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3-D longitudinal and transverse cracking and the influence of non-uniform

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 Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris

3-D longitudinal and transverse cracking and the influence of non-

uniform contact pressure on the stress intensity factors of these Cracks
Dermot B. Caseya, James R. Grenfellb and Gordon D. Aireyc
a,b,c
Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre (NTEC), University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
Email: acaseyd1@tcd.ie, bJames.Grenfell@nottingham.ac.uk, cGordon. Airey@nottingham.ac.uk

Abstract

It has been increasingly and consistently reported that cracking starts at the surface, especially for thicker
pavements. The traditional model of bottom-up cracking is well understood and controlled by long life pavement
designs. This means that future pavement management should focus on the surface layer deterioration. To this
end, this study investigated the Stress Intensity Factors (SIF) of mode one (K I), mode two (KII) and mode three
(KIII) cracking at the tip of longitudinal and transverse cracks and as such their influence on the possible
continued propagation further into the pavement. The CAPA-3D finite element software was used to model the
two cracking scenarios of the longitudinal and transverse cracks with non-uniform contact pressure The results
highlighted the impact of the non-uniform contact pressure and the impact of the distance from the load to crack
tip. It reveals the sharp changes seen as a tyre passes a crack and the SIFs generated at different positions under/
beside a crack. It is advised that the addition of the potential of crack propagation into the pavement be taken
into account in the design of pavements.

Keywords: Surface Cracking; Tyre Contact Pressure; Finite Element.

Résumé

Il a été de plus en plus et systématiquement rapporté que la fissuration commence à la surface, en particulier
pour les enrobés épais. Le modèle traditionnel de la fissuration ascendante est bien compris et contrôlé par des
chaussées de longue durée de vie. Cela signifie que la gestion future de la chaussée devrait se concentrer sur la
détérioration des couches de la surface. À cette fin, cette étude a examiné les facteurs d'intensité de stress (FIS)
de mode un (KI), mode deux (KII) et mode trois (KIII) craquage à la pointe de fissures longitudinales et
transversales et en tant que tels leur influence sur la suite possible de propagation plus loin dans la chaussée. Le
logiciel d'éléments finis CAPA-3D a été utilisé pour modéliser les deux scénarios craquage des fissures
longitudinales et transversales avec une pression de contact non uniforme. Les résultats mettent en évidence
l'impact de la pression de contact non uniforme et l'impact de la distance de la charge à pointe craqué. Elle révèle
les changements brusques vus comme un pneu passe une fissure et les FIS générés à différentes positions sous /
près d'une fissure. Il est conseillé que l'addition du potentiel de la propagation des fissures dans la chaussée doit
tenir compte de la conception de la chaussée.

Mots-clé: Craquage de surface; Pneu Pression de contact; Eléments Finis.

 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris 2

1. Introduction
This paper introduces research conducted to highlight the effect of non-uniform contact pressure on the cracking
potential of longitudinal and transverse pre-existing cracks. This is of particular interest as most flexible
pavement design methods use the tensile stress or strain at the bottom of the asphalt layers to determine the
fatigue life of a pavement (Agency, 2006, Theyse, 1996). The tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer is a
wise method to follow to limit the potential for a catastrophic failure of the pavement that requires a complete
renewal. However, what consumes a large proportion of highway maintenance budgets is the rehabilitation
works on or near the surface from surface cracking, surface initiated rutting and the knock-on effects from these
two distress modes. A number of studies have highlighted the prevalence of surface distress in pavements such
as top-down cracking (Baladi et al., 2003; Uhlmeyer et al., 2000; Myers and Roque, 1998). These studies have
shown that long cracks longitudinal and transverse to the direction the movement of the tyre are common. The
process of longitudinal surface initiated cracking is usually parallel to the direction of traffic and is in the vicinity
of the wheel paths. Transverse cracking usually extends from the longitudinal joint at the centre of the road to
the side of the road in a relatively straight line.

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) was used by Collop and Cebon to model surface cracking due to
combined thermal and traffic loading. The study used a Finite Element (FE) program to calculate the stress
distribution in the un-cracked pavement structure and superimposed the effect of the crack using a Green’s
function approach (Collop and Cebon, 1995). It was found that the horizontal contact stress produced high
horizontal tensile stresses in a small region on the pavement surface at the edge of the tyre. This decayed rapidly
with depth and consequently, a surface-initiated crack was found to grow. Although this crack was not predicted
to grow far into the pavement structure (Collop and Cebon, 1995). However, there was no allowance the lateral
position of the load with respect to the crack which is likely to be a significant factor (Collop and Roque, 2003).

