous and
may cause totally, therefore they must be removed totally. Human beings are effected
by presence of high quality of copper in the water. Fewer cavities in the teeth will be
formed due to excessive presence of fluoride in water more than 1 p.p.m. A laxative
effect is caused in the human body due to excessive presence of sulphate in the
water.
DISSOLVED GASES
oxygen and carbondi-oxide are the gases mostly found in the natural water. The
25
surface water contain large amount of dissolved oxygen because they absorb it from
the atmosphere. Algae and other tiny plant life of water also give oxygen to the water.
The presence of oxygen in the water in dissolved form keep it fresh and sparkling. But
more quantity of oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes material.
Water absorbs carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere. If water comes across
calcium and magnesium salts, carbon-dioxide reacts with the salts and converts them
into bicarbonates, causes hardness in the water. The presence of carbon-dioxide is
easily determined by adding lime solution to water gives milky white colour.
BIO-CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
If the water is contaminated with sewage, the demand of oxygen by organic
matter in sewage is known as biochemical oxygen demand. The aerobic action

continues till the oxygen is present in sewege. As the oxygen exhausts the anerobic
action begins due to which foul smell starts coming. Therefore indirectly the
decomposable matters require oxygen, which is used by the organisms.
The aerobic decomposition of organic matters is done in two stages. The
carbonaceous matters are first oxidized and the oxidation of nitrogeneous matters
takes place in the latter stage.
BACTERIAL AND MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is important for the water
supply engineer from the viewpoint of public health. The bacteria may be harmless to
mankind or harmful to mankind. The former category is known as non-pathogenic
bacteria and the later category is known as pathogenic bacteria. Many of the bacteria
found in water are derived from air, soil and vegetation. Some of these are able to
multiply and continue their existence while the remaining die out in due course of
time. The selective medium that promote the growth of particular
bacteriawwawn.adnnianunbivuerizlity.tchome growth of other organisms is used in
the lab to detect the presence of the required bacteria, usually coliform bacteria. For
bacteriological analysis the following tests are done.
a) PLANT COUNT TEST
In this method total number of bacteria presents in a millitre of water is counted. 1
ml of sample water is diluted in 99ml of sterilized water and 1ml of dilute water is
mixed with 10ml of agar of gelatine. This mixture is then kept in incubator at 37°C for
24 hours
26
or 20°C for 48 hours. After the sample will be taken out from the incubator and
colonies of bacteria are counted by means of microscope.
Drinking water should not have more than 10 coliforms/100ml.
b M.P.N. TEST (MOST PROBABLE NUMBER)
The detection of bacteria by mixing different dilutions of a sample of water with
fructose broth and keeping it in the incubator at 37°C for 48hours. The presence of
acid or carbon-dioxide gas in the test tube will indicate the presence of B-coli. After
this the standard statistical tables (Maccardy‘s are reffered and the ―MOST
PROBABLE NUMBER‖ MPN) of B -coli per 100ml of water are determined.
For drinking water, the M.P.N. should not be more than 2.

WATER BORNE DISEASES
World health organization has observes that 80% of communicable diseases that
are transmitted through water. The diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, typhoid,
amoebia, diarrhoea, polio, hepatitis (Jaundice, Leptospirosis, Dracontiasis are caused
by bacteria.
Excess of fluorides present in water [ above 1.5 mg/litre] cause diseases like
dental flurosis, sketetal flurosis. This is a permanent irresible disease that weakens the
bone structure. The patient becomes immobile and bedridden.
Excess of nitrates in water causes Mathaemoglobinaemia or blue baby symptoms
in infants. It effects the hemoglobin in the blood and reduces its capacity to transport
oxygen to the cells. Nitrates in water are caused by industrial effluents, agricultural
runoff. Toxic ions of chromium, lead, arsenic and pesticides in water cause diseases
affecting the kidney, liver and high blood pressure, paralysis, cancer etc. These toxic
substances are due to industrial effluents reaching the surface and ground water
sources.
10.Explain in detail about drinking water standards as per BIS (CO1-H1)
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
S.No. CHARACTERICTICS NORMALLY ACCEPTABLE
VALUE MAX.,PERMISIBLE LIMIT
1. Temperature 10°C – 15°C -
2. Turbidity (N.T.U) 2.5 10

27
3. Colour (platinum cobalt scale 5.0 25
4. Taste and odour Unobjectionable
5. PH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
6. Total dissolved solidsmg/litre 500 1500
7. Total hardness mg/l (as caco3) 200 600
8. Chlorides (as Cl mg/l 200 1000
9. Sulphates (as So4) mg/l 200 400
10. Nitrates ( as No3 mg/l 45 45
11. Fluorides (as F mg/l 1.0 1.5
12. Calcium (as Ca mg/l 75 200
13. Magnesium (as mg mg/l 30 -120 150
14. Iron (as Fe mg/l 0.1 1.0
15. Manganese As Mn) mg/l 0.05 0.5
16. Phenolic compounds as phenol mg/l
17. Arsenic (as mg) mg/l 0.05 0.05
18. Chromium (as cr+6) mg/l 0.05 0.05
19. Cynamides (as CN) mg/l 0.05 0.05
20. Coliform count per 100ml of water sample
28
SKP Engineering College,Tiruvannamalai V Sem
UNIT 2-CONVEYANCE SYSTEM
PART-A
1.What is the difference between system curve and pump curve? (CO2-L2)
[Nov/Dec 2013]
A pump can generate a certain amount of pressure and when the flow rate
increases, the maximum pressure it can generate, drops.So the pump can not pump
beyond a certain flow rate.
2.write the factor for selecting pipe material for water supply scheme? (CO2-L1)
[Nov/Dec 2012]
Capacity,Reliability,Cost,Efficiency.
3.What are the different pipe materials that commonly used for water
conveyance? (CO2-L2) [Nov/Dec 2010]
Metallic pipes: the pipes such as CI Pipes, Steel pipes and GI Pipes. Cement
Pipes: the pipes such as Cement Pipes, Asbestos cement (AC) pipes, cement concrete
pipes. Plastic Pipes: the pipes such as Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC ) pipes, Polythene
Pipes (low denisity)
4. What are the two important types of conduits depending upon characteristic of
flow? (CO2-L1) [Nov/Dec 2010]
Flexible conduits are used to connect to motors or other devices where isolation
from vibration is useful, or where an excess number of fittings would be needed to use
rigid connections. Electrical codes may restrict the length of a run of some types of
flexible conduit
5.Brief a function of intake structure (CO2-L2) [May/June 2012].

The basic function of the intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water
from the source over predetermined pool levels and then to discharge this water into the
withdrawal conduit (normally called intake conduit), through which it flows up to water
treatment plant
6.What is meant by pipe appurtenances and mention their role

(CO2-L1) [Sep/Oct 2012]
It is used to connect the pipe to collect the water and send to the public or treatment
plant.
29
7.Write advantage of air lift pump. (CO2-L1)
 The pump is very reliable. The very simple principle is a clear advantage. Only
air with a higher pressure than the liquid is required.
 The liquid is not in contact with any mechanical elements
 Act as a water aerator and can in some configurations lift stagnant bottom water
to the surface (of water tanks).
 Since there are no restrictive pump parts, solids up to 70% of the pipe diameter
can be reliably pumped.
8.Name any two test to be done after laying and jointing of two pipes. (CO2-L2)
Pressure test
valve test
9.What are canal intake? (CO2-L2)

It is located in bank of canal&water enters the chamber through inlet pipe
covered with fine screen and water coming out of chamber through the outlet conduit
may b taken to sump well
10. Write short notes on spigot joint? (CO2-L2)

Cast Iron pipes being joined by a Socket and Spigot joint,used in large scale.Cast iron
pipe to be joined by socket and Spigot joint are made-such a way that one of another is
enlarged where as other end is normal.Enlarged end is Socket/bell and normal end is
spigot.Few strands of jute are wrapped around spigot before inserting-into socket.
11.Write the difference between gravity conduits and pressure conduits?

(CO2-L2)
Gravity Conduit: The water flow in open channel under action of
gravity,hydraulic gradient line coincide water surface and bed provide slope,valleys
across the hills.
Pressure Conduit: Which are close conduits,water flows under atmosheric
pressure,hydraulic gradient line obtained by joining the water surface by piezometre in
conduits various places.
12.What are the different pipe material used for water conveyance? (CO2-L2)
i) Metallic Pipes such as Cast Iron,Mild Steel,Ductile Iron,Galvanized iron.

ii)Cement Pipe:RCC,Prestressed concrete,Asbestos Cement Pressure
iii)Plastic Pipe:Unplasticised PVC,Glass-Fibre Reinforced plastic,High&Medium density
polyethylene
13. Name any two tests to be done after laying and joining two pipes(CO2-L2)
Pressure test and valve test

30
14. Write down the Hazen – William’s formula used for design of pipes. (CO2-L2)
V=0.85CH R0.63 S0.54
CH-co-efficient of hydraulic capacity,R=Hydraulic mean depth pf pipe in meter(d/4)for
circular pipes ,S=slope of energy line,V=velocity through pipes in Min
PART-B
1. What is intake structure? (CO2-H1)
INTAKES STRUCTURES
Collection and Conveyance:
 The main function of the intakes works is to collect the water from the
surface source (within limitations of the water levels) and then discharge
water so collected, by means of pumps or directly to the treatment water.
 Intakes are structures which essentially consist of opening, grating or
strainer through which the raw water from river, canal, or reservoir enters
and is carried to a sump well by means of conduits.
 Water from the sump well is pumped through the rising mains to the
treatment plant.
.The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a site for intake
works.
(i) The best quality of water should be available at the site so that it can be
easily and economically purified in less time by giving fewer loads on the
treatment plants.
(ii) At the site, there should not be heavy current of water which might
endanger the safety of the intake works.
(iii) The site should be such that intake can draw sufficient quantity of water
even in the worst condition, when the discharge of the source is minimum.
(iv) The site of intake should be easily approachable without any obstruction.
(v) The site should be such that intake work can draw more quantity of water
if required in the future i.e., there should be sufficient scope for fixture, The
31
site should not be located in navigation channels, because such water is

polluted and contains toilet and other discharges from the ships.
(vi) As far as possible the selection of the site should be near the treatment
works, it will reduce the conveyance cost from the source to the water-
works.
(vii) As far as possible the intake should not be located in the vicinity of the
point of sewage disposal. If at all it becomes necessary due to
unavoidable reasons to locate intakes in the close proximity of the sewage
disposal, a weir should be constructed upstream of the disposal point, and
the intake should be located in the upstream side of the weir.
(viii) At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion
of the water-works.
(ix) Jut case of rivers which meander or change their water course or the
discharge reduces considerably, a diversion weir oa barrage should he
constructed, which will ensure sufficient quantity of water around the
intake.
(x) Even after taking all precautions and locating the best site of intake, the
quality of water will be affected by temperature, seasonal turnover, current
due to wind and so many other causes.
Design of Intakes:
An intake should be designed and constructed out the basis of the following
points:
(i) Sufficient factor of safety should be taken so that intake work can resist
external forces caused by heavy waves and currents, impact of floating
and submerged bodies and ice pressures, etc.
(ii) Intake should have sufficient self-weight, so that it may not float by the up
thrust of water and washed away by the current. To prevent floating of
intake structure massive masonry work should be done and broken stones
should be filled in the bottom.
(iii) If intake work is constructed is navigation channels, it should be
32
protected by clusters of piles all around from the blows of the moving
ships and streamers.
(iii) The foundations of intakes should be takes sufficient deep so that they
may not be undermined and current nail overturn the structure.
(iv) To avoid the entrance of large and medium objects and fishes, screen
should be provided on the inlets, sides.
(v) The inlets of intakes should he of sufficient size and allow required
quantity of water to enter.
(vi) The positions of inlets should be such that they can admit water in all
seasons near the surface of water where quality of water is good. Number
of inlets should be more so that if any one is blocked, the water can be
drawn from others. The inlets should be completely submersible so that air
may not enter the suction pipe.
2. Explain with neat sketches,various type of intake structure based on sources.

[Nov/Dec 2012] (CO2-H1)
TYPES OF INTAKES:
Intakes are used to collect water for water works from various sources. The
sources may be lakes, rivers, reservoirs or canals. The intake work for each type of
source is designed separately according to its requirements situations. Depending
on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows
(a) Lake Intake (b) Reservoir Intake (c) River Intake (d) Canal Intake
Lake intake:
 For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. Fig.
7.1 shows a typical submersible type of intake used for collecting water
from the lakes.
 These intakes are constructed in the bed of the lake below the slow water
level so as to draw water in dry
33
concre
 season also. It essentially consists of a pipe laid in the bed of the rivers
One end, which is in the middle of the lake is fitted with bell mouth
opening covered with a mesh and protected by timber or concrete crib.
 The water enters in the pipe through the bell mouth opening and flows
under gravity to the bank where it is collected in a sump-well and then
pumped to the treatment plants for necessary treatment.
 These intakes have so many advantages such as no obstruction to the
navigation, no danger from floating bodies and no trouble due to ice. One
pipe is not sufficient two or more pipes may be laid to get the required
quantity of water.
 Fig. 7.2 shows another type of submersible intake.
 These intakes should be placed in the streams or lakes at a place where
they may not get buried under the silt in due course of time.
 These intakes are cheap in construction, therefore are widely used for
small water supply schemes which collect their water from streams or
lakes with little change in water surface throughout the year.
 As these intakes draw small quantity of water, these are not used on big
water supply schemes or on river or reservoirs.
 There main reason being that they are not easily approachable for
maintenance work.
34
River Intake:
 Water from the rivers upstream side, because it is always drawn from the
contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it. Figure 7.3 shows a
free from the circular masonry tower of typical intake used to draw water
from the river.
 It is 4 to 7 meters in diameter constructed along the bank of the river at
such place from where required quantity of water can be obtained even in
the dry period.
 The water enters in the lower portion of the intake known as sump-well
from penstocks.
 The penstocks are fitted with screens to check the entry of floating solids
and are placed on the downstream side so that water free from most of
the suspended solids may only enter the jack-well.
 The water from the sump-well of the intake in upper portion of the intake a
shown in Fin. 7.3 Number of penstock openings are provided in the intake
tower to admit water at different levels.
 The opening and closing of penstock valves is done with the help Do
wheels provided at the pump-house floor.
35
Figure 7.4 shows another type intake well which is generally constructed
inside the Ever at suitable place.
 This is also known as wet intake and essentially consists of a concrete

circular shell filled with water up to the water level inside the river.
 If the elevation of the water treatment plants is lower, the water will
directly flow under gravitational force through withdrawal conduit.
 Openings for the entrance of water are provided on the outer concrete
shell as well as on the inside shell as shown in Fig. 7.4
 In as the elevation of the water works is more than the elevation of top of
water in the river, the water is taken to the bank of river through the
withdrawal conduit in the sump well, from where it is pumped to the water
works.
 ‘Some rivers have too much variation in their discharge of monsoon and
dry season.
 If in dry weather the water level falls below the lowest penstock of the
intake well, a weir is constructed across the width the river to raise the
water level and maintaining some storage of water for dry period.
36
 In the case of shallow and broad rivers an approach channel is

constructed, so that sufficient quantity of water may reach the intake even in
dry period.
 Figure 7.5 illustrates another typical type of intake well, which can equally
be used for collecting water from river or reservoir. It is commonly known as
dry intake tower.
 The main difference between dry and wet intakes is that, in wet intake
tower the water enters first in the outer shell and then it enters in the inner
Shell but in case of dry intake the water.
 Directly enters the withdrawal conduit as shown in Fig. 7.5. The entry of
water through the ports is controlled by the cylinder gates operated from the
top, by means of wheels.
 As when there is no water inside the withdrawal conduit, the dry intake will
be subjected to greater buoyancy force.
 Hence the structure of this intake should be more massive than the wet
intake. The water from the desired depth of the river of reservoir can be
collected by opening the desired port.
37
 In case of emergency and temporary works, movable intakes can he used.

In this type of intake pumping plant is installed in a carriage or trolley and the
suction pipe having strainer pipe at the end is lowered in the water
 . The water is directly from the river and sent for the treatment and
distribution
Reservoir Intake
 There is large variation iii discharge of all the rivers during monsoon and
summer.
 The discharge of sonic rivers in summer reclaims sufficient to meet up the
demand, but some rivers dry up partly or fully and cannot need the hot
weather demand. In such cases reservoirs are constructed by constructing
weirs or dams across the rivers.
 Figure 7.7 shows a reservoir intake which is mostly used to draw the water
from earthen darn reservoir.
 It essentially consists of an intake tower constructed the slope of the dam
at such place front where intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even
iii the driest period. Intake pipes are fixed at different level, so as to draw
water near the surface in ill variations of water level.
 These all inlet pipes are connected to one variant pipe inside the intake
well. Screens are provided at the mouth of all intake pipes to prevent the
entrance of floating and suspended matter in them.
 The water which enters the vertical pipe is taken to the other side of the
darn by means of an outlet pipe. At the top of the intake lower sluice
valves are provided to control the flow of water. The valve tower is
connected to the to of lie d:1 by means of a foot bridge gang— way for
reaching it.
38
In time case -of earthen darns intake towers are separately constructed
but itt R.C.C. of masonry dams it is reconstructed inside the darn itself and totally
porters -or intake-pipe are provided at various levels as in 7.8.
Canal Intake:
 As the water level in the canals remains more or less constant, there is no
necessity of providing pores at various levels. Canal intake is a very simple
structure constructed o the bank. Figure 7.9 essentially slows a canal intake.
 It essentially consists of a pipe placed in a brick masonry chamber
constructed partly in the canal bank. On one side of the chamber as opening
is provided with coarse street for the entrance of water.
 The netted of the pipe in side changer is provided with a bell-mouth fitted with
a hemispherical fine street as shown in Fig. 7.9. The out-let pipe carries the
39
water to the other side of the canal bank from where it is taken to the
treatment plains.
 One sluice valve which is operated by a wheel from the top of the masonry
chamber is provided to control the flow of water in the pipe.
3.Explain the different joints used in water supply distribution system.

(CO2-H1) [Nov/Dec 2012]
PIPE JOINTS
 For the facilities in handling, transporting and placing in position, pipes are
manufactured in small lengths of 2 to 6 meters.
 These small pieces of pipes are then joined together after placing in
position, to make one continuous length of pipe line.
 The design of these joints mainly depends on the condition of the pipe,
internal water pressure and the condition of the support.
 The bell and spigot joint, using lead as filling materials is mostly used for
cast iron pipes.
 For steel pipes welded, riveted, flanged or screwed joints may be used.
RC.C. and asbestos pipes are jointed by special types of joints. If the
joints supports is likely to take settlement, flexible type of joint should be
used.
40
 On the other hand if the joint has to bear shocks and vibration, Victoulic or
Dresser Coupling joints should be used.
Various types of joints which are mostly used, are as follows:
(i) Spigot and socket joint.

