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Phylum Porifera
his group of animals is probably considered as the oldest animal group. They are also called as
Sponges. These are by far the simplest multicellular animals. Even though they are
multicellular, they do not have any tissues or organs. Sponges live in an aquatic habitat as they
have to have an intimate contact with water. Water plays a major role in the feeding, exchange
of gases and as well as excretion. The body of the sponges has many holes or pores called ostia.
The body structure of sponges is designed in such a way that water moves through the body,
where it can filter out food and also absorb the dissolved oxygen, along with eliminating waste
material.
Characteristic Features of Phylum Porifera
 They are generally marine aquatic organisms, with a few freshwater species.
 Their bodies are asymmetrical.
 Body shape can be cylindrical, vase-like, rounded or sac-like.
 They are diploblastic animals with two layers, the outer dermal layer and the inner
gastral layer. There is a gelatinous, non-cellular mesoglea, in between these two layers.
This contains many free amoeboid cells.
 The body has many pores called the ostia and a single large opening called osculum at
the top.
 Spongocoel is the body cavity that is present.
 They have the characteristic canal system for the flow of water through the body.
 Sense organs are absent.
 There is an endoskeleton present with calcareous spicules (calcium carbonate) or

siliceous spicules (silica) or sponging fibres (protein).
 Sexes are not separate.
 Asexual reproduction is seen through budding, fragmentation. Sexual reproduction is

seen in certain species, through gametic fusion.
3 Main Classes of Phylum Porifera
Phylum Porifera: Class # 1. Calcarea or Calcispongiae— (Calcareous Sponges):
[Calcarea, L. Calcarious = limy, Calcispongiae, L. Calcis = genitive of calx = lime or chalk]
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Features:
(i) Exclusively marine, shallow coastal water species, restricted to depth less than 100
metres and require hard substratum for attachment.
(ii) Small-sized sponges, about 10 cm in height.
(iii) Cylindrical or vase-like in shape.
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(iv) Osculum narrow and placed terminally.
(v) Osculum provided with oscular fringe.
(vi) Comparatively large collared cells.
(vii) Skeleton represented by free calcareous spicules.
(viii) Spicules contain more CaCO3 (87%) than MgCO3 (7%) reported in Leucandra sp. and
often differentiated into megascleres and microscleres. Organic matters in traces.
(ix) Megascleres are monaxon, triaxon or tetraxon.
(x) Canal system is asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid type. Asconoid type of canal system is
found only in the class Calcarea.
The class Calcarea contains two orders.
Order 1. Homocoela:
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Features:
(i) Asconoid sponges with small bodies.
(ii) Thin body wall and usually not folded internally.
(iii) Spongocoel is lined with choanocytes.
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Typical examples of this order are Clathrina, Leucosolenia, Ascute, Ascyssa and Dendya.
Order 2. Heterocoela:
Features:
(i) Syconoid and leuconoid sponges, comparatively with large bodies.
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(ii) Thick body wall and folded internally.

(iii) Only the radial canals are lined by choanocytes.
Typical examples are Sycon (= Scypha), Grantia, Leucandra.
Phylum Porifera: Class # 2. Hexactinellida or Triaxonida or Hyalospongiae—(Glass

sponge):
[Hexactinellida, Gk. Hex = six, Gk. aktis = ray, L. ell – suffix added to form diminutives;
Triaxonida, Gk. Treis = three, Gk. axon = an axle; Hyalospongiae, Gk. Hyaleos = glassy]
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Features:
(i) Large sized sponge and on average 10 to 30 cm in height, live mainly in the deep waters
of sea and can grow in firm and soft sediments. The deep sea forms live at the depths
between 200 m and 1000 m.
(ii) Usually cup, vase or urn (vase with foot)-like shape.
(iii) Skeleton of six-rayed (triaxon) siliceous spicules (SiO2) or their modifications present
either as separate entity or as networks.
(iv) Chemical analysis in Monoraphis reveals that the spicule contains SiO2 86%, water 9%,
inorganic elements 3% and spiculin (a protein) 2%.
(v) Megascleres (skeletal spicules) and microscleres (flesh spicules) always distinguished.
(vi) Choanocytes restricted to finger-like simple or folded chambers.
(vii) Wall encloses a spongocoel (- atrium) which opens by a wide osculum.
(viii) Canal system may be either syconoid or leuconoid type.
(ix) There is no cellular dermal epithelium.
(x) Commonly called “glass sponge”.
Remark:
Some zoologists argue that the Hexactinellid sponges should be placed either in a separate
phylum or in a subphylum under Porifera due to absence of cellular dermal epithelium and
syncytial nature of outer body layer and inner flagellated layer (Pechenik, 2000).
It includes two orders:
Order 1. Hexasterophora
Features:
(i) The spicules are hexasters and never amphidiscs.
(ii) Radial canals or flagellated chambers are simple and lie radially in the sponge wall.
The typical example is Euplectella (Venus’s flower basket).
Order 2. Amphidiscophora:
Feature:
(i) The hexaster spicules are absent and the spicules are amphidiscs.
The typical examples are Hyalonema (Glass rope sponge), Pheronema (Bowl sponge).
Phylum Porifera: Class # 3. Demospongiae:

[Gk. demos = people + spongos = sponge]
Features:
(i) Mostly marine but a few are freshwater or brackish water forms. In sea they live from
shallow water to great depths. 90% existing species fall under this class.
(ii) Brilliant colouration in most species, for the presence of pigment granules within
amoebocytes.
(iii) Skeleton either absent or silicious (silicious spicules), fibrous (spicules replaced by
organic collagenous fibres— spongin fibres, or both spongin fibres and siliceous spicules).
(iv) Silicious megasclere spicules never triaxon (6-rayed); microscleres are of different types
(v) Canal system of leuconoid type only. The leuconoid type canal system is derived from a
larval stage, called the rhagon type which does not occur in any adult animals of calcareus
sponges.
(vi) Flagellated chambers small and rounded.
(vii) Freshwater species of this class possess contractile vacuoles used for elimination of
water from the cells.
(viii) Parenchymula larva in the life cycle of most demosponges.
It includes three subclasses and 7 orders.
Subclass 1. Tetractinellida
Features:
(i) Body rounded or flattened without branches.
(ii) Presence of tetraxon silicious spicules but the spongin fibres are absent.
(iii) In certain forms the spicules may be absent.
(iv) Shallow water forms.
It includes three orders:

Order 1. Myxospongida:
Features:
(i) Structure simple.
(ii) Skeleton or spicules are absent.
Examples are Oscarella, Halisarca.
Order 2. Carnosa or Homosclerophora or Microsclerophora:

Features:
(i) The megascleres and microscleres are not distinctly separable.
(ii) Spicules are all similar in size.
Examples are Plakina, Plakortis.
Order 3. Choristida:
Features:
(i) Spicules are long-shafted.
(ii) Megascleres and microscleres are distinctly differentiated.
The typical examples are Geodia, Ancorina, Craniella.

Subclass 2. Monaxonida:
Features:
(i) Body form varies from rounded mass to branching forms or stalked with funnel or fan-
shaped.
(ii) Spicules are of monaxonial megascleres.

(iii) Spongin may or may not be present.
It includes four orders:

Order 1. Hadromerina or Astromonaxonellida:
Features:
(i) Megascleres are mostly tylostyles, i.e., broad end is knobbed.
(ii) Microscleres are usually wanting; when present, they are in the form of a star.
(iii) Spongin is absent.
The examples are Tethya, Cliona (Boring sponge), Poterion (Neptune’s goblet sponge).
Order 2. Halichondrina:
Features:
(i) Megascleres are always of more than one kind.
(ii) Microscleres are usually absent.
(iii) Spongin is very scanty.
The example is Halichondria (Crumb- of-bread sponge).
Order 3. Poecilosclerina:
Features:
(i) Megascleres are usually of two or more kinds and are localised.
(ii) Microscleres include the C-shaped, curved and bow-shaped types.
The examples of the order are Myxilla, Microciona.
Cnidarian
Cnidarian, also called coelenterate, any member of the phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata), a
group made up of more than 9,000 living species. Mostly marine animals, the cnidarians
include the corals, hydras, jellyfish, Portuguese men-of-war, sea anemones, sea pens, sea
whips, and sea fans.
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muscle: Cnidarians
The phylum Cnidaria includes the hydras, jellyfishes, and sea
anemones. Cnidarian s have two main body forms: the cylindrical…
The phylum Cnidaria is made up of four

classes: Hydrozoa (hydrozoans); Scyphozoa (scyphozoans); Anthozoa (anthozoans);
and Cubozoa (cubozoans). All cnidarians share several attributes, supporting the theory
that they had a single origin. Variety and symmetry of body forms, varied coloration, and
the sometimes complex life histories of cnidarians fascinate layperson and scientist alike.
Inhabiting all marine and some freshwater environments, these animals are most
abundant and diverse in tropical waters. Their calcareous skeletons form the frameworks of
the reefs and atolls in most tropical seas, including the Great Barrier Reef that extends
more than 2,000 kilometres along the northeastern coast of Australia.
Only cnidarians manufacture microscopic intracellular stinging capsules, known
as nematocysts or cnidae, which give the phylum its name. The alternative name,
coelenterate, refers to their simple organization around a central body cavity
(the coelenteron). As first defined, coelenterates included not only the animals now
designated cnidarians but also sponges (phylum Porifera) and comb jellies (phylum
Ctenophora). In contemporary usage, “coelenterate” generally refers only to cnidarians, but
the latter term is used in order to avoid ambiguity.
1Cnidaria - hydras; polyps; jellyfishes; sea anemones; corals
. Coelenterata, phylum Cnidaria, phylum Coelenterata
Metazoa, subkingdom
Metazoa - multicellular animals having cells differentiated into tissuesand organs and us
ually a digestive cavity and nervous system
cnidarian, coelenterate - radially symmetrical animals having saclike bodies with only on
eopening and tentacles with stinging structures; they occur in polyp and medusa forms
polyp - one of two forms that coelenterates take (e.g. a hydra or coral): usually sedentary
with a hollowcylindrical body usually with a ring of tentacles around the mouth; "in some
species of coelenterate, polyps are aphase in the life cycle that alternates with a medusoid
phase"
medusan, medusoid, medusa - one of two forms that coelenterates take: it is the free-
swimming sexualphase in the life cycle of a coelenterate; in this phase it has a gelatinous
umbrella-shaped body and tentacles
class
Scyphozoa, Scyphozoa - coelenterates in which the polyp stage is absent or at least incons
picuous:jellyfishes
jellyfish - any of numerous usually marine and free-
swimming coelenterates that constitute the sexuallyreproductive forms of hydrozoans an
d scyphozoans
class
Hydrozoa, Hydrozoa - coelenterates typically having alternation of generations; hydroid p
hase isusually colonial giving rise to the medusoid phase by budding: hydras and jellyfish
es
Actinozoa, Anthozoa, class Actinozoa, class
Anthozoa - a large class of sedentary marine coelenteratesthat includes sea anemones an
d corals; the medusoid phase is entirely suppressed
phylum - (biology) the major taxonomic group of animals and plants; contains classes
Definition of Phylum Nematoda:
Phylum Nematoda are un-segmented vermiform animals with anterior lateral
chemosensory organs or amphids and with a persistent blastocoel or pseudocoelom; dorsal
and ventral nerve cords in epidermis and excretory system of renette cells or tubules.
General Characteristic Features of Phylum Nematoda:

1. Body of Phylum Nematoda is un-segmented, bilaterally symmetrical, elongated and
tapering at both ends.
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2. Triploblastic animals with perivisceral cavity is more extensive than that of
Platyhelminthes.
3. Body of of Phylum Nematoda is generally covered with thick, flexible multi-layered

collagenous cuticle and often bears cuticular setae (hairs), spines or annulations.
4. Cuticle moulted periodically.
5. Epidermis or hypodermis syncytial; i.e., the nuclei are not separated from each other by
cell membranes.
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6. Only longitudinal body-wall muscles; no circular body-wall muscles.
7. Body cavity of of Phylum Nematoda is pseudocoel filled with parenchyma in most cases.
8. Alimentary canal provided with distinct mouth and anus (complete digestive tract).
Muscular pharynx and the inner surface of the gut usually not lined by cilia. Extracellular
digestion.
9. Mouth of of Phylum Nematoda is surrounded by six lips.
10. Blood vascular system and respiratory system are absent in of Phylum Nematoda.
11. Haemoglobin sometimes present in the pseudocoelomic fluid.
12. Excretory system without nephridia and flame cells. In the class Adenophorea
glandular renette cells with a duct or in the class Secernentea excretory canal system
without flame cells act as excretory system.
13. Dorsal and ventral nerve cords in the epidermis.
14. Chemosensory organs are small cuticular projections called amphids which are situated
on the lips, derived from cilia and opening to the exterior through a small pore, and lined
with modified non-motile cilia called sensillae.
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15. Sexes of of Phylum Nematoda are separate (gonochoristic).
16. Tubular gonads are present in of Phylum Nematoda.
17. Amoeboid sperm cells.
18. Fertilization is internal in of Phylum Nematoda.
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19. Determinate cleavage (mosaic).
20. of Phylum Nematodaare eutelic animals.
21. Generally complex life history.
22. They are free-living or phytoparasitic or zooparasitic.
Classification of Phylum Nematoda:

ADVERTISEMENTS:
Following the scheme of Chitwood (1933), the phylum Nematoda is divided into two classes:
1. Adenophorea or Aphasmida and
2. Secernentea or phasmidea.
Class 1. Adenophorea or Aphasmida (Gk. Adenophorea = gland-bearing; Gk. Aphasmida –

without phasmids):
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1. Most species possess caudal adhesive glands and epidermal glands.
2. Phasmids (caudal papillae bearing pores connecting with glandular pouch called
phasmids which are thought to be chemosensory in function) are absent.
3. Amphids are post labial and variously shaped such as pouch-like or tube-like, rarely
pore-like.
4. Coelomocytes well developed.