Myers and Roque used an FE analysis that uses more realistic three-dimensional contact stress distributions for
radial truck tyres (Myers and Roque, 2001). They found that surface-initiated crack propagation was primarily a
tensile failure and that analysing crack growth with realistic load spectra was critical (Myers and Roque, 2001).
The most significant factor was found to be the position of the load with respect to the position of the crack. The
lateral positioning of a uniform and a uniform load with an inward shear was modelled in 2D to assess the
relative impact of the shear force (Casey et al, 2012a). There was found to be an influence from the shear close
to the crack. Another interesting finding was the impact of the sub-base asphalt moduli ratio. The higher the ratio
the higher the stress intensity factors (SIFs). There have been numerous studies addressing the existence and
influence of non-uniform contact pressure (Al-Qadi and Wang, 2012, Bodin et al., 2009, De Beer et al., 1997). In
a recent paper the generation of high shear stress under the contact area with non-uniform contact pressure was
highlighted, something which is not possible under uniform contact (Casey et al., 2012b). The relative
contribution of the 3D components of stress (e.g. vertical, transverse and longitudinal stress) illustrated the
importance of these components for the generation of high stresses on/near the surface in the vicinity of the tyre
(Casey et al,., 2013). The investigation of these 3-D contact pressures and the two main forms of surface
cracking e.g. transverse and longitudinal represents an interesting problem to be pursued in this paper. Giving
insight as to the effects of 3-D contact pressure and the cracks interacting together.

2. Objectives

The discussion presented in the introduction suggests that non-uniform contact pressure interacting with
transverse and longitudinal cracks in 3-D space may have an effect on the SIFs generated. Therefore, the primary
objective of this paper is as follows:

 To determine the SIFs for moving Uniform and non-uniform loading for a transverse crack at various
locations relative to the crack.
 Also to determine the SIFs for a longitudinal crack for a moving non-uniform loading relative to the
crack.
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris

3. Methodology

3.1 Mesh set-up

The meshing of a crack-tip is a very particular operation in finite element theory as the crack tip represents a
stress singularity of order (Anderson, 1995). This means that the stresses and strains in the vicinity of a
crack tip are inversely proportional to the square root of the radial distance from the crack tip regardless of the
configuration of the cracked structure. The earliest attempts of applying finite elements to evaluate the stresses
and strains at a crack tip used conventional elements. This however, was not successful (Tong and Pian, 1975).
The next solution which was developed was special elements to represent the singularity. The idea behind the
method was to combine the analytical solution which is accurate near the crack tip with the finite element
solution which is accurate elsewhere. There were numerous types with different shapes, some were cracked and
others uncracked with the crack tip located at one of their corners (Benzley, 1974; Walsh, 1971; Byskov, 1970).
These elements were too complex to be used extensively for finite element cracking analysis so another method
was developed from existing elements.

To overcome the problems of the conventional and special elements, a singular element called a quarter point
element was derived (Barsoum, 1976; Henshall and Shaw, 1975). The QP elements are derived by distorting the
shape function in order to create a singular field at the crack tip within the domain of the element. The inverse
square root singularity can be simulated in a quadratic isoparametric element by a simple shifting of the mid side
nodes near the crack tip to the quarter points and the merging of nodes to create a triangular element of 15 nodes.
An example of this can be seen in figure 2(b) below.

Fig. 1 (a) The mesh and the 20-noded element and (b) the collapsed quarter point with the mid-side nodes shifted

This is the method that is employed in this study for the investigation of the SIFs near the crack tip. The crack
being modelled is a 10mm deep crack with a 1.4mm opening at the surface reducing to a point at 10mm from the
surface. There are 8 QP elements of the same size arranged around the crack tip for each cross-section.

The mesh outside the QP elements is then made up of 20 noded quadratic 3-D isoparametric (Fig. 1) elements
that are merged with the global mesh of the pavement structure. The global mesh is restrained in the horizontal
and vertical direction at the base and the sides are restrained in the horizontal direction. The depth and width of
the mesh is 4m x 4m to minimise the effects of the boundary conditions. The refinement of the mesh close to the
crack is very fine; the refinement reduces towards the boundaries. The modelling is done using CAPA-3D from
TU Delft (Scarpas, 2004).

The thickness of the layers is based on conventional design of a pavement. The asphalt layer is 150mm thick
with a Young’s modulus of 4500MPa and a Poisson ratio of 0.35. The sub-base layer is 300mm in thickness with
a modulus of 690MPa and a Poisson ratio of 0.35. The subgrade layer then has a Young’s modulus of 100MPa
and a Poisson ratio of 0.35.
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris 4

3.2 Loading scenarios

There are two loads for the transverse crack and one for the longitudinal crack, one a representation of a real 3D
contact pressure (only load for longitudinal crack) and the other a uniform loading. Both are based on a
295/75R22.5 tyre with a tyre load of 34.5kn and an inflation pressure of 620kPa. This is a reasonable tyre load
and inflation pressure for a steering axle tyre 20% over loaded and normally inflated. The uniform contact patch
is a rectangle 202mm wide which is a constant and 202mm long which can vary with inflation pressure and tyre
load. The area of this rectangle is based on the estimated contact area from the senor readings. The contact
pressure is 490kPa based on the average of the vertical contact pressure from the 3-D representation. The non-
uniform contact pressure is based on senor readings from the VRSPTA (Vehicle-Road Surface Pavement
Transducer Array) created by Morris De Beer at CSIR South Africa. The readings are via software called
Tireview from the University of Texas (Fernando, 2006). The readings were processed for the aforementioned
tyre and were converted into a moving 3D contact pressure for each rib of the tyre. The contact pressure is
defined for the vertical and transverse for the maximum of each component varying sinusoidal over the length of
each rib as shown in Fig. 2. The longitudinal contact pressure is defined sinusoidal over half the rib length one
half positive and the other negative again this can be observed in Fig. 2(b).

kPa kPa kPa

Vertical Trans Long
Rib 1 771 161 160
Rib 2 662 161 140
Rib 3 867 143 154
Rib 4 648 127 126
Rib 5 766 144 138

Fig. 2 From left to right, (a) the rib dimensions, (b) the contact pressure distribution on rib 3 and the maximum
vertical, (c) transverse and longitudinal contact pressure for each rib

In the case of the longitudinal cracking scenario the load is run along the direction of the crack in 4 positions for
the non-uniform loading. The positions for the non-uniform contact pressure is 20mm from the edge of the outer
most rib, outer most rib beside the crack, underneath the middle rib and between the middle rib and the second
rib. This gives a good mixture of conditions for the lateral positioning of a tyre. The loading is run over 1m in
the centre area of the mesh at 20mm steps. Output is recorded for each step at the cross-section of 2m into the
direction of travel. In this way the behaviour of the cracking can be observed as the tyre approaches and leaves
for all the loadings described earlier. For the transverse cracking scenario there is only the uniform and non-
uniform loading ran along the centreline towards the crack. The loading is run over 1m as well at 20mm steps
again to observe the behaviour while the tyre is approaching and leaving the crack. The output positions will be
for 3 locations for the uniform contact pressure and 4 for the non-uniform contact pressure. This is the same as
for the longitudinal crack except this is done by having the 3 and 4 different output cross-sections respectively
for each run of loading. This gives a good basis to analyze the effects of the non-uniform contact pressure and
how it interacts with the longitudinal and transverse cracks in comparison with uniform contact pressure.

3.3 Stress intensity factors calculations

The SIFs for Mode 1 (KI, crack tensile opening mode), Mode 2 (KII, in-plane shearing crack mode) and Mode 3
(KIII out of plane shearing) were calculated using equations (1), (2) and (3) respectively (Milne, 2003). These
equations are derived for plane strain conditions for use with the quarter point element method of calculation.
Results from the loading scenarios for the different SIFs will highlight which loading and position has the
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris

greatest potential to propagate the cracks. The results of the calculations were displayed graphically for the
different loadings and loading positions to illustrate the results and facilitate comparison in the next section.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Where r is the distance from the crack tip to the other most nodes of the quarter point elements on the crack
faces. µ is the shearing elastic modulus = (E/2(1 + ν)) for isotropic elements. µ is Poisson’s ratio and vi are the KI
displacements, ui are the KII displacements and wi are the KIII displacements. The subscripts of the equations are
(d), (b) for the mid-sided nodes and (e), (c) are the nodes at the end of the elements on the crack face.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Longitudinal crack

The analysis was run as described earlier and the results were plotted on three graphs for both the transverse and
the longitudinal crack. The three graphs for each are separated into the different SIFs e.g. KI, KII and KIII as they
are all of different magnitudes and do not lend themselves to plotting on the same graph. The longitudinal graphs
contain four trend lines for the various loading positions. The transverse graphs contain seven representing the
positions of the uniform and non-uniform loading for this crack. The distances shown on the x axis for every
graph are for the position of the trailing end of the loading for each time step. The various tags for each trend line
relate to the nature of the loading and the position laterally of the cross-section used for the calculation of the
SIFs. In the case of the longitudinal crack 20mm Non-uniform is 20mm from the edge of the tyre and a non-
uniform load. Following this logic 0mm is beside the tyre, between rib is between the 2 nd and 3rd rib and under
rib is under the central rib.

Fig. 3 KI cracking parameter variation for longitudinal crack with a non-uniform moving load

The trends in Fig. 3 are all of a similar shape, quite smooth all rising to a peak in the same area and displaying
the highest values when the tyre is beside the cracking cross-section. Of the peaks the highest is for between the
2nd and 3rd rib of the tyre being 27.4, but there is little difference between each of the lines. The lowest peak is
for the 0mm that is beside the edge of the tyre with 26.1. KI has by far the highest values of the three modes.
This is common for cracking analysis as the cracks tend to propagate along a plan under tensile loading. The
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris 6

non-uniformity of the contact pressure has an effect as there is a variation between the under the rib values and
between the rib values.

Fig. 4 KII cracking parameter variation for longitudinal crack with a non-uniform moving load

There are large variations between all the values while the tyre is beside the cracking cross-section in Fig. 4.
Two values remain positive the under rib and 20mm Non-uniform trend line The other two are negative with
0mm beside the tyre being the highest with a peak if nearly -1.5. The readings for between the ribs and under
the rib seem to be almost a mirror image of each other, both peaking at nearly +/- 0.5. This highlights the
influence of the non-uniform contact pressure with two areas very close together are displaying polar opposite
results. All the results beside the tyre display the same shape with only the 20mm from the tyre having a
completely different shape. The contact pressure appears to have an influence on the sign and magnitude of the
KII values.

Fig. 5 KIII cracking parameter variation for longitudinal crack with a non-uniform moving load

This has the same order of magnitude as the KII and again much less than the KI values. Under the contact area
there was little variation or magnitude to be seen with just two sharp changes as the tyre enters and exits the
cracking cross-section in Fig 5. The largest variation and values can be seen in the 0mm and 20mm lines with the
greatest seen in the 0mm line. Peaks of over +/-1 for 0mm show that the values changes sign as the tyre passes
by the crack cross-section. The line also has a sharp change at the entering and existing point of the tyre. The
change in signs as the tyre passes can be seen for all the lines. The 20mm and 0mm goes from positive to
negative. Whereas the between the rib and under the rib lines go from negative to positive. The loading seems to
have an influence with the reversal of sign from under the tyre and beside the tyre.
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris

4.2 Transverse crack

The graphs that follow represent the KI, KII and KIII output for the transverse crack for both uniform and non-
uniform loading conditions giving 7 lines on each graph (four for non-uniform and three for uniform). The tags
for each of these lines give information on the position and loading type. The positions for the non-uniform
output are 2m which is under the central rib, 1.9m which is beside the tyre edge, 1.88m 20mm from the tyre edge
and 1.98m this one being between the 2nd and 3rd rib. In the case of the uniform output 2m is under the centre of
the loading and the other two are the same position as for the non-uniform tyre loading.

Fig. 6 KI cracking parameter variation for transverse crack with both loading types

The shapes of the lines are all smooth without sharp changes and are positive much in the same way as for the
longitudinal crack in Fig. 6. This is by far the largest value of the three stress intensity factors. The greatest two
peaks are for the non-uniform tyre loading both being 27 and coming just after the tyre comes next to the crack
front. The two peaks were for the 2m and 1.98m values showing the peak is under the loaded area. This is also
true for the uniform contact pressure with having a peak of 26.5 at 2m maintaining a raised level over the
distance the load is beside the crack front. In all the values there is a distinctly different shape between the
uniform and non-uniform trend lines showing the variation due to the shape and nature of contact pressure
loading.

Fig. 7 KII cracking parameter variation for transverse crack with both loading types

There is a change of sign from positive to negative as the tyre and uniform contact pressure moves past the crack
front. The three largest peak values are for the positive and negative values which are 2m (+1.3, -2.35), 1.98m
(+1.1, -1.9) and 1.9m (+0.9, -1.5). The uniform loading has a sharp change for both the entrance and exit of the
tyre being beside the crack front of the load for 2m and 1.9m, especially for the exit where it changes sign. The
delay of the peaks developing for the non-uniform after the front of the tyre enters being beside the tyre is a
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris 8

product of the shape of the contact pressure. The peak loading is at the centre of the rib, coinciding with the
positions the peaks can be seen in Fig. 7.

Fig. 8 KIII cracking parameter variation for transverse crack with both loading types

There is a change in sign from negative to positive as the tyre and uniform contact pressure moves past the crack
front in Fig 8. Again the non-uniform tyre loading creates the largest values, however this time it is for the 1.9m
(+0.7, -0.9) and 1.88m (+0.65, -0.7). This is the opposite of the KII values. The peaks for the uniform are for the
same cross-sections but significantly lower (+/-0.5) and have sharp changes at the entrance and exit points of the
load beside the crack front. There is no variation for the uniform loading at 2m, the non-uniform loading did
display limited variation at 2m and 1.98m.

In the case of just the longitudinal crack it is interesting to note that the highest peak for K I is between the 2nd
and 3rd rib and second is for under the middle rib. In reality this means when a truck is on a road the most
damage is when it is on top of the crack, with a truck having 6-8 axles this is a large repetition across a crack
front. In the case of the KII factor the value under the rib being positive and between the rib being negative
highlights a large reversal over a small area. The largest peak is at the edge of the tyre though. K III is interesting
as it has the peaks for the two trend lines outside the contact area highlighting the out of plane twisting nature of
this factor. KII and KIII have comparable peak values and highlight the importance of examining the K III factor
especially to a shear susceptible material like asphalt.

Focusing on the transverse crack specifically, there are interesting features to note across the three SIFs and the
two loading scenarios. The sharp changes associated with the uniform load entering and exiting the crack front is
unusual and is only seen for KII and KIII. The KI graph has a marked difference between the shape of the uniform
and non-uniform loading. In the transverse cracking the non-uniform loading had greater peaks for all of the
SIFs showing that it is a more aggressive form of loading than the uniform loading equivalent. This illustrates
the importance of real contact pressures in pavement analysis for surface cracking.

In this study there are interesting results in terms of the main variables examined. The transverse and
longitudinal cracks display different behaviour to each other and different values for the same non-uniform tyre
loading. This is especially true of the K II factor which can be seen in Fig. 4 and Fig. 7 with the nature of the trend
lines being completely different. The KI factor was found to be the greatest factor for both loading and both
cracks by a large margin. The greatest area of interested in all the analyses was when the loading was beside the
crack front showing the importance of the distance between loading and the crack. The longitudinal crack has
higher peaks for KI and KII whereas the transverse crack has the highest peak for KIII. This could be significant
for the drivers of cracking for each crack.

5. Conclusions
The analysis of the results and discussion presented in this paper highlight a number of key conclusions.
 Casey, Grenfell and Airey / Transport Research Arena 2014, Paris

 The KI SIF was the largest component for both the transverse and longitudinal cracks. It is by far the
largest component.
 In the case of the transverse crack the non-uniform tyre loading had higher peaks for all three SIFs in
comparison to the uniform loading case. Both loads had the same amount of stress as the uniform was
the average of the non-uniform load. This shows that the more realistic representation of the tyre
pavement contact pressure is important to not underestimate the SIFs.
 The maximums for KII were generated for the crack cross-sections under the area of loading either
between or under a tyre rib. The maximum K III values were observed outside the loading area with the
cross-section beside the tyre/uniform contact pressure displaying the highest peaks.
 The influence of the shape and magnitude of the non-uniform contact pressure can be seen for both
cracks. This is particularly true when the tyre is entering and exiting the banded sections of the graphs
with the value and position of the peaks shown for all the trend lines being in or close to these transition
zones.
 The longitudinal crack has the highest peaks for KI and KII of the two cracks. The transverse crack has
the highest peak for the KIII of the two cracks.
The objectives stated at the beginning of the paper to calculate the SIFs for a pavement with a transverse and a
pavement with a longitudinal crack using a finite element method have been achieved. The results give an
interesting insight into the nature of SIFs as a tyre or a uniform load passes a crack. The investigation revealed
the large change displayed between the different SIFs and also how they individually vary with the position of
the tyre. The study has led to the results and conclusions contained in this publication and serve to highlight the
interaction of SIFs in a pavement situation with a moving truck tyre.

6. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the European Commission under the Marie Curie Intra-
European Fellowship Programme. The authors would like to thank the Texas Transportation Institute for
supplying the contact pressures used in the study from the Tireview software. The authors would also like to
thank the CAPA-3D team under the leadership of Prof. Tom Scarpas for their vital help and support in using
CAPA-3D.

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