(ii) Expansion joint.
(iii) Flanged joint
(iv) Mechanical joint
(v) Flexible joint
(vi) Screwed joint.
(vii) Collar joint.
(viii) A.C.pipe joint.
Spigot and Socket joint:
 Sometimes this is called bell and spigot joint. This type of joint is mostly
used for cast iron pipes.
 For the construction of this joint the spigot or normal end of one pipe is
slipped in socket or bell end of the other pipe until contact is made at the
base of the bell.
 After this yarn of hemp is wrapped around the spigot end of the pipe and
is tightly filled in the joint by means of yarning iron up to 5 cm depth. The
hemp is tightly packed to maintain regular annular space and for
preventing jointing mutual from falling inside-the pipe.
 After packing of hemp a gasket or joint runner is clamped in place round
the joint so that it fits tightly against the outer edge of the bell.
 Sometimes wet clay is used to make tight contact between the runner and
the pipe so that hot lead may not run out of the joint space.
 The molten lead is then poured into the V-shaped opening left in the top
by the damped joint runner. The space between the hemp yarn and the
clamp runner is filled with
41
 Molten lead. When the lead has hardened, the runner is removed. The
lead which shrinks while cooling is again tightened by means of chalking
tool and hammer.
 The quantity of lead required per joint varies from 3.5 to 4 kg for 15 cm.
din pipe, to about 45 kg for 120 mm diameter pipe.
 This is somewhat slightly flexible joint, allow the pipes 10 be laid on flat
curved without pipe specials.
 Nowadays sometimes to reduce the cost of filling lead, certain patented
compounds of sulphur and other materials are filled iii the joints, but these
materials do not provide flexibility equal to that of lead.
Expansion Joint:
 This joint is used at such places where pipes expand or contract due to
change in atmospheric temperature and thus checks the setting of thermal
stresses in the pipes.
 The given Fig. 7.14 clearly illustrates an expansion joint. In this joint the
socket end is flanged with cast iron follower ring, which can freely slide on
the spigot end or plane end of other pipe.
 An elastic rubber gasket is tightly pressed between the annular space of
socket and spigot by means of bolts as shown in. the figure.
 In the beginning while fixing the follower ring some space is left between
the socket base and the spigot end for the free movement of the pipes
under variation of temperatures.
42
 In this way when the pipe expands the socket end moves forward and
when pipes contract, it moves backward in the space provided for it. The
elastic rubber gasket in every position keeps the joint watertight
Flanged Joint:
 This joint is mostly used for temporary pipe lines, because the pipe line
can be dismantled and again assembled at other place. (See figure 7.15)
 The pipe in this case has tinges on its both ends, cast, welded or screwed
with the pipe.
 The two ends of the pipes which are to he jointed together are brought in
perfect level near one another, and placing one hard rubber washer
between flanges are bolted.
 Placing of washer or gasket of tuber, canvas, copper or lead between the
two ends of flanges is very necessary for securing a perfect water-tight
joint.
43
 This joint cannot be used at such places where it has to bear vibrations or
deflection of pipes etc.
 These joints are commonly used for jointing pumping stations, filter plants,
hydraulic laboratories, and boiler house etc. where it may he necessary to
occasionally dismantle and reassemble the pipe lines.
 If the steel pipes are to be jointed by these joints, it is better to screw the
separately east Flanges on the pipes and then they are jointed.
Mechanical Joints:
This type of joint is used for jointing cast iron, steel or wrought iron pipes, when
both the ends of the pipes are pl un or spigot. There are two types of mechanical
joints.
(a) Dresser—couplings.
 It essentially consists of one middle ring, two follower rings and two rubber
gaskets. The two follower rings are connected together by bolts, and when
they are tightened, they press both the gaskets tightly below the ends of
the middle ring. In this way the tonight remains watertight. See Fig. 7.16.
 These joints are very strong and rigid, and can withstand vibrations and
shocks up to certain lined these joints are most suitable for carrying water
lines over bridges, where it has to bear vibrations.
(b) Victaulic Joint:

 In this type of joint a gasket or leak proof ring is slipped over both the
ends of the pipes as shown in the Fig. 7.17.
44
 This gasket is pressed from all sides on both the pipes by means of half
iron couplings by bolts.
 The ends of pipes are kept sufficient apart to allow for tree expansion,
contraction mid deflection.
 This joint can bear places shocks, vibrations etc. and is used for cast-
iron, steel or wrought iron pipe lines in exposed.
Flexible Joint:
 Sometimes this joint is also called Bell and socket or universal joint. This
joint is used at such places where settlement is likely to occur after the
laying of the pipes.
 This joint can also be used for laying pipes on curves, because at the joint
the pipes can be laid at angle.
 This is a special type of joint. The socket end is cast in a spherical shape
as shown in Fig. 7.18.
 The spigot end is plain but has a bead at the end. For the assembling of
this joint, the spigot end of one pipe is kept in the spherical end of the
other pipe.
 After this retainer ring is slipped this is stretched over the bead. Then a
rubber gasket is moved which touches the retainer right. Alter it split cast
iron gland ring is placed, the outer surface of which has the same shape
as inner surface of socket end.
 Over this finally cast iron follower ring is moved and is fixed to the socket
cud by means of bolts as shown in the figure. Front Fig. 7.18 it is very
clear that if one pipe is given any deflection the ball shaped portion will
move inside the socket and the joint will remain waterproof in all the
positions.
Screwed Joint:
 This joint is mostly used for connecting small diameter cast iron, wrought
iron and galvanized pipe
45
 The ends of the pipes have threads on outside, while socket or coupling
has threads on the inner side.
 The same socket is screwed on both the ends of the pipes to join them.
For making water tight joint zinc paint or hemp yarn should be placed in
the threads of the pipe, before screwing socket over it.
Collar-Joint:
 This type of joint is mostly used for joining big diameter concrete and
asbestos cement pipes.
 The ends of the two pipes are brought in one level before each other.
Then rubber gasket between steel rings or jute-rope soaked in cement is
46
kept in the grove and the collar is placed at the joint so that it should have
the same lap on both the pipes.
 Now 1:1 cement mortar is filled the space between the pipes and the
collar as shown in Fig.7.20.
3.a)Explain a jet pump with neat sketch. [Nov/Dec 2012]
The basic principle of jet pumps consists in the liquid or gas jet being emitted by a
nozzle at high speed entraining and accelerating the surrounding liquid, gas or solid
matter. The result of this action is a mixture of the driving and entrained (sucked) fluids,
the velocity of which is reduced and the pressure increased in a second nozzle.
4. Discuss about factors influencing the selection of pump. (CO2-H1) [Nov/Dec

2012]
SELECTION OF PUMP
Before the selection of a particular pump, there are various factors which
must be kept in view. Broadly, following are the main factors which should be
considered while doing selection of pump for a particular scheme: -
(i) Capacity. It should be capable of pumping required quantity of water.

47
(ii) Reliability. It should- be reliable and should not fail suddenly and cause trouble.
(iii) Cost. It should be cheap in initial cost.
(iv) Power The power which is used for running pumps should be available easily at low
cost.
(v) Maintenance. The maintenance- cost of running pumps should be as small as

possible.
(vi Efficiency. Pump should have high efficiency.
(vii) Depreciation. It should have long life and depreciation cost should be small.
(viii) Cost of lab our. It should be low.
(ix) Number of pumping units required.
(x) Total lift of the water required.
(xi) Quality of water to be pumped.
 In addition to the above points, pumps should require less floor area can meet
variation in load; have flexibility in operation can be easily started and should
have high suction lift.
 Mostly centrifugal pumps are used in all water-works, because they are most
satisfactory, economical than all other types of pumps. For pumping water front
wells.
 When the water contains suspended impurities, air lift pumps are found most
satisfactory.
 Reciprocating pumps are suitable when the water is to be pumped against high
but variable heads with higher suction lift. Reciprocating pumps can only be used
for pumping very clear water, because if water contains suspended particles, it
will interrupt in the working of the pumps.
48
 Nowadays the reciprocating pumps are outdated. For all the ordinary pumping
centrifugal pumps should be used, as they work satisfactorily and require less
maintenance.
 For small discharge rotary pumps may be used as they are equally good to
centrifugal pumps.
 mps may be used. Horizontal spindle centrifugal pumps are very commonly
used. As these pumps require priming if placed above the water, hence if large
quantity of water is to be pumped, as far as possible these pumps should be kept
under water.
 If the water’s to be taken &ohm number of wells at a time, the air lift pump may
be cheapest, as one compressor unit will operate all the air lift pumps. But the
efficiency of these pumps is low.
5.Explain In Detail About Types Of Pumps (CO2-H1)
The function of pump is to left the water or any fluid to higher elevation or athigher
pressure. Pumps are driven by electricity ,diesiel or steam power. They are helpful in
pumping water from the sources, that is from intake to the treatment plant and from
treatment plant to the distribution system or service reservoir . In homes also pumps are
used to pump water to upper floors or to store water in tanks over the buildings.
TYPES OF PUMPS AND THEIR SUITABILITY
Based on the mechanical principle of water lifting pumps are classified as the
following
Sl.No Type of Pump Examples Suitability
1. Displacement pumps Reciprocating pumps. Rotary, chain, gear
wheel, pump and wind mills.
This type of pumps are suitable for moderate heads and small discharges suitable for
fire protection, water supply of individual houses.
2. Velocity pumps Centrifugal pumps, deep well, turbine
pumps, jet pumps
This type of pumps are used widely in water supply schemes containing sand, silt etc.
49
3. Boyancy pumps Airlifting pumps Airlifting pumps are generally adopted for pumping
of water
from deep wells to a lift of
about 60m containing mud, silt, debries etc.
4. Impulse pumps Hydraulic Ram Used for Small water supply projects to left the water
for a
height of about 30m or so.
6.Explain in detail about Centrifugal Pumps and its Components
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Centrifugal force is made use of in lifting water . Electrical energy is converted to

potential or pressure energy of water.
COMPONENT PARTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Centrifugal pump consists of the following parts as shown in fig 6.8
1. CASING: The impellor is enclosed in the casing, which is so designed that kinetic
energy of the liquid is converted into pressure energy before it leaves the casing.
2. Delivery pipe
3. Delivery valve
4. Impeller
5. Prime mover
6. Suction pipe
7. Strainer and foot valve

DESCRIPTION
The pump consists of a Impeller is enclosed in a water tight casing. Water at lower level
is
sucked into the impellor through a suction pipe. Suction pipe should be air tight and
bends in this pipe should be avoided. A strainer foot valve is connected at the bottom of
the suction pipe to prevent entry of foreign matter and to hold water during pumping .
Saction pipe is kept larger in diameter than delivery pipe to reduce cavitations and
losses due to friction. An electric motor is coupled to the central shaft to impart energy.
50
WORKING PRINCIPLE
When the impellor starts rotating it creates reduction of pressure at the eye of the
impellor, which
sucks in water through the suction pipe. Water on entering the eye is caught between
the vanes of the impeller. Rapid rotation of the impellor sets up a centrifugal force and
forces the water at high velocity outwards against the causing convert the velocity
energy into pressure energy which is utilized to overcome the delivery head
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Priming – Priming means filling up of the suction and casing completely with water.
Pressure
and suction developed by the impellor is proportional to the density of the fluid and the
speed of rotation. Impellor running in air will produce only negligible negative pressure
on the head. Hence it is required that is the casing and impellor is filled with water
through a funnel and cock. Trapped air is released through pet cock. Initially the delivery
valve is closed and the pump started. The rotation impellor pushes the water in the
casing into the delivery pipe and the water in the casing into the delivery pipe and the
resulting vacuum is filled by water raising through the suction pipe. The pass valve is
opened while closing the bypass valve , while stopping the pump delivery valve is
closed first and the pump switched off.
Maintenance may be 1) preventive maintenance 2 Break down maintenance.
Preventive maintenance
Locates the sources of trouble and keep the equipment in good operating condition. It
involves
oiling, greasing of stuffing boxes, observing the temperature of the motor and the pump
bearings, checking the valves, strainer, electrical contacts, earthings etc.
Break down maintenance
Involves replacement of wornout components and testing . Sufficient amount of

spares of
impellors, bearings, slip-ring brushes, stater-contacts, gland packing, greases, oils,

jointing materials, valves are to be kept instock to attend to the emergencies. It is usual
to have one stand by pump in addition to the required number of pumps.
51
6.Explain the points to be considered in selection of pumps (CO2-H1)
SELECTION OF PUMP HORSE POWER
Basic data regarding the water availability like diameter, depth of the well, depth of the
water table, seasonal variations of water table, drawdown duration of pumping and safe
yield are to be collected accurately before selecting a pump. There are many varieties
of specifications and choices available in the market and it is a tricky problem facing an
engineer to select the best suited for his requirement.
POINT TO BE OBSERVED IN SELECTING A PUMP
1. Capacity and efficiency - The pump should have the capacity required and
optimum
efficiency.
2. Lift - Suction head from the water level to the pump level 3. Head – It is also called
delivery head. Generally the total head suction and delivery head)
should meet all possible situations with respect to the head.
4. Reliability – A reputed manufacture or similar make pump already in use may give the
failure rate and types of troubles.
5. Initial cost: The cost of the pump and its installation cost should be minimum.
6. Power – Power requirements should be less for operation
7. Maintenance – Maintenance cost should be minimum. Availability of spares and cost

of spares are to be ascertained.
HORSE-POWER OF PUMP
The horse-power H.P.) of a pump can be determined by calculated the work done
by a pump in raising the water upto H height.
Let the pump raise ‘W’ kg of water to height ‘H’ m
Then workdone by pump = W X H Kg m
= WQH mkg/sec
Where W → density of water in kg/m3. Q → water discharge by pump in m3/sec
52
Discharge x Total head
The water horse power = ------------------------------------
75
W ×Q×H
W.H.P. = --------------------------------
75
W. H. P Break Horse Power = ----------------
Efficiency
W. H. P
= --------------
75 × η
7. Explain the points to be considered in selection of Pipes (CO2-H1)
PIPES AND REQUIREMENTS
Pipes convey raw water from the source to the treatment plants in the distribution
system. Water
is under pressure always and hence the pipe material and the fixture should withstand
stresses due to the internal pressure, vaccum pressure, when the pipes are empty,
water hammer when the values are closed and temperature stresses.
REQUIREMENTS OF PIPE MATERIAL
1. It should be capable of with standing internal and external pressures
2. It should have facility of easy joints
3. It should be available in all sizes, transport and errection should be easy.
4. It should be durable
5. It should not react with water to alter its quality
6. Cost of pipes should be less
53
7. Frictional head loss should be minimum
8. The damaged units should be replaced easily.
8.Explain in detail about types of pipes (CO2-H1)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES
The following are the different types of pipes
1. Cast Iron
2. Steel
3. Prestressed concrete
4. R.C.C
5. A.C. Pipes
6. Galvanised Iron (G.I
7. P.V.C and plastic pipes
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES
A. Cast iron Pipes
Advantages
1. Cost is moderate
2. The pipes are easy to join
3. The pipes are not subjected to corrosion
4. The pipes are strong and durable
5. Service connections can be easily made
6. Usual life is about 100 years
Disadvantages
1. Breakage of pipes are large
2. The carrying capacity of these pipes decreases with the increase in life of pipes.
3. The pipes are not used for pressure greater than 0.7
54
N/mm2
4. The pipes are heavier and uneconomical beyond 1200 mmdia.
B. Steel Pipes
Advantages
1. No. of Joinings are less because these are available
in long lengths
2. The pipes are cheap in first cost
3. The pipes are durable and strong enough to resist high internal water pressure
4. The pipes are flexible to some extent and they can therefore laid on curves
5. Transportation is easy because of light weight.
Disadvantages
1. Maintenance cost is high
2. The pipes are likely to be rusted by acidic or alkaline water
3. The pipes require more time for repairs during breakdown and hence not suitable for
distribution pipes
4. The pipes may deform in shape under combined action of external forces
C. Prestressed concrete pipes
Advantages
1. The inside surface of pipes can be made smooth
2. Maintenance cost is low
3. The pipes are durable with life period 75 years
4. No danger of rusting
5. These pipes donot collapse or fail under normal traffic
Disadvantages
55
1. The pipes are heavy and difficult to transport
2. Repairs of these pipes are difficult
3. The pipes are likely to crack during transport and handling operations
4. There pipes are affected by acids, alkalies and salty
loads waters.
D. R.C.C Pipes
Advantages
1. There are pipes are most durable with usual life of
about 75 years
2. The pipes can cast at site work and thus there is reduction in transport charges
3. Maintenance cost is less
4. Inside surface of pipe can made smooth
5. No danger of rusting.
Disadvantages
1. Transportation is difficult
2. Repair work is difficult
3. Initial cost is high
4. These pipes are affected by acids, alkalies and salty waters.
E. A.C. Pipes
Advantages
1. The inside surface of pipes are very smooth
2. The joining of pipe is very good and flexible
3. The pipes are anticorrosive and cheap in cost
4. Light in weight and transport is easy
5. The pipes are suitable for distribution pipes of small size.

56
Disadvantages
1. The pipes are brittle and therefore handling is difficult
2. The pipes are not durable
3. The pipes cannot be laid in exposed places
4. The pipes can be used only for very low pressures
F. Galvanished Iron pipes
Advantages
1. The pipes are cheap
2. Light in weight and easy to handle
3. The pipes are easy to jion
1. The pipes are affected by acidic or alkaline waters
2. The useful life of pipes is short about 7 to 10 years.
G. P.V.C. Pipes
Advantages
1. Pipes are cheap
2. The pipes are durable
3. The pipes are flexible
4. The pipes are free from corrosion
5. The pipes are good electric insulators
6. The pipes are light in weight and it can easy to mould any shape
Disadvantages
1. The co-effcient of expansion for plastic is high
2. It is difficult to obtain the plastic pipes of uniform composition
3. The pipes are less resistance to heat
4. Sometypes of plastic impart taste to the water.

57
9.Explain in detail about the procedure of laying and testing of pipes (CO2-H1)
LAYING AND TESTING
 Pipelines carrying water are laid 0.6m to 1m below the ground surface. Just
before covering the trench with the earth, the pipe joints are to be tested for
leakage. Jionts are inspected visually during the test and relaid wherever
required.
 Pressure of pumping mains are tested for 11/2 times the operating pressure in
the pipe for24 hours . The pressure is increased gradually at the rate of
1kg/cm2/minute. Loss of water by leakage is made up at not more than 0.1lit/mm
of diameter of pipe per km per day for every 0.3N/mm2 pressure applied.
 Allowable leakage during test is calculated by a formula QL = ND√p / 115
Where QL → Allowable leakage in lit/day
N → No. of joints
P → Average test pressure
D → diameter of pipe in mm
 The above value is applicable for C.I A.C and concrete pipes. For steel and
prestressed concrete pipes 3 times the above value is allowed.
 Gravity pipes are tested with hydrostatic head of 2.5m at the highest point in
thepipe for 10minutes permissible leakage is 0.2 litres / mm of diameter pipe per
day per kilometer length.
10.Explain in detail about maintenance of pipes (CO2-H1)
MAINTENANCE OF PIPES
Hygienic quality and adequate flow in the pipe lines are to be maintained,
preventive maintenance of pipes includes the following
1. Detection of leaks in faulty joints ferrule connections, pipes and fittings inside the
consumer premises,
2. Detection of corrosion in pipes, fractures and replacement of these portions
3. The wastage of water 15 to 25% of leakage through pipe joints should be brought
down to the minimum possible extent by adopting suitable preventive measures
4. Cleaning of pipes by flushing and disinfection of pipes
58
5. Protection against pollution
6. The records of regarding the lengths of pipe laid, length of pipe repaired or replaced,
expenditure incurred, no. of fire hydrants , no. of service connections and all other
relevant data inconnection with the distribution system should maintained for ready
reference.
11. Explain In Detail About causes and prevention pipe corrosion (CO2-H1)
PIPE CORROSION –AND PREVENTION
The term pipe corrosion is used to indicate the loss of pipe material due to action
of water Internal pipe corrosion) and action of water logged soil above the pipe surface
external pipe corrosion) by the results of corrosion, troublesome to
botwhwwth.aennawunaivteerzrity.com authority and consumers. The various factors
contributing to the pipe corrosion are
CAUSES OF PIPE CORROSION
1. ACIDITY: The water having low PH value due to the presence of carbonic acid or
other acids may cause corrosion
2. ALKANITY: The water possessing sufficient calcium bicarbonate alkanilinity is anti -

corrosive in nature
3. BIOLOGICAL ACTION: The growth of iron-bacteria, and sulphur bacteria may

develop aerobic and anaerobic corrosion respectively.
4. CHLORINATION: The presence of free chlorine or chloramines makes the water

corrosive
5. ELECTRICAL CURRENTS: Corrosion canals also be developed by the union of

dissimilar metals or by the earthing of electrical system to water pipes. 6. MINERAL
AND ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS: The presence of high total solids in water
accelerates the process of corrosion
7. OXYGEN: the presence of oxygen is found in both the corrosive and non-corrosive
waters. The aeration infact is employed in some cases for prevention of corrosion.
EFFECTS OF PIPE CORROSION
1. Pipe corrosion may lead to the tuberculation (formation of small projections on the
59
inside surface of pipe which decreases carrying capacity of water
2. The pipe corrosion leads to the disintegration of pipeline and it demands heavy
repairs
3. The pipe corrosion imparts colour, taste and odour to the flowing water
4. The pipe connections are seriously affected by pipe corrosion
5. The pipe corrosion may make the water dangerous for drinking and other purposes.
PREVENTION OF PIPE CORROSION
Pipe corrosion is not possible to completely eleminate but we can minimise by the
following methods.
1. Cathodic protection: By connecting the pipe line to the negative pole of D.C.
generator or to the anode metals like magnesium so that the entire pipe acts as
cathode. This cathodic treatment is most effective. It is expensive and involves many
practical problems
2. Proper pipe material: The alloys of Iron or steel with cromium, copper or nickel are
found to be more resistance
3. Protective Linings: The pipe surface should be coated with asphalt, bitumen, cement
mortar, paints, resins, tar, zinc etc.
4. Treatment of water: By proper treatment and adjustment of PH value, control of

calcium carbonate, removal dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, addition of sodium
silicate etc prevent the pipe corrosion.
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UNIT -3 WATER TREATMENT
PART-A
1. Define detention period? (CO3-L1)
Detention period of settling tank may be defined as the average theoretical time required for the
water to flow through tank length.
2. Define coagulation? (CO3-L1)
The process of addition and mixing the chemical is called coagulation.
3. Define filtration? What are the 2 types of filter? (CO3-L1)
The process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is known as
filtration. The two types of filters are,
a. Slow sand gravity filter.
b. Rapid sand gravity filter.
4. Define uniform coefficient? (CO3-L1)
It is defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through which 60% of the samples of sand will
pass, to the effective size of the sand.
5. Define sterilization? (CO3-L1)
The chemical used in killing these bacteria are known as disinfectants and the process is known
as disinfection or sterilization.
6. What is chloramine? (CO3-L1)
Chloramine is the disinfectant compounds which are formed by the reaction between ammonia
and chlorine.
7. What is softening? (CO3-L1)
The reduction or removal of hardness from water is known as water softening.
8. Define alkalinity? (CO3-L1)
It is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize the hydrogen ion. It will
thus represent the ability of water to neutralize acid.
9. What is permutit? (CO3-L1)
The most common artificial zeolite is a white colored substance called permutit manufactured
from feldspar, kaolin, clay, and soda.
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10. Differentiate between slow and rapid sand filter (CO3-L2)
(a). Rate of filtration. (b). loss of head.
11. What are the methods of removing permanent hardness? (CO3-L1)
The methods removing permanent hardness are, a. Lime soda process.
b. Base exchange process called zeolite process.
c. Demineralization.
12. How are aeration water carried out? (CO3-L1)
Aeration water are carried out as follows, a. By using spray nozzles.
b. By permitting water to trickle over the cascades. c. By air diffusion.
d. By using trickling beds.
13. Define fluoridation? (CO3-L1)
The process of adding fluoride compounds in excess is called as the fluoridation.
14. What are the methods of desalination? (CO3-L1)
The methods of desalination are,
a. Desalination by evaporation & distillation. b. Electro dialysis method.
c. Reverse osmosis method.
d. Freezing process.
e. Solar distribution method. f. Other method.
15. What is different system of distribution networks? (CO3-L2)
The different system of distribution networks is, a. Dead end system.
b. Grid iron system. c. Ring system.
d. Radial system.
16. What are various methods of distribution system? (CO3-L2)
The various methods of distribution system are, a. Gravity system.
b. Pumping system.
c. Combined gravity and pumping system.
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17. Define fire storage? (CO3-L1)
It is sufficient amount of water available in the reservoir for throwing it over the fire in case of fire
accidents is called fire storage.
18. Enumerate various chemical parameter of water? (CO3-L1)
Various chemical parameter of water are, a. Chlorine content.
b. Nitrogen content.
c. Iron content.
d. Manganese and other metal content.
PART-B
1. What are the objectives of water treatment (CO3-H1)
o To remove colour, dissolved gases and murkiness of water
o To remove objectionable tastes and odours
o To remove disease producing micro organisms so water is safe for drinking purpose
o To remove hardness of water
o To make it suitable for wide industrial purposes like brewing, dyeing and steam generation
Unit Operations (UO)
Unit operations are primary treatment of water which uses physical forces to create the desirable
changes during water treatment
Unit operations causes physical change to the water to be treated
Unit operations are mixing, agitating, aeration, absorption, membrane separation, distillation,
sedimentation and filtration
Unit process (UO)
Unit processes are secondary treatment of water which uses chemicals to get desirable changes
during water treatment
Unit process causes chemical changes to the water treated
Unit processes are oxidation, nitrification, coagulation, chlorination and disinfection
S.N
o Units UO
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(or) UP Principle Applications
1. Micro strainer UO Remove algae and plankton from the raw
water
2. Aeration UP Strips and oxidizes taste and odour causing
volatile organics and gases and oxidizes iron and manganese. Aeration systems include gravity
aerator, spray aerator, diffuser and mechanical aerator.
3. Mixing UO Provides uniform and rapid distribution of
chemicals and gases into the water.
4. Pre-oxidation UP Application of oxidizing agents such us ozone,
potassium permanganate, and chlorine compounds in raw water and in other treatment units; retards
microbiological growth and oxidizes taste, odor and colour causing compounds
5. Coagulation UP Coagulation is the addition and rapid mixing of
coagulant resulting in destabilization of the colloidal particle and formation of pin head floc
6. Flocculation UO Flocculation is aggregation of destabilized
turbidity and colour causing particles to form a rapid-settling floc
7. Sedimentation UO Gravity separation of suspended solids or floc
produced in treatment processes. It is used after coagulation and flocculation and chemical
precipitation.
8. Filtration UO Removal of particulate matter by percolation
through granular media. Filtration media may be single (sand, anthracite, etc.), mixed, or
multilayered.
9. Disinfection UP Destroys disease-causing organisms in water
supply. Disinfection is achieved by ultraviolet radiation and by oxidative chemicals such as chlorine,
bromine, iodine, potassium permanganate, and ozone, chlorine being the most commonly used
chemical
2. Explain in detail about Water treatment process (CO3-H1)
Screening, Aeration, Sedimentation, filtration and disinfection
Screening:
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Screens acts as protective device which protects the treatment plant from sticks, branches, leaves
and fine particles of sand and silt.
Types: (i) Coarse screen (ii) Fine screen (iii) Micro strainers
Coarse screens
* Coarse screens or bar screens are used to stop gross floating materials
* 25 mm size bars are placed at 75 to 100 mm centre to centre
* Usually bars are inclined on a slope of 3 to 6 vertical to 1 horizontal
* Strained water enters vertical screens leaving behind leaves, debris as sediment
* Straining is achieved by upward flow leaving behind debris and waste
* Self flushing inclined screen
Fine screens
* Water enters through fine screens after passing through coarse screen
* Fine screens are assembled as end less bands or drums with perforations 6mm diameter
* Usually fine screens are automatic strainers which continuously remove solids from water and
deposit it to collecting tray
* Fine screen strainers are partly submerged in water
Micro strainers
* Micro strainers have 23 micron and 35 micron of stainless steel wire cloth wrapped around revolving
drum with continuous back washing assembly
* Used to clean stored water with less suspended matter but with plankton, algae and micro particles
* Installed before rapid or slow sand filters which increases efficiency of filters by 50%
* While operation drum is submerged 2/3 rds of total size and water enters in to the drum and passes
out radially
* The solids are carried upside of drum and collected to get washed of by jet of water which is 1% of
total water strained
* 3m X 3m drum strains 50000 to 80000 lph and it cannot remove colour and finely divided clay
Coagulation:
Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by addition of chemicals that neutralize the negative
charges
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The chemicals are known as coagulants, usually higher valence cationic salts (Al3+, Fe3+ etc.)
ss
Floc: When coagulant is dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed in it, thick gelatinous precipitate
know as floc is formed
Flocculation:
Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into large size particles known as flocs
which can be effectively removed by sedimentation or flotation.
Colloidal Characteristics:
Water colloids classified according to water affinity Hydrophilic colloids and hydrophobic colloids
Hydrophilic colloids
These types of colloids have affinity towards water due to presence of water soluble compounds like
amino, carboxyl, sulfonic, hydroxyl groups on the colloidal surface.
These groups of compounds promote hydration which causes water film collection and surround the
hydrophilic colloid
Example: Proteins soaps and synthetic detergents
Hydrophobic colloids
These type of colloids have little affinity towards water, so no significant water film or hydration is
observed.
Example: Clay, metal
Test to determine optimum pH and Coagulant
– a laboratory procedure to determine the optimum pH and the optimum coagulant

dose
Determination of optimum pH
Optimum pH:
water sample (500 or 1000 mL) – usually 6 jars
7.0; 7.5)
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5 or 10 mg/L)
x each jars at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix helps to disperse the coagulant
throughout each container
This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions, which lead to
larger flocs
Determination of Optimum Coagulant Dosage
Jar Test Apparatus
This time adjust pH of all jars at optimum (6.3 found from first test) while mixing using H2SO4 or
NaOH/lime
Add different doses of the selected coagulant (alum or iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose: 5; 7;
10; 12; 15; 20 mg/L)
throughout each container
to settle for 30 to 45 mins
Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5
3. Explain in detail about Coagulantion (CO3-H1)
Factors influencing selection of Coagulant
1. Easily availability in dry and liquid forms
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2. Economical
3. Effective over wide range of pH
4. Produces less sludge
5. Less harmful for environment
6. Quick reaction to form flocs
Factors affecting coagulation
1. Types of coagulant
2. Quantity or dose of coagulant
3. Characteristics of water such as
- Type and quantity of suspended matter
- Temperature of water
- pH of water
4. Time, turbulence and method of mixing
Commonly used coagulants are:
• Aluminum Sulphate or Alum
• Chlorinated Copperas
• Ferrous sulphate and lime
• Magnesium Carbonate
• Polyelectrolytes
• Sodium Aluminate
1.Aluminium sulphate or Alum
Commonly used coagulant with chemical formula Al2(SO4)3 18H2O
Many waters have bicarbonate alkalinity which is required for alum coagulation Water insoluble
compound aluminium hydroxide is formed which is floc Al2(SO4)3 18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 =
2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O + 6CO2
Natural alkalinity is insufficient to react with alum, so lime is added which forms Calcium
hydroxide or hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2)
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Al2(SO4)3 18H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 = 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O
Sodium carbonate is added to form alkalinity which does not hardness but it is expensive
Al2(SO4)3 18H2O + 3Na2CO2 = 2Al(OH)3 + 3NaSO4 + 18H2O + 3CO2
Advantages
Alum is effective for water pH between 6.5 to 8.5
Dosage varies between 10 to 30 mgl/L depends on turbidity, colour, taste, pH and temperature
Alum reduces taste, odour and turbidity
Cheap and strong flocs
Produces crystal clear water
Alum recovery at ¼ th of the cost of alum is possible
Disadvantage
Alum coagulation results in permanent hardness resulting in calcium sulphate
Metal corrosive carbon dioxide is formed while coagulation
Sludge dewatering is difficult
Limited pH range of 6.5 to 8.5 which requires additional salts which is costly
Land fill of alum sludge in low lying lands are difficult which results in salinity
2.Chlorinated Copperas
Hydrated Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) is referred as copperas
High solubility makes it usable as coagulant at usual pH range
After chlorination it is oxidised to ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3) and ferric chloride (FeCl3)
before mixing with bulk water
Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride are called as copperas they immediately form ferric hydroxide floc
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 = 3CaSO4 + 2Fe(OH)3
2FeCl3 + 3Ca(OH)2 = 3CaCl2 + 2Fe(OH)3
Advantages
Quickly flocs are formed
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Chlorinated copperas is effective in removing colour
Theoretical ratio of chlorine to copperas is 1 to 7.8
Independent use of ferric chloride is effective for 3.5 to 6.5 and above 8.5 pH High pH level it is
suitable for removing manganese
Independent use of ferric sulphate is effective over a pH range of 4 to 7 and above 9
Disadvantages
Low solubility in cold water
Cost is high when compared to alum
Special solution arrangements are required in cold water
3.Ferrous sulphate and lime
Ferrous sulphate reacts with natural bicarbonate alkalinity slowly
Lime is added to copperas to speed up flocculation
FeSO4.7H2O + Ca(OH)2 = Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 + 7H2O
Formed ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)2) floc is oxidised by dissolved oxygen in water to ferric hydroxide
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O = 4Fe(OH)3
Advantages
Ferric hydroxide is a gelatinous floc heavier than alum floc
Effective pH range is 8.5 and above Suitable for alkaline water
Disadvantages
Ferrous sulphate is not suitable for soft coloured waters
Not suitable for pH range 7.0 and below pH 7.0
4.Magnesium Carbonate and lime
Magnesium carbonate and lime forms magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
Advantages
Useful for removing organic colour, iron and manganese
Disadvantages
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Magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate are water soluble
Slurry is formed due to solubility
Not commonly used to treat water
5.Polyelectrolytes
Polyelectrolytes are high molecular water soluble polymers Classified based on charge as anionic,
cationic and non ionic Cationic polyelectrolytes are independent effective coagulants Other
polyelectrolytes are used as coagulant aids
With polyacrylamides non polymer materials should be absent
Advantages
Polyelectrolytes increase pH range reducing primary coagulant volume to 1 ppm Polyelectrolyte is

very small when compared to coagulant but effective in flocculation Cationic polyelectrolytes trade
names are Floccal N, Magnifloc 972 and Mogul 980
Disadvantages
Costly when compared to alum
6.Sodium Aluminate
Sodium aluminate (Na2Al2O4) is alkaline in reaction which reacts with calcium and magnesium
Na2Al2O4 + Ca(HCO3)2 = CaAl2O4 + a2CO3 + CO2 + H2O Na2Al2O4 + CaCl2 = CaAl2O4 +

2NaCl
Na2Al2O4 + CaSO4 = CaAl2O4 + Na2SO4
Advantages
Coagulant removes temporary and permanent hardness
Can be used for naturally available water with pH 6 to 8.5
Disadvantages
Costly than alum
Can be used only for natural water with pH range 6 to 8.5
Not suitable for acidic and alkaline water
4. Explain in detail about Coagulant feeding methods (CO3-H1)
Coagulant feeding methods
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(i)Dry feeding
Simple operation and requires less space
Cheap but dosing control is difficult
(ii) Wet feeding
Dosage can be adjusted automatically Chemicals of corrosive nature causes problems (i)Dry feeding
Chemical in powder form is placed in hopper bottom tank
Agitating plates are placed to prevent arching inside tank
Venture device connected to the raw water pipe rotates the toothed wheel or helical screw according
to the flow of the water
Dry feeding methods
(ii) Wet Feeding
Coagulant is prepared to required strength and stored in storage a tank which is fed in proportion to
raw water according to the flow.
The mixing is carried out by regulating devices (a) Conical Plug and Float
Coagulant solution is stored in constant head feeding tank
Coagulant feed is controlled by conical plug which is connected to float by rod rotated by rack and
pinion arrangement
Raw water channel and float channel are inter connected to maintain same water level When water
level rises the rack and pinion arrangement rotates to raise the conical plug to feed more quantity
of coagulant solution
When water flow is stopped float moves down this rotates conical plug in same direction through rack
and pinion stops flow of coagulant which is automatic
(b) Adjustable weir and float
Adjustable weir in the form of sliding cylinder having rectangular holes in the surface and its
movement is controlled by a lever system moved by the float
When flow increases float moves upwards opening the mouth of wier coagulant flow increases.
When flow decreases the wier is closed which is automatic
Coagulant Mixing methods
(i) Centrifugal Pump
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Centrifugal pump is used to raise the raw water to the settling tank
Required dose of chemical is passed through suction pipe it mixes at impeller of pump When water is
delivered gentle agitation is required to get good results of coagulation and sedimentation
(ii) Compressed air agitation
Vigorous agitation is carried out by diffusing compressed air from bottom of tankNarrow mixing
Channel with flume
Coagulant is fed from feeding tank to the narrow mixing channel with vertical baffles
Flume is provided to develop hydraulic jump to cause turbulence and to measure the flow
Channel with baffles
Channel with overflow wier
Channel with flume for hydraulic jump
Mixing basins with baffle wall
Water flows horizontally for short distance and takes complete turn which causes turbulence resulting
in mixing and this assembly is called as round the end type
Water flows up and down due to vertical baffle walls it is called as vertical or over and under type
Used in smaller water treatment plants
Mix basins with baffle basins are not used now due to high head loss and velocity variations
Mixing basins with mechanical devices
Flash mixer is used in water treatment plant now
In flash mixer coagulant is agitated vigorously by a paddle operated by a variable speed motor
Figure shows vane type flash mixer
Intensity of mixing depends upon temporal mean velocity gradient (G) Turbulence and mixing
intensity depends on power input
Propeller type impeller rotates at 400 to 1400 rpm it is widely used
Impeller speed is between 100 to 250 rpm
Detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is practised
Flash mixer units are circular or square tanks with height to diameter ratio of 1:1 to 3:1
Mean velocity gradient (G) is kept above 300 s-1 to 900 s-1
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Power requirements are from 1 to 3 watts per m3/hr of flow
Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter is 0.2:1 to 0.4:1 shaft speed of propeller is kept that the
tangential velocity greater than 3m/s is imparted at the tip of the blades
Mean velocity gradient:
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity per unit distance normal to a section
(metres/ seconds /metres)
G = √ (P/ (µV))
P = power dissipated in watts
µ = absolute viscosity in N-s/m2
V = the volume to which P is applied in m3
G = temporal mean velocity gradient (s-1)
Flash Mixer types
(a) Mechanical Vane type Propeller type Jet type
(b) Hydraulic Hydraulic jump Baffled channel Design Criteria
Impeller speed is between 100 to 250 rpm
Detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is practised
Flash mixer units are circular or square tanks with height to diameter ratio of 1:1 to 3:1
Mean velocity gradient (G) is kept above 300 s-1 to 900 s-1
Power requirements are from 1 to 3 watts per m3/hr of flow
Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter is 0.2:1 to 0.4:1 shaft speed of propeller is kept that the
tangential velocity greater than 3m/s is imparted at the tip of the blades
5. Design of mechanical rapid mix unit (CO3-H2)
# Design of mechanical rapid mix unit for a design flow to be treated equal to 300 m3/h. Assume
suitable permissible values for various parameters of design. Assume a temperature of 20˚C
Design parameters
Adopt design parameters
(i) Detention time = 30 secs
(ii)Velocity gradient G = 600 s-1

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(iii) Rotational speed of impeller: 125rpm
(iv) Ratio of tank height to diameter = 1.5:1
(v) Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter = 0.04:1
STEP 1
Determination of dimensions of the tank
Volume of tank = flow x detention time
= 300/3600 x 30 = 2.5m3
Volume = Area x depth = (π/4 x D2) x (1.5D)
2.5 = π/4 x D3
D = 1.285 m
Tank diameter = 1.3
Depth of tank = 1.3 x 1.5 = 1.95m + free board of 0.2 m
= 2.15 m
STEP 2
Computation of power requirements
P = G2µV
µ = 1.0087 x 10-3 at 20˚C
P = 6002 x 1.0087 x 10-3 x 2.5
= 908 watts
Power per unit volume = 908/2.5 (vol. of tank) = 363 watts/m3
Power per unit flow of water = 908/300 (flow) = 3.03 watts/m3/hr of flow
Determination of dimensions of flat blades and impeller
Diameter of impeller = 0.4 x tank diameter
= 0.4 x 1.3 0.52m
Velocity at the tip of the impeller vp = ((2πrn)/60) m/s
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= 2π x (0.52/2) x (125/60) = 3.40m/s
Pc = ½ x CD x ρ x Ab x v 3
Ab = area of blades
vr = relative velocity of blades = (1 - k) vp
vp = velocity at the tip of the impeller or blade
Pc = power spent = 908
ρ = density of water = 998 kg/m3 at 20˚C
k = 0.25
vr = (1 - 0.25) vp = 0.75vp = 0.75 x 3.40 = 2.55 m/s
CD = 1.8 for blades
908 = ½ x 1.8 x 998 x Ab x (2.55)3
Ab = 0.06097 m2, provide six blades of each blades area = 1/6 x 0.06097 = 0.01m2
Each blades size = 0.09 x 0.12 = 9 cm x 12 cm = 108 cm2
6. A coagulant sedimentation plant clarifies 50 MLD. The raw water alkalinity equivalent
of 4 mg/l of CaCO3. The filter alum required at the plant is 20 mg/l. Determine the filter
alum and quick lime (containing 88% to CaO) required per year by the plant. Use the
following molecular weights: (Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, Ca = 40, C = 12) (CO3-H2)
Solution:
Alum required per day = 50 x 106 x 20 = 1000 x 106 mg/day
= 1000 kg/day = 365 tonnes/year
Chemical reactions when water has sufficient alkalinity
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2
Mol. Wt of Al2(SO4)3 18H2O = (2x27) + 3(32 + 4 x 16) + 18(2 + 16) = 666
Mol. Wt of Ca(HCO3)2 = 40 + 2(1 + 12 + 48) = 162
Mol. Wt. of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100
Mol. Wt. of CaO = 40 + 16 = 56
Alum requires 3 x 162 (486) parts of natural alkalinity, Ca(HCO3)2 for every 666 parts of alum
162 parts of Ca (HCO3)2 natural alkalinity is equivalent to 100 parts of alkalinity as
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CaCO3.
Required alkalinity as CaCO3 for water containing alum of 20 mg/l
= (3 x 100 x 20)/ 666 = 9.01 mg/l
Natural alkalinity available as CaCO3 = 4 mg/l
Additional alkalinity required to be added in the form of lime
= 9.01 – 4 = 5.01mg/l as CaCo3
Since 100 parts of CaCo3 produces 56 parts of CaO, then quantity of CaO required
= (5.01 x 56)/ 100 = 2.806 mg/l
Market available quick lime contains only 88% of CaO Quick lime required = (2.806 x 100) / 88 =
3.188 mg/l
Quantity of quick lime per day = 50 x 106 x 3.188 mg = 159.4 kg/day
= 58.2 tonnes/day
7. Explain in detail about process of Flocculation: (CO3-H1)
Flocculation is slow mixing or agitating process in which destabilised colloidal particles are brought
into intimate contact in order to promote their agglomeration. The operation of slow mixing is
achieved in a basin commonly known as the flocculator.
Factors affecting flocculation
Type of turbidity Concentration of turbidity Type of coagulant
Dosage of coagulant
Temporal mean velocity gradient (G)
Flocculation methods:
(i) Gravitation or Hydraulic methods (a) Horizontal flow baffled flocculator (b) Vertical flow baffled
flocculator
(c) Jet flocculator
(ii) Mechanical methods
(iii) Pneumatic flocculation
Design Criteria for flocculator
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Depth of tank : 3 to 4.5 m
Detention time : 10 to 40 minutes, normal 30 min
Velocity of flow : 0.2 to 0.8 m/s, 0.4 m/s normal
Total area of paddles : 10 to 25 % of cross sectional area of tank Peripheral velocity of blades : 0.2
to 0.6 m/s normal 0.3 to 0.4 m/s Velocity gradient (G) : 10 to75 s-1
Factor G.td : 104 to 105
Power consumption : 10 to36 kW/MLD Outlet flow velocity : 0.15 to 0.25 m/sCD = 1.8 for flat
blades
Distance between paddle edge and side of the basin = 15 to 40 cm
K=0.25
Relative velocity is 75% of paddle velocity i.e. vr = 0.75% x vp
Area of paddles = length of blades x width x no. of blades in that compartment i.e. Ap = lb x w x n
Distance between two paddles in same compartment (in plan) = about 1m
8. Design a flocculator for design of flow to be treated equal to 300 m3/h. Assume
suitable permissible values of various parameters of design. Assume a temperature
of 20˚C. (CO3-H2)
Solution:
Design Parameters
The following design parameters are assumed: Detention period : 20 minutes
Avg. value of G : 40s-1
Speed of paddles : 4.5 rpm
Area of paddles : 15 % of the cross sectional area of basin
Velocity ratio k = 0.25
µ = 1.0087 x 10-3 N-s/m2 at 20˚C
ρ = 998 kg/m3 at 20˚C
Ratio of length to width of the tank = 2
Distance between paddle edge and side of the basin = 15 to 40 cm
STEP 1
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Computation of volume of flocculation tank
Volume of tank V = Design flow x detention time = (300/60) x 20 = 100 m3
Let the depth of the tank = 0.4B Let the length of the tank = 2B
B x 2B x 0.4B = 100, B = 5 m, L = 5 x 2 = 10 m, H = 0.4 x 5 = 2 m
STEP 2
Computation of power required
P = G2 x V x µ
= (40)2 x 100 x 1.0087 x 10-3
= 161.4 watts
STEP 3
Computation of velocity difference between the paddle and water
Let us provide paddles attached to three horizontal shafts running parallel to the length. Let each
shaft be located at mid depth of the tank. Let us provide four paddles to each shaft each running
parallel to the shaft
Distance between paddle edge and side of the basin (15 to 40 cm) = 20 cm
Distance between adjacent paddles = 20 cm
Total distance for clearance between three paddles = 4 x 20 cm = 80 cm
Space remaining for three paddles = 5m – 0.80 m = 4.2 m
Space for single paddle assembly = 4.2/3 = 1.4 = dia of single paddle assembly r = 1.4/2 = 0.7, vp =
(2π x 0.7 x 4.5) / 60 = 0.3299 m/s
vr = (1-k) vp = (1-0.25) x 0.3299 = 0.2474 m/s
STEP 4
Computation of paddle size
P = ½ x CD x ρ x Ap x vr
, CD = 1.8 for flat blades
161.4 = ½ x 1.8 x 998 x Ap x (0.2474)3
Ap = 11.87 m2
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There are total of 3 x 4 = 12 paddles, Area of each paddle = 11.87/12 = 0.989 m/s
Length of each paddle = 4.8, width of each paddle = 0.989/4.8 = 0.206 m
Provide 25 cm wide paddle with length of 4.8 m.
9. Describe the process of Sedimentation and its types(CO3-H1)
Sedimentation is the removal of suspended particles by gravitational settling Sedimentation tanks are
designed to reduce velocity of flow of water so as to permit suspended solids to settle out of the
water by gravity
Plain sedimentation:
When impurities are separated from water due to action of gravity alone then it is called plain
sedimentation
Sedimentation with coagulation or clarification:
When chemicals or other substances are added to induce the suspended solids to aggregation to
form flocs then it is called as sedimentation with coagulation or clarification
Chemical precipitation:
When chemicals are added to throw dissolved impurities out of solution it is called as chemical
precipitation
Discrete particles:
A particle that does not alter its size, shape, and weight while settling in water is known as discrete
particle
Types of settling:
Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without interaction with
neighbouring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a
faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with individual
particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only occur
through compaction of the structure.
In water treatment Type – I and Type – II settlements are encountered
Column test for a suspension exhibiting zone-settling behavior of all types of settling
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Type I Settling
• Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time.
• Settling velocity remains constant.
If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it: (1) force of gravity:
Fg=ρpgVp
(2) buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as: Fb=ρgVp
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is exerted and the particle is
accelerated in the direction of the force:
Fnet=(ρp-ρ)gVp , This net force becomes the driving force
Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction. This force, called
the drag force, is quantified by:
Types of Sedimentation tanks
Depending upon the types of operation there are two types
(i) The Quiescent or fill and draw type
(ii) The continuous flow type
(i) Fill draw type
Sedimentation tank is filled with incoming water and is allowed to rest for a 24 hours
Suspended particles settle down at the bottom of the tank during rest
The clear water is drawn out and the tank is cleaned which takes 6 to 12 hours
Cycle of operation takes 30 to 36 hours
Minimum of three units are required for constant supply
(ii) Continuous flow type tank
In factors controlling settling or sedimentation under gravity, velocity of flow can be controlled in
continuous flow type tanks
In continuous flow type tanks water flows at constant velocity in the tank
The particles settle at bottom during flow of water before it reaches to tank outlet
(a) Horizontal flow tank
(b) Vertical flow tank
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The horizontal flow type tank is generally rectangular in plan with length twice as width and water
flows at velocity 0.3 m/sec
Vertical flow type tanks are deep circular or rectangular with hopper bottom
Design of Horizontal flow sedimentation tank
The objective of design is to achieve ideal conditions of equal velocity at all vertical points in the
settling zone
Assumptions
o With in sedimentation zone the particles similarly as it would happen in quiescent tank of equal
depth
o Flow is horizontal, steady with uniform velocity in all parts of settling zone for detention period
o Concentration of suspended particles of all size is similar at vertical cross section at the inlet end
o A particle is removed when it reaches the bottom of settling zone
The settling basin can be divided onto four zones
(i) inlet zone in which the influent stream disperse over the cross section at right angles to flow
(ii) the settling zone
(iii) bottom or sludge zone
(iv) the outlet zone in which the water and remaining suspended particles assemble to be carried
away to effluent conduit
9.Design Elements of sedimentation tank (CO3-H1)
1. Detention period and displacement efficiency
Detention time is theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between entry and exit of the
settling tank
t0 = Volume of tank
Rate of flow
Rectangular tank = BLH Q
Circular tank = d2(0.011d + 0.785H) d = diameter of tank, H = depth at wall
Actual detention period should be twice as the theoretical detention period
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Flow through Period (td)
Average time required for a batch of water to pass through the settling tank
Displacement Efficiency (ηd)
The ratio of flow through period to the detention period is called as displacement efficiency
Displacement efficiency = Flow through period = td (0.2to 0.5) Detention period t0
2. Over flow rate and surface loading
The quantity of water passing per hour per unit horizontal area is known as the over flow rate or
surface loading.
Vs (cm/sec) = 1 Q
864000 A
3. Basin Dimension
The surface area of the basin is determined on the basis of the overflow rate or surface loading rate
Surface area A = Volume of water in litres/ hour
Surface loading rate in litres per hour/m2
Length to width ratio of rectangular tanks = 3:1 to 5:1
Depth = 2.5 to 5 m (preferred 3 m inclusive of sludge and free board) Horizontal velocity= 0.2 to 0.4
m/minute (0.3 m/minute)
Bottom slope = 1% in rectangular and 8% in circular
Slope of sludge hopper = 1.2:1 to 2:1 (vertical to horizontal)
4. Inlet and outlet arrangements
Inlet and outlet should not cause disturbances due to influent and effluent
Great weight due to turbidity may cause sinking and rising at outlet which may cause back flow at
inlet reducing detention period
Inlet
Ideal inlet properties (i) distribute water uniformly throughout width and depth of tank (ii) mix it with
water in tank to prevent density current (iii) minimise large scale turbulence (iv) initiate longitudinal
or radial flow to achieve high removal efficiency
Inlet must face baffle, uniform velocity is achieved by passing water through dispersion wall with
perforated holes or slots
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Slots are placed such that (i) velocity of flow through slots is about 0.2 to 0.3 m/s (ii) head loss is 1.7
times the velocity head (iii) diameter of the hole no to be larger than the thickness of the diffuser
wall
Outlet
Consists of (i) weirs, notches or orifices (ii) effluent trough or launder (iii) outlet pipe
Weir frequently consists of V notches approximately 50 mm depth placed at 150 – 300 mm on

centres with baffle provided in front of the weir to stop floating matter entering into effluent
Assuming the curve defined by water surface as parabolic and neglecting friction the equation formed
H = h2 + 2q2 L2 n2 1/2
gb2h
H = water depth at upstream of launder
h = water depth at down stream end, at distance L
q = discharge per unit length of weir b = width of launder or trough
h = number of sides the weir receives the flow
In absence of control device we assume that flow at the lower end of the launder will be at critical
depth
h = Q2 1/3 Q = total discharge in the launder = qL
b2 g
Normal weir loadings are up to 300 m3/day/m length
Scour velocity
Flow velocity should not be more than the scour velocity which will cause uplift the particles in the
sludge zone
Scour velocity, Vd = √8β g (G-1) d f‟
0.04 for unigranular sand, 0.06 for non uniform sticky material f‟ = 0.025 to 0.03(Darcy weisbach
friction factor)
5. Sludge removal
Sludge is settled particles in basin which is removed mechanically or manually
When sludge quantity is less and cleaning is required once in 2 to 4 months
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When sludge is organic septic condition is encountered resulting in odour and foul smell So sludge is
removed with rotating scrapers move sludge to collecting points from there it is sucked through
pumps
Details of Plain Sedimentation tanks
Plain sedimentation tanks are in following shapes a) Rectangular tanks with Horizontal flow
(a) Rectangular tanks with Horizontal flow
b) Circular tank with radial flow
c) Hopper bottom with vertical flow
Rectangular sedimentation tanks are provided with baffles to avoid short circuiting Up and down,
around the end baffle tanks are provided for sedimentation Rectangular sedimentation tanks are
also designed without baffles but with sludge hopper and sloping floor
Sludge is scrapped with scrappers and stored in sludge hopper
From sludge hopper sludge is sucked through sludge pipe using sludge pump
Short circuiting
If water currents permit a substantial portion of the water to pass directly through the tank with out
being detained for intended time the flow is said to be short circuited
(b) Circular tank with radial or spiral flow
Circular tanks are costlier to install but installed with mechanical scrappers
Circular tanks have radial or spiral flow
The path of water is from distributor at the centre to decanting weir at the circumference The influent
enters through a central pipe and raises upto the baffle box or influent well from where it flows
radialy towards the circumference
The racking arms move slowly to scrap sludge which is removed through the sludge pipe connected
to the sludge pump
In case of circular tank with spiral flow inlet is provided at the circumference and directed at an angle
between a radius and a tangent
The outlet is provided in the form of a submerged weir is also provided at the outer
circumference but of short length
The inlet velocity rotates the water in the tank and induces spiral path for water from inlet to outlet
Circular tank with spiral flow
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(c) Hopper bottom tank with vertical flow
Water enters through the centrally placed inlet pipe and is deflected downwards by the action of a
deflection box
Water travels downwards
The sludge settles at the bottom of the hopper from where it is removed with the help of a sludge pipe
connected to sludge pump
In upward flow settling tank water enters at top centre and flows downwards through a mixing
compartment
Then the water passes through small openings upward through the outside compartment which has
sloping side which reduces vertical flow
The solids form blanket at the zone where the vertical velocity is reduced which is
sufficient to sustain them
The formed blanket is effective in straining out rising particle which are too small to settle against the
currentHopper bottom sedimentation tank Hopper bottom tank upward flow
10. Describe the process of Filtration (CO3-H1)
It is a solid-liquid separation process in which the liquid passes through a porous medium to remove
as much fine suspended solids as possible.
Mechanical Straining
• Simplest action during filtration.
• Suspended particles having size more than that of filter voids are arrested and removed, when
water passes through filter media.
• Takes place in few centimetres of depth of filter media.
Sedimentation
• Finer particles are arrested by sedimentation.
• Continuous voids of filter media acts as „tube settler‟ i.e. shallow depth sedimentation tank.
• All colloids are removed by this action
Biological Action
• After few days of working of filter, upper grains of sand layer become coated with a reddish brown
coloured sticky deposit.
• It consists of organic matter and Fe, Mg, Al and silica.
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• Further after 2-3 weeks, a film consisting of algae and protozoa etc is developed.
• This film is known as „dirty skin‟ or „Schmutzdecke‟.
• Organic impurities in water are used as food by this film, thus removing the organic matter from
water.
Electrolytic Action
• Particulate matter is removed by electrostatic action.
• Charge on filter medium neutralizes charge on floc particles, thereby permitting the floc to be
removed.
• During back washing the electrostatically removed material is removed and thus charge on filter
material is replaced.
Classification
1. Slow sand filter
2. Rapid sand filter
- Gravity type
- Pressure type
Filter differs with respect to
i. Head required for filtration ii. Rate of filtration
iii. Composition of filter media
iv. Method and frequency of cleaning
Filter media
• Commonly used filter materials are i. Sand
ii. Anthracite
iii. Garnet sand or limenite
iv. Other locally available material
Sand
• Cheapest and widely used
• Sand should be free from clay, silt, loam and Suspended Solids and organic matter.
• Effective size: -It is sieve size in mm through which 10% of sand by weight passes.
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• Uniformity coefficient (Cu):- Ratio of sieve size through which 60% of sand passes to the effective
size of sand. i.e. Cu= D60/D10
• Essentials of filter sand
1. Shall be hard
2. Shall be free from clay, fine particles, grains and dirt
3. Ignition loss should not exceed 0.7%
4. Soluble fraction in HCl shall not exceed 5%.
5. Gs= 2.55 to 2.65
6. Wearing loss shall not exceed 7%
7. Effective size shall be
i. 0.2 to 0.3 mm for slow sand filters
ii. 0.45 to 0.7 mm for rapid sand filters
8. The uniformity coefficient shall be i. 3 to 5 for slow sand filter
ii. Not less than 1.3 and not more than 1.7 for rapid sand filter
Anthracite
• Substitute for sand
• Can be used in conjunction with sand
• Cost is more as compared to sand
Garnet sand
• Heavier than normal sand (Gs = 4.2)
• Used in mixed media filters. Locally Available Material
• Shredded coconut husk, burnt rice husk, crushed glass and metallic ores can be used as filter
media
Gravel
• The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move freely to
the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.
• Should be hard, durable, rounded, free from flat or long pieces and impurities
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11. Describe the process of slow sand filter (CO3-H1)
1. Enclosure tank
• Slow Sand Filter is open basin, rectangular shape and built below finished ground level
• Floor has Bed slope of 1:100 to 1:200 towards central drain
• Surface area (As) of tank varies from 50 to 1000 m2
• Filtration rate – 100 to 200 lit/m2/hr
• Depth – 2.5 to 4 m
2. Filter media: Sand
• Thickness of sand layer - 90 to 110 cm
• Effective size – 0.2 to 0.35 (Common value -0.3)
• Coefficient of uniformity – 2 to 3 (Common value - 2.5)
3. Base material: Gravel
• Thickness of gravel bed - 30 to 75 cm
Layer Dept h Size in mm
Topmost 15 cm 3 to 6
Intermediate 15 cm 6 to 20
Bottom 15 cm 40 to 65
4. Under drainage system
• Base material and filter media are supported by under drainage system.
• Under drainage system collects filtered water and delivers it to thereservoir
• Laterals – earthenware pipes of 7.5 to 10 cm dia.
• Spacing of laterals- 2 to 3 m c/c
5. Appurtenances
Devices are required for
i. Measuring head loss through filter media
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ii. Controlling depth of water above filter media
iii. Maintaining constant rate of filtration through the filter
Working of slow sand filter
• In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical processes.
The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer on the sand surface,
which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the spaces between the sand
grains.
• As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers
of microorganisms which break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into
water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it passes
through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below.
• The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the
filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified and
contains less organic material.
• When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and produce high
quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and biodegradable organic
matter.
• They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial contents.
12.Describe the process of rapid sand filter (gravity type) (CO3-H1)
ESSENTIAL FEATURES
Enclosure tank
• Smaller in size, therefore can be placed under roof.
• Rectangular in shape and constructed of concrete or masonry.
• Depth – 2.5 to 3.5
• Surface area – 20 to 50 m2
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• L/B ratio – 1.25 to 1.35.
• Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000 lit/m2/hr
Filter media
• Should be free from dirt, organic matter and other Slow Sand.
• It should be hard and resistant.
• Depth of sand media – 0.6 to 0.9 m
• Effective size – 0.35 to 0.6 mm (Common value 0.45)
• Uniformity coefficient – 1.2 to 1.7 (Common value -1.5)
Estimation of sand depth
• The depth of sand bed should be such that flocs should not break through the sand bed.
• Depth varies from 60 to 90 cm
• Min depth required is given by Hudson‟s formula
[ (q . D3. H) / l] = Bi x 29323
Where,
• q = Filtration rate in m3/m2/hr
[Assumed filtration rate x Factor of safety (2)]
(Factor of safety 2 is taken to cater emergency situation)
• D = sand size in mm
• H = terminal head loss in m
• l = depth of sand bed in m
• Bi = Break through index= 4 x 10-4to 6 x 10-3
Base material
• Depth 45 to 60 cm
Layer Dept h Size in mm
topmost 15 cm 3 to 6
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Bottom 15 cm 20 to 50
Estimation of gravel size gradation
• To start with, a size gradation of 2 mm at top and 50 mm at bottom is assumed.
• The required depth (l) in cm of a component of gravel layer of size d (mm) can be computed by
following equation
l = 2.54. K. (log d)
K can be taken as 12 d = gravel size in mm
Under drainage system
• Objectives of under drainage system
1. To collect filtered water uniformly over the area of gravel bed
2. It provides uniform distribution of back wash water without disturbing or upsetting gravel layer and
filter media
Appurtenances
1. Wash water troughs
2. Air compressors
3. Rate control device
WORKING AND BACKWASHING OF Rapid Sand Filter
• All valves are kept closed except valves A and B.
• Valve A is opened to permit water from clarifier
• Valve B is opened to carry filtered water to clear water sump
• Head of 2m over sand bed is maintained
• Designed filtration rate are 3000 to 6000 lit/m2/hr
• Filter run depends on quality of feed water
• Filter run may range between less than a day to several days
• Objective of backwash is to remove accumulated particles on the surface and within the filter
medium
• Backwash is performed using wash water or air scouring.

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Back washing
• Filter is back washed when head loss through it has reached the maximum permissible.
• RSF are washed by sending air and water upwards through the bed by reverse flow through the
collector system.
• 2% - 4% filtered water is used for backwashingSteps in back washing
1. Close influent valve A
2. Close effluent valve B
3. Open air valve F, so that air blows at rate of 1 to 1.5 m
3free air /min/m2of bed area for @ 2 to 3 min. this will break up the scum and loosen the dirt.
4. Close the air valve F and open the wash water valve E gradually to prevent the
dislodgement of finer gravel.
5. Open the wastewater valve D to carry wash water to drain. Continue backwashing till wash water
appears fairly clear.
6. Close the wash water valve E. Close the wastewater valve D. wait for some time till all matter in
bed settles down.
7. Open valve A slightly, open valve C for carrying filtered water to drains for few minutes.
8. Close the valve C and open valve B. Open valve A completely to resume normal filtration
Negative head and filter troubles
• When clean bed is put into operation the loss of head will be small usually in order of
15 to 30 cm.
• During filtration impurities get arrested in the voids and head loss goes on increasing.
• Loss of head can be measured by using two piezometric tubes as shown in figure
• As thickness or depth of suspended matter on the sand bed increases, the head loss increased.
• A stage comes when frictional resistance exceeds the static head above the sand bed.
• At this stage, lower parts of sand bed and under drainage system are under partial vacuum or
negative head.
• Because of negative head water is being sucked rather than being filtered.
• In Rapid Sand Filter head loss may be 2.5 to 3.5 m
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• Permissible negative head may be 0.8 to 1.2 m.
• Filter run is terminated and filter is then backwashed when these values are reached.
• Frequency of backwashing is 2-4 days for Rapid Sand Filter in normal conditions
13.Design a slow sand filter for a town of population 60,000 provided water supply at a
rate of 160 lpcd. Take filtration rate as 2.5 litres per minute per sq. metre. L/B ratio is 2.
Maximum demand as 1.8 times as average demand. . (CO3-H2)
Solution:
Given, population = 60,000, lpcd= 160, L = 2B, Maximum demand = 1.8, Filtration rate = 2.5 l/min/m2
= 2.5 x 10-3 m3/min/m2,
water requirement = 60000 x 160 = 9.6 MLD
Maximum demand = 9.6 x 1.8 = 17.28 MLD = 17280 m3/day = 12 m3/min
Area of filter = 12 = 4800m2
2.5 x 10-3
Since one filter bed maximum area = 1000m2. Divide the available area by 5. Area per filter bed =
4800 = 960 m2
Length to breadth ratio = 2:1, L= 2B, L x B = 960 m2. 2B2 = 960, B = 21.9 = 22m
L= 44m
Area per filter = 44 m x 22 m = 968m2
Assume sand layer of 100 cm, Base material of 50cm with under drains
Under drain system
Provide lateral pipe diameter = 8 cm, Cross section area of lateral pipe = 50.27cm2
Manifold pipe area = 2 x Cross section area of lateral pipe = 100.54 cm2
Diameter of manifold pipe = 11.32= 12cm
Lateral spacing = 2m centre to centre Hole spacing of lateral pipe = 0.15 m Size of holes in lateral
pipes = 3mm
Velocity of water in lateral and main pipes = 0.2 m/s < 0.3 m/s
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Total height of filter = free board + supernatant water + sand layer + base material
= 0.5 + 1 + 1 + 0.5 = 3m < 4.5m
Rapid Sand filter
Design Criteria
Surface area – 20 to 50 m2
Length to breadth ratio = 1.25:1 – 1.35:1
Rate of filtration = 3000 – 5000 litres/m2/minute
Maximum loss of head = 2.5 – 3m
Under drains
Length of lateral pipe > 60
Diameter
Diameter of perforations in lateral pipe = 6mm and 13mm at spacing of 7.5 cm and
20cm respectively
Total area of perforation = 0.2% – 0.3% Total filter area
Total area of perforations = 0.25 for diameter of 6mm perforations Total area of lateral pipe = 0.50 for
diameter of 13mm perforations Spacing of laterals = 30 cm maximum
Total area of manifold = 1.75 – 2 times the sum of the cross sectional area of laterals
Rate of washing = 15 – 90 cm rise per minute.
Amount of wash water 2 to 4 percent of the total volume of water filtered
Time of washing = 30minutes between 24 to 48 hours
Wash water pressure = 0.4kg/cm2
Maximum permissible velocity in the manifold = 1.8 – 2.4 m/s
14.Explain in detail about Disinfection (CO3-H1)
Partial destruction and inactivation of disease-causing organisms from exposure to chemical agents
(e.g., chlorine) or physical processes (e.g.,UV irradiation). (or)
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A process that eliminates a defined scope of microrganisms, except most spores, viruses and prions.
The purpose of disinfection prevents transmission of certain microorganisms with objects, hands
or skin and prevent spreading the infection
Principle of Disinfection
Decontamination- removal of microorganisms contaminating an object
Preservation- preventing methods of microbe caused spoilage of susceptible products
(pharmaceuticals, foods)
Sanitisation - removal of microbes that pose a threat to the public health, food industry, water
conditioning sanitizer - an agent, usually a detergent, that reduces the numbers of bacteria to a
safe level
Aseptic techniques- prevent microbial contamination of materials or wounds Antisepsis- disinfection

of living tissues (e.g., in a wound), achieved through the use of antiseptics Antiseptics are applied
(do not kill spores) to reduce or eliminate the number of bacteria from the skin
Disinfection methods
Chemical agents Physical methods
Alcohols
Aldehydes Halogens Phenols Surfactants Heavy metals Dyes
Oxidants Boiling and pasteurization
Ultraviolet radiation
Factors influencing Disinfection
Types of organisms
Number of organisms
Concentration of disinfecting agent
Presence of organic material (e.g., serum, blood) Nature (composition) of surface to be disinfected
Contact time
Temperature pH
Biofilms
Compatibility of disinfectants and sterilants
Sterilization
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Total destruction of disease-causing germs and other organisms. physical methods are used mainly
to achieve sterilization
Sterilization methods
Physical methods Chemical agents
Moist heat in autoclaves
Dry-heat in ovens Gamma irradiation Filtration
Plasma sterilization Ethylene oxide
Glutaraldehye (high concentration)
Methods of Disinfection
(a) Physical methods
(i) Boiling of water (ii) Solar Disinfection
(b) Chemical methods
(a) Physical methods
Boiling
This is the most effective method of killing bacteria but impracticable in large scale.
Most of bacteria are destroyed when the water has attained of about 80˚C temperature.
Prolonged boiling is unnecessary and wasteful
Solar Disinfection
Solar disinfection is a thermal process consisting of raising water temperature for a long enough
period of time in containers that have been prepared to absorb the heat generated by solar
radiation for disinfection of water
Installation requirements
Equipment Installation and installation requirements
Solar heaters Solar heaters are fairly easy to install or to adapt to any
other installation. All that is needed is to raise the hot water collector tank about 60 cm above the
highest point of the collector. No special pressure is required for their operation. It is enough for
the water feeding tank to be placed next to the collector, which should be on a slant approximately
equivalent to the latitude of the site (between 15° and 35º, for example) and face the sun.
Solar stoves
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and concentrators These devices can be easily installed anywhere. Before
adopting this method, however, it is important to perform some tests by taking the water temperature
after four or five hours (in the case of the stoves). The water is drinkable only if the average
temperature is always above
60 °C. If solar concentrators are well built, they should disinfect water more by boiling than by
pasteurizing.
Solar stills No special requirements need to be met in the case of solarstills, which are very simple
devices with no movable parts. It is important to keep animals away from the equipment, however.
Bottles and
containers Solar disinfection requires clean water with very little
turbidity. Otherwise, it must be filtered beforehand using a household sand filter or very fine fabric.
The bottles can be placed on any reflecting surface, such as aluminium foil. The use of coloured
soft drink bottles is not recommended.
(b) Chemical Methods
Use of Disinfectants as Chemical Oxidants
Oxidation is a chemical reaction where electrons are transferred from one species
(the reducer) to another species (the oxidant)
Disinfectants are used for more than just disinfection in drinking water treatment.
While inactivation of pathogenic organisms is a primary function, disinfectants are also used oxidants
in drinking water treatment for several other functions:
1. Minimization of Disinfection Byproducts formation : Several strong oxidants, including potassium

permanganate and ozone, may be used to control DBP
2. Prevention of re-growth in the distribution system and maintenance of biological stability;
– Removing nutrients from the water prior to distribution;
– Maintaining a disinfectant residual in the treated water; and
– Combining nutrient removal and disinfectant residual maintenance
3. Removal of color: Free chlorine is used for color removal. A low pH is favored. Color is caused by
humic compounds, which have a high potential for DBP formation
4. Improvement of coagulation and filtration efficiency;
a. Oxidation of organics into more polar forms;
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b. Oxidation of metal ions to yield insoluble complexes such as ferric iron complexes;
c. Change in the structure and size of suspended particles.
5. Oxidation is commonly used to remove taste and odor causing compounds. Because many of
these compounds are very resistant to oxidation, advanced oxidation processes (ozone/hydrogen
peroxide, ozone/UV, etc.) and ozone by itself are often used to address taste and odor problems.
The effectiveness of various chemicals to control taste and odors can be site-specific.
6. Removal of Iron and Manganese
Oxidant
Chlorine Cl2 Iron (II) (mg/mg Fe)
0.62 Manganese (II) (mg/mg Mn)
0.77
Chlorine Dioxide, ClO2 1.21 2.45
Ozone, O3 0.43 0.88*
Oxygen, O2 014 0.29
Potassium
Permanganate, KMnO4 0.94 1.92
7. Prevention of algal growth in sedimentation basins and filters: Prechlorination will prevent slime
formation on filters, pipes, and tanks, and reduce potential taste and odor problems associated
with such slimes.
Factors affecting disinfection effectiveness
• Time
• pH
• Temperature
• Concentration of the disinfectant
• Concentration of organisms
• Nature of the disinfectant
• Nature of the organisms to be inactivated
• Nature of the suspending medium
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Chlorine
Chlorine has many attractive features that contribute to its wide use in the industry. Four of the key
attributes of chlorine are that it:
• Effectively inactivates a wide range of pathogens commonly found in water;
• Leaves a residual in the water that is easily measured and controlled;
• Is economical; and
• Has an extensive track record of successful use in improving water treatment operations
There are, however, some concerns regarding chlorine usage that may impact its uses such as:
• Chlorine reacts with many naturally occurring organic and inorganic compounds in water to
produce undesirable Disinfectant By Products;
• Hazards associated with using chlorine, specifically chlorine gas, require special treatment and
response programs; and
• High chlorine doses can cause taste and odor problems.
Chlorine purposes in water treatment
• Taste and odor control;
• Prevention of algal growths;
• Maintenance of clear filter media;
• Removal of iron and manganese;
• Destruction of hydrogen sulfide;
• Bleaching of certain organic colors;
• Maintenance of distribution system water quality by controlling slime growth;
• Restoration and preservation of pipeline capacity;
• Restoration of well capacity, water main sterilization; and
• Improved coagulation by activated silica.
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UNIT – IV
ADVANCED WATER TREATMENT
PART-A
1. How do you remove iron and manganese from water? (CO4-L1) [NovDec2010]
Iron and manganese from water can be removed by Physical process (Unit operations) and
Chemical process (Unit Process)
Physical process (Unit Operation)

Aeration

Chemical Oxidation using Chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate and ozone
Manganese Zeolite Filters
2. Describe about the term water softening? (CO4-L1) [NovDec2010]

Reduction or removal of hardness from water is known as water softening.
Types of hardness are permanent and temporary hardness
3. State the objectives of aeration process in water treatment? (CO4-L1) [AprMay2011]

Objectives of aeration are to remove dissolved gases, such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and to oxidize dissolved metals iron and manganese. It can
also be used to remove volatile organic chemicals (VOC).
4. Mention any four methods of desalination process? (CO4-L2) [AprMay2011]

(i) Desalination by evaporation and distillation
(ii) Electrodialysis
(iii) Reverse osmosis
(iv) Freezing process
(v) Solar distillation method
5. List the pollutants get removed in an aerator? (CO4-L2) [NovDec2011]

Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen sulfide (rotten-egg odour), Methane (flammable), Iron (will stain
clothes and fixtures), Manganese (black stains), Volatile organic
chemicals, Various chemicals causing taste and odour
6. Name the methods of deflouridation? (CO4-L2) [NovDec2011], [MayJun2014],

[NovDec2014], [AprMay2015]
o Prashanthi technique using adsorption by activated alumina
o Ion exchange adsorption method
o Nalgonda technique
o Reverse osmosis process
101
7. List out the unit process applied to remove iron and manganese from water?
[AprMay2012] (CO4-L2)
Chemical Oxidation using Chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate and ozone
Manganese Zeolite Filters
8. What is reverse osmosis? (CO4-L1) [AprMay2012]

The natural osmotic pressure is opposed by exerting an external pressure on the side
containing the salt solution which forces pure water from the salt
solution to move across the membrane towards the side containing
water this process is called as reverse osmosis
9. What is the maximum permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water? (CO4-L1)

[NovDec2012]
Acceptable limit of Flouride in drinking water is 1mg/l
10. How do you protect water treatment plant from corrosion? (CO4-L1) [NovDec2012]
o Cathodic protection by making pipe line as cathode and separate scrap iron as
anode using DC power supply
o Sacrificial Anodic protection by attaching zinc, aluminum and magnesium no need
for power supply
o Control of internal corrosion by protective coatings and water treatment
11. Mention the types of aerators used in water treatment? (CO4-L1) [MayJun2013]
(i) Gravity aerators (water into the air), (ii) Spray aerators (water into the air), (iii) Diffusers
(air into the water), and (iv) Mechanical aerators (air into the water)
12. Any four effects of hardness in water? (CO4-L2) [MayJun2013]

Hardness in water,
o Causes more consumption of soap in laundry work
o Affects dyeing of textiles
o Causes difficulties in paper, canning, ice and rayon industry
o Causes choking and clogging of pipes
o Causes scaling in boilers and heaters
o Makes food tasteless, tough or rubbery
13. Write down the principle of desalination of water? (CO4-L1) [NovDec2013]

Desalination is the process of removing dissolved salts from water, thus producing fresh
water from seawater or brackish water. Salts are present in water as hydrated Na + cation and
Cl- anion. Removing hydrated salt ions from water through physical or chemical process is
the principle of desalination.
Distillation: Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + heat = NaCl(solid) + H2O(gas)
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H2O(gas) +
Condensation = H2O(liquid)
Freezing: Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + freezing = NaCl(concentrated solution) + H2O(ice crystals)
H2O(ice crystals) + Heat = H2O(liquid)
14. How do you regenerate softener? (CO4-L1) [NovDec2013], [MayJun2014]

Water softeners can be regenerated by treating with 5-10% solution of sodium chloride
CaZ + 2Nacl = Na2Z + CaCl2
Mg + 2NaCl = Na2Z + MgCl2
15. Distinguish between physical adsorption and chemical adsorption? (CO4-L2)
[NovDec2014]
Physical Adsorption Chemical Adsorption
The forces operating in these are weak vander Waal‘s forces The forces operating in these cases are similar to
those of a chemical bond.
Takes place at low temperature and decreases with increase Takes place at high temperature
in temperature
Heat of adsorption is low Heat of adsorption is high
It forms multimolecular layer It forms monomolecular layer
16. What is meant by adsorption isotherm? (CO4-L1) [AprMay2015]

The adsorption isotherm is an equation relating the amount of solute adsorbed onto the solid
and the equilibrium concentration of the solute in solution at a given
temperature.
qe (mg/g) = Co-Ce
Csolid
qe = equilibrium concentration of a solute on the surface of an adsorbent
Ce = concentration of the solute in the liquid
PART-B
1.Define Aeration? And explain its types briefly? (CO4-H1)

Aeration
Aeration is the process of bringing water and air into close contact. Aeration is the process to remove dissolved
gases, such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and to oxidize dissolved metals such as iron. It can also be
used to remove volatile organic chemicals (VOC).
Types of Aerators
• water into the air
• air into the water
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Principle of Aeration
Oxygen uptake depends on the area and duration of contact between water and air. For porous air diffusers this
means that the size of the bubbles should be relatively small, since surface area is bigger in proportion to their
volume and they rise slower, which gives a longer contact duration. According to diagram, figure 5, the slowest
rising bubbles are those with diameter around 6 mm, and same velocity can be reached at around 1 mm.
Oxygenation
The maximal amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in the water depends on the temperature of water, at
standard calculation value of 20°C 9 mg of oxygen is dissolved per liter water. The air contains, at 20°C and
pressure of one atmosphere, approx. 300 g of oxygen per m3. Uptake of oxygen depends also on existing
oxygen level of the water and duration of contact with the air.
Chemical Substances Affected by Aeration

The constituents that are commonly affected by aeration are:
• Volatile organic chemicals, such as benzene, found in gasoline, or trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene,
and perchloroethylene, examples of solvents are used in dry cleaning or industrial processes.
• Carbon dioxide
• Hydrogen sulfide (rotten-egg odor)
• Methane (flammable)
• Iron (will stain clothes and fixtures)
• Manganese (black stains)
• Various chemicals causing taste and odor
CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVA L

• The most appropriate treatment for carbon dioxide may be aeration, addition of an alkali, or a
combination of the two
• CO2 gas dissolves easily in water, resulting in carbonic acid:
• H2O + CO2 <===> H2CO3
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• CO2 is neutralized through the addition of an alkali, such as lime (Ca (OH) 2) or soda ash (Na2CO3).
• Lime reacts with carbon dioxide, removing the carbon dioxide from the water as shown below:
• CO2 + Ca(OH)2 <===> CaCO3 + H2O
H2S Removal by Aeration method

• A poisonous gas (Brief exposures--less than 30 minutes in concentrations as low as 0.03 percent by
volume in the air) - rotten-egg odor
• H2S occurs mainly in groundwater supplies.
• Hydrogen sulfide is physically removed by agitating the water via bubbling or cascading and then
separating or stripping the hydrogen sulfide in a container.
• H2S + O2 = water (H2O) + elemental sulfur
• Aeration is most effective when hydrogen H2S are lower than 2.0 mg/l.
• At higher concentrations, this method may not remove the entire offensive odor unless the air is used to
oxidize hydrogen sulfide chemically into solid sulfur, which is then filtered.
• In a typical aeration system, ambient air is introduced into the water using an air compressor or blower.
• Well-designed aeration tanks maintain a pocket of air in the upper third or upper half of the tank.
• If the tank does not maintain an air pocket, sulfur odor may return.
• When sulfur levels exceed 10 mg/l, larger aeration tanks, repressurisation systems, chlorination systems, or
a combination may be needed.
METHANE
• Methane gas can be found in groundwater.
• It may be formed by the decomposition of organic matter.
• It can be found in water from aquifers that are near natural-gas deposits.
• Methane is a colorless gas that is highly flammable and explosive.
• When mixed with water, methane will make the water taste like garlic.
• The gas is only slightly soluble in water and therefore is easily removed by the aeration of the water.
CH4+ 2O2 = CO2+ 2H2O
2.Explain the process involved in iron and manganese removal. (CO4-H1)
-
• Iron and manganese minerals are found in soil and rock.
• Iron and manganese can dissolve into groundwater as it percolates through the soil and rock. • more than
0.3 mg/l of iron will cause yellow to reddish-brown stains of plumbing fixtures or almost anything that it
contacts.
• Manganese even at levels as low as 0.1 mg/l, will cause blackish staining of fixtures and anything else it
contacts.
• If the water contains both iron and manganese, staining could vary from dark brown to black.
• Iron and manganese in well waters occur as soluble ferrous and manganous bicarbonates.
• In the aeration process, the water is saturated with oxygen to promote the following reactions:
-
4Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 + 2H2O = 4Fe(OH)3 + 8CO2
-
2Mn(HCO3)2 + O2 = 2MnO2 + 4CO2 + 2H2O
•
• The oxidation products, ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide, are insoluble.
105
• After aeration, they are removed by clarification or filtration.

• Occasionally, strong chemical oxidants such as chlorine (Cl2 or potassium permanganate (KMnO4) may be
used following aeration to ensure complete oxidation.
3.Explain different types of aerators with neat diagram. (CO4-H1)
Types of Aerators: Four types of aerators are in common use: (i) Gravity aerators (water into the air), (ii) Spray
aerators (water into the air), (iii) Diffusers (air into the water), and (iv) Mechanical aerators (air into the water) A
major design consideration for all types of aerators is to provide maximum interface between air and water at a
minimum expenditure of energy. A brief description of each type of aerator is provided here.
Gravity Aerator: Gravity Aerators utilize weirs, waterfalls, cascades, inclined planes with riffle plates, vertical
towers with updraft air, perforated tray towers, or packed towers filled with contact media such as coke or stone.
Various type of gravity aerators are shown in figures.
Cascade Aerators (water into the air)

• Consists of a series of steps that the water flows over.
• Aeration is accomplished in the splash zones.
• The aeration action is similar to a flowing stream.
• Splash areas are created by placing blocks across the incline.
• Cascade aerators used to oxidize iron and to partially reduce dissolved gases.
• The oldest and most common type of aerators.
Inclined planes with riffle plates
Cone Aerators(water into the air)

• are used primarily to oxidize iron and manganese prior to filtration.
• the water pumped to the top of the cones and then allowed to cascade down through the aerator.
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Slat and Coke Aerators (water into the air)

• Similar to the cascade and cone types.
• They usually consist of three-to-five stacked trays, which have spaced wooden slats in them.
• The trays are filled with fist-sized pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials.
• The primary purpose of the materials is to provide additional surface contact area between the air
and water.
107
Spray Aerator (water into the air): Spray aerator spray droplets of water into the air from moving or stationary
orifice or nozzles. The water raises either vertically or at an angle and falls onto a collecting apron, a contact
bed, or a collecting basin. Spray aerators are also designed as decorative fountains. To produce an atomizing
jet, a large amount of power is required, and the water must be free of large solids. Losses from wind
carryover and freezing in cold climates may cause serious problems. A typical spray aerator is shown in
Fig.3.2.
Diffused-Air Aerators(air into the water): Water is aerated in large tanks. Compressed air is injected into the
tank through porous diffuser plates, or tubes, or spargers. Ascending air bubbles cause turbulence and
provide opportunity for exchange of volatile materials between air bubbles and water. Aeration periods vary
from 10 to
30 min. Air supply is generally 0.1 to 1 m3 per min per m3 of the tank volume. Various type of diffused
aeration systems are shown in Fig. 3.3 (A to D).
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Air stripping(air into the water):

• Can be quite effective in removing volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) from water.
• A major concern is that VOCs may be carcinogens.
• Air stripping capable of removing up to 90 percent of the most highly volatile VOCs.
• Water flow over cascade aerators or in specially designed air-stripping towers.
• Water is allowed to flow down over a support medium or packing contained in the tower, while air is
being pumped into the bottom of the tower.
•
Mechanical Aerator(air into the water): Mechanical aerators employ either motor driven impellers or a
combination of impeller with air injection devices. Common types of devices are submerged paddles,
surface paddles, propeller blades, turbine aerators, and draft-tube aerators. Various types of mechanical
aerators are shown in Fig 3.4 (A to C).
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4. Explain the significance of removal of iron and manganese in drinking water and portable water.
(CO4-H1)
Iron and manganese removal
Iron and manganese control is the most common type of municipal water treatment. Iron and manganese
occur naturally in groundwater. These elements are, in fact, essential to the human diet. Water containing
exc essive amounts of iron and manganese can stain clothes, discolor plumbing fixtures, and sometimes add a
―rusty‖ taste
and look to the water. Surface water generally does not contain large amounts of iron or manganese, but
iron and manganese are found frequently in water systems that use groundwater. Iron in drinking water is 0.3
parts per million (ppm) and 0.05 ppm for manganese.
Bacteria and Iron and Manganese

Iron and manganese in water also promote the growth of bacteria (including iron bacteria). These organisms
obtain energy for growth from the chemical reaction that occurs when iron and manganese mix with
dissolved oxygen. These bacteria form thick slime growths on the walls of the piping system and on well
screens. The growth of iron bacteria can be controlled by chlorination. However, when water containing iron
is chlorinated, the iron is converted from the ferrous state to the ferric state in other words, rust and
manganese is converted into black manganese dioxide. These materials form a coating on the inside of the
water main. Iron bacteria will use even small amounts of iron present in the ferrous state, oxidize it, and
then use the energy. Manganese is also used by other bacteria to form organics, which contribute to the iron
bacteria slime in the well and/or water system.
5. What are the Methods to control iron and manganese? (i) Aeration
(i)Aeration
(ii) Chemical Oxidation
(iii)Manganese Zeolite Filters (CO4-H1)
Explain about topics

below
(i) Gravity aerators (water into the
air) (ii) Diffusers (air into the water)
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IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL BY AERATION

• Iron and manganese minerals are found in soil and rock.
• Iron and manganese can dissolve into groundwater as it percolates through the soil and rock.
• more than 0.3 mg/l of iron will cause yellow to reddish-brown stains of plumbing fixtures or almost
anything that it contacts.
• Manganese even at levels as low as 0.1 mg/l, will cause blackish staining of fixtures and anything else
it contacts.
• If the water contains both iron and manganese, staining could vary from dark brown to black.
• Iron and manganese in well waters occur as soluble ferrous and manganous bicarbonates.
• In the aeration process, the water is saturated with oxygen to promote the following reactions:
-
4Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 + 2H2O = 4Fe(OH)3 + 8CO2
-
2Mn(HCO3)2 + O2 = 2MnO2 + 4CO2 + 2H2O
•
• The oxidation products, ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide, are insoluble.
• After aeration, they are removed by clarification or filtration.
• Occasionally, strong chemical oxidants such as chlorine (Cl2 or potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
may be used following aeration to ensure complete oxidation.
(ii) Chemical OxidationFor oxidation following oxidants are used:

Oxygen O2,
Chlorine dioxide ClO2,
Potassium permanganate KMnO4 and
Ozone O3
Chlorine dioxide ClO2:

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is widely used for water purification due to the ability of disinfection, oxygenation and
odor control. For water treatment aqueous solutions of 0.1-.05% ClO2 is commonly used, although some
generators produce a continuous supply of diluted gas, allowing the usage of most of the diffusers
mentioned above for admixture. Chlorine dioxide is explosive at higher concentrations than 10% per air
volume and cannot be stored or transported in pressure tanks as other gases; therefore a ClO2 generator is
needed on the location of water treatment
Chlorine Dioxide reaction:
Ferrous iron oxidizes into ferric iron, which can be removed by filtration, chloride ion and water.
Manganese reaction with chlorine dioxide creates manganese dioxide that can as well be removed by
filtration leaving chlorite as a byproduct.
Use of chlorine dioxide leaves chlorite, chlorate and organic DBPs as byproducts. The concentration of
chlorine dioxide leaving the water treatment system must be lower than 0.8 mg/l and the concentration of the
chlorite should not exceed 1.0 mg/l in the distribution system
Disadvantages
111
o Chlorine dioxide causes skin and respiratory organ irritation, may cause headaches, bronchospasm,
pulmonary edema and at long exposure chronic bronchitis. Exposures limit 0.3 mg/m3, short time
exposure
0.9 mg/m3.
o In generators the ratio of sodium chlorite to hypochlorous acid is very important since insufficient chlorine
feed leaves chlorite and excessive creates chlorate ions.
o Chlorine dioxide is explosive at higher concentrations than 10 % per air volume.
Ozone O3:
Ozone (O3) is a more effective oxidant than oxygen due to less stable molecular structure and can be
admixed through most of the diffusers mentioned above. Ozone has the ability of oxygenation, disinfection
and odor control just like chlorine dioxide in addition it does not leave any byproducts. The disadvantage of
ozone reactivity is that O3-molecules react with each other breaking down ozone to oxygen, which means
that ozone cannot be stored and an ozone generator is needed on the location.
Ozone reactions:
First the iron oxidizes from ferrous iron to ferric iron and then hydrolyses into ferric hydroxide which can be
removed by filtration.
Manganese reaction with ozone creates manganese oxydihydroxide that can as well be removed by
filtration.
Disadvantages
o Ozone exposure may cause headache, eye-, throat-, nose- or skin irritation, respiratory problems,
increased heart rate and low blood pressure. The exposure limit is 0.2 mg/m 3, 1 mg/m3 is considered
immediate danger.
o In choice of the construction material consider that ozone accelerates decomposition of
elastomers.
o Over-ozonation may lead to creation of permanganate (MnO4) which, unlike manganese oxydihydroxide,
is soluble in the water and gives it pink color.
Potassium
Permanganate
Potassium permanganate is mainly used for oxidation of iron and manganese, taste and odor removal
and control of organisms in the water, it is considered ineffective disinfectant due to long contact time
requirement. Potassium permanganate is provided in powder form, which is usually diluted into 4 % solution
on the location for facilitation of the admixture process, although it may be added into the treated water as
powder.
Potassium permanganate
reactions:
112
Ferrous iron oxidizes into precipitants for ferric hydroxide and manganese
dioxide. Manganese oxidizes into precipitants for manganese dioxide.

Disadvantages
o Contact with potassium permanganate powder may lead to eye injuries, skin and respiratory organ
irritation and can be fatal to swallow.
o Potassium permanganate should be used earlier in the purification process than active carbon,
otherwise it will consume active carbon and less potassium permanganate will be available for the
oxidation.
o Over-dosage of potassium permanganate results in residuals, which give water pink
color.
MANGANESE ZEOLITE FILTERS

This system uses manganese zeolite as both the oxidizing source and filter medium. Manganese zeolite is
made from processed green sand zeolite by alternate treatments with manganese sulfide and KMn04, as
follows:
NaZ + Mn++ —————> MnZ + 2Na +
MnZ + KMn04 —————> Z.Mn02 + K+
NaZ is green sand zeolite and Z.Mn02 is manganese

zeolite.
This process produces higher oxides of manganese in and on the granules of green sand. The
resultant manganese zeolite is a black granular material.
Although the original green sand is a natural softening material, no softening of the water takes place during
treatment with manganese zeolite. The bed oxidizes soluble iron or manganese to insoluble oxides
and simultaneously filters them out of the water. The oxidation reaction is as follows:
The complete exchange, generation, degeneration and regeneration process are given below.
113
Once the oxidizing capacity of the bed is exhausted, soluble iron and manganese breakthrough occurs. To
prevent this leakage or breakthrough of iron or manganese into the water supply, the bed is batch-
regenerated (to restore its oxidizing capacity) at predetermined intervals. The manganese zeolite bed is
regenerated by treating it with a 0.5% solution of KMnO4. Besides regeneration, backwashing is carried out
at intervals whenever accumulated deposits in the bed build up a pressure loss. Backwashing is best
accomplished with treated filter water.
This manganese zeolite process can also be operated by dosing the continuously ahead of the filter bed.
Instead of the bed being regenerated, the continuous feed of the permanganate oxidizes iron and manganese
to an insoluble state before it reaches the manganese zeolite bed which acts as a buffer. It oxidizes any
residual dissolved iron and manganese like the batch regenerated system if the permanganate dosage is
slightly low and
114
removes any excess unreacted permanganate when the dosage is high, by partial regeneration of the
manganese zeolite bed.
6. Explain briefly about Membrane Systems (CO4-H1)

Definition:
Membrane processes are those in which a membrane is used to filter through (i.e. permeate) high quality
water while rejecting the passage of dissolved and suspended solids. A filtration membrane is a physical
boundary over which a solute (TSS or TDS) can be separated from a solvent (water) by applying energy in the
form of pressure or electric potential.
Membrane process
types:
The main membrane processes used in water treatment
are: A. Microfiltation (MF)
B. Ultrafiltation (UF) C.
Nanofiltration (NF)
D. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
E. Electrodialysis (ED)
The classification and comparison between these processes is Based on many characteristics of each such
as
1) The driving force [hydrostatic or electrical],
2) The separation
mechanism,
3) The nominal size of the separation
achieved.
115
General characteristics of Membrane
process
116
Membrane Configurations:
The principal types of membranes are:
1.Tubular Modules 2.Hollow Fiber Modules 3.Spiral Wound Modules
1. Tubular Modules
• In this type the membrane is cast on the inside of a support tube.
• A number of tubes are then placed in a pressure vessel.
• The feed water is pumped through the feed tube and
the product
water is collected on through the skin of the membrane.
• The concentrate continues to flow through the feed tube.
• This type is used for water with high suspended solids content
since it is the easiest to clean. Cleaning can be accomplished
by circulating chemicals and pumping a ―foam ball‖ or ―sponge
ball‖.
2. Hollow Fiber Modules

o In hollow fiber modules hundreds to thousands of hollow fibers are bundled together to form a module.
o The entire assembly is inserted into a pressure vessel.
o The feed water can be applied to the inside of the fiber (inside out flow), or the outside of the fiber (outside-
in flow).
3. Spiral Wound Modules

o In hollow the spiral-Wound membrane, a flexible permeate spacer is placed between two flat
membrane sheets.
o The membranes are sealed on three sides.
o The fourth open side is attached to a perforated pipe.
o A flexible feed spacer is added and the flat sheets are rolled into tight circular configuration.
o The term spiral is derived from the fact that the flow in the rolled up arrangement of membranes and support
sheets follows a spiral flow pattern.
o The feed water can be applied to the inside of the fiber (inside out flow), or the outside of the fiber (outside-
in flow).
117
Membrane Processes Terminology:

The following is a brief description of some of the terms used in the membrane processes:
Feed stream : The influent water to the membrane.
Concentrate or Retentate: the portion of the feed water that does not pass the membrane that contains higher
TDS than the feed stream.
Permeate: the portion of the feed stream that passes through the membrane that contains lower TDS than the
feed water.
Flux: mass or volume rate transfer the rough the membrane.
Solvent: Liquid containing dissolved matter, usually water.
Solute: Dissolved matter in raw, feed, permeate and concentrate water.
Recovery rate: the ratio between the product water to the feed water.
Rejection rate: percent removal of the solute from water.
Fouling: deposition of solids on the feed side of the m embrane
Filtration Mode
118
Membrane Operation:
Key factors that directly impact membrane operation in water treatment:
Flux Fouling
Rejection rate
Recovery rate
Temperature - Viscosity of Water (Note: Change from 20°C to 4°C results in a ~50% decrease in production
for similar membrane area and pressure)
Membrane fouling:
Definition:
• It is the deposition and accumulation of solid from the feed water on the membrane.
• It is an important design and operation membrane as it affects:
- Pretreatment needs
- Cleaning requirements
- Operating conditions
- Cost and performance
Forms of Fouling:
• Formation of chemical precipitates ―Scaling‖.
• Buildup of solids in the feed-water.
• Damage of the membrane due to the reaction between chemicals in the feed water and the membrane
Control of membrane fouling:
There are three approaches are used to control fouling:
1. Pretreatment of the feed water Buildup of solids in the feed-water.
The following are some examples on pretreatment:

- using conventional filtration, microfiltration or ultra filtration.
- disinfecting the feed water to limit the bacterial activity using either chlorine, ozone or UV.
- removal of iron and manganese to prevent scaling.
- adjusting the pH of the feed water in the range (4 to 7.5) using sulfuric acid to prevent the formation of
calcium carbonate, and using hexametaphosphate to prevent the formation of calcium sulfate. Other
chemicals called antiscallants are added instead of sulfuric acid.
2. Membrane back-flushing with water.
3. Chemical cleaning of membranes.
Disposal of concentrate waste stream “Brine”:

Disposal of the concentrated waste streams produced by membrane processes represents the major problem
in membrane operations.
The principal methods used for the concentrate disposal:
1. Ocean discharge
119
2. Surface water discharge
3. Discharge to wastewater collection system.
4. Deep-well injection
5. Evaporation bonds
6. Controlled thermal evaporation
Working of membrane processes:

The operation of membrane processes is simple:
• A pump is used to pressurize the feed solution and to circulate it through the module.
• A valve is used to maintain the pressure of the concentrate (retentate).
• The permeate is withdrawn typically at atmospheric pressure.
• Units are arranged in parallel to meet the flow requirements, and arranged in series to increase the treatment
efficiency
Membrane applications in water treatment:
o MF can remove suspended solids, turbidity, crypto and giardia. Not color, virus, or dissolved solids.
o UF can remove color and odor causing organics, virus, and other microbiological pests. Not dissolved salts.
o RO and NF systems should be used to remove only dissolved solids - they need VERY clear feed water.
o ED removes IONS from water - it does NOT remove crypto, giardia, uncharged molecules,
suspended solids etc.
7. Explain Recent Advancements in Water Treatment process. (CO4-H1)

Zero Liquid Discharge
ZLD is performed in water reclamation. The sludge in the sedimentation tank, filters and sludge obtained
through various water treatments are added to the bioreactor which evaporates the sludge till crystallisation
which results in dry cake of the sludge. The water vapour is condensed to water for reuse. The remaining cake
is
used for land fill, horticulture or for regeneration of chemicals. This method is called as zero liquid discharge
Bioreactor Evaporation Crystallization Dry Cake
120
8. Define Photo catalysis Process(CO4-H1)

Photo catalytic Oxidation
LEDs or sunlight activate a nanotechnology coated mesh to
generate hydroxyl radicals (OH-) which break apart chemical
contaminants rendering them inert.
Photo catalytic Reduction
Reduces toxic species such as mercury (Hg II), silver (Ag I),
arsenic (As V, and chromium (Cr VI) to more readily adsorbed materials.
Photolysis
Direct disassociation of contaminants by high intensity UV light,
including atrazine, amoxicillin, and all estrogenic chemicals.
Photo adsorption
The catalyst strongly adsorbs heavy metals including
mercury, lead, selenium, and arsenic, permanganate,
and other compounds.
Photo Disinfection
Multiple wavelengths and high intensity UV disinfect pathogens
moreeffectively than standard UV germicidal lamps.
9. Design steps of Demineralisation process or ION exchange process(CO4-H1)

Design parameters
o Feed water analysis
o Production flow rate o
Cycle length
o Required treated quality of water
o Regeneration technology o
Dimensions of the vessels o
Selection of resin types
Some basic principles

121
Design
parameters
are:
Feed water analysis
Production flow rate
Cycle length
Required quality of the treated water
Regeneration technology
Dimensions of the vessel
Analysis of the
feed water
All ion exchange systems are designed for given feed water. Some variations of the feed water
analysis are acceptable, and should be taken into account, but an ion exchange system cannot be
designed efficiently for vastly different water types. For instance, a demineralisation system designed
for the treatment of deep well water is completely different from a system designed to treat reverse
osmosis permeate.
When the water analysis is not constant, e.g. due to seasonal variations, do not take an "average
composition" as the basis of your design. Instead, use the "most probable" case, design with this
water, and check as a second step what will happen with the "minimum" and "maximum"' waters. All
water analyses must be perfectly balanced.
The water analysis will determine what resin combination is required, and if a degasifier should be
considered.
Production
flow rate
It is important to know whether the system will operate at constant or variable flow rate. Some
system designs
require a minimum flow rate. Obviously, the system should be able to operate at
both limits.
In general, it is not advisable to operate intermittently, i.e. to stop production in the middle of the
run and re- start it. Treated water quality may be affected after a stop not followed by regeneration.
Cycle length
122
A short cycle length is desirable in most cases. The practical limit is that the production run should
be at least as long as the regeneration process. As most ion exchange systems are regenerated
automatically, the duration
of the production run does not have to be "at least one day" as was the rule at the time (many decades
ago) when the morning shift would regenerate manually every day at 7 o'clock. Efficient systems have
been designed with running times as short as 3 hours.
The limits of the running time are also related to resin kinetics. When reading ion exchange resin
product data sheets, you will typically see that the specific flow rate in water treatment should be
between 5 and 50 bed volumes per hour (m 3/h per m 3 of resin). At lower flow rates, hydraulic
distribution in the resin bed may bepoor, and at higher flow rates, kinetic effects may affect the
speed of exchange, resulting in both cases in deterioration of the treated water quality.
So in practice the running time must be selected as a function of the following parameters:
Specific flow rate between 5 and 50 bed volumes per hour (BV/h).
Mixed bed units should be designed to operate at a minimum of 12 to 15 BV/h.
Make the system as small as possible for economical reasons (lower investment in hardware
and resins).
For packed bed systems, ensure that bed compaction is good both in the production phase
and during regeneration.
With low salinity waters, e.g. when the feed water is good RO permeate, the running time can be
several days. Mixed bed polishers after a primary demineralisation will run for several weeks before
regeneration is required.
Treated water quality

In ion exchange the quality of the treated water does not depend much on the feed water
analysis. Factors
affecting the treated water quality are essentially related to the regeneration process.
To a minor extend, temperature may affect the residual silica leakage in the treated water: at
temperatures higher than about 50 °C, silica is hardly removed by strongly basic anion exchange
resins (SBA).
Other than that, you can expect the treated water quality of a regeneration system regenerated in
reverse flow to be:
Conductivity: ~ 1 µ S/cm
Silica: 10 to 25 µ g/L
For polishing MB units, conductivity is generally around 0.1 µ S/cm, and silica less than 10 µ g/L. Well
designed and operated mixed bed polishers can achieve conductivity close to that of pure water
(0.055 µ S/cm) and silica in the single µ g/L range, or below.
Regeneration technology
Details of the regeneration are given in a separate page. Another page shows the corresponding
column designs.
Except for very small ion exchange units (and for de-alkalisation with a WAC resin only), plants
should always be designed using reverse flow regeneration. Packed bed columns are particularly
useful, as they offer a compact and economical design, and very good treated water quality.
They are normally sized for relatively short cycles.
Vessel sizing
For a given resin volume, it is generally cheaper to make a tall and narrow column rather than a wide
and short
unit: in the illustration, both columns contain the same resin volume. Column B is cheaper, because
the major cost components of the column are the dished ends and nozzle plates.
There is no limit in height, except that the pressure drop at maximum flow rate should not
exceed 100 to
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150 kPa (1 to 1.5 bar) at maximum flow rate with clean resins.
When selecting the vessel diameter, the limits of the preceding section (regeneration technology)
should also be considered.
Resin choice
Macroporous resins are normally not req
An exception: all styrenic WBA resins are macroporous
Special particle sizes are required depending on the design technology:
o uniform or semi-uniform resins are necessary for packed beds
o special grades are required for stratified beds (e.g. StratabedTM or StratapackTM)
o special grades are also required for mixed bed polishers
When the feed water contains high organics, acrylic anion resins are a good choice
Selection of Resin
Types: Strong Acid Cation
Resin Weak Acid Cation
Resin
Strong Base Anion Resin Type I
Strong Base Anion Resin Type II
Weak Base Anion Resin
Demineralisation plant
Diagrams
124
Deflouridation - Contact precipitation
Deflouridation - Bone charcoal
125
Deflouridation - Activated Alumina
Deflouridation - Clay Absorption
10.Explain the process of desalination of marine water by freezing technique. (CO4-H1)
Desalination refers to any of several processes that remove some amount ofsalt and
other minerals from saline water. More generally, desalination may also refer to the removal of salts
and minerals,[1] as in soil desalination.[2]
Salt water is desalinated to produce fresh water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. One
potential byproduct of desalination is salt. Desalination is used on many
seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on developing
cost-effective ways of providing fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, this is
one of the few rainfall-independent water sources.[3]
The Seawater greenhouse uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside
a greenhouse powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land.
Low-temperature thermal desalination
Originally stemming from ocean thermal energy conversion research, low-temperature thermal
desalination (LTTD) takes advantage of water boiling at low pressures, potentially even at ambient
temperature. The system uses vacuum pumps to create a low-pressure, low-temperature
environment in which water boils at a temperature gradient of 8–10 °C (46–50 °F) between two
volumes of water. Cooling ocean water is supplied from depths of up to 600 m (2,000 ft). This cold
water is pumped through coils to condense the water vapor. The resulting condensate is purified
126
water. LTTD may also take advantage of the temperature gradient available at power plants, where
large quantities of warm wastewater are discharged from the plant, reducing the energy input needed
to create a temperature gradient.[60]
Experiments were conducted in the US and Japan to test the approach. In Japan, a spray-ﬂash
evaporation system was tested by Saga University.[61] In Hawaii, the National Energy Laboratory
tested an open-cycle OTEC plant with fresh water and power production using a temperature
difference of 20 C° between surface water and water at a depth of around 500 m (1,600 ft). LTTD was
studied by India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) from 2004. Their first LTTD plant
opened in 2005 at Kavaratti in the Lakshadweep islands. The plant's capacity is 100,000 L
(22,000 imp gal; 26,000 US gal)/day, at a capital cost of INR 50 million (€922,000). The plant uses
deep water at a temperature of 7 to 15 °C (45 to 59 °F).[62] In 2007, NIOT opened an experimental,
floating LTTD plant off the coast of Chennai, with a capacity of 1,000,000 L (220,000 imp gal;
260,000 US gal)/day. A smaller plant was established in 2009 at the North Chennai Thermal Power
Station to prove the LTTD application where power plant cooling water is available.
Desalination by Freezing process
127
Desalination by Solar Distillation
128
Unit - V
WATER DISTRIBUTION AND SUPPLY TO BUILDINGS
PART-A
1. What is an equivalent pipe? (CO5-L1) [AprMay 2011]

The equivalent pipe is one which will replace a given system of pipes with equal head loss for a
given flow
Principles of equivalent pipes are
(i) head loss through pipes in series are additive
(ii) head loss through pipes in parallel are same
2. What are prime functions of service reservoirs? (CO5-L1) [NovDec2010], [MayJun2012],

[MayJun2014]
(i) They absorb hourly variations in demand by allowing treatment units, pumps to operate
at constant rate to reduce Running, Maintenance and Operating costs
(ii) They help maintaining constant pressure in their distribution mains
(iii) Pumping of water in shifts can be made with service reservoirs
(iv) Stored water can be used for emergencies like break downs and fire demand
(v) Leads to over all economy by reducing sizes of pumps, pipes and treatment units
3. Write down the methods of distribution of water? (CO5-L1) [NovDec2010]

(i) Gravitational system
(ii) Pumping system
(iii) Combined gravity and pumping system
4. List out the components of a service connection pipe? (CO5-L2) [NovDec2011],

[MayJun2015]
(i) Ferrule
(ii) Goose neck
(iii) Service pipe
(iv) Stop cock
(v) Water meter
5. What is the role of computer application in water supply system? (CO5-L1)

[NovDec2012]
Computer applications allows
• Allow extended period hydraulic simulations
• Possess integrated module for water quality simulations
• Handle virtually unlimited size of the network in any configuration
• Have excellent graphical interface for presentation of results
6. How do you identify leakage in pipe lines? (CO5-L1) [NovDec2012], [NovDec2013],

[NovDec2014]
Leakages in pipe line can be identified by the following methods.
(i) By direct observations
Practically observing a wet soft spot on the unpaved ground or in lawn or emergence of spring in
odd place
(ii) By using sounding rods
(iii) By plotting the hydraulic gradient line
(iv) By using waste detection meters
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7. Write down anyone of the empirical formula to relate pressure to height in distribution
system? [MayJun2012] (CO5-L1)
Darcy‘s formula:
Hl = KLQ2 K = 16f
D5 2gπ2
Hazen Williams‘s formula:
Hl = KQ1.85 K = 10.62L
C1.85 D4.87
8. What are the requirements of water distribution system? [NovDec2013], [NovDec2014],

[MayJun2015] (CO5-L1)
(i) It should supply water to all places in the city with sufficient pressure
(ii) It should be capable of supplying required amount of water for fire fighting
(iii) It should be cheap with least capital construction cost
(iv) It should be simple, easy to repair and operate keeping RMO cost (Running,
Maintenance and Operation) and troubles to minimum
(v) It should be safe against pollution of water
9. What are the layouts of water distribution system? [MayJun2013] (CO5-L2)

(i) Dead end system
(ii) Grid iron system
(iii) Ring system
(iv) Radial system
10. What is ferrule in water service connection? [MayJun2013] (CO5-L1)

Ferrule is a right angled sleeve made of gun metal or brass is joined to a hole drilled in the water
main, to which it is screwed down with a plug. Diameter is 10 – 50 mm
11. Name any two appurtenances used in water distribution system? (CO5-L2)
[MayJun2014]
(i) Fire hydrants
(ii) Water meters
(iii) Water taps
(iv) Stop cocks
(v) Pipe bends
12. What factor control water supply to buildings? (CO5-L1) [AprMay 2011]
(i) Source of water supply like city mains or ground water
(ii) Type of water supply like continuous and intermittent
(iii) Pressure in water supply main
(iv) Head loss in pipes and fittings
(v) Loss of head in top floors during peak hours in high rise buildings
(vi) Excess pressure in ground floor pipes
(vii) Location of over head tank
13. What do you mean by sanitary fitting? (CO5-L1) [NovDec2011]

Sanitary fittings are made of porcelain, stainless steel, brass and plastics which receive and
transfer foul liquids and water containing solids which are produced by human activities in buildings.
Sanitary fittings are sinks, wash-tubs, baths, lavatories, water-closets, slop-hoppers and sinks, and
urinals.]
PART-B
130
1. Explain the Requirements of Good Distribution System (CO5-H1)
Water Distribution Systems
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to
supply water from its source to the point of usage.
Requirements of Good Distribution System
1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the repair
of any section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
2. Explain about Layouts of Distribution Network (CO5-H1)
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any
one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place. They are:
Dead End System:
It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads. Advantages:
1. Relatively cheap.
2. Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves. Disadvantages
1. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes. Grid Iron System:
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.
Advantages:
1. Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.

2. In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other direction.
Disadvantages
1. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all branches.
Ring System:
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
Thus, this system also follows the grid iron system with the flow pattern similar in character
to that of dead end system. So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.
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Advantages:
1. Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.
Radial System:
The area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in
the middle of each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.
Advantages:
1. It gives quick service.

2. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
3. Write a note on Distribution Reservoirs(CO5-H1)
Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs, which store the
treated water for supplying water during emergencies (such as during fires, repairs, etc.) and also to
help in absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand.
Functions of Distribution Reservoirs:
Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs:
water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to permit gravity flow at an
adequate pressure.
Types of Reservoirs
1. Underground reservoirs.
2. Small ground level reservoirs.
3. Large ground level reservoirs.
4. Overhead tanks.
Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the summation of:

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1. Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be stored in the reservoir for equalising
or balancing fluctuating demand against constant supply is known as the balancing storage (or
equalising or operating storage). The balance storage can be worked out by mass curve method.
2. Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps, electricity, or
any othe mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total storage capacity of
reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may be considered as enough provision
for accounting this storage.
3. Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1 to 4 per
person per day is sufficient to meet the requirementThe total reservoir storage can finally be worked
out by adding all the three storages.
3. Explain the Analysis of water distribution system(CO5-H1)

Pipe Network Analysis
Analysis of water distribution system includes determining quantities of flow and head losses in the
various pipe lines, and resulting residual pressures. In any pipe network, the following two
conditions must be satisfied:
1. The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can be no
discontinuity in pressure.
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving that junction; i.e. the law of
continuity must be satisfied.
Based on these two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network analysis is the Hardy-Cross
method.
Hardy-Cross Method
This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a way that the
principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction. A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable magnitude.
If Qa is the assumed flow and Q is the actual flow in the pipe, then the correction d is given by
d=Q-Qa; or Q=Qa+d
Now, expressing the head loss (HL) as
HL=K.Qx
we have, the head loss in a pipe
=K.(Qa+d)x
=K.[Qax + x.Qax-1d + .........negligible terms]

133
=K.[Qax + x.Qax-1d]
Now, around a closed loop, the summation of head losses must be zero.
\ SK.[Qax + x.Qax-1d] = 0 or SK.Qax = - SKx Qax-1d

Since, d is the same for all the pipes of the considered loop, it can be taken out of the summation.
\ SK.Qax = - d. SKx Qax-1
or d =-SK.Qax/ Sx.KQax-1
Since d is given the same sign (direction) in all pipes of the loop, the denominator of the above
equation is taken as the absolute sum of the individual items in the summation. Hence,
or d =-SK.Qax/ S l x.KQax-1 l or d =-SHL / x.S lHL/Qal

where HL is the head loss for assumed flow Qa.
The numerator in the above equation is the algebraic sum of the head losses in the various pipes
of the closed loop computed with assumed flow. Since the direction and magnitude of flow in these
pipes is already assumed, their respective head losses with due regard to sign can be easily
calculated after assuming their diameters. The absolute sum of respective KQax-1 or HL/Qa is then
calculated. Finally the value of d is found out for each loop, and the assumed flows are corrected.
Repeated adjustments are made until the desired accuracy is obtained.
The value of x in Hardy- Cross method is assumed to be constant (i.e. 1.85 for Hazen-William's
formula, and 2 for Darcy-Weisbach formula)
4. Describe Computer Application for Water Distribution Network Analysis(CO5-H1)

Computer application for water distribution network is carried out through computer models using
specifically designed algorithms
Computer Models
Widespread introduction of personal computers has enhanced hydraulic design of distribution
networks. Commercial programmes available on the market, sometimes even free of charge, enable
a very precise and quick calculation, which makes them equally suitable for the design of simple
rural systems or large urban networks of a few thousand pipes. Accessibility of such software and
PCs to the engineers of developing
countries has been significantly improved since the mid-nineties.
The computer programmes in use are all pretty similar in concept, with the following common
features:
• PC-Windows™ based applications
• Allow extended period hydraulic simulations
• Possess integrated module for water quality simulations
• Handle virtually unlimited size of the network in any configuration
• Have excellent graphical interface for presentation of results
The main distinctions between these programmes are in specific formats of input data used, as
well as in the way the calculation results are processed.
134
The modelling process consists of the following steps:

1. Input data collection
2. Network schematic
3. Model building
4. Model testing
5. Problem analysis
Input data collection

Powerful computational tools have enabled the focus to be shifted from the calculation to the
collection of reliable input data. High quality information about demands, system dimensions and
materials is crucial for accurate results. Operation and maintenance data are important too, in the
case of rehabilitation of existing systems. This is often a limitation for the model. Well-conducted
fieldwork data collection is therefore a very important initial step of the modelling procedure. The
information to be investigated is listed below.
1. General
General layout of the network is taken from the maps available in the water distribution company.
The specific data to look for are:
1.1 Topography - ground elevations in the area of the system; some specific natural barriers.
1.2 Type of the system - distribution scheme: gravity, pumping, combined; location and role of each
system
component.
1.3 Population - distribution and estimated growth.
2. Water demand
2.1 Demand categories present in the system: domestic, industry, tourism, etc.
2.2 Average consumption, patterns of variation: daily, weekly and seasonal.
2.3 Type of domestic water use: direct supply, roof tanks, etc.; average household size; habits with
respect to
the water use.
2.4 Demand forecasting.
3. Network layout
3.1 Nodes (discharge points) - concerns predominantly the supply points of at least a few hundred
consumers or major industry. Relevant for each point are
• location (X, Y) in the system
• ground elevation (Z)
• average consumption and dominant categories
3.2 Pipes - concerns predominantly the pipes, D > 50 mm. Relevant for each pipe are
• length
• diameter (internal)
• material and age
• assessment of corrosion level (k or C value, if available)
3.3 Service reservoirs - type (ground, elevated), capacity, minimum and maximum water level,
shape
(e.g. through the ―volume-depth‖ curve).
3.3 a. Individual roof tanks (where applicable) - type and height of the tank, capacity, inflow/outflow
arrangement, average number of users per house connection, description of house
installations
(existence of direct supply in the ground floor).
3.4 Pumping stations - number and type of pumps; duty head and flow and preferably the pump
135
characteristics for each unit; age and condition of pumps.

3.5 Others - description of appurtenances that may significantly influence the system operation
(e.g. valves, measuring equipment, etc.).
4. System operation & monitoring

Important (and preferably simultaneous) measurements for calibration of the model are:
• pressure in a few points covering the entire network
• level variations in the service reservoirs and roof tanks (where applicable)
• pressures and flows in the pumping stations
• flows in a few main pipes in the network
• valve operation (where applicable)
All this information may not be easy to collect. However, some knowledge about the system should
exist, even in descriptive form. For instance, in which period of the day is a certain reservoir empty
(full), a certain pump on (off), a certain valve open (closed), a certain consumer with (without) water
or with (without) sufficient pressure, etc. Where there is a possibility of continuous measurements,
typical days should be compared: the same day of the week in various seasons, or various days of
the week in the same season
5. System maintenance
Type of maintenance, water metering, the unaccounted-for water level and sources (leakage, faulty
water meters, illegal connections, etc.), water quality in distribution network.
6. Water company
Organisation, facilities, practice, plans for future extension of the system. This information can be
used to opt for a certain degree of reliability i.e. reserves capacity in the system. It may also have
implications on the way the phased development should be approached. Some components of the
system can deliberately be oversized to cater for future development of particular areas or
connection to a new water source.
Network schematic
Hydraulic calculation of looped networks is based on systems of equations with a complexity directly
proportional to the size of the system. Thus, some schematisation (also called skeletonisation) is
necessary up to the level where the model accuracy will not be substantially affected, enabling
quicker calculations at the same time. The answers should be reached with the minimum necessary
number of pipes and nodes. Expanding the model by the system parts that have no significant
impact on its operation only adds to the calculation time and the volume of printout.
Model building
Just as in reality, it is advisable to build the network model in stages, increasing the level of detail
gradually. Starting immediately with the full-size network with all components included will almost
certainly yield lots of troubles during the testing of the model. In many cases the input file format has
to be obeyed strictly; this is the only code the programme can understand while reading the data.
Making errors during the model building is therefore common. Some programmes allow input in an
interactive way so the chance of false network configuration will be diminished. In other cases the
error check and warning messages will be activated after running the calculation.
136
Model testing
Once the first
simulation run is completed the immediate concern is whether the result matches the reality. In this
phase several runs have to be executed that should confirm that
• the model gives a logical response to any altering of the input data (model validation)
• the model‘s behaviour corresponds to the reality (model calibration)
137
The reasons for any inaccuracy may be that

• some input data were badly estimated because of lack of the field data
• the network is wrongly interpreted by the model due to possible typing errors, omitted data or
inaccurate
field measurements
• format of the input file is incorrect but the error is ‗unknown‘ to the error library of the programme
It should never be forgotten that the computer models cannot match the real situation totally; the
results should be judged based on the quality of the input data and the measurements used for
model calibration
Problem analysis
With correct execution of all other steps, the real analysis of the problem is the final and the s hortest
step. After a few simulations a well-managed model will show the full picture of the selected
alternative.
One of the most popular computer programmes in the market at present is EPANET made by the
US Environmental Protection Agency. The programme possesses all of the above listed features.
Graphical layout of the simulation results in EPANET is shown in figure.
Software for Water Distribution Network Analysis

1. Aqua Net
2. Archimede
3. Branch / Loop
4. Cross
5. Epanet 2.0
6. Eraclito
7. H2O net/ H2O map
8. Helix delta-Q
9. Mike Net
10. Netis
11. OptiDesigner
12. Pipe2000
13. Stanet
14. Wadiso SA
15. WaterCAD 5.0
5. Operation and maintenance of distribution systems(CO5-H1)
Unaccounted-for water
The amount of water that can be billed will always be smaller than the amount supplied. Moreover,
the water actually passing through the taps is also smaller than the amount supplied, be it charged
or not. The difference in the first case refers to the unaccounted-for water (UFW) while the second
one represents leakage. Thus, the leakage is a component of UFW. Other important sources can be
faulty water meters, illegal connections, poor education of consumers, etc.
UFW is an important element of water demand and a great concern of many water companies. In
some systems UFW is the most significant‖ consumer‖, reaching up to 50% of the total water supply.
There can be various ways of fighting this problem but due to high costs of such programmes the
real consideration tends to start only when the UFW levels exceed 20-30%. Limited capacity of the
source can also be an important factor in such cases. Water conservation is increasing in
importance as more and more regions begin to experience serious water shortages, and reducing
UFW is a good way to start.
138
Leakage is usually the most significant contributor to high UFW levels. The factors influencing
leakage are
• soil characteristics, soil movement, traffic loading
• defects in pipes, poor quality of joints
• poor quality of workmanship, damage due to excavation for other purposes
• pipe age and corrosion level
• high pressures in the system
• extreme temperatures
There are a variety of managerial and technical ways to address the UFW problem. Managerial
measures include the following:
• Regular checks by caretakers or by alerts from consumers for pipeline damage, leakage and illegal
connections
• Regular checks by the water point committee, caretakers and technicians on the quality and
leakage of connections (also the presence of illegal connections), meters (if present) and taps
• Arrangements at the water-vending points, public taps and group connections to minimise the
waste of water by good caretaking
Global estimates of leakage levels come from an annual balance of the delivery and metered
consumption for the whole network. Bursts of main pipes can be detected by the flow
measurements at supply points
For more detailed

analysis of the leakage, suspected parts of the system have to be inspected during several hours or
days, depending on the size of controlled area. Those temporary measurements are usually carried
out overnight, when real consumption and overall noise level are minimal. The area is isolated from
the rest of the system by closing the border valves and its inflow and outflow are measured. Some
knowledge about the actual night consumption should exist in advance; flows detected on top of that
are part of the UFW, mostly leakage.
139
Measurements are repeated at weekly intervals for a period of a few months. Any pipe burst
between two measurements would be reflected in sudden increase in registered demand. Average
leakage level can also be estimated by monitoring pressures in the system. A sudden drop of
pressure could also indicate a major pipe failure. Under normal conditions night pressures should be
kept as low as possible in order to reduce the leakage levels.
Finding a precise leak location can be a difficult problem. In case of severe breaks the water may
appear on the surface and the exact position of the leak can be determined by drilling test holes
alongside the pipe route. If the leak is not visible on the surface, leak detection equipment has to be
used. The most common devices are an acoustic (sound) detector and a leak noise correlator.
Acoustic detectors rely on sounding directly on the pipe or fitting, or indirectly on the ground
surface. The noise generated from the leak is transmitted by the receiver attached to a stick, to the
amplifier connected to a stethoscope. This method is not always reliable; leaks at lower pressures
and specifically those in plastic pipes may produce undetectable noise. However, with skilled
personnel working under silent (night) conditions, some 70-80% of the leaks should be discovered.
Leak noise
correlators detect the exact burst location by registering the noise spreading through the water. By
placing microphones at the ends of the controlled pipe section (up to a few hundred metres), the
difference in time required for the leak noise to reach the microphones can be measured. The leak
position can then be calculated from the known length of the section. This method is very effective in
detecting leaks under background noise levels. However, it may be less accurate when being used
in sections with plastic pipes or with more than one leak.
Faulty water meters are the second main source of unaccounted-for water. Typical water meters
register flows with average accuracy of about 2%, when they are new. However, this error becomes
higher for small flows, below 50 l/h. When not properly maintained the water meter may register
flows with errors between 20 and 40% after a couple of years in service. This lack of accuracy can
cause serious revenue losses.
Complicated methods of monitoring and leak detection would normally not be employed in small
community water supply schemes. They require expensive equipment and trained personnel. Even
so, installing at least a few measuring devices at the right points in the network may be of great help
in collecting information about the system operation. The minimum is to have flow and/or pressure
meters in the pumping stations. Water levels in the reservoirs should also be observed at regular
intervals during the day. Ideally, a few pressure gauges should be installed within the network.
140
Corrosion
Corrosion of metal pipes is one of the major causes of poor operation of water distribution systems.
It appears as a result of reaction between the water and metal. This internal corrosion causes three
problems:
• The pipe mass is lost through oxidation to soluble iron, resulting in increased rate of pipe bursts
• The second by-product of oxidation is iron-bearing scale that accumulates on the pipe wall in the
form of tubercles, causing a reduction of pipe capacity (head loss increase)
• Both soluble and particulate iron affects the water quality creating colour problems (‗brown‘ or ‗red‘
water)
External corrosion is a result of aggressive soils and may also contribute to the pipe burst rate to a
large extent.
To reduce corrosion levels, metal pipes need to have internal and external coatings. Ductile iron and
steel pipes are normally delivered with internal cement lining and external coatings made of plastic,
epoxy, or bitumen. Steel pipes in pumping stations will usually be protected by painting. Handling of
pipes during transport and laying has to avoid damage to the coatings. Once in service the cement
lining can be dissolved due to leaching of calcium at low pH values. High turbulence or sudden
change of the flow direction at high velocities may also damage the coating.
Water quality adjustment is the easiest and most practical way to make water noncorrosive.
However, it is not always effective because of possible differences in water quality at the sources.
Two basic methods are pH correction and oxygen reduction. Chemicals commonly used for pH
adjustment are lime, caustic soda or sodium (bi) carbonate. Oxygen removal is rather expensive but
some control measures can be introduced through optimisation of aeration processes and sizing of
well and distribution pumps that will avoid air entry.
Other options, such as adding inhibitors or cathodic protection of the pipes are too complex and
expensive for small distribution schemes.
Bad design of the pipes and structures may cause severe corrosion even in materials that are
highly resistant. Some of the important design considerations include
• selection of appropriate flow velocity
• selection of appropriate metal thickness
• reduction of mechanical stresses
• avoiding sharp bends and elbows
• avoiding grounding of electrical circuits to the system
• providing easy access to the structure for periodic inspection, maintenance and replacement of
damaged parts
Pipe cleaning and disinfection

Corrosion deposits in pipes or sediments caused by improper treatment have to be removed to
prevent water quality deterioration. Three techniques commonly used are flushing, swabbing and air
scouring. These techniques may greatly help to improve the water quality but additional
maintenance equipment has to be employed. Moreover, the network layout needs to include a
number of hydrants or washouts to connect this equipment.
Flushing is the simplest method of cleaning but with some disadvantages:

• Large amounts of water used (particularly in large diameters)
• It is less effective in low pressure areas
• It may disturb flow patterns upstream of the cleaned section
• In areas with active corrosion, it offers only a temporary improvement
141
The efficiency of flushing can be increased by injection of compressed air into a continuous but
smaller flow of water. Pushed by the air, the water will form into discrete slugs forced along the pipe
at high velocities. The length that can be effectively cleaned by air scouring depends on:
• available static pressure (higher pressure - longer length)
• pipe friction (higher friction - shorter length)
• compressor size (larger compressor - longer length)
• pipe gradient (longer lengths when cleaning uphill)
Swabbing is a technique where a cylindrical swab is inserted into the pipe and driven along by the
water pressure pushing the deposits ahead. The swab is porous and allows about 10% of the water
flow to pass, which aids the transport of the deposits. Swabs are usually made of polyurethane of
different hardness and construction for various degrees of reduction in pipe cross-section.
Recommended travelling speed of the swab is 0.3-1.2 m/s.
The problem of animal populations appearing in water distribution systems is predominantly

aesthetic and it is therefore a matter of maintaining it at such a level that the consumer is unaware
of their presence. Pipe disinfection can be done either by cleaning or by chemical treatment.
Swimming animals can be removed relatively easily by flushing. Chemical treatment is carried out
where the flushing is insufficient. The chemicals commonly used are chlorine, pyrethrins and
permethrin. Pyrethrins and permethrin are toxic to fish, so they should be used and disposed of very
carefully.
When using chlorine, higher concentrations are required than the normal dosages in water leaving
the treatment plant. The concentrations applied during pre-chlorination may be effective in reducing
animal appearance in the treatment works. An infestation in the distribution system can be
controlled in most cases by maintaining 0.5-1.0 mg/l of residual chlorine for a week or two.
Long-term measures include removal of organic matter (restricting nutrients for the animals),
which can be achieved by the following methods:
• Improvement of the treatment process regarding suspended solids removal and animal penetration
• Periodic cleaning of pipes and service reservoirs
• Maintenance of a chlorine residual throughout the distribution system
• Proper protection of openings on service reservoirs
• Elimination of dead ends and stagnant waters where ever possible.
6. Describe about appurtenances in the distribution system (CO5-H1)

APPURTENANCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as
appurtences.
The necessity of the various appurtenances in distribution system are as follows
1. To control the rate of flow of water
2. To release or admit air into pipeline according to the situation
3. To prevent or detect leakages
4. To meet the demand during emergency and
5. Ultimately to improve the efficiency of the distribution
The following are the some of the fixtures used in the distribution system. i Valves
ii Fire hydrants and iiiWater meter
TYPES OF VALVES
In water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to
release or to admit air, prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required. The
following are the various types of valves named to suit their function
1. Sluice valves
142
2. Check valves or reflex valves

3. Air valves
4. drain valves or Blow off valves
5. Scour valve
SLUICE VALVES
These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valve control the flow of water
through pipes. These valves are cheaper, offers less resistance to the flow of water than other
valves. The entire distribution system is decided into blocks by providing these valves at
appropriate places. They are provided in straight pipeline at 150-200m intervals. When two pipes
lines interest, valves are fixed in both sides ofintersection. When sluice valve is closed, it shuts off
water in a pipeline to enable to undertake repairs in that particular block. The flow of water can be
controlled by raising or lowering the handle or wheel.
CHECK VALVE or REFLUX VALVE
These valves are also known as non-return valves. A reflux valve is an automatic device which
allows water to go in one direction only. The swing type of reflux valve as shown in fig 7.2 is widely
used in practice. When the water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or rotates around
the pivot and it is kept in open position due to the pressure of water. When the flow of water in this
direction ceases, the water tries to flow in a backward direction. But this valve prevents passage of
water in the reverse direction.Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water
directly from pump. When pump fails or stops, the water will not run back to the pump and thus
pumping equipments will be saved from damage.
AIR VALVES
These are automatic valves and are of two types namely
1. Air inlet valves
2. Air relief valves
1. AIR INLET VALVES
These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so that the development
of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum pressure created in the down
streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves. This situation can be avoided by
using the air inlet valves.
2. AIR RELIEF VALVES
Some times air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow of water due to air
lock. In such cases the accumulated air has to be removed from the pipe lines. This is done
automatically by means of air relief valves. This valve consists of a chamber in which one or two
floats are placed and is connected to the pipe line. When there is flow under pressure in the pipeline
water occupies the float chamber and makes the float to close the outlet. But where there is
accumulation of air in the pipeline, air enters the chamber, makes the float to come down, thus
opening the outlet. The accumulated air is driven out through the outlet.
DRAIN VALVES OR BLOW OFF VALVES
These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead ends and depression of
pipelines to drain out the waste water. These are ordinary valves operated by hand.
. SCOUR VALVES
These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves operated by hand. They are
located at the depressions and dead ends to remove the accumulated silt and sand. After the
complete removal of silt; the value is to be closed.
. WATER METER
These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure the quantity of water flowing at
a particular point along the pipe. The readings obtained from the meters help in working out the
quantity of water supplied and thus the consumers can be charged accordingly. The water meters
are usually installed to supply water to industries, hotels, big institutions etc. metering prevents the
wastage of purified water.
FIRE HYDRANTS
143
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of fire. They are
located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads.
They are of two types namely.
1. Flush Hydrants. 2. Post Hydrants
1. Flush Hydrants
The flush hydrants is kept in under ground chamber flush with footpath covered by C.I. cover
carrying a sign board ―F-H‖.
2. Post Hydrants
The post hydrant remain projected 60 to 90cm above ground level as shown in fig 7.4 They have
long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident , the fire fighting squad
connect their hose to the hydrant and draw the water and spray it on fire.
A good fire hydrant
1. Should be cheap
2. Easy to connect with hose
3. Easily detachable and reliable
4. Should draw large quantity of water
7. Explain in detail about head losses in pipes (CO5-H1)

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
It states that in a steady, irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid, the total
energy at any point is constant.
The above statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in pipe
V2 P Mathematically Z + ------ + ------ = constant
2g W Where Z = Potential energy
V2 / 2g = Velocity energy
P/w = Pressure energy
LOSSES OF HEAD IN PIPES
When a liquid is flowing in pipe , it loses energy or head due to friction of wall , change
of cross section or obstruction in the flow . All such losses are expressed in terms of velocity head.
The following are losses which occur in a flowing fluid
.
1. Loss of head due to friction
2. Loss of head due to sudden
enlargement
3. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
4. Loss of head due to bends
5. Loss of head at entrance
6. Loss of head at exit.
144

Environmental Engineering I

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Subject Code: CE6503

Subject Name: Environmental Engineering-I

Signature of the Author

Designation: Assistant Professor

Signature of HD Signature of the Principal

Name: A.Saravanan Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi

Civil Department Environmental Engineering-I

CE6503 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I LTPC

UNIT I PLANNING FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM 8

UNIT II CONVEYANCE SYSTEM 7

UNIT III WATER TREATMENT 12

UNIT IV ADVANCED WATER TREATMENT 9

UNIT V WATER DISTRIBUTION AND SUPPLY TO BUILDINGS 9

Civil Department Environmental Engineering-I

Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2005

1. Government of India, "Manual on Water Supply and Treatment", CPHEEO, Ministry of

Urban Development, New Delhi, 2003

Civil Department Environmental Engineering-I

S.No Particulars Page

Civil Department Environmental Engineering-I

1. What are the main objectives of treating water? (CO1-L1) (Apr/May-2011)

Collection works, Treatment works, Transmission works, Distribution works

4. State the Purposes of carrying out water quality characterisation? (CO1-L1)

6. What are the assumptions in an incremental increase method to forecast

9. How to determine the storage need for an impounding reservoir? (CO1-L1)

10. Distinguish carbonate and non carbonate hardness? (CO1-L2) (Nov/Dec-2014)

11. Distinguish between Shallow and deep well? (CO1-L2) (Apr/May-2015)

13.What is the objective of water supply system? (CO1-L1) [Nov/Dec 2013]

14.Define Design period. (CO1-L1) [Nov/Dec 2013]

17.What are the assumption in incremental increase method to forecast

18.State the function of water quality characterization. (CO1-L1) [Sep/Oct 2012]

19.Enumerate component of water supply scheme (CO1-L1) [Apr/May 2011]

20. What is Turbidity and how we measure it? (CO1-L1)

21.(i)Explain about Total solids present in water? (CO1-L1)

22. What are the methods of population forecasting? (CO1-L1)

Arithmetic increase method

Geometric increase method

Method of varying increment(or) Incremental increase method

Decreasing rate of growth method

Simple graphical method

Comparative graphical method

Master plan method(or) zoning method

Thelogistic curve method

SURFACE SOURCES OF WATER

All sources of water can be broadly classified as

(i)Screens (ii) Lakes

(iii)Ponds (iv) Rivers

(v)Reservoirs (vi) Stored rain water

These can be further divided as:

 Streams in totally good except the water of first run- off.

S.No Parameter Desirable limit Permissible limit in

6 Total Hardness as CaCO3 300 600

8 Chloride 250 1000

9 Free residual chlorine 0.2 -

10 Total Dissolved solids 500 2000

12 Copper as Cu 0.05 1.5

13 Manganese as Mn 0.1 0.3

14 Sulphate as SO42- 200 400

15 Nitrate as NO3- 45 100

16 Fluoride as F- 1.0 0.002

17 Phenols as C 6H5OH 0.001 0.3

18 Mercury as Hg 0.001 No relaxation