5. Excretory organs are only renette cells but without collecting tubules.
6. Males usually without caudal alae.
7. Usually two testes in males.
8. Mostly marine, and include both free- living and parasitic species. The free- living species
include both terrestrial, freshwater, and major marine forms.
The class Adenophorea or Aphasmida contains the following orders:

Order 1. Enoplida:
1. Cuticle provided with bristles.
2. 6 labial papillae and 10-12 sensory bristles are present.
3. Cyanthiform amphids.
4. Mostly marine.
Examples:
Enoplus, Anticoma, Metonchdiamus.
Order 2. Dorylaimida:
1. Cuticle smooth and without bristles.
2. 6-10 labial papillae.
3. Cyanthiform amphids.
4. Buccal cavity with a protrusible spear.
5. Mostly terrestrial.
Examples:
Dorylaimus, Tylencholaimus, Xiphinema, Trichodoris.
Order 3. Mermithida:
1. Cuticle smooth and without bristles.
2. 16 labial papillae.
3. Amphids cyanthiform or reduced.
4. Invertebrate parasites (larval stage); adult stage free-living.
Examples:
Mermis, Agamermis, Paramermis.
Order 4. Chromadorida:
1. Cuticle smooth or ringed with heavy bristles.
2. Spiral amphids.
3. Pharynx with a posterior bulb.
4. Mostly marine and free-living.
Example:
Paracanthonchus, Paracytholaimus.
Order 5. Desmoscolecida:
1. Cuticle heavily ringed with prominent bristles throughout or certain areas of the body.
2. Anterior end with 4 sensory bristles.
3. Amphids crescent-shaped or pump- shaped.
4. Marine and free-living nematodes.
Examples:
Desmoscolex, Greefiella, Epsilonema.
Order 6. Monohysterida:
1. Cuticle smooth or slightly ringed, often with bristles.
2. Anterior end with 4, 6, or 8 bristles or multiple of the above numbers.
3. Amphids circular.
4. Mostly marine, some fresh water and some terrestrial.
Examples:
Monohystera, Saiphonolaimus.
Order 7. Araeolaimida:
1. Cuticle smooth, sometimes with bristles.
2. Labial papillae present.
3. Four cephalic bristles at the anterior end.
4. Amphids spiral.
Examples:
Plectus, Odontophora, Wilsonema.
Class 2. Secernentea or Phasmida:

Characters:
1. Caudal phasmids present.
2. Labial amphids pore-like.
3. Excretory system canal-like and comparatively more complex.
4. Epidermal and caudal adhesive glands absent.
5. Males with a single testis.
6. Mostly parasitic.
7. Free-living species are largely terrestrial.
It includes certain important orders:

Order 1. Rhabditida:
1. Cuticle smooth and ringed.
2. Sensory bristles in 2 rings; the outer ring 4, 6 or 10 bristles and inner ring of 6 bristles.
3. Pharynx with a posterior bulb.
4. Copulatory spicules with gubernaculum in males.
5. Free-living and parasitic nematodes.
Examples:
Rhabditis, Heterodera, Bunonema.
Order 2. Strongylida:
1. Lips absent.
2. Males with two spicules.
3. A true copulatory bursa is present.
4. Buccal capsule well developed.

5. Pharynx without bulb.
6. Vertebrate parasites.
Examples:
Ancylostoma duodenale (Hookworm), Strongylus, Trichostrongylus (Hair worm), Ne-cator.
Order 3. Oxyurida:
1. Small to moderate in size.
2. Copulatory spicules present in males.
3. Tail of females long, narrow and pointed.
4. Mouth provided with 3-6 simple lips.
5. Pharynx with a valvular posterior bulb.
6. Caudal alae present.
7. Invertebrate and vertebrate parasites.
Examples:
Oxyuris, Enterobius vermicularis (Pinworm), Heterakis gallinae, Thelastoma, Aspiculuris.
Order 4. Ascaridida:
1. Large stout nematodes residing in the intestine of vertebrates as parasites.
2. Mouth provided with 3 prominent lips.
3. Males possess 2 equal or almost equal copulatory spicules.
4. Buccal capsule absent.
5. Pharynx with or without a posterior bulb.
6. Tail of females blunt.
7. Oviparous.
Examples:
Ascaris (Ascaris lumbricoides, Ascaris megalocephala, Ascaris suillas), Parascari, Toxocara.
Order 5. Spirurida:
1. Thread-like, moderate to large size.
2. Females larger than males.
3. Mouth usually provided with two lateral lips.
4. Pharynx without bulb.
5. Males with two unequal copulatory spicules but do not have bursa or caudal alae.
6. Oviparous or viviparous.
7. Parasites of vertebrates and with a blood sucking invertebrate as intermediate host.
Examples:
Spirura, Wuchereria bancrofti (Filaria), Loa loa (Eye worm), Brugia, Onchocerca, etc.
Order 6. Trichuroida (= Trichinelloidea):

1. Anterior part of the body whip-like.
2. Mouth without lips.
3. Pharynx slender.
4. Males with one or without spicule.
5. Males are either with bursa or with cirrus.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
6. Life cycle simple—no intermediate host.
7. Commonly known as whip worms.
Examples:
Trichuris (Parasites of mammals), Trichinella spiralis (Trichinia worm).
Order 7. Camallanida:
1. Thread-like; females larger than males.
2. Lips absent.
3. Buccal capsule large or absent.
4. Spicules of males of same size.
5. No bursa in males.
6. Adult females with degenerated bursa.
7. Mostly oviparous.
8. Parasites of vertebrates.
Examples:
Camallanus, Procamallanus, Dracunculus medinensis (Guinea-worm), Philometra.
General characteristics of Phylum Annelida
1. (Annelus: little ring)
2. Kingdom: Animalia
3. Habitat: mostly aquatic, some are terrestrial
4. Habit: free living
5. Symmetry: bilateral symmetry
6. Coelom: coelomate (Body cavity is a true coelom, often divided by internal septa)
7. Body is metamerically segmented
8. Grade of organization: organ system grade
9. Germ layer: triploblastic
10. Body possesses 3 separate sections, a prosomium, a trunk and a pygidium.
11. Digestive system: complete and developed
12. Respiration: by general body surface
13. Nervous system: nervous system with an anterior nerve ring, ganglia and a ventral
nerve chord.
14. Circulatory system: Has a true closed circulatory system.
15. Excretion: by nephridia
16. Reproduction: Sexual and gonochoristic or hermaphoditic.
17. Fertilization: Internal or external
18. Development: direct with no larval stages
Classification of Phylum Annelida
Phylum Annelida is divided into four main classes, primarly on the basis of setae,
parapodia, metameres and other morphological features.
 Habitat: They are marine, terrestrial, and freshwater.

 Archetypical protosome development (schizocoely).
 True coelomates (schizocoelomates).
 Bilaterally symmetry, segmented worms.
 Complete digestive system.
 Closed circulatory system.
 Well-developed nervous system.
 Excretory system: Both metanephridia and protonephridia.
 Lateral epidermal setae with each segment.
 Dioecious or hermaphroditic.
 Fertilization: external
 Examples: Nereis (sandworm), Syllis, Sabella
Class 2 Oligochaeta
(Oligos: few, chaite: hair)
 Habitat: mostly terrestrial and few are freshwater

 Body metamerically segmented
 Clitellum present
 Hermaphrodite but cross fertilization occur
 Fertilization: external
 Cocoon formation occur
 Examples: Pheretima posthuma (Earthworm), Lumbricus, Stlaria, Tubifex
Class 3 Hiradinea
(Hirudo: leech)
 Habitat: primarily freshwater annelids but some are marine, terrestrial and parasitic
 The body has definite number or segments.
 The tentacles, parapodia and setae are totally absent.
 They are hermaphrodite.
 Fertilization: internal and a larval stage is absent.
 Examples: .Hirudinaria (Leech)
Class 4 Archiannelida
(Arch; first)
 Habitat: They are strictly marine.

 The body is long and worm like.
 The setae and parapodia normally absent.
 They may be unisexual or hermaphrodite.
 The development: indirect forming trochophore larva.
 Examples: .Protodrillus. Dinophilus, Protodrilus
Phylum Platyhelminthes: General Characteristics and Classification
General characteristics of phylum Platyhelminthes
1. (Platys: flat; helminthes: worms)
3. Habitat: mostly parasitic, few are free living in sea water or fresh water
4. Grade of organization: Organ- system grade of organization
5. Symmetry: Bilateral symmetry and Body is dorso-ventrally flattened
6. Germ layer: Triploblastic. Ectoderm is very specialized with distinct epidermis
7. Coelom: Absent (acoelomate).
8. Digestive system: incomplete or absent
 No mouth (oral opening directly into pharynx).
 No true stomach structure (pharynx opens into a complex “intestinal” structure).
 In tapeworms, Direct absorption of soluble nutrients by cells and tissues.
8. Excretory system: Protonephridia with Flame cell
9. Respiration: by simple diffusion of gases through body surface
10. Circulatory system: Absent
11. Reproduction
 Sexual: by gamatic fusion in hermaphrodite species
 Asexual : by regeneration and fission
12. Fertilization: internal.
13. Life cycle is complex involving one or more hosts.
Classification of Phylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into three classes on the basis of body shape, mouth
position and habitat
Class 1: Turbellaria
Class 2: Trematoda
Class 3: Cestoda
Class 1 Turbellaria
 Mostly Free-living fresh water organism
 Body: dorsoventrally flattened
 Hooks and sucker usually absent
 Examples: Planaria, Bipalium, Otoplana, Notoplana
Class 2 Trematoda
 Mostly parasitic
 Body: dorso-ventrally flattened leaf like
 Hooks and sucker are present
 Examples; Fasciola hepatica (Liverfluke), Diplozoon,
Class 3 Cestoda
 Exclusive parasitic
 Body: dorso-ventrally flattened tape like
 Hooks and sucker are present
 Digestive system-absent
 Excretion: Protonephridia with flame cell
 Examples: Taenia spp ( tapeworm), Convoluta, Echinobothrium
Phylum Mollusca: General Characteristics and Classification
General Characteristics of Phylum Mollusca

1. (Mollis or molluscs: soft)
3. Habitat: Mostly aquatic and few are terrestrial
4. Body is soft without segmentation
5. Grade of organization: Organ system grade
6. Germ layer: Triploblastic
7. Symmetry: BIlaterally symmetry
8. The body is divided into head, muscular foot and visceral mass.
9. The body is covered by a mantle and a shell
10. Respiration: by gills (ctinidia) in the mantle cavity. lungs in terrestrial forms
11. Digestive system: Complete and developed
12. Circulatory system: Closed type
13. Heart consists of one or two auricle and one ventricle
14. Excretion: pair of Metanephridia (Kidney)
15. Nervous system: consists of three pair of ganglia (cerebral, visceral and pedal)
16. Sexes: Dioecious and few are hermaphrodite
17. Reproduction: gamatic fusion
18. Fertilization: external or internal
19. Development: direct or indirect by trochophore larvae.
Classification of Phylum Mollusca
There are six classes of which three are more prominent.
Class 1 Pelecypoda or Bivalvia

 Habitat: mostly marine
 They burrow in mud and sand.
 Symmetry: bilateral and the body is laterally compressed.
 No distinct head
 Examples: Mussels, Unio, Mytilus,
Class 2 Gastropoda
 Habitat: These are either aquatic or terrestrial
 They possess a spiral shell.
 The foot is large and flat.
 Head is well developed with tentacles and eyes.
 Examples: Hilex (Snail), Limax (Slug), Pila (Apple snail)
Class 3 Cephalopoda
 Habitat: mostly marine.
 They are adapted for swimming.
 The foot is modified into eight to ten long tentacles in the head region.
 The shell is either external, internal or absent.
 Examples: Octopus, Loligo, Sepia, spirula, Nautilus
Class 4 Monoplacophora
 Habitat: exclusively marine
 Head is present without eyes and tentacles
 Gills are external
 Excretion: by serially arranged nephridia
 Examples:
Class 5 Amphineura
 Habitat: mostly marine
 Body is elongated
 Eye and tentacles are absent
 Radula is present
 Examples; Chiton, Neomenia
Class 6 Scaphopoda
 Habitat: marine
 Body is bilateral symmetry elongated and enclosed in tusk shell
 Foot is reduced
 Excretion: a pair of Kidney
 Examples: Cadulus, Dentalium
Phylum Arthropoda: General characteristics and Classification
Gereral Characteristics of Phylum Arthropoda

1. Arthros; Jointed, podos; Foot)
3. Habitat: mostly terrestrial, also aquatic
4. Insects are the most successful life form on the planet: they make up more than half
of all living things on Earth
5. Body has Three-part: head, thorax, abdomen.
6. Body is metamerically segmented
7. Three pairs of jointed legs (6 legs).
8. Compound eyes which contain several thousand lenses leading to a larger field of
vision.
9. They possess two antenna.
10. Symmetry: bilateral
13. Coelom: hoemocoel
14. Chitinous (hard) exoskeleton, no bones or a skeleton
15. Respiratory system: by general body surface, by gills, tracheae or book lungs
16. Circulatory system: open type with dorsal heart.
17. Excretion: malpighian tubules or green gland
18. Nervous system: dorsal brain with ventral nerve cord
19. Sexes are separate. Sexually dimorphism is present
20. Fertilization: internal.
21. Development: direct or indirect with larval stages.
Classification of Phylum Arthropoda
Arthropoda is classified into five classes on the basis of body divisions, body appendages,
habitat, organs of respiration and modes of excretion.
Class 1 Crustacea
(Crusta: shell)
 Habitat: They are mostly aquatic, few are terrestrial and very few are parasitic.
 Cephalothorex: Head is often fused with thoracic segments to form cephalothorax.
 Thorax and abdomen have a pair of biramous appendages in each segment.
 Respiration: through the gills or general body surface.
 Excretory organs are modified coelomoducts which may either maxillary glands or
antennary glands.
 Examples: Cancer (crab), Palaemon (Prawn), Daphnia (water flea) etc.
Class 2 Myriapoda
(Myrios: ten thousand; podos: foot)
 Habitat: Mostly terrestrial.

 Many appendages: Body is long with numerous segments each having one or two
pairs of legs.
 Head is distinct with antennae, a pair of eyes and two to three pairs of jaws.
 Excretion: by malpighian tubules.
 Respiration: by trachea.
 Examples: Julus (Millipede), Scolopendra (Centipede), Spirobolus etc
Class 3 Insects
(Insectus: divided)
 Habitat: Mostly terrestrial and rarely aquatic

 Body divided into three regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
 Thorax has three segments, each bearing a pair of leg and a pair of wings found on
second and third segments.
 Abdomen has 7-11 segments without appendages.
 Respiration: by tracheae, gills etc.
 Excretion: usually by malpighian tubules.
 Examples; Pieris (Butterfly), Periplaneta (Cockroach), Tabernus (Housefly),
Mosquiotes, Ants, etc.
Class 4 Arachnida
(Arachne: spider)
 Habitat: mostly terrestrial and rarely aquatic

 Body is usually divided into cephalothorax and abdomen.
 There are four pairs of legs attached to the cephalothorax.
 Respiration: by tracheae or book lungs or gills.
 Excretion: by malpighian tubules or coxal gland or both.
 Examples: Aramea (Spider), Palamnaeus (Scorpion), Limulus (King Crab), etc
Class 5 Onychophora
(Onychos: claw; phoros: bearing)

 Habitat: mostly terrestrial
 Small sized arthropods
 Body is segmented
 Respiration: by tracheae.
 Excretion: by nephridia
 Examples: Paripatus
Phylum Echinodermata: General Characteristics and Classification
General characteristics of Phylum Echinodermata

1. (Echinos: Spines; derma: Skin)
3. Habitat: These are exclusively marine
6. Symmetry: Adults are radially symmetrical while the larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.
7. Coelom: present ( coelomate)
8. Body without segmentation
9. The shape of the body is flat, star like, spherical or elongated.
10. Head is absent
11. Presence of tube feet
12. Presence of water vascular system
13. Mouth is present on ventral side while anus is present on dorsal side
14. Respiration: by papule, gills or clocal respiratory tree
15. Nervous system: absent, they are brainless organism.
16. Circulatory system: is reduced, heart is absent
17. Blood has no pigment.
18. Digestive system: complete
19. Excretory system: absent
20. Sexes: mostly dioecious, rarely monocious
21. Reproduction:
 Sexual: by gamatic fusion
 Asexual: regeneration
22. Fertilization: external
23. Development: indirect with characteristic larvae
Classification of phylum Echinodermata
It is divided into 5 classes:
1. Asteroidea
2. Ophiuroidea
3. Echinoidea
4. Holothuroidea
5. Crinoidea
Class 1 Asteroidea
 Body is flattened star shaped with five arms

 They possesses tube feet with a sucker
 Presence of calcareous plates and movable spines.
 Respiratory organ: papulae
 Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Astropecten, Zoraster, Oreaster
Class 2 Ophiuroidea
 Body is flat with pentamerous disc

 They possess a long arm which is sharply demarcated from the central disc.
 They possesses tube feet without sucker
 Anus and intestine are absent
 Respiratory organ: Bursae
 Examples: Ophiderma, ophiothrix, Astrophyton, Amphuria, etc
Class 3 Echinoidea
 Body is disc-like hemi-spherical

 They are devoid of arms or free-rays.
 They possesses tube feet with a sucker.
 They possess compact skeleton and movable spines.
 Examples: Echinus (Sea urchin), Cidaris, Arbacia, Echinocardium. Diadema
Class 4 Holothuroidea
 Body is elongated in the oral-aboral axis and it is like cucumber.
 They have no arms, spines and pedicellariae.
 The tube feet are sucking type which is modified into tentacles and form a circle
around mouth.
 Respiratory organ: cloacal respiratory tree
 Examples: Cucumaria (Sea cucumber), Holothuria, Mesothuria, etc
Class 5 Crinoidea
 Body is star shaped

 Some of the forms were extinct and living forms.
 Arms bifurcated, with two pinnules.
 They have tube feet without suckers
 Examples: Neometra, Antedon, Rhizocrinus, etc
Phylum Echinodermata: General Characteristics and Classification
General characteristics of Phylum Echinodermata

1. (Echinos: Spines; derma: Skin)
3. Habitat: These are exclusively marine
6. Symmetry: Adults are radially symmetrical while the larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.
7. Coelom: present ( coelomate)
8. Body without segmentation
9. The shape of the body is flat, star like, spherical or elongated.
10. Head is absent
11. Presence of tube feet
12. Presence of water vascular system
13. Mouth is present on ventral side while anus is present on dorsal side
14. Respiration: by papule, gills or clocal respiratory tree
15. Nervous system: absent, they are brainless organism.
16. Circulatory system: is reduced, heart is absent
17. Blood has no pigment.
18. Digestive system: complete
19. Excretory system: absent
20. Sexes: mostly dioecious, rarely monocious
21. Reproduction:
 Sexual: by gamatic fusion
 Asexual: regeneration
22. Fertilization: external
23. Development: indirect with characteristic larvae
Classification of phylum Echinodermata
It is divided into 5 classes:
1. Asteroidea
2. Ophiuroidea
3. Echinoidea
4. Holothuroidea
5. Crinoidea
Class 1 Asteroidea
 Body is flattened star shaped with five arms

 They possesses tube feet with a sucker
 Presence of calcareous plates and movable spines.
 Respiratory organ: papulae
 Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Astropecten, Zoraster, Oreaster
Class 2 Ophiuroidea
 Body is flat with pentamerous disc

 They possess a long arm which is sharply demarcated from the central disc.
 They possesses tube feet without sucker
 Anus and intestine are absent
 Respiratory organ: Bursae
 Examples: Ophiderma, ophiothrix, Astrophyton, Amphuria, etc
Class 3 Echinoidea
 Body is disc-like hemi-spherical

 They are devoid of arms or free-rays.
 They possesses tube feet with a sucker.
 They possess compact skeleton and movable spines.
 Examples: Echinus (Sea urchin), Cidaris, Arbacia, Echinocardium. Diadema
Class 4 Holothuroidea
 Body is elongated in the oral-aboral axis and it is like cucumber.

 They have no arms, spines and pedicellariae.
 The tube feet are sucking type which is modified into tentacles and form a circle
around mouth.
 Respiratory organ: cloacal respiratory tree
 Examples: Cucumaria (Sea cucumber), Holothuria, Mesothuria, etc
Class 5 Crinoidea
 Body is star shaped

 Some of the forms were extinct and living forms.
 Arms bifurcated, with two pinnules.
 They have tube feet without suckers
 Examples: Neometra, Antedon, Rhizocrinus, etc
Chordate, any member of the phylum Chordata, which includes the vertebrates (subphylum
Vertebrata), the most highly evolved animals, as well as two other subphyla—the tunicates
(subphylum Tunicata) and cephalochordates (subphylum Cephalochordata). Some
classifications also include the phylum Hemichordata with the chordates.
READ MORE ON THIS TOPIC
circulatory system: Chordata
The phylum Chordata contains all animals that possess, at some time in
their life cycles, a stiffening rod (the notochord), as well as other…
As the name implies, at some time in the life cycle a chordate possesses a stiff, dorsal
supporting rod (the notochord). Also characteristic of the chordates are a tail that extends
behind and above the anus, a hollow nerve cord above (or dorsal to) the gut, gill slits
opening from the pharynx to the exterior, and an endostyle (a mucus-secreting structure) or
its derivative between the gill slits. (A characteristic feature may be present only in the
developing embryo and may disappear as the embryo matures into the adult form.) A
somewhat similar body plan can be found in the closely related phylum Hemichordata.
General Features
Tunicates are small animals, typically one to five centimetres (0.4 to 2.0 inches) long, with a
minimum length of about one millimetre (0.04 inch) and a maximum length slightly more
than 20 centimetres; colonies may grow to 18 metres (59 feet) in
length. Cephalochordates range from one to three centimetres. Vertebrates range in size
from tiny fish to the whales, which include the largest animals ever to have existed.
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Tunicates are marine animals, either benthic (bottom dwellers) or pelagic (inhabitants of
open water), that often form colonies by asexual reproduction. They feed by taking water in
through the mouth, using the gill slits as a kind of filter. The feeding apparatus in
cephalochordates is similar. They have a well-developed musculature and can swim rapidly
by undulating the body. Cephalochordates usually live partially buried in marine sand and
gravel.
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Vertebrates retain traces of a feeding apparatus like that of tunicates and

cephalochordates. The gill slits, however, ceased to function as feeding structures, and then
later as respiratory devices, as the vertebrate structure underwent evolutionary changes.
Except in some early branches of the vertebrate lineage (i.e., agnathans) a pair of gill
arches has become modified so as to form jaws. The fishlike habitus that evidently began
with cephalochordates became modified by the development of fins that were later
transformed into limbs. With the invasion of the vertebrates into fresh water and then onto
land, there was a shift in means of breathing—from gills to lungs. Other modifications,
such as an egg that could develop on land, also emancipated the vertebrates from water.
Elaboration of the locomotory apparatus and other developments allowed a diversification
of structure and function that produced the amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Natural History
Reproduction and life cycle
The chordate life cycle begins with fertilization (the union of sperm and egg). In its
primitive form, fertilization occurs externally, in the water. Asexual reproduction takes
place in tunicates and in some vertebrates (females of some fish and lizards can reproduce
without fertilization). Hermaphroditism (possessing both male and female reproductive
organs) is found in tunicates and some fishes, but otherwise the sexes are separate. Larvae
(very young forms that differ considerably from the juveniles and adults), when they do
occur, differ in structure from the larvae of nonchordates. Internal fertilization, viviparity
(giving birth to young that have undergone embryological development), and parental care
are common in tunicates and vertebrates.
Ecology and habitats
Chordates are common in all major habitats. Tunicate larvae either seek out a place where
they can attach and metamorphose into an adult or develop into adults that float in the
open water. Cephalochordates develop in the open water, but as adults they lie partially or
entirely buried in sand and gravel. In either case, they are filter feeders with simple
behaviour. Vertebrates are much more complex and, in keeping with their more active
manner of obtaining food, highly varied in their ecology and habits.
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Locomotion
Chordates are capable of locomotion by means of muscular movements at some stage in life.
In tunicate larvae, this is accomplished using a tail; in cephalochordates, by undulations of
the body; and in vertebrates, by general body movements (as in eels and snakes) and by the
action of fins and limbs, which in birds and some mammals are modified into wings.
Associations
Chordates enter into a wide variety of symbiotic relationships and are especially
noteworthy as hosts for parasites. Family groups and societal relationships, in both a broad
and narrow sense, are particularly well developed in vertebrates, due primarily to their
elaborate nervous systems. This phenomenon is seen in schools of fish, flocks of birds, and
herds of mammals, as well as in the primate associations that suggest the beginnings
of humansociety.
Form And Function
General features
Chordates have many distinctive features, suggesting that there has been extensive
modification from simple beginnings. The early stages of chordate development show
features shared with some invertebrate phyla, especially the mouth that forms separately
from the anus, as it does in the phyla Hemichordata, Echinodermata, and Chaetognatha.
Likewise, as in these phyla, the coelom, or secondary body cavity around the viscera,
develops as outpouchings of the gut. A coelom also is present in some more distantly related
phyla, including Annelida, Arthropoda, and Mollusca, but the main organs of the body are
arranged differently in these phyla. In chordates the main nerve cord is single and lies
above the alimentary tract, while in other phyla it is paired and lies below the gut.
Cephalochordates and vertebrates are segmented, as are the annelids and their relatives;
however, segmentation in the two groups probably evolved independently. The gill slits and
some other features that are common among the hemichordates and the chordates
originated before the chordates became a separate group. Hemichordates have no tail above
the gut and no mucus-secreting endostyle between the gill slits.
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External features
An ancestral chordate, as suggested by the adult lancelet and the tadpole larva of tunicates,
had a distinct front and hind end, an anterior mouth, a posterior tail above an anus,
unpaired fins, and gill slits that opened directly to the exterior. A free-swimming tunicate
larva metamorphoses into an attached, sessile adult with an atrium that surrounds the
gills. The atrium of lancelets probably evolved independently.
Chordate
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Internal features
Skeleton and support
The chordate notochord is a stiff rod with a turgid core and fibrous sheath. It keeps
the animal from shortening when locomotory waves are produced through muscular
contraction. The chordate body is supported by fluid in the body cavities. In tunicates,
added support is provided by the tunic. Cartilaginous material supports the gills and other
body parts of tunicates and cephalochordates. Immature vertebrate skeletons generally
consist largely of cartilage, which becomes increasingly bony with age. The cartilaginous
skeletons of sharks and some other vertebrates are thought to have evolved from more
highly mineralized ones.
Tissues and muscles
In both cephalochordates and vertebrates, muscles used in locomotion are well developed
and organized segmentally. The tail musculature of tunicates is simpler and without clear
indications of segmentation. There is at least a small amount of musculature throughout
the body of all chordates. As jaws, limbs, and other body parts have evolved in vertebrates,
so have the muscles that operate them.
Nervous system and sense organs
The anterior end of the main nerve cord in chordates is enlarged to form at least the
suggestion of a brain, but a brain is well developed only in vertebrates.
Tunicate larvae have visual organs sensitive to light and sense organs responsive to the
direction of gravity. Pigment spots and light receptors in the nerve cord of lancelets detect
sudden changes in light intensity. The eyes and other sense organs of vertebrates are more
elaborate and complex.
The presence in cephalochordates and vertebrates of a nervous system with segmentally
repeated nerves arising from the dorsal hollow nerve cord is suggestive of a common
ancestry. The tunicate nervous system does not have the segmentally repeated nerves. The
brains of all vertebrates are greatly enlarged and subdivided into functionally specialized
regions.
Digestion and nutrition
Both tunicates and cephalochordates are filter feeders of small particles of food suspended
in the water. Beating cilia (hairlike cellular extensions) on the gill slits draw a current of
water into the mouth and through the pharynx, where a sheet of mucus, secreted by
the endostyle (a glandular organ lying below the two rows of gill slits), filters suspended
food particles from the water. Cilia lining the pharynx move the food-rich sheet of mucus
upward over the gill slits, and it is then rolled up and transported to the posterior part of
the gut. The water current passes into the atrium and exits through the atrial opening.
Something similar to this arrangement occurs in the vertebrates in the “ammocoetes” larva
stage of the primitive jawless fish called the lamprey. The difference is that the food
consists of somewhat larger particles that have been deposited on the bottom (detritus),
and, instead of the feeding current being driven by cilia, the pharyngeal musculature
pumps water and food particles across the gill slits. The earliest fishes probably fed on
detritus, and a sucking action is retained by their extant representatives (lampreys and
hagfishes). With the development of jaws, it became possible for the vertebrates to capture
and seize larger food items.
The lower digestive tract of the primitive chordate is a simple tube with a saclike stomach.
There are only indications of the specialized areas and of glandlike structures, such as
the liver and pancreas, that occur in vertebrates.
Excretion
The excretion of wastes and the control of the chemical composition of the
internal environment are largely effected by kidneys, although other parts of the body,
including the gills, may play an important role. Tunicates and cephalochordates have a salt
content essentially the same as seawater, but vertebrates, even marine species, have body
fluids of low salt content, with the exception of hagfishes. A possible explanation is that the
vertebrates evolved in fresh water, but it seems reasonable that hagfishes branched off
while still marine and that the freshwater form evolved later.
Respiration
A primitive chordate gill is present in tunicates and cephalochordates, where it serves in

both respiration and feeding. The vertebrate gill may retain some role in feeding, although
the current is now produced by the action of muscles, not cilia. The gills became reduced in
number in various lineages, and they were strengthened by supporting elements, some of
which evolved into jaws. Lungs, already present in fishes, became the main respiratory
organs of terrestrial vertebrates.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system in chordates has a characteristic pattern. In tunicates and

vertebrates the blood is propelled by a distinct heart; in cephalochordates, by contraction of
the blood vessels. Unoxygenated blood is driven forward via a vessel called the ventral
aorta. It then passes through a series of branchial arteries in the gills, where gas exchange
takes place, and the oxygenated blood flows to the body, much of it returning to its origin
via a dorsal aorta. The blood of vertebrates passes through the tissues via tiny vessels
called capillaries. In tunicates and cephalochordates, capillaries are absent and the blood
passes through spaces in the tissues instead.
Hormones
In vertebrates, endocrine glands (those of internal secretion) produce hormones that

regulate many physiological activities. In tunicates and cephalochordates, organs have been
identified that correspond in anatomical position to the pituitary gland of vertebrates, but
which hormones, if any, they secrete is uncertain. In vertebrates, the thyroid
gland produces thyroxine, an iodine-containing hormone that helps regulate metabolism.
The thyroid is a modified endostyle, as can be illustrated by larval lampreys in which the
thyroid still secretes mucus for use in feeding. The endostyles of lancelets take
up iodine and form thyroxine, but the thyroxine formed may not function as a hormone in
the lancelets themselves.
Features of defense and aggression
Tunicates largely rely upon the passive defense afforded by their heavy tunic. Lancelets
move rapidly through the substrate, and their well-developed locomotory apparatus evolved
largely to provide a means of escaping predators. Vertebrates have ceased to feed on
detritus brought to them by water currents. They have shifted to consuming larger
foodstuffs and to actively locating, pursuing, and subduing what they eat.
Classification
Annotated classification
 PHYLUM CHORDATA
Deuterostomatous eucoelomates; gill clefts; endostyle or its derivative in pharynx;
notochord; hollow dorsal nerve cord; tail posterior and dorsal to anus.
o Subphylum Tunicata (or Urochordata; tunicates)

Notochord, when present, restricted to tail; body covered with tunic, but
sometimes only cuticle; atrium, absent in Appendicularia, dorsal and often paired
in embryonic development; heart present; generally sessile (attached) as adults;
see below Tunicates.
 Class Ascidiacea (sea squirts)

Sessile; benthic; solitary or colonial within a common tunic.
 Class Appendicularia (larvacea)

Free-swimming; pelagic; resembles tadpole larvae of ascidians; 1 pair of gill slits;
no distinct atrium.
 Class Thaliacea
Pelagic; forms aggregations or colonies.
o Subphylum Cephalochordata (or Acrania; lancelets)

Notochord extends entire body length, with tip anterior to nerve cord; atrium a
single cavity with single, ventral opening; segments well developed; head poorly
developed; no paired fins; no heart; see below Cephalochordates.
o Subphylum Vertebrata (or Craniata; vertebrates)

Notochord extends to the back of a well-developed head; no atrium; segments well
developed; paired fins or limbs usually present; heart present; see
below Vertebrates.
Caecilians
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Cane Toad
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Poison Dart Frogs

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Wallace's Flying Frog
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Tiger Salamander
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About Amphibians
Amphibians are small vertebrates that need water, or a moist environment, to survive.
The species in this group include frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts. All can breathe
and absorb water through their very thin skin.
Amphibians also have special skin glands that produce useful proteins. Some transport
water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide either into or out of the animal. Others fight bacteria
or fungal infections. And at least one—in each species—is used for defense.
To warn potential predators, the most toxic amphibians are also the most brightly
colored. Curare [kyoo-RAW-ree], for example, is found on the skin of colorful poison dart
frogs. Another special feature of most amphibians is their egg-larva-adult life cycle. The
larvae are aquatic and free-swimming—frogs and toads at this stage are called tadpoles.
At a certain size, the young develop limbs and lungs. Some also lose their tails.
Eventually, they hop or climb out of the water as adults, and spend the rest of their lives
on land. This process is known as metamorphosis.
Like reptiles, amphibians are cold-blooded. Because of their special skin, they require
very specific living conditions. Too much sun can damage their cells. Too much wind can
dry their skin and dehydrate the animal. As a result, amphibians are the first to die off
when their habitats are disturbed or contaminated with chemicals like weed killers. This
is the main reason over half of all frog species are in danger of extinction.
Characteristics of Reptiles
Reptiles are tetrapods. Limbless reptiles—snakes and other squamates—have vestigial

limbs and, like caecilians, are classified as tetrapods because they are descended from four-
limbed ancestors. Reptiles lay eggs enclosed in shells on land. Even aquatic reptiles return
to the land to lay eggs. They usually reproduce sexually with internal fertilization. Some
species display ovoviviparity, with the eggs remaining in the mother’s body until they are
ready to hatch. Other species are viviparous, with the offspring born alive.
One of the key adaptations that permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of
their scaly skin, containing the protein keratin and waxy lipids, which reduced water loss
from the skin. This occlusive skin means that reptiles cannot use their skin for respiration,
like amphibians, and thus all breathe with lungs.
Figure 1. This horned lizard belongs to the class reptila
Reptiles are ectotherms, animals whose main source of body heat comes from the
environment. This is in contrast to endotherms, which use heat produced by metabolism to
regulate body temperature. In addition to being ectothermic, reptiles are categorized as
poikilotherms, or animals whose body temperatures vary rather than remain stable.
Reptiles have behavioral adaptations to help regulate body temperature, such as basking in
sunny places to warm up and finding shady spots or going underground to cool down. The
advantage of ectothermy is that metabolic energy from food is not required to heat the body;
therefore, reptiles can survive on about 10 percent of the calories required by a similarly
sized endotherm. In cold weather, some reptiles such as the garter snake
brumate. Brumation is similar to hibernation in that the animal becomes less active and
can go for long periods without eating, but differs from hibernation in that brumating
reptiles are not asleep or living off fat reserves. Rather, their metabolism is slowed in
response to cold temperatures, and the animal is very sluggish.
Classes of Reptiles
Class Reptilia includes many diverse species that are classified into four living
clades.Reptilia includes four living clades: Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators),
Sphenodontia (tuataras), Squamata (lizards and snakes), and Testudines (turtles). These
are the 25 species of Crocodilia, 2 species of Sphenodontia, approximately 9,200 Squamata
species, and the Testudines, with about 325 species.
Crocodilia
Figure 1. Crocodilians, such as this Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), provide

parental care for their offspring. (credit: Keshav Mukund Kandhadai)
Crocodilia (“small lizard”) arose with a distinct lineage by the middle Triassic; extant
species include alligators, crocodiles, and caimans. Crocodilians (Figure 1) live throughout
the tropics and subtropics of Africa, South America, Southern Florida, Asia, and Australia.
They are found in freshwater, saltwater, and brackish habitats, such as rivers and lakes,
and spend most of their time in water. Some species are able to move on land due to their
semi-erect posture.
Sphenodontia
Sphenodontia (“wedge tooth”) arose in the Mesozoic era and includes only one living
genus, Tuatara, comprising two species that are found in New Zealand (Figure 2). Tuataras
measure up to 80 centimeters and weigh about 1 kilogram. Although quite lizard-like in
gross appearance, several unique features of the skull and jaws clearly define them and
distinguish the group from the squamates.
Figure 2. This tuatara from New Zealand may resemble a lizard but belongs to a distinct
lineage, the Sphenodontidae family. (credit: Sid Mosdell)
Squamata
Figure 3. This Jackson’s chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii) blends in with its surroundings.
Squamata (“scaly”) arose in the late Permian, and extant species include lizards and
snakes. Both are found on all continents except Antarctica. Lizards and snakes are most
closely related to tuataras, both groups having evolved from a lepidosaurian ancestor.
Squamata is the largest extant clade of reptiles (Figure 3).
Most lizards differ from snakes by having four limbs, although these have been variously
lost or significantly reduced in at least 60 lineages. Snakes lack eyelids and external ears,
which are present in lizards. Lizard species range in size from chameleons and geckos,
which are a few centimeters in length, to the Komodo dragon, which is about 3 meters in
length. Most lizards are carnivorous, but some large species, such as iguanas, are
herbivores.
Figure 4. The garter snake belongs to the genus Thamnophis, the most widely distributed
reptile genus in North America. (credit: Steve Jurvetson)
Snakes are thought to have descended from either burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards over
100 million years ago (Figure 4). Snakes comprise about 3,000 species and are found on
every continent except Antarctica. They range in size from 10 centimeter-long thread
snakes to 10 meter-long pythons and anacondas. All snakes are carnivorous and eat small
animals, birds, eggs, fish, and insects. The snake body form is so specialized that, in its
general morphology, a “snake is a snake.” Their specializations all point to snakes having
evolved to feed on relatively large prey (even though some current species have reversed
this trend). Although variations exist, most snakes have a skull that is very flexible,
involving eight rotational joints. They also differ from other squamates by having
mandibles (lower jaws) without either bony or ligamentous attachment anteriorly. Having
this connection via skin and muscle allows for great expansion of the gape and independent
motion of the two sides—both advantages in swallowing big items.
Testudines
Figure 5. The African spurred tortoise (Geochelone sulcata) lives at the southern edge of the
Sahara Desert. It is the third largest tortoise in the world. (credit: Jim Bowen)
Turtles are members of the clade Testudines (“having a shell”) (Figure 5). Turtles are
characterized by a bony or cartilaginous shell. The shell consists of the ventral surface
called the plastron and the dorsal surface called the carapace, which develops from the ribs.
The plastron is made of scutes or plates; the scutes can be used to differentiate species of
turtles. The two clades of turtles are most easily recognized by how they retract their necks.
The dominant group, which includes all North American species, retracts its neck in a
vertical S-curve. Turtles in the less speciose clade retract the neck with a horizontal curve.
Turtles arose approximately 200 million years ago, predating crocodiles, lizards, and
snakes. Similar to other reptiles, turtles are ectotherms. They lay eggs on land, although
many species live in or near water. None exhibit parental care. Turtles range in size from
the speckled padloper tortoise at 8 centimeters (3.1 inches) to the leatherback sea turtle at
200 centimeters (over 6 feet). The term “turtle” is sometimes used to describe only those
species of Testudines that live in the sea, with the terms “tortoise” and “terrapin” used to
refer to species that live on land and in fresh water, respectively.
Introduction to Birds
Identify characteristics of birds
The most obvious characteristic that sets birds apart from other modern vertebrates is the
presence of feathers, which are modified scales. While vertebrates like bats fly without
feathers, birds rely on feathers and wings, along with other modifications of body structure
and physiology, for flight.
What You’ll Learn to Do
 Identify characteristics of birds

 Describe the derived characteristics in birds that facilitate flight
 Describe the evolutionary history of birds
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
 Characteristