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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

FLUID MECHANICS III


FMA3601

CONTENTS PAGE

INTRODUCTION vi
CHAPTER 1: PIPE FLOW 1
CHAPTER 2: POWER TRANSMISSION 23
CHAPTER 3: QUASI STEADY FLOW 33
CHAPTER 4: VISCOUS FLOW 44
CHAPTER 5: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 65
CHAPTER 6: VORTICES 77
CHAPTER 7: HYDRODYNAMICS 85

iii
iv
WELCOME

Welcome to the Fluid Mechanics III course, you will find the course interesting and
applicable to the engineering world. In the previous course you were exposed to the basic
principles of hydrostatics. In this course we continue with our study of fluid classifications
to hydrodynamics. We apply the basic knowledge to more complex problems as one would
often encounter in practice. A large portion of the course has to do with fluid flow in pipes
because of their importance.

You will find the problems to be generally longer than in fluid mechanics II course but not
necessarily more difficult. It remains of paramount importance though, to understand the
theory before trying to apply it to problems. Solving engineering problems requires more
than just substituting numerical values into a few formulas of which the origin and
limitations are unknown.

The course is designed around the prescribed textbook:


Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications by YA Cengel and Cimbala, 1st Edition in
SI Units, 2006: McGraw-Hill. ISBN-13: 9780071257640. ISBN-10: 0071257640

Additional reading material:

1. Fluid Mechanics volume 2 by JF Douglas

2. An introduction to Fluid Mechanics by AT Sayers

3. Applied Fluid Mechanics by RL Mott

4. Applications of Fluid Mechanics Part 1 by CF Meyer

In this course we shall study chapters 4 to 8 of the above prescribed book. The book
contains worked examples throughout, as well as problems at the end of the chapter. In
this study guide additional reviewing questions and problems are given. If you understand
the theory and can do all the problems in the book and study guide as well as the
assignments, you should be able to pass the examination.

FMA3601/1 v INTRODUCTION
Here are some general suggestions on how to study for this course.
• This study guide is basically the summary of the prescribed textbook and some
recommended textbooks.
• Use the study guide and the textbook side by side and work through the chapter.
If a definition or new formula has been given, learn it immediately and check to
see if you can recall it. Write it down in a summary.
• If an example is to be studied pay good attention also to the
question. Understanding or interpreting the question properly is usually
absolutely necessary before you can solve it.
• When solving problems make a drawing of the situation, and write down all
the given information as well as what is required. When you get stuck, read
through the problem and the relevant theory again.
• The answers are usually given. Try also to do some problems without looking
at the answers at all until the end. Remember in the exams (and in practice)
the answers are unknown!

Enjoy your study of fluid mechanics and practice fluids wherever you are!

INTRODUCTION

Matter has three states: Solids, Liquids and Gases. Liquids and gases are collectively
known as Fluids. Fluids are substances which are capable of flowing and which conform
to the shape of containing vessels. Fluid mechanics is that discipline within the broad
field of applied mechanics concerned with the behaviour of liquids and gases at rest or in
motion. Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest and was covered in Fluid Mechanics II.
Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion. In fluid dynamics, basic principles of
fluid motion are introduced. This covers the continuity equation, Bernoulli and energy
equations. The momentum equation and its engineering application using the control
volume approach are included. This is reinforced with laboratory experiments. In the
analysis of engineering results, the dimensional analysis and similitude will be taught, with
engineering examples.

FMA3601/1 vi INTRODUCTION
Fluids flow under action of pressure, deforming continuously for as long as the force is
applied and they do not retain any unsupported shape, and flows under its own weight.
Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have
many characteristics of their own. Fluid dynamics has a number of sub-disciplines
including Aerodynamics, which is the study of gases and Hydrodynamics which is the
study of liquids.

It is necessary that we understand the variety of fluid properties and characteristics both
qualitatively and quantitatively. Quantitative description requires both a number and a
standard by which various quantities can be compared. Such standards are called units,
and several systems of units are in common use. However, in this course we shall be
using SI units. The qualitative description is conveniently given in terms certain primary
quantities, such as length, temperature, mass and time. These primary quantities are then
used to provide a qualitative description of any other secondary quantity.

The solution of a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating for various
properties of the fluid, such as Velocity, Viscosity, Pressure, Fluid head, Density and
Temperature, as functions of space and time

Variables needed to define a fluid:

Quantity Symbol Object Units

Pressure P scalar N/m2


Velocity V vector m/s
Density Ρ scalar kg/m3
Viscosity Μ scalar kg/m-s

Time T scalar s

Fluid flow can be classified in a number of ways depending on the flow velocity which in
turn depends on viscosity, surface finish of the pipe, cross sectional area, temperature,
pressure difference etc. In general all fluid flow occurs in three dimensions, so that
velocity, pressure and other factors vary with reference to three orthogonal axes. But in
some cases major changes occur in two directions or even in only one direction. Changes
in other directions can be ignored without introducing major errors

FMA3601/1 vii INTRODUCTION


TYPES OF FLUIDS

Fluids can be classified in terms of their reaction to the rate at which deformation
happens. We can plot a graph of the shear stress vs the rate of deformation

Newtonian fluid
τ

Pseudo Plastic

Dilatants
Ideal

du
dy
Figure.1: Types of Fluids

Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian fluids

Sir Isaac Newton showed that stress and the rate of change of strain are very close to a
linear relationship for many familiar fluids, such as water and air. These fluids are called
Newtonian fluids and are modelled by a coefficient called viscosity, which depends on
the specific fluid.

A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behaviour is

Where:

τ is the shear stress exerted by the fluid.

µ is the fluid viscosity – a constant of proportionality.

is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of shear.

FMA3601/1 viii INTRODUCTION


For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only on temperature and
pressure, not on the forces acting upon it as shown. If a fluid does not obey this relation,
it is termed a non-Newtonian fluid, of which there are several types.

A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscosity changes with the applied strain
rate and may not have a well-defined viscosity.

Common examples

A non-Newtonian fluid can be made quite easily by adding corn starch to a cup of water.
Add the starch in small portions and stir in slowly. When the suspension nears the critical
concentration – becoming like single cream in consistency – the so called "shear
thickening" property of this non-Newtonian fluid becomes apparent.

Ideal Fluids – The rate of deformation has no effect

Pseudo Plastic Fluids – Viscosity decreases as the du


increases. Examples: milk,
dy
blood, clay.

du
Dilatant Fluids – Viscosity increases as the increases.
dy

Steady flow – Steady flow: velocity, pressure and cross-section of the stream may vary
from point to point but do not change with time. In practice there will always be slight
variation of velocity and pressure, but, if the average values are constant, the flow is
considered steady

Uniform flow – velocity at a given instant is the same in magnitude and direction at
every point in the fluid. Fluid flow through long pipelines of constant diameter is
uniform where the flow is steady or unsteady.

Steady uniform flow – velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid are the
same at each cross-section (e.g. flow through a pipe of uniform diameter running
completely full at constant velocity)

Steady non-uniform flow – conditions (velocity and cross sectional area) change
from point to point but not with time.

FMA3601/1 ix INTRODUCTION
Compressible and incompressible flow – All fluids are compressible, so that their
density will change with pressure, but, under steady flow and provided that the changes
of density are small, the fluid is often assumed incompressible and of constant density.

Incompressible fluid flow assumes the fluid has constant density. Though liquids are
slightly compressible they are assumed to be incompressible. Compressible fluid flow
assumes the fluid density is a function of absolute pressure and absolute temperature: the
density is not constant.

Viscous flow, streamline or laminar – are those in which fluid friction have significant
effects on the solution. The Reynolds number can be used to evaluate whether viscous or
inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem.

Non-viscous or in-viscid flow – There is no loss of energy due to internal


friction between adjacent layers of the fluid.

Stokes flow – is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, such that inertial forces can be
neglected compared to viscous forces. On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate
that the inertial forces are more significant than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore,
we may assume the flow to be an in-viscid flow, an approximation in which we neglect
viscosity at all, compared to inertial terms.

Pressure flow – implies that flow occurs under pressure


Gravity flow – implies that flow occurs under gravity

FMA3601/1 x INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1

PIPE FLOW
(INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH PIPE)
You will recall from the previous course that the pressure head loss in pipes can be determined by
4 fLV 2
the formula h f = . The value of f was then given in the problems. In this chapter we shall
2 gd
investigate how the mechanics of fluid resistance originates and how the value of f can be
determined.

STUDY OBJECTIVES
After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Fully understand the concept of lamina and turbulent flows.


2. Apply the Bernoulli’s equation to calculate the energy transfer from one point
to another by taking into account all losses.
3. Determine the value of f for various flow conditions and pipes by making use
of graphs or formulas.
4. Determine the pressure drop in pipes from charts.
5. Draw the energy gradient line and from it determine the hydraulic gradient

This chapter will probably require about 10 to 20 hours of study.

FMA3601/1 1 CHAPTER 1
1.1 FLOW IN PIPELINES

Reynolds carried out an experiment to best describe the real behaviour of fluids flowing by
setting up the following apparatus:

Figure 1: Reynolds experimental set up

The discharge controlled by the valve and the small ‘filament’ of dye indicates the behaviour of
the flow. By changing the flow Reynolds noticed:
• At low flows or velocities the filament remained intact and almost straight. This type of
flow is known as laminar flow, and the experiment looks like this:
Dye

Pipe

Fluid flow
Dye
streak

Figure 2: Laminar flow

Laminar flow, is sometimes known as streamline flow or viscous flow. The flow in a pipe is
deemed laminar when Reynolds number is less than 2300.

In general laminar flow has the following flow characteristics

FMA3601/1 2 CHAPTER 1
• Fluid flow in parallel layers
• No disruption between fluid layers
• No intermingling (no mixing) of fluid layers
• Smooth and orderly motion
• No macroscopic agitation/movement and diffusion/dispersion between layers
• Low inertia force
• Relatively strong viscous forces

Transitional flow – Between the two states of laminar and turbulent flow there exists the
transitional region. The actual transition from laminar to turbulent flow may take place at various
Reynolds numbers, depending on how much the flow is disturbed by vibration of the pipe,
roughness of the entrance region, and the like. As mentioned above for Reynolds number
between 2300 and 4000, the flow may switch between laminar and turbulent conditions in an
apparent random fashion (transitional flow)
Dye

Fluid Flow

Figure 3: Transitional flow

In general laminar flow has the following flow characteristics

• The transition between laminar and turbulent flow is often indicated by a critical
Reynolds number (Recrit),
• Critical Reynolds number depends on the exact flow configuration and must be
determined experimentally.
• Within a certain range around this point there is a region of gradual transition where the
flow is neither fully laminar nor fully turbulent, and predictions of fluid behaviour can be
difficult.

FMA3601/1 3 CHAPTER 1
• Within circular pipes the critical Reynolds number is generally accepted to be 2300,
where the Reynolds number is based on the pipe diameter, D and the mean velocity, V
within the pipe
• Engineers will avoid any pipe configuration that falls within the range of Reynolds
numbers from about 2000 to 4000 to ensure that the flow is either laminar or turbulent.

Critical Reynolds Number

• For design purposes Re < 2000 is used to characterise laminar flow


• For Re < 2000, the flow is laminar
• For Re > 4000, the flow is turbulent
• In the range of 2000 < Re < 4000 the flow is transitional
• This range is called the critical region
• In this range the flow can be either laminar or turbulent.

When the flow velocity is increased (keeping the viscosity, pipe size and density constant), the
fluid particles oscillate (move up and down) and waver and eventually break up into turbulent
eddying motion. In this type of motion/flow fluid particles mix randomly with each other. This
type of flow is called turbulent flow.
Dye

Dye streak

Fluid Flow

Pipe

Figure 4: Turbulent flow

FMA3601/1 4 CHAPTER 1
Figure 5: Turbulent flow

• Turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers


• Inertial forces are dominant and produce random eddies, vortices and other flow
fluctuations.
• For Re greater than 4000, the flow is fully turbulent

Reynolds experimented with different fluids, pipes and velocities. Eventually he


found that the following expression predicted which type of flow was found:
ρVL
Re =
µ
Or
VL
Re =
ν
• Re is called the Reynolds Number

• V – average fluid velocity, (m/s)


• L – characteristic length of the containing vessel (diameter, D, if a cross-section is
circular), (m)
• µ – dynamic fluid viscosity, (kg/m-s) or Pa-s or N-s/m2
• ν – kinematic fluid viscosity: ν = µ / ρ, (kg/m-s)/(kg/m3) = m2/s
• ρ – Fluid density. (kg/m3)

FMA3601/1 5 CHAPTER 1
The characteristic dimension of flow path of fluid flowing full in circular pipe is the inside
diameter. The (dimensionless) Reynolds number characterises whether flow conditions lead to
laminar or turbulent flow; e.g. for flow in a pipe, flow with a Reynolds number less than 2300
will be laminar. The Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertia forces in a fluid to the
viscous forces i.e. Inertia forces/viscous forces.

The inertial forces tend to push the fluid particles apart while the viscous forces keep the fluid
particles together. If the inertia forces in a fluid flow are small as compared to the viscous forces,
then the viscous forces will be dominant hence the fluid will have the tendency to flow in
smooth and orderly manner. The flow will be laminar.

Reynolds number can be used to determine whether a flow will be laminar or turbulent. It is
one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and provides a criterion for
determining dynamic similitude.

Hydraulic radius for non-circular cross section – can be either closed conduits running full
or open channels. The characteristic dimension of non-circular cross sections is called Hydraulic
radius, R. R is defined as the ratio of the net cross-sectional area of a flow stream to the wetted
perimeter of the section

A
R= = area/wetted perimeter
Wp

Reynolds Number for closed non-circular cross-sections

Figure 6: Square tubing filled with fluid

Assume that the fluid flows under pressure through a square tubing and fills it completely.

• The average velocity of the flow is found by using the volume flow rate and cross
sectional area. (V = Q/A)

FMA3601/1 6 CHAPTER 1
• The Reynolds number is determined in a very similar manner to that used for flow in
circular pipes.
• The characteristic length is 4R (four times the hydraulic radius)
V (4 R) ρ
• The Reynolds number now can be written as Re =
µ
• This can be validated from R = D/4 for circular pipes

Therefore, 4R is equivalent to D for the circular pipe.

Note: This analogy will give reasonable results as long as the cross section has an aspect ratio
not much different from that of the circular cross section.

• Aspect ratio = width of the section/height of the section

VDρ
Re =
µ

m kg m ⋅ s
Re = ×m× 3 ×
s m kg

Because all units can be cancelled Re is dimensionless. Reynolds number is one of several
dimensionless numbers useful in the study of fluid mechanics. We shall look at it in details when
dealing with Dimensional Analysis.

Velocity Profile
In the last section we saw that the velocity profile/distribution for laminar flow was a parabolic
shape. We could easily compute the local velocity at any point. The only variables were the mean
velocity of the flow and the pipe radius.
The velocity profile/distribution for turbulent flow is far different from the parabolic profile for
laminar flow. As shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8 below, the fluid velocity near the wall of the
pipe changes/varies rapidly from zero at the wall to a nearly uniform velocity distribution
throughout the volume/bulk of the cross section. The actual shape of the velocity profile varies
with the friction factor, f, which in turn varies with the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe.

FMA3601/1 7 CHAPTER 1
The governing equation is given by the following relationship
  r 
U = v  1 + 1 . 43 f + 2 . 15 f log  1 −  1.1
r o  
10
 
Where
v= the average velocity in the pipe
f = friction factor
ro = pipe radius
r = any distance from the center line. It may approach pipe radius but not equal to it.

Figure 7: Velocity profiles for laminar and turbulent flows


vave

ro y
Fluid flow r Umax

U Velocity profile

Pipe

Figure 8: Velocity profile for turbulent flow in pipe


FMA3601/1 8 CHAPTER 1
When evaluating equation 1.1, recall that the log of zero is undefined. r can only approach ro but
equal to it.

Maximum velocity
The maximum velocity occurs at the centre of the pipe where r = 0

U max = (
v 1 + 1 . 43 f ) 1.2
Formulation of analytical equations to describe the turbulent flow is not possible due to random
motion of the fluid particles, and it is therefore necessary to rely on experimental data in order
to quantify frictional head losses in turbulent pipe flow.

A number of empirical equations have been proposed for turbulent pipe flow regimes. These
formulae are very useful in calculations but must be used with caution and only with specified
ranges.

Bernoulli Equation (recall from Fluid Mechanics II)


Bernoulli equation states that for the steady incompressible flow of an ideal fluid along a
streamline, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy is constant along the
streamline.

p V2
Total head = + + Z = constant 1.3
ρg ρg
Although Bernoulli equation has been developed for streamline flow for ideal fluid it can be
applied to real fluids.

Total Head Equation 1.3 has units of meters. All terms in equation 1.3 are head terms and are
known respectively as the static head, kinetic heat and potential head.

Head Loss and Energy Loss due to Friction


In real pipe flow, there is a decrease in the total head due to friction and other losses in the
system. We have what we call major and minor pipe flow losses.
For steady pipe flow between any two points
2 2
p1 V1 p V
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + h f 1.4
ρg ρg ρg ρg

FMA3601/1 9 CHAPTER 1
Friction Factor

Darcy Formula (French Engineer, Henri Darcy)


The energy/head loss due to friction in pipe flow can be calculated using the Darcy formula
developed by Henri Darcy.

4 fLV 2 4 fl V 2
hf = = × 1.5
2 gd d 2g
Where
hf = head/energy loss
f = friction factor (It is dimensionless)
d = pipe diameter
V = mean velocity
L = length of the pipe

Darcy’s equation can be written in terms of flow rate rather than velocity
2
Q
4 fL 
hf =  A
2 gd

fl 2
= Q 1.6
3d 5
The value of f depends on Reynolds number of flow and the internal surface roughness of the
pipe wall. Since f varies with Re, any change in flow velocity, pipe diameter or viscosity can be
accounted for by a change in Re. The surface roughness is the measure of average height of k of
the internal surface finish of the pipe wall, and will change according to the material and method
of manufacture.

k
Relative roughness ε = (1.7)
d
The surface roughness has no effect on the laminar flow. ( in laminar flow, flow is independent
of the surface roughness)

Various formulae have been published to determine the friction factor.

FMA3601/1 10 CHAPTER 1
Colebrook-White friction factor:

1  1,255 ε 
= − 4 log10  + 
f  Re f 3,71d  (1.8)

Churchill-Usagi friction factor:

1 / 12
 8 12 1 
f = 2   +
 Re  ( A + B )1,5 

16
 
 1 
where A = 2,457 ln (1.9)


7
Re
( )
0, 9 ε
+ 0,27 
d

16
 37530 
B= 
 Re 

Moody Chart

The values of f, Re and are plotted on a log-log scale and give what is known as the Moody
Chart. (Moody, 1944)

The experimental results for friction factor for laminar flow are in agreement with the analytical
values.

16
In laminar flow we saw that, f =
Re
Taking log on both sides we get
log f = log 16 – log Re.
if we plot this equation on a logarithmic graph paper we get a straight line with a negative slope.
(See the Moody Chart)

The Moody Chart is used for pipe friction calculations. Approximate values of k have been
assigned to different types of new pipes. (Remember scaling and fouling with time may seriously
affect k)

FMA3601/1 11 CHAPTER 1
At Re = 2000, transition to turbulent begins, and the friction factor curves follow path
depending on the roughness of the surface.
The lower limit of the roughness is the smooth pipe curve and all curves follow the smooth pipe
curve until the Reynolds number becomes high enough for roughness to be important.

Pipe Flow Calculations

There are three basic types of flow calculations depending on the information available and
required.
1. Determine hf (the pump size) given Q, L, d, ν, k
2. Determine Q (flow rate) given hf,, L, d, ν, k
3. Determine d (pipe size) given hf, L, Q, ν, k

Example 1
Oil with viscosity of 9.29 x 10-6m2/s flows through a 305 m long, 0.203 m diameter cast iron pipe
at a rate of 0.126m3/s, calculate the head loss due to friction.

Pipe

Q 203mm

305 m
Given
ν = 9.29 x 10-6m2/s
L = 305 m
d = 0.203 m
Q = 0.126m3/s

Solution

4 fLV 2
hf =
2 gd

FMA3601/1 12 CHAPTER 1
Calculate velocity

From continuity
Q 0.126
V= = = 3.89 m/s
A 0.25π (0.203) 2
Calculate the Reynolds number
Vd 3.89 × 0.203
Re= = = 85002= 8.5x104
ν 9.29 × 10 −6

For cast iron k = 0.25mm


k 0.25 × 10 −3
ε= = = 0.00123
d 0.203

By interpolation form the Moody Chart, we get


f = 0.0059

4 fLV 2 4 × 0.0059 × 305 × 3.89 2


hf = = = 27.35m of oil.
2 gd 2 × 9.81 × 0.203

FMA3601/1 13 CHAPTER 1
MOODY DIAGRAM

FMA3601/1 14 CHAPTER 1
Table 1: Typical Values of k

Material k mm
Drawing tube 0.0015
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045
Welded steel pipe 0.046
Asphalt-dipped cast iron 0.12
Galvanized iron 0.15
Cast iron 0.25
Wood 0.18-0.9
Concrete 0.3-3.0
Riveted steel 0.9-9
Glass and plastic smooth

Minor Losses
The head loss due to friction is usually the largest single cause of pressure drop/loss in a pipe
system. As shown above, the head loss in long straight sections of the pipe can be calculated by
the use of the friction factor. Most pipe systems, however, consist of substantially more than
straight sections. They contain valves, bends tees, flow meters and the like, and they also
contribute to the total head loss. Such loses are loosely called minor losses. Minor loses, though
individually small, their sum can contribute significantly to the total head loss.

The losses that occur in pipe fittings can be calculated using table provided by the manufacturers.

4 fLV 2
Equation h f = can be written as
2 gd

kV 2 4 fL
hL = . Where k = and is a constant provided the variation in V is too great.
2g d

Where
k = is the head loss coefficient.
h L = minor losses

FMA3601/1 15 CHAPTER 1
In flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than viscous effects, (very large Reynolds
number and fully developed pipe flow) it is usually found that friction is independent of
Reynolds number.

Equivalent Length
Minor loses are sometimes given in terms of an equivalent length. The head loss through a
component is given in terms of the equivalent length of pipe that would produce the same head
loss as the component/fitting.

kV 2 l eqV 2
hL = =4f
2g 2 Dg

kd
From which l e =
4f
This means that the fitting losses can be incorporated in terms of the friction factor for the pipe
and an equivalent length of the pipe, to give the required fitting head loss. Therefore
System head loss = friction loss + sum of fitting losses

The flow of a fluid in a pipeline may be described as either viscous (laminar or streamline) or
turbulent.
• Viscous (laminar/streamline) flow – This is flow in which the particles of the fluid move
in an orderly manner in a straight line or in parallel lines.
• Turbulent Flow – This is flow in which fluid particles move in a disorderly manner.

Pipes in Parallel

= Cross-sectional area of supply pipe


= Cross-sectional area of 1st branch
= Cross-sectional area of 2nd branch
= mean velocity of fluid in supply pipe
= mean velocity of fluid in 1st branch
= mean velocity of fluid in 2nd branch
= flow rate through supply pipe
= Flow rate through 1st branch

FMA3601/1 16 CHAPTER 1
= Flow rate through 2nd branch

For continuity of flow

Pipes in Series

For continuity

Losses in Pipeline Flow


Whenever a fluid flows through a pipe some of its energy is lost due to:
1. Friction
Energy is lost in overcoming friction in the pipe. The energy lost due to pipe friction
depends on the pipe friction coefficient , the velocity of the fluid flowing in the pipe ,
the pipe length and the pipe diameter . Energy losses are usually expressed in units of
energy per unit weight (N-m/N) or head (m) of the fluid.
Friction Head is given by the Darcy formula

Note: When calculating friction losses in pipes in series the losses are added together.
When the pipe branches the friction losses through each branch will be calculated
without considering alternative routes. An example will be discussed under parallel and
series pipelines.

FMA3601/1 17 CHAPTER 1
2. Shock Losses
Shock losses arise when the normal flow of a fluid is disturbed by the presence of such
fittings as valves, bends or sudden changes in the pipe’s cross-sectional area.
a) Shock Losses at Sudden Enlargement

When a pipe increases suddenly in cross-sectional area from area to energy


(head) is lost. The energy lost per unit weight of fluid is a function of the velocity
head and is given by

Where and are the velocities in the small and large sections of the pipe as
shown in the diagram below.

b) Shock Losses at Sudden Contraction

When a pipe suddenly contracts from an area to a vena contracta is formed at


as shown in the diagram below. The loss of head is given by

Where is the velocity of the fluid at the vena contracta and is the velocity in the
smaller pipe. The coefficient of contraction is defined as and for continuity

From which

Substituting this in the equation for we obtain

FMA3601/1 18 CHAPTER 1
c) Entry and Exit Losses

Entry and exit losses occur as the fluid enters or leaves the pipe. This happens only if
the entrance or exit, is not rounded (i.e. if it is sharp). The loss of head through a
sharp exit can be approximated to the loss of head due to sudden enlargement from
the pipe diameter to an infinite diameter and the loss of head at a sharp entrance is
comparable to sudden contraction from an infinite diameter to the pipe diameter at
entry.

i. Exit Head Loss where is the velocity in the pipe at exit to the

pipe (entrance to the reservoir).

ii. Entrance Head Loss where is the velocity in the pipe at

entrance to pipe (exit to the reservoir).

1.2 USE OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION IN PIPE FLOW ANALYSIS

Most of the problems on reservoir and pipeline systems are solved by applying Bernoulli’s
theorem. This theorem states that:
The total energy of each particle of a body of fluid remains the same provided that no energy
enters or leaves the system at any point.
Total Energy = Potential Energy + Pressure Energy + Kinetic Energy + Energy Losses or
Total Head = Potential Head + Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Head Losses

FMA3601/1 19 CHAPTER 1
For the points A and B in the diagram shown below
= Pressure head at A

= Pressure head at B

= Velocity head at A

= Velocity head at B

= Potential head at A
= Potential head at B

Bernoulli’s equation will be

= Total Head Losses (e.g. head loss to pipe friction) as fluid flows from A to B

1.3 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

In the pages on the flow of a fluid through pipes, it is seen that there is a loss of head. Whilst
some of this is due to the effect of sudden contraction or expansions in the pipe diameter, pipe
fittings such as bends and valves and entry and exit losses, a loss of potential head (i.e. The input
of the pipe is higher than the outflow) a significant portion is due to the friction in the pipe (The
Darcy Equation). However in a pipe of uniform cross section, there will be no loss of velocity
head and so the loss of Total Energy will be the result of a loss in Pressure Head. The
following sketch shows a uniform pipe and value of pressure head at three points down its
length. The line joining these points is called “the hydraulic gradient”
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-
section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow-liquids and gases (fluids), slurries,
powders, masses of small solids. The hydraulic gradient is a vector gradient between two or
more hydraulic head measurements over the length of the flow path.

FMA3601/1 20 CHAPTER 1
Normally when a pipe is laid, attempts are made to keep the pipe at or below the hydraulic
gradient. However in some cases this may not be possible but provided that the pipe does not
rise by more than 8 m water will still flow. Above this height air comes out of solution and an
airlock is formed that is why the hydraulic gradient is so significant

The above diagram is made of an extremely simple system. On the next diagram the pipe has
both a sudden contraction and an enlargement. The various losses in energy are shown and this
is used to construct the Total Energy Line which is shown in red on the diagram.

FMA3601/1 21 CHAPTER 1
The velocity head at the salient points in the pipe are also calculated and these are subtracted
from the energy line to give the Hydraulic Gradient which is shown in blue.

The following figures give further examples of the HGL and EGL for some special cases.

EGL
EGL
HGL
HGL

EGL
EGL
HGL
HGL

FMA3601/1 22 CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
POWER TRANSMISSION BY PIPELINE

STUDY OBJECTIVES

After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Understand and draw a graph of how the head available for power transmission
varies with discharge.
2. Determine the optimum conditions for maximum power transmission.
3. Determine the power required for given efficiency.
4. Determine the required nozzle size for maximum power transmission.
5. Calculate the power transmitted by a number of pipes in parallel.

This chapter will probably require about 6 to 15 hours of study.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The transmission of power through pipes is both common and widespread in its
application. Two examples are the large diameter pipes which are used in many
hydroelectric schemes and the comparatively small bore pipes used to connect the
various pumps; motors and rams used on earth moving plant and machine tools.

2.2 VARIATION OF POWER WITH DISCHARGE

When power is transmitted by a pipeline over long distances, the head losses due to
friction can be significant and need to be determined. The net head available at the end
of a pipeline is a function of the discharge Q through the pipeline. The graphs show the
variation of Head, Power, and the efficiency with discharge Q.

FMA3601/1 23 CHAPTER 2
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Power supplied to the pipeline at its inlet where

Power available at outlet to pipeline where

where

hp = H – h f 2.1
The efficiency of transmission

2.2

hp = H – h f
= H – fLQ2/3d5 2.3

FMA3601/1 24 CHAPTER 2
2.3 CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMUM POWER TRANSMISSION

2.4 POWER FOR A GIVEN EFFICIENCY

If a pipeline delivers a power of P when its input pressure is and output pressure is

then the efficiency of transmission of the pipeline is given by:

The power transmitted by the pipeline is also given by:

FMA3601/1 25 CHAPTER 2
2.5 NOZZLE SIZE FOR A MAXIMUM POWER.
In section 2.3 it was determined that for maximum power to be transmitted:

For maximum power

As the fluid is ejected through the nozzle some kinetic energy is lost in the nozzle and
the remainder is converted to kinetic energy.

For continuity of flow from pipe to nozzle jet

FMA3601/1 26 CHAPTER 2
2.6 POWER FOR A GIVEN NOZZLE

Let us consider a reservoir A containing a fluid which is discharged at the end of a


pipeline of length through a nozzle of diameter at B and having a velocity

coefficient of (figure 4). The power of the jet

Figure 4

Let the ideal velocity through the nozzle be then the actual velocity of the jet is given

by:

By applying Bernoulli’s theorem for follow from A to B we obtain

FMA3601/1 27 CHAPTER 2
2.7 NOZZLE AND MULTIPLE PIPELINE

When a nozzle is supplied by a multiple pipeline (see figure 5) have pipes of diameter

in parallel the maximum power in the jet occurs when the nozzle diameter is:

Figure 5

For maximum power transmission

Substituting equations 2.10 and 2.11 into equation 2.9 yields

For continuity of flow, considering there are n pipes supplying one nozzle

FMA3601/1 28 CHAPTER 2
Substituting equation 2.13 into equation 2.12 we obtain

2.8 WATER HAMMER

Water hammer refers to fluctuations caused by a sudden increase or decrease in flow


velocity. These pressure fluctuations can be severe enough to rupture a water main.
Potential water hammer problems should be considered when pipeline design is
evaluated, and a thorough surge analysis should be undertaken, in many instances, to
avoid costly malfunctions in a distribution system. Every major system design change or
operation change such as the demand for higher flow rates should include consideration
of potential water hammer problems. This phenomenon and its significance to both the
design and operation of water systems is not widely understood, as evidenced by the
number and frequency of failures caused by water hammer.

Basic Treatment:

pipe length l cross-sectional area A

p1 initial velocity v p2

The force on the valve when closed

FMA3601/1 29 CHAPTER 2
p 2 − p1
F=
A
but from Newton' s Second Law

m ∆v
F=
∆t

⇒ ( p2 − p1 ) A =
m dv
dt
but m = ρ a l

ρ l dv
⇒ p 2 − p1 = ∆P =
dt

In other words, the quicker the valve gets closed, the higher the increase in pressure will
be.

pressure wave travelling up the pipe

pressure wave travels up the pipe and is


then reflected back

Rarefaction Wave traveling towards valve

The total time the wave takes to travel from the valve to the open end and back again is
the used to differentiate between rapid (quick, fast) closing of the valve.

Total Time = 2 x twave where twave is the time taken for the wave to travel from the
valve to the open end.

For Rapid Closing: tclose < twave ie the rarefaction wave hits a closed valve

For Gradual Closing: tclose > twave ie the rarefaction wave hits an open valve
FMA3601/1 30 CHAPTER 2
Speed of the Pressure wave

K l
c= therefore t wave =
ρ c

when assuming that c >> v

Pressure vessel theory

σH

σL

∆P d
Longitudinal Stress = σ 1 = σ L =
4t
∆P d
Hoop Stress = σ 2 = σ H =
2t
1
Longitudinal Strain = ε 1 = (σ 1 + υ σ 2 )
E
1
Hoop Strain = ε 2 = (σ 2 + υ σ 1 )
E

Pressure Increase due to Valve Closure

General Equation: ∆P = v ρ K e

Rigid Pipes: rock channels, thick concrete pipes


∆P = v ρ K e = ρ v c Ke = K

Anchored Thin Walled Elastic Pipes

1
Ke =
 d 1
 + 
t E K 

Non-Anchored Thin Walled Elastic Pipes


FMA3601/1 31 CHAPTER 2
1
Ke =
 d (5 − 4υ ) 1 
 + 
 4t E K

Anchored Thick Walled Elastic Pipes

d2
Ke =
 d 2 (D + d )3 
 
 K + 8t E 
 

FMA3601/1 32 CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3

QUASI STEADY FLOW

Quasi steady flow occurs when we have the fluid head that is causing the fluid to flow is either
decreasing or increasing with time. A situation like this occurs when filling or emptying small tanks.
For very large reservoirs the fluid head is assumed to be constant.

STUDY OBJECTIVES

After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Calculate the time taken for a tank to empty through an orifice.


2. Calculate the time taken for a tank to empty through a pipe.
3. Calculate the time taken to empty over a weir.
4. Calculate the time taken for a tank with sloping sides to empty.
5. Calculate the time taken to fill a tank.

This chapter will probably require about 8 to 16 hours of study.

FMA3601/1 33 CHAPTER 3
3.1 TANK EMPTYING THROUGH ORIFICE

A small cylindirical tank of inside diameter with an orifice of diameter and discharge
coefficient in its bottom, is originally full of a liquid of density . To find the time it takes for the
fluid level to drop from a height of to a height as shown in the diagram below we may say
that after second the level in the tank goes down by ℎ metres. If the discharge during this time
interval is then
Change in Volume −" ℎ
Discharge = = =
Time Taken
%
#$ = − #' 3.1
&

Using Bernoulli’s equation it can be shown that the ideal velocity +, of the jet coming out of the jet
is given by
-. +. -3 +,
+ + 2. = + + 23
/ 2/ / 2/

-. = -3 = 0 5gauge6, 23 = 0, 2. = ℎ
+,
∴ = ℎ, +, = 92/ℎ
2/
FMA3601/1 34 CHAPTER 3
the actual velocity + +, 92/

+ 92/ ⁄
and if @ is the cross -sectional area of the oriOice then
th

A+ A92/ ⁄
3.2
Substituting this result into equation (3.1)
"
! 3.3
A92/ ⁄

DE
DE
" " DE
2"
B C B ! ! B P ⁄
! R ⁄
S
DF A92/ ⁄ A92/ DF A92/ DF

H% ⁄H ⁄
G LMNN ! MNH H Q 3.4
IJ @9HK

Example 1

Example 2

3.2 TANK EMPTYING THROUGH PIPE

FMA3601/1 35 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3


3.2.1 Flow from a tank through a pipe to the atmosphere
If a tank is discharged through a pipe of diameter and length U we can we follow the same
procedure as for the orifice i.e. we establish an express for using Bernoulli’s theorem and then
substitute the value of into equation (3.2) above.
-3 +3
+ 2. = + + 23 + ℎV + ℎWXYZ[ \]^^
-. +.
/ 2/ / 2/
+

4_U+ +
-. = -3 = 0 , 23 = 0, 2. = ℎ, ℎV = , ℎWXYZ[ \]^^ = 0.5 , +. ≅ 0
2/ 2/
and +3 = + 5velocity of Olow in the pipe6
+ + 4_U+
∴ ℎ = + 0.5 +
2/ 2/ 2/

From which

92/ ℎ ⁄
+=
4_U
de1.5 + f gh

j 92/ ℎ ⁄
The Olow rate through the pipe = A+ = i km o
4 4_U
de1.5 + f gh
l n
Substituting into equation (3.1) we obtain
4_U
4"de1.5 + f gh DE
B = C = − B ℎP ⁄

j 92/ DF

4_U
8"de1.5 + f gh
= LMNN − MHN H Q
⁄H ⁄
j 92/
Time taken to lower the level of fluid above the discharge end of the pipe to is

FMA3601/1 36 CHAPTER 3
stu
q%deN. r + f gh
J
LMNN − MHN H Q
⁄H ⁄
vJH 9HK
G

3.2.2 Flow from one tank to another through a pipe

Example 3
Two water tanks A and B, whose constant cross-sectional areas are 7.4 m2 and 3.7 m2
respectively, are connected by a 50 mm diameter pipe, 120 m long for which the friction
coefficient t = w. wN. The initial difference of level between the two tanks is 1.5 m. Find the
time taken for 2.25 m3 of water to pass from tank A into tank B if:
(a) Pipe entry and exit losses are neglected,
(b) If pipe entry and exit losses are taken into account.

FMA3601/1 37 CHAPTER 3
(a) If Pipe Entry and Exit Losses are Neglected

-3 +3
+ 2. = + + 23
-. +.
/ 2/ / 2/
+

4_U+
-. = -3 = 0 5/Ax/y6, 23 = 0, 2. = ℎ, ℎV = ,
2/
and +3 = + 5velocity of Olow in the pipe6
4_U+
∴ ℎ =
2/
From which

9HK 'N⁄H
z=
stu
def gh
J
The amount of fluid leaving tank a is equal to the amount of fluid entering tank B.
{A|| }~ |y+y| }~ A~• " = €

•‚|xƒy ‚_ _|x} |yA+}~/ A~• " = +‚|xƒy ‚_ _|x} y~ y„}~/ A~• … = " €

FMA3601/1 38 CHAPTER 3
+‚|xƒy y~ y„}~/ A~• … "
†}‡y }~ |y+y| }~ A~• … €
„‚‡‡ ! ‡yˆ }‚~A| "„yA ‚_ A~• … "
" "
A~/y }~ yA €+ € € f1 + g
" "
"

" " +"
1+
"
{|‚‰ „A y „‚x/ y Š}Šy A+
" €
! ‰ y„y A }‡ ˆ„‚‡‡ ! ‡yˆ }‚~A| A„yA ‚_ Š}Šy

+
" € j
4
!

4" €
=−
j +

4" " ℎ
=−
j + 5" + " 6

4" " 4_|


=− ‹f g ℎ ⁄

j 5" + " 6 2/

Integrating from ℎ = to ℎ = we obtain

q%N %H st•
G= ‹f g LMNN H

− MHN H Q

vJ 5%N + %H 6 HKJ
H

(b) If Pipe Entry and Exit Losses are Taken into Account.

-. +. -3 +3
+ + 2. = + + 23 + ℎV + ℎWXYZ[ \]^^ + ℎWŽ,Y \]^^
/ 2/ / 2/

-. = -3 = 0 5/Ax/y6, 23 = 0,
4_U+ + +
2. = ℎ, ℎV = , ℎWXYZ[ \]^^ = 0.5 , ℎWŽ,Y \]^^ = 0.5 +. ≅ 0
2/ 2/ 2/
FMA3601/1 39 CHAPTER 3
and +3 = + 5velocity of Olow in the pipe6
+ + 4_U+ + 4_U
∴ ℎ = + 0.5 + = f1.5 + g
2/ 2/ 2/ 2/

From which
92/ ℎ ⁄
+=
4_U
de1.5 + f gh

The amount of fluid leaving tank a is equal to the amount of fluid entering tank B.
{A|| }~ |y+y| }~ A~• " = €

•‚|xƒy ‚_ _|x} |yA+}~/ A~• " = +‚|xƒy ‚_ _|x} y~ y„}~/ A~• … = " €

+‚|xƒy y~ y„}~/ A~• … "


†}‡y }~ |y+y| }~ A~• … = = €
„‚‡‡ − ‡yˆ }‚~A| "„yA ‚_ A~• … "
" "
ℎA~/y }~ ℎyA ℎ = € + € = € f1 + g
" "
ℎ ℎ"
€= =
" " +"
1+
"
{|‚‰ „A y ℎ„‚x/ℎ ℎy Š}Šy = A+
" €
=− ‰ℎy„y A }‡ ˆ„‚‡‡ − ‡yˆ }‚~A| A„yA ‚_ Š}Šy

" € j
− = +
4

4" €
=−
j +

4" " ℎ
=−
j + 5" + " 6

FMA3601/1 40 CHAPTER 3
4" " 4_|
‹f1.5 + g ℎ ⁄

j 5" + " 6 2/
!

Integrating from ℎ = to ℎ = we obtain

q%N %H st•
G= ‹fN. r + g LMNN H − MHN H Q
⁄ ⁄
vJ 5%N + %H 6
H HKJ

Example 4

3.3 RESERVOIR EMPTYING OVER WEIR

The same procedure as above is used to find the time T i.e to establish an expression for Q then
substitute in equation (3.1) and then integrate between the limits and to obtain T.
If for a rectangular weir (or notch) = 1.84Uℎ•⁄ , (Francis formula) following the procedure
above T will be found to be
H% N N
G= • N⁄H − N⁄H ‘
N. qsu M M
H N

3.4 RESERVOIR WITH SLOPING SIDES

Procedure same as above a worked example will be used to demonstrate the concepts involved.

FMA3601/1 41 CHAPTER 3
3.5 TIME TO FILL A TANK

Example 5

A circular tank, 1.8 m in diameter and open to the atmosphere at the top, is supplied through a
horizontal pipe 30 m long and 50 mm in diameter entering the base of the tank. A pump feeds the
pipe and maintains a constant gauge pressue of 45 kN/m2 at the entry to the pipe. Find the time
required to raise the level of water in the tank from 0.9 m to 1.8 m above the pipe inlet.

FMA3601/1 42 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3


FMA3601/1 43 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4

VISCOUS FLOW

STUDY OBJECTIVES
After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Calculate the flow between two stationery parallel plates.


2. Calculate the flow between moving parallel plates.
3. Understand the mechanism of a dashpot, including various calculations.
4. Determine the critical velocity of flow.

This chapter will probably require about 12 to 24 hours of study.

FMA3601/1 44 CHAPTER 4
4.1. FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES
(Can apply to piston and cylinders)

Figure 1: Flow between parallel plates

Assumptions made:
Flow is steady (conditions do not change with time)
Flow is laminar
The fluid is incompressible; density is constant
The plates are horizontal (angle of inclination is zero, gravity has no effect)
The width is infinitely large as compared to the gap hence edge effects can be neglected

It can be shown that the velocity profile/distribution can be given by the relationship

∆P  h 2 
V =  − y 2 
2× µ × L  4 

This is an equation of a parabola and it can be plotted as shown below in Figure 3


b

δy

h
y

Figure 2: Flow between parallel plates. Cross sectional area


FMA3601/1 45 CHAPTER 4
τw
V(y)
τ (0) =0
τ (y)

Figure 3: Velocity and shear stress profiles for laminar flow in a pipe.

The proof of this as follows:

Looking at Figure 1

Lets us assume that the fluid is flowing between two parallel plates and has a velocity V as
shown.
P1 and P2 are pressures at point 1 and point 2 respectively as shown above
The cross-sectional area is given by; A = b x h
But since h = 2y; the area can be written as A= 2by
The force that is causing motion is due to pressure difference between point 1 and 2
The pressure force must overcome the shear resistance for the fluid to flow
Side effects can be neglected (since the width is infinitely large as compared to the gap between
the plates)

Solution
Force due pressure difference = (P1 - P2) x cross sectional area
= 2Pby

Force opposing motion due to viscosity = Viscous shear stress x Surface area
over which shear stress is taking place
dv
= −µ × 2bL
dy

dv
The negative sign because the velocity gradient is negative
dy
FMA3601/1 46 CHAPTER 4
Since the flow is steady
Force causing motion = force opposing motion
dv
2Pby = − µ × 2bL
dy
dv py
=−
dy µ×L
Solving for dv and rearranging we have
pydy
dv = −
µ×L

Integrating we get

− py 2
V= + A; A is the constant of integration
2µ × L
Applying boundary conditions

At the wall
V=0
h
y=
2
Substituting for V and y in the above equation we get

ph 2
A=
2µ × L4

p  h2 
V=  − y 2 
2µ × L  4 
Where
p = P2 - P1 (the pressure drop between point 1 and 2)
L =distance over which pressure drops
h = the gap between the plates
y = the distance from the centre line
µ = absolute viscosity
V = the velocity at any distance y
FMA3601/1 47 CHAPTER 4
Maximum Velocity

Given the velocity for the fluid at any position in the system we can get the maximum fluid
velocity

p  h2 
V=  − y 2 
2µ × L  4 

Looking at the velocity distribution above, it can be seen that it is a parabolic equation and the
maximum velocity occurs at a point when y = 0. This point is at the centre line.

ph 2
Vmax =
8µ × L

Flow rate
Q = cross section area x velocity
=AxV

δy
δA

h
y

Figure 4: Flow between parallel plates. Cross sectional area

Considering a differential area


δA = b x δy

Therefore the flow through this differential area is given by

FMA3601/1 48 CHAPTER 4
p  h2 
δQ = b x δy x  − y 2 
2µ × L  4 
Total flow/discharge through the gap/passage

Integrating over the whole area

p  h2 
∫ δQ = ∫ b x δy x  − y 2 
2µ × L  4 

pbh3
Q=
12µ × L

Mean velocity

The average velocity of the fluid is given by

Q
Vm =
A

Where
A = cross-sectional area = bh

pbh3
Q = flow rate =
12µ × L

pbh3
Vm = ÷ bh
12µ × L

ph 2
Vm =
12 µ × L

Pressure drop

We can get the pressure drop over the length of flow by making P the subject of formula in the
mean velocity equation

FMA3601/1 49 CHAPTER 4
ph 2
Vm =
12 µ × L

12 µVL
p=
h2
Viscous shear stress
In chapter 1 we learnt that viscous shear stress gives rise to a force that opposes or retards the
fluid motion and is given by

dv
τ =µ
dy
Taking into account the direction of fluid motion we get
dv
τ = −µ
dy
For steady motion it was shown that

dv py
=− and substituting it in the shear equation we get
dy µ×L

py
τ=
L
h
At the wall y =
2
ph
τw =
2L

Substituting for P in the above equation we get

τ w = 6µ × V
h

Example 1
The gap between two parallel plates is 0.00076m and the width is 0.10m. The fluid has a viscosity
of 0.96 N-s/m2. The pressure difference of 192 kN/m2 is applied over a length of 0.23m
Determine
The maximum velocity occurring in the centre plane of the space.
Flow rate

FMA3601/1 50 CHAPTER 4
Mean velocity

V h

Given
P1 – P2 = 192 kN/m2
h = 0.00076m
b =0.1m
µ =0.96 kg/m-s
L =0.23m

Solution

a) Maximum Velocity

ph 2 192 × 103 × (0.00076) 2


Vmax = = = 0.0627 m/s
8µ × L 8 × 0.96 × 0.23

b) Flow rate
pbh3 192 × 103 × 0.1 × (0.00076)3
Q= = = 3.181 x 10-6 m3/s
12µ × L 12 × 0.96 × 0.23

c) Mean velocity

ph 2 192 × 103 × (0.00076) 2


Vm = = = 0.0418 m/s
12 µ × L 12 × 0.96 × 0.23

FMA3601/1 51 CHAPTER 4
4.2 FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL MOVING SURFACES

This can apply to journal bearings

δy

Static plate

h
y U = velocity
Of moving
plate/shaft

Figure 5: Flow between parallel plates. Cross-sectional area

Velocity Distribution

−p
V=
2µ × L
( )
y 2 − hy + (h − y )
U
h

Note in this case y is measured from the bottom plate i.e. the moving plate

V is the fluid velocity at any distance y measured from the bottom plate

Flow Rate

 Uh h3 P 
Q = B + 
 2 12µ × L 

FMA3601/1 52 CHAPTER 4
Where
B = width of the plates
U = piston velocity
P= pressure difference
L =length
h = the gap between the plates

Shear Stress

µ ×U hP
On the fixed surface τ h = +
h 2L

µ ×U hP
On the moving surface τ0 = −
h 2L

4.3. FLOW BETWEEN PIPES

P2
P1

Figure 6:

FMA3601/1 53 CHAPTER 4
δr

D
r

Figure 7

Looking at Figure 6

Fluid with density ρ, and viscosity µ is pumped through a pipe at a velocity V as shown.
P1 and P2 are pressures at point 1 and point 2 respectively
The cross-sectional area is given by; A = π r2
The force that is causing motion is due to pressure difference between point 1 and 2
The pressure force must overcome the shear resistance (viscous drag) for the fluid flow to
occur

Assumptions made:
Flow is steady (conditions do not change with time)
Flow is laminar; Re <2000
The flow is fully developed
The fluid is incompressible; density is constant
The pipe is horizontal (angle of inclination is zero, gravity has no effect)

Consider a cylindrical element at any radius r, and this fluid element has a velocity V

Force causing motion is due to pressure difference between the two points and is given by;
Force causing motion = pressure X cross sectional area
F = (P1 – P2) x π r2 = πP r2
FMA3601/1 54 CHAPTER 4
Forces retarding or resisting motion/fluid flow is due to viscous drag/forces generated on the
surface area and is given by;
Force resisting motion = shear stress X surface area
dV
F= -2πrL x µ
dy

Since the flow is steady, the pressure force is needed to overcome the viscous forces.

dV
πP r2 = -2πrL x µ
dy

dV
πP r2 +2πrL x µ =0
dy

Making dV the subject of formula we get


− prdr
dV =
2µ × L

Integrating we get

− pr 2
V= +A
4µ × L

Applying boundary conditions


At the wall v=0 and r = d/2

p  d 2 
V =  − r 2 
4 µ × L  4 

This is the fluid velocity at any radius r from the centre line of the pipe
This is a parabolic equation and the maximum velocity occurs at r = 0 i.e. at the centre line of
the pipe

FMA3601/1 55 CHAPTER 4
Maximum velocity

P
V= d2
16µ × L

Flow Rate

From continuity equation


Q = cross-sectional area X average velocity

Consider an annular element

p  d2 
Flow through element =δQ =2πrδr X  − r 2 
4µ × L  4 

2π × p  d 2 
δQ =  − r 2  rδr
4µ × L  4 

integrating over the entire area, we get

π × pd 4
Q =
128 µ × L
Mean velocity

Mean velocity = V = Q/A


π × pd 4 πD 2
V= ÷
128µ × L 4

2
pD
V =
32 µ × L
mean

Thus pressure drop over length L

32 µ × LV
P=
D2

FMA3601/1 56 CHAPTER 4
4.4. HEAD LOSS

Recall from Fluid Mechanics II


The formula for loss of head is given by
hf = 4 fLV2/2gD……………………………………………………………………1

we also learnt that

hf = P/ρg

substituting for P we get

hf = 32 µ × LV ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….2
ρgD 2

equating equations 1 and 2 and solving for f, we get

16 µ
f=
ρVD

µ 1
but =
ρVD Re

Hence for laminar flow

16
f=
Re

FMA3601/1 57 CHAPTER 4
4.5. DASH POT (SHOCK ABSORBER)

A dash pot is a device that uses fluid friction to absorb energy to act as a vibration or motion
damper.

F
V
U

Figure 8: Cylinder completely filled with fluid

Consider a piston and cylinder assembly as shown in Fig.3


If a constant force is applied to the piston, it starts moving with a constant velocity U, and the
fluid that is in front of the piston is forced through the circumferential gap between the piston
and the wall of the cylinder.

The fluid moves in the opposite direction to the motion of the piston at a velocity V.

From the equation for flow between parallel moving plates

 Uh h3 P 
Q = B + 
 2 12µ × L 

where B = width of the flow = circumference


and the flow is in the opposite direction

 h3 P Uh 
Q = πD − 
 12µ × L 2 

Where
h = gap between the piston and cylinder
P = pressure difference in front and behind the piston
FMA3601/1 58 CHAPTER 4
L = the length of the piston
U = velocity of the piston.
D = piston diameter

Volume swept by the piston per unit time is given by

πD 2
Q= ×U
4

And this would be equal to the fluid velocity X the circumferential area of gap

The force F, required to move the piston must overcome both the shear stress on the piston
sides and the viscous resistance due to flow of the fluid through the gap,

F = Fv + Fs
Where Fv = viscous resistance
Fs = shear force

The viscous resistance can be determined by looking at the pressure drop across the piston

FV = P x A

Using the above two equations for Q, P can be determined giving

 3  D 3 3  D 2 
FV = πµUL    +   
 4  h  2  h  

The shear force is given by

dV
τ= µ
dy

FMA3601/1 59 CHAPTER 4
dV
Hence shear force = µ x area of piston
dy
dV
Fs = µ x πDL
dy

dV
To find ; differentiate the velocity distribution given by
dy

−p
V=
2µ × L
( )
y 2 − hy + (h − y )
U
h
dV
To find the shear force on the piston wall, determine when y =0
dy

Also note that the flow is opposite direction to piston movement therefore U = -V and
eliminating P

 h D 
 6 2 + 4  1 
Fs = µ × πDLU   2  + 
 h h
 

Example (See Fig below)

A dash post consists of a cylinder 80 mm diameter in which slides a piston 90mm long having a
diameter of 77mm. The cylinder is filled with oil of viscosity of 0.12 Pa-s. Calculate the piston
velocity when acted upon by a 200 N load.

Given
Internal cylinder diameter = 80mm = 0.08m
Piston diameter = 77 mm = 0.077m
Piston length = 90 mm = 0.09m
Fluid viscosity = 0.12 pa-s = 0.12 kg/m-s

FMA3601/1 60 CHAPTER 4
Solution
0.08 − 0.077
Clearance h = = 1.5 x 10-3m
2

 3  D 3 3  D  2 
FV = πµUL    +   
 4  h  2  h  

 3  0.077  3 3  0.077  2 
= π × 0.12 × U × 0.09   −3 
+  −3  
4
  1. 5 × 10  2  1.5 × 10  
= 3576.3 U
  h D  
 6 2 + 4  
F s = µ × π DLU    + 1
 h2 h
 

  1 .5 × 10 − 3 0 .077  
 6  +  
  2 4 + 1 
= 0 .12 × π × 0 .077 × 0 .09U −3 2
 (1 .5 × 10 ) 1 .5 × 10 − 3 
 
 
= 141.077 U
But

F = Fv + Fs

Therefore
200 = 3576.3 U + 141.077 U

U = 0.0538 m/s

FMA3601/1 61 CHAPTER 4
F = 200 N

Fluid

Cylinder

Ø77 Ø 90

Ø 80

Example

A storage tank containing oil of viscosity 0.7 poises is cylindrical with its axis vertical and is 6 m
in diameter. When oil is under pressure at 345kN/m2, leakage occurs at a circumferential seam
which consists of riveted lap joint. The effective gap between the plates is found to be 0.025mm,
the plates overlap 100 mm and rivets reduce the effective circumferential length of the opening
by 40 per cent. Calculate the rate of leakage in dm3/h

First draw a picture to help you visualise the problem

FMA3601/1 62 CHAPTER 4
Rivet
6m
0.025 mm

100 mm

Given
Viscosity = 0.7 poises = 0.07 kg/m-s
Diameter = 6 m
Pressure difference = 345 kN/m2 = 354 x103 N/m2
Clearance/ gap = 0.025 mm =0.025 x 10-3 m
Plate over lap/ length = 100 mm = 100 x 10-3 m
Effective circumference length = 60%
Solution
Treating the problem as flow between parallel plates
ph 2
The average flow velocity = Vm =
12 µ × L

345 × 103 × (0.025 × 10 −3 ) 2


=
12 × 0.07 × 100 × 10− 3

= 2.567 x10-3 m/s


Volume of oil leaking/volume of oil leaving the cylinder
Q=VxA
A = clearance area = π x D x h = π x 6 x 0.025 x 10-3 m2
= 0.47 x 10-3 m3
Effective clearance area = 60/100 x 0.47 x 10-3 m3
= 0.283 x 10-3 m3
Note: rivets do not reduce the length, but reduce the circumferential area through which the
fluid flows.

FMA3601/1 63 CHAPTER 4
Q = 0.283 x 10-3 x 2.567 x10-3
= 726.46 x 10-9 m3/s
In dm3/h
Q = 726.64 x10-3 x1000x 3600 (since 1 h= 3600 s and 1 m3 = 1000 dm3
= 2.615dm3/h

FMA3601/1 64 CHAPTER 4
Chapter 5

Dimensional Analysis

STUDY OBJECTIVES

After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Fully understand the mathematical techniques of dimensional analysis.


2. Use indicial method of dimensional analysis to solve problems for geometrically scaled
machines.
3. Understand the laws of similarity necessary to translate a model into a prototype.

This chapter will probably require about 8 to 15 hours of study.

FMA3601/1 65 CHAPTER 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Dimensionless analysis is a mathematical technique used to predict physical parameters that


influence the flow in fluid mechanics, heat transfer in thermodynamics, and so forth. The analysis
involves the fundamental units of dimensions MLT: mass, length, and time. It is helpful in
experimental work because it provides a guide to factors that significantly affect the studied
phenomena. In engineering the application of fluid mechanics in designs make much of the use of
empirical results from a lot of experiments. This data is often difficult to present in a readable form.
Even from graphs it may be difficult to interpret. Dimensional analysis provides a strategy for
choosing relevant data and how it should be presented.

Dimensionless analysis is commonly used to determine the relationships between several variables,
i.e. to find the force as a function of other variables when an exact functional relationship is
unknown. Based on understanding of the problem, we assume a certain functional form.

5.2 UNITS/DIMENSIONS

The defined units are based on the modern MLT system: mass, length, time. All other quantities can
be express in terms of these basic units.

For example,

velocity m/s = L/T


acceleration m/s² = L/T²
force kgm/s² = ML/T²

Where L/T, L/T², ML/T², etc. are referred to as the derived units.

Another system for dimensionless analysis is the FLT system, the force, length, time system. In this
case, mass ≡ F/a, which makes the units of mass as FT²/L, since acceleration has units of L/T².

FMA3601/1 66 CHAPTER 5
The following table lists dimensions of some common physical quantities:

Quantity SI Unit . Dimension

velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1

acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2

N
force
kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2

Joule J

energy N m,
kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
2 2
kg m /s

Watt W

power N m/s Nms-1


ML2T-3
2 3 2 -3
kg m /s kg m s

Pascal P,

pressure N/m2, Nm-2


ML-1T-2
2 -1 -2
kg/m/s kg m s

density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3

N/m3
specific weight
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2

relative density a ratio . 1

FMA3601/1 67 CHAPTER 5
no units no dimension

N s/m2 N sm-2
viscosity
kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1

N/m Nm-1
surface tension
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2

5.3 RAYLEIGH METHOD

An elementary method for finding a functional relationship with respect to a parameter in interest is
the Rayleigh Method, and will be illustrated with an example, using the MLT system.

Say that we are interested in the drag, D, which is a force, on a ship. What exactly is the drag a
function of? These variables need to be chosen correctly, though selection of such variables depends
largely on one's experience in the topic. It is known that drag depends on

Quantity Symbol Dimension


Size l L
Viscosity µ m/LT
Density ρ m/L3
Velocity V L/T
Gravity g L/T2

This means that D = f(l,ρ,µV,g) where f is some function.

With the Rayleigh Method, we assume that D=ClaρbµcVdge, where C is a dimensionless constant, and
a,b,c,d, and e are exponents, whose values are not yet known.

FMA3601/1 68 CHAPTER 5
Note that the dimensions of the left side, force, must equal those on the right side. Here, we use
only the three independent dimensions for the variables on the right side: M, L, and T.

Step 1: Setting up the equation

Write the equation in terms of dimensions only, i.e. replace the quantities with their respective units.
The equation then becomes

On the left side, we have M¹L¹T-2, which is equal to the dimensions on the right side. Therefore, the
exponents of the right side must be such that the units are M¹L¹T-2

Step 2: Solving for the exponents

Equate the exponents to each other in terms of their respective fundamental units:

M: 1 = b + c since M¹ = MbMc
L: 1 = a - 3b - c + d + e since L¹ = LaL-3bL-cLdLe
T: -2 = -c - d - 2e since T-2 = T-cT-dT-2e

It is seen that there are three equations, but 5 unknown variables. This means that a complete
solution cannot be obtained. Thus, we choose to solve a, b, and d in terms of c and e. These choices
are based on experience. Therefore,

From M: b = 1 - c (i)
From T: d = 2 - c - 2e (ii)
From L: a = 1 + 3b + c - d - e (iii)

Solving (i), (ii), and (iii) simultaneously, we obtain

a=2-c+e

Substituting the exponents back into the original equation, we obtain

FMA3601/1 69 CHAPTER 5
D = Cl2+e-cρ1-cµcV2-c-2ege

Collecting like exponents together,

Which means

D = Cl2lel-cρρ-cµcV2V-cV-2ege

For the different exponents,

Terms with exponent of 1: Cρ


Terms with exponent of 2: l2V2

Terms with exponent of e: leV-2ege = (iv)

Terms with exponent of c: l-cρ-cµcV-c = (v)

The right sides of (iv) and (v) are known as the dimensionless groups.

Step 3: Determining the dimensionless groups

Note that e and c are unknown. Consider the following cases:

If e = 1 then (iv) becomes

If e = -1 then (iv) becomes

If c = 1 then (v) becomes

If c = -1 then (v) becomes


Where ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

And so on for different exponents. It turns out that:

FMA3601/1 70 CHAPTER 5
Where NR or Re and NF or Fr are the usual notations for the Reynolds and Froude Numbers
respectively. Such dimensionless groups keep reoccurring throughout Fluid Mechanics and other
fields.

Choosing exponents of -1 for c and -½ for e, which result in the Reynolds and Froude Numbers
respectively, we obtain

D = g(Fr, Re)ρl2V2

Where g(Fr, Re) is a dimensionless function

This can also be written as

Which is a dimensionless quantity, and a function of only 2 variables instead of 5. This


dimensionless quantity turns out to be the drag coefficient, CD.

Note Well

The Rayleigh Method has limitations because of the premise that an exponential relationship exists
between the variables.

FMA3601/1 71 CHAPTER 5
5.4 THE BUCKINGHAM Π METHOD

This method will be illustrated by the same example as that for Rayleigh Method, the drag on a ship.
Say that we have n number of quantities (e.g. 6 quantities, which are D,l,ρ,µ,V, and g) and m number
of dimensions (e.g. 3 dimensions, which are M, L, and T). These quantities can be reduced to (n - m)
independent dimensionless groups, such as Re and Fr.

A1 = f(A2, A3, A4, ... , An)

where Ax are quantities such as drag, length, and so forth, as mentioned under the n number of
quantities, and f implies the functional relationship between A1 and the other quantities.

Then re-arranging, we obtain

0 = f(A2, A3, A4, ... , An) - A1 = f(A1, A2, A3, A4, ... , An)

Which can be further reduced, using the Buckingham π Theorem, to obtain

0 = f(̟1, ̟2, ... , ̟n-m)

Forming ̟ Groups

For each π group, take m of the quantities, Ax, known as m repeating variables, and one of the other
remaining variables. Note that experience dictates which quantities make the best repeating
variables.

The π groups, in general form, would then be

̟1 = A1x1A2y1A3z1A4
̟2 = A1x2A2y2A3z2A5

̟n-m = A1xn-mA2yn-mA3zn-mAn

which are all dimensionless quantities.

FMA3601/1 72 CHAPTER 5
Step 1: Setup ̟ groups

For the MLT System, m = 3, so choose A1, A2, and A3 as the repeating variables.

Using the Buckingham π Theorem on the Drag Equation:

f(D, l, ρ, µ, V, g) = 0

Where m = 3, n = 6, so there will be n - m = 3 π groups.

We will select ρ, V, and l as the repeating variables (RV), leaving the remaining quantities as D, µ,
and g. Note that if the analysis does not work out, we could always go back and repeat using new
RVs. Thus,

̟1 = ρx1Vy1lz1D
̟2 = ρx2Vy2lz2µ
̟3 = ρx3Vy3lz3g

Which are all dimensionless quantities, i.e. having units of M0L0T0

Step 2: Determine ̟ groups

For the first π group,

π1

Expanding and collecting like units, we can solve for the exponents:

For M: 0 = x1 + 1 ⇒ x1 = -1
For T: 0 = -y1 - 2 ⇒ y1 = -2
For L: 0 = -3x1 + y1 + z1 + 1 ⇒ z1 = 3(-1) - (-2) - 1 = -2

Therefore, we find that the exponents x1, y1, and z1 are -1, -2, and -2 respectively. This means that
the first dimensionless π group, π1, is

FMA3601/1 73 CHAPTER 5
π1 = ρ-1V-2l-2D =

For the second π group,

π2

Solving for the exponents,

For M: x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 = -1
For T: -y2 - 1 = 0 ⇒ y2 = -1
For L: -3x2 + y2 + z2 - 1 = 0 ⇒ z2 = 1 - (-1) + 3(-1) = -1

Thus,

However, we will now invert π2 so that

It is permissible to exponentiate any π group, e.g. π-1, π½, π2, etc., to form a new group, as this does
not alter the functional form.

For the third π group,

Solving for the exponents,

For M: x3 = 0 ⇒ x3 = 0
For T: -y3 - 2 = 0 ⇒ y3 = -2
For L: -3x3 + y3 + z3 + 1 = 0 ⇒ z3 = -1 - (-2) = 1

Thus,
FMA3601/1 74 CHAPTER 5
Raising it to the power of -½,

Thus, the three π groups can be written together as

Finally,

Note that this is the same result as obtained with the Rayleigh Method, but with the Buckingham π
Method, we did not have to assume a functional dependence.

Common ̟ Groups

Using the Buckingham π Theorem, we will now examine the π groups which appear most frequently
in fluid dynamics. Most fluid flow situations depend on the following quantities:

l length
D diameter
ε surface roughness
V velocity of flow
ρ density of fluid
∆p pressure drop
g gravity
µ absolute/dynamic viscosity
σ surface tension

FMA3601/1 75 CHAPTER 5
K or Ev Compressibility/Bulk Modulus

There are 10 quantities, n = 10, and 3 dimensions, m = 3, so this gives n - m = 7 π groups. Choosing
V, ρ, and l as the repeating variables, performing the Buckingham π analysis, and using different
exponents for some π groups, we obtain the following π groups, which are common in the study of
Fluid Mechanics:

FMA3601/1 76 CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6

VORTICES

A vortex is flow which takes place in concentric fluid streamlines. There are four main types of vortices
which are forced vortex, free cylindrical vortex, free spiral vortex and compound vortex.

STUDY OBJECTIVES

After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Distinguish between the physical situations that cause free and forced vortices.
2. Perform calculations on two-dimensional flow theory – forced vortex.
3. Calculate free and compound vortices

This chapter will probably require about 8 to 15 hours of study.

FMA3601/1 77 CHAPTER 6
6.1 FORCED VORTEX

This results from a fluid body rotating about a fixed center. In this type of vortex the angular velocities
of the fluid particles are the same at all points. In practice it is obtained when a cylindrical fluid
container is revolved about its vertical axis.

Forced Vortex

If we consider a particle of fluid on the fluid surface contained in a cylindrical vessel rotating at an
angular velocity . The fluid particle is in equilibrium under the action of its weight the centrifugal
force and the fluid reaction .
Centrifugal Acceleration =

Centrifugal Force = = where is the mass of the particle

tan = = = =

∴ = = + ,

= + , where is a constant

FMA3601/1 78 CHAPTER 6
If is measured from AB, = 0 when = 0, therefore = 0 then

In general for a forced vortex the height of the surface of a forced vortex above a datum is given by

$% &% )
#= + (, and $ =
%' &

6.2 FREE VORTEX

A free vortex is formed without external energy being added to the fluid as is the case in a forced
vortex. The flow consists of concentric fluid streamlines and the velocity of the fluid is faster near the
centre of the vortex than further away from the centre.

For a free vortex the product of the velocity at any point and the radius at that point is always a
constant. * = ,
the constant C is known as the strength of the vortex.

In general for free vortex


+, -+ / 0 0
It can be shown that .
= − ,
,

FMA3601/1 79 CHAPTER 6
/ /
where *0 = and * =
,

Where 20 and 2 are the pressures in two concentric streamlines of radius 0 and which have
velocities *0 and * .
If the free vortex is formed with a free surface then:
(% )% &% )%
3−#= = =
%'&% %'&% %'

)%
3 − # = %'

6.3 COMPOUND VORTEX

It is formed when a forced vortex is surround by a free vortex as shown in the diagram below.
The change from forced to free vortex occurs at a common radius . So at the common radius,
4
Total Depression + = + ,

but * = ,
5 6
∴ + = + =
28 28 8

$% &%
Therefore, in general for a compound vortex 9:9;< =>?&>@@A:B C + # =
'

Compound Vortex

FMA3601/1 80 CHAPTER 6
Example 1 (Forced Vortex)
A cylindrical container has sides 1.3 m high and diameter 0.5 m. The container was initially seven eights
full of water but during rotation of the container about its vertical axis, some of the water was spilled
out so that the depth in the container after it came to a standstill is only 0.7 m. Calculate:
(a) what the maximum rotational speed should have been to prevent water from spilling,
(b) the rotational speed which was indeed achieved,
(c) how much water was spilled

Solution
Please Note:
It should always be remembered that the volume of a paraboloid is equal to half of the volume of the enclosing area as
shown below.

Figure Ex 1 Paraboloid Figure Ex 1(a) Figure Ex 1(b)

(a) The volume of the fluid in ABDC=Volume of OAC + Volume of OBD

G
D0 = 1.3 − × 1.3 = 0.1625 L
H

Since there is no spillage then D = 2D0 = 2 × 0.1625 = 0.325 L

.M
For a forced vortex D = where = = 0.25 L

FMA3601/1 81 CHAPTER 6
. M
∴ 0.325 = ×N.H0

.P M× ×N.H0
From which =O = 10.007 /S
. M

(b) From the diagram above Fig. Ex 1(b)


D0 = 1.3 − 0.7 = 0.6 L
D = 2D0 = 1.2 L
.M
For a forced vortex D = where = = 0.25 L

. M
∴ 1.2 =
×N.H0

0. × ×N.H0
From which =O = 19.4089 /S
. M

W G
(c) Amount of water spilled = × 0.5 × Y × 1.3Z − 0.7 = 0.0859 LP
X H

Example 2 (Free Vortex)


In free vortex a point on the free surface at a radius of 150 mm is found to be 75 mm below the level
of the free surface at the boundary of the vessel whose radius is very large. What will be the level of the
surface at a radius of 300 mm below that at the boundary?

FMA3601/1 82 CHAPTER 6
Solution
Given D − = 0.075
= 0.15 L
For a free vortex
(%
3−#=
%'&%

/
∴ 0.075 = , from which = √0.075 × 2 × 9.81 × 0.15 = 0.18196
×N.H0× .0M

At = 0.3 L,
.0H0H\
The total depression of the surface D − = = 0.01875 L
×N.H0× .P

Example 3 (compound Vortex)


A compound vortex produced in water having a free surface comprises a central forced vortex
surrounded by a free vortex. The change in the type of vortex motion occurs at a radius of 0.15 m and
the depth of the centre of the depression is 0.6 m below the free surface level, where → ∞. Calculate
the angular velocity of the vortex.

Solution
^_ `_ ab *_ cbd * =

=
/
^_ ` bb *_ cbd a =
4
=

^_ a_L2_ef *_ cbd
4
+ = +

Since the velocities of the vortices are equal at the common radius then for a compound vortex
4 5 6
+ = + = + = + =

We are given that + = 0.6 L, f = 0.15 L


× .0M
N.H0
= 0.6

.\×N.H0
=O = 16.71 /S
.0M

FMA3601/1 83 CHAPTER 6
Example 4 (Compound Vortex)
A compound vortex formed in water having a free surface comprises a central forced vortex
surrounded by a free vortex. The relation between the velocity in m/s and the radius in metres is
* = 10 for the forced vortex and * = 0.9 for the free vortex. Calculate the depth of centre of the
depression in the water surface below the free surface.

Solution
.N .N 4 0 × .P
At the common radius 10 = , ∴ =O = 0.3 L and = = = 10 /S
0 .P

For a compound vortex


0 × .P
g_c h ib2 bSSj_f + = = = 0.917 L
N.H0

FMA3601/1 84 CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7

FORCES EXERTED BY A MOVING FLUID

This chapter deals with the calculation of the forces developed when a jet of water strikes a slower moving
object. The forces developed on a moving object submerged in a stationary fluid are also studied

STUDY OBJECTIVES

After you have studied this chapter you should be able to

1. Calculate the force of a jet striking stationary and moving plates.


2. Calculate the various forces on curved vanes, reducers and bends.
3. Understand the concept and calculate the jet propulsion.

This chapter will probably require about 10 to 20 hours of study.

FMA3601/1 85 CHAPTER 7
7.1 INTRODUCTION

When a fluid jet strikes a flat, inclined or curved plate the jet experiences a change in velocity. The change
may be due to the change in its velocity magnitude or the direction or both in some cases. According to
Newton’s laws of motion the jet will exert a force on the plate equal to the rate of change momentum of the
fluid jet.

Therefore the force exerted by a jet = (mass flow rate of fluid) ×(change of velocity)

We will examine the impact of a jet on flat plate normal to the jet, inclined plate and curved plate.
In all of the following equations
= ,
= ,
= , =

7.2 IMPACT ON FLAT PLATE NORMAL TO THE JET

7.2.1 Impact on a Fixed Flat Plate Normal to the Jet

= ( ) × ( ℎ )
ℎ / =
" =
=0
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* $ = /01 × 1 = /012

FMA3601/1 86 CHAPTER 7
7.2.2 Impact on a Moving Flat Plate

= ( ) × ( ℎ )
ℎ / = ( − )
" =
=
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* $ = /0(1 − 4) × (1 − 4) = /0(1 − 4)2

7.2.3 Impact on a Series of Moving Flat Plates

When a series of flat plates are mounted on a wheel as shown in figure it is reasonable to assume that the
length of the jet length remain constant and therefore mass flow rate is given by:
5 =
ℎ 6 = ( ) × ( ℎ ℎ 6 )
" ℎ 6 =
ℎ 6 =
FMA3601/1 87 CHAPTER 7
$%&'( 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /01(1 − 4)
$: = /01(1 − 4)
;%&< =%8( >(& ?('%8+ ;5 = $) 4 = /01(1 − 4)4

7.3 IMPACT ON INCLINED PLATE

7.3.1 Impact on Fixed Inclined Plate

= ( ) × ( ℎ )
ℎ / =
" =
= @
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* $ = /01 × 1'%?A = /012 '%?A

FMA3601/1 88 CHAPTER 7
7.3.2 Impact on Inclined Plate Moving in the Direction of the Jet

= ( ) × ( ℎ )
ℎ / = ( − )
" = @
= @
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* $ = /0(1 − 4) × (1'%?A − 4'%?A) = /0(1 − 1)(1 − 1)'%?A
$ = /0(1 − 4)2 '%?A

FMA3601/1 89 CHAPTER 7
7.3.3 Impact on Inclined Plate Moving in a Direction Normal to the Plate

= ( ) × ( ℎ )
To find the mass of fluid striking the plate per sec. we find the equivalent velocity B in the direction of the jet which when
C C
resolved would be equal to a velocity u normal to the plate i.e. B = . By replacing B with we are effectively
DEFG DEFG

simplifying case 6.2.3 to be equal to case 6.2.2.


C
ℎ / = ( − B) =H − I
DEFG

" = @
=
4 (1'%?AJ4)
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* $ = /0 H1 − DEFGI × (1'%?A − 4) = /0 '%?A
× (1'%?A − 4)

(1'%?A − 4)2
$ = /0
'%?A

7.4 IMPACT ON HANGING PLATE

If a plate of weigh K is suspended vertically on hinges on its upper edge so that it can freely swing about its
upper horizontal edge, the angle of inclination @ at it will come to rest when struck by a horizontal jet is
obtained as follows (see diagram below):
= /012 '%?A For inclined fixed plate (since plate is stationary at equilibrium position)
Taking moments about the hinge at O
Q
K× = × LM′ but = ℎ sin @ and LM′ =
DEF G
FMA3601/1 90 CHAPTER 7
Q
∴ Kℎ sin @ = ( S
@ ) × DEF G
X
TUV A = /012 W Y
;9
If the plate has uniform thickness and the vertical height of the plate is given then:
Z
ℎ= [
S

7.5 IMPACT ON CURVED PLATE

7.5.1 Impact on a Single Smooth Curved Fixed Surface

When a jet of water is deflected by a curved plate the force exerted by the jet is mainly due to the change in
direction of the jet. If the surface of the curved plate is smooth, the inlet velocity of the jet is equal in
magnitude to the outlet velocity. Also for maximum transfer of power from the jet to the plate, the velocity of
the jet must be tangential at entry in order to eliminate shock losses.
ℎ \Z = \S

FMA3601/1 91 CHAPTER 7
/ = \Z
ℎ 6 = ( ) × ( ℎ ℎ 6 )
" ℎ 6 = \Z
ℎ 6 = ] = \Z ^
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* _ 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /0`a b`a − (−`a '%? c)d = /0`2a (a + '%? c)
$: = /0`2a (a + '%? c) = /f`a(a + '%? c)
" ℎ g =0
ℎ g = = −\S sin ^ = − \Z sin ^ =
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* 78 *9( h +7&('*7%8 $h = /0`a bi − (−`a ?78 c)d = /0`2a ?78 c
$h = /0`2a ?78 c = /f`a ?78 c)

7.5.1.1 Impact on a Fixed Curved Surface with the Surface being Rough

If the surface of a curved vane is rough then the velocity of the fluid at outlet will be less than that at
inlet. \S = \Z where is the factor by which the \Z will be reduced as the jet pass over the vane
surface. Where 0 < < 1, a typical value of is 0.9.
/ = \Z
ℎ 6 = ( ) × ( ℎ ℎ 6 )
" ℎ 6 = \Z
ℎ 6 = ] = −\S ^ = − \Z ^
$%&'( ()(&*(+ 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /0`a b`a − (−8`a '%? c)d = /0`2a (a + 8'%? c)
$: = /0`2a (a + 8'%? c) = /f`a (a + 8'%? c)
" ℎ g =0
FMA3601/1 92 CHAPTER 7
ℎ g = = −\S sin ^ = − \Z sin ^
$%&'( ()(&*(+ ,- .(* 78 *9( h +7&('*7%8 $h = /0`a bi − (−8`a ?78 c)d = /08`2a ?78 c
$h = /08`2a ?78 c = /f8`a ?78 c)

7.5.2 Impact on a Single Smooth Curved Surface Moving in the Direction of the Jet

/ = (\Z − )
ℎ 6 = ( ) × ( ℎ ℎ 6 )
" ℎ 6 = \Z
ℎ 6 = ] = − lS ^= − lZ cos ^ = − (\Z − ) cos ^
$%&'( 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /0(`a − 4)b`a − o − (\Z − ) cos ^pd
$: = /0(`a − 4)2 (a + '%? c)
" ℎ g =0
ℎ g =− =− lS sin ^ =− lZ sin ^ = −(\Z − ) sin ^
$h = /0(`a − 4)bi − o−(\Z − ) sin ^pd = /0(`a − 4)2 ?78 c

7.5.2.1 Impact on a Single Curved Surface Moving in the Direction of the Jet

If the surface of a curved vane is rough then the relative velocity of the fluid at outlet lS will be less
than that at inlet lZ .

lS = lZ where n is the factor by which the lZ will be reduced as the jet pass over the vane
surface. Where 0 < < 1, a typical value of is 0.9.
/ = (\Z − )
" ℎ 6 = \Z
ℎ 6 = ] = − lS ^= − (\Z − ) cos ^
$%&'( 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /0(`a − 4)b`a − o − (\Z − ) cos ^pd
$: = /0(`a − 4)2 (a + 8'%? c)
" ℎ g =0
ℎ g =− =− lS sin ^ =− lZ n sin ^ = −(\Z − ) sin ^
$h = /0(`a − 4)bi − o−(\Z − ) sin ^ pd = /0(`a − 4)2 8 ?78 c

FMA3601/1 93 CHAPTER 7
7.5.3 Impact on a Series of Moving Plates

When a series of plates is acted upon by a jet the length of the jet is constant since the jet is constantly
encountering new plates. In this case the mass of fluid deflected per second is:
5 = \Z
/ = \Z
ℎ 6 = ( ) × ( ℎ ℎ 6 )
" ℎ 6 = \Z
ℎ 6 = ] = − lS ^= − lZ cos ^ = − (\Z − ) cos ^
$%&'( 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /0`a b`a − o − (\Z − ) cos ^ pd
$: = /0`a (`a − 4)(a + '%? c)
;%&< =%8( >(& ?('%8+ ;5 = $) 4 = /0`a(`a − 4)(a + '%? c)4

If friction is considered
$%&'( 78 *9( : +7&('*7%8 $: = /0`a b`a − o − (\Z − ) cos ^pd
$: = /0`a (`a − 4)(a + 8'%? c)
;%&< =%8( >(& ?('%8+ ;5 = $) 4 = /0`a(`a − 4)(a + 8 '%? c)4

FMA3601/1 94 CHAPTER 7
7.6 FORCE ON REDUCING PIPE

(Derivation of formulae to be studied in the prescribed book)

Figure above shows a tapered horizontal straight pipe of cross-sectional area A1 at inlet and A2 at outlet. If the
fluid velocities and pressures at inlet and outlet are v1, v2 and P1, P2 respectively then from Bernoulli’s theorem:

S S
Z S
qZ + = qS + ℎ qS = qZ + ( S
Z − S)
S
2 2 2

M s = MZ Z = MS S

The horizontal force in the direction of flow of the fluid

$) = _ata − _2 t2 + /f(1a − 12)

7.7 - FORCE ON TAPER PIPE BEND

(Derivation of formulae to be studied in the prescribed book)

FMA3601/1 95 CHAPTER 7
Figure above shows a tapered horizontal curved pipe of cross-sectional area A1 at inlet and A2 at outlet. If the
fluid velocities and pressures at inlet and outlet are v1, v2 and P1, P2 respectively then from Bernoulli’s theorem:

S S
Z S
qZ + = qS + ℎ qS = qZ + ( S
Z − S)
S
2 2 2

M s = MZ Z = MS S

The horizontal force on the bend due to the fluid flow

$) = _a ta − _2 t2 uvT A + /f(1a − 12) uvT A

The vertical force on the bend is given by

$- = _2 t2 TUV A + /f12 TUV A

$-
wℎ ℎ $ = x$2) + $2- c = *08Ja
$)

7.7.1 - Jet propulsion

(Derivation of formulae to be studied in the prescribed book)

When a ship is being propelled by use of a water jet at the rear of the ship (astern) and the water is drawn
from the sides of the ship then:

wℎ $ = y5(1z − 1? )

ℎ ] = F = ℎ ℎ

wℎ ℎ = F = y5(1z − 1? )1?

FMA3601/1 96 CHAPTER 7
7.7.2 – Reaction of a jet (Example of a lawn sprinkler)

A lawn sprinkler discharges water tangentially from two nozzles at the opposite ends of an arm which has a
length L as shown in sketch above. If the velocity of the discharge of water relative to the nozzle is v and the
sprinkler is stationary then

wℎ ℎ = M S

wℎ ℎ { = /t12 |

If the sprinkler is rotating with angular velocity } ( / ) then

wℎ ℎ = M ( − )

[
ℎ =}
2

K ℎ / = M ( − )

w = 2/t1(1 − 4)4

Please Note:

Sections 7.5 and 7.6 the pipe sections may be in a vertical plane, and therefore the Bernoulli expression used must include the
potential energy term, z.

FMA3601/1 97 CHAPTER 7
Example 7.1

Water flows through a 0.9 m diameter pipe at the end of which there is a reducer connecting it to a 0.6 m
diameter pipe. If the gauge pressure at the entrance to the reducer is 414 kN/m2 and the velocity is 2.1 m/s,
determine the resultant thrust on the reducer, assuming that the frictional loss of head in the reducer is 1.5 m.

Example 7.2

A bend in a pipeline gradually reduces from 600 mm to 300 mm diameter and deflects the flow of water
through an angle of 600. At the larger end the gauge pressure is 172 kN/m2. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the force exerted on the bend if:

7.2.1 if there is no flow n the pipeline.

7.2.2 if there is a flow of 0.85 m3/s.

Example 7.3

A jet-propelled vessel takes in water through ducts positioned on the sides of the ship. The water is then
pumped and discharged through ducts at the rear (astern) of the ship. The pumps deliver 34 m3/min; the
velocity of flow through the ducts is 9 m/s and the speed of the vessel is 4.5 m/s. Determine the magnitude
of the propulsive force.

Example 7.4

Water is discharged tangentially from two nozzles at opposite ends of an arm which has a length of 0.6 m and
is pivoted at its centre. The velocity of discharge relative to the nozzle is 6 m/s and the diameter of each
nozzle is 12.5 mm.

7.4.1 Calculate the torque exerted when the arm is stationary.

7.4.2 If the velocity of discharge relative to the nozzle remains 6 m/s, what must be the value of the
peripheral velocity u of the arm for maximum power and the efficiency under these conditions?

FMA3601/1 98 CHAPTER 7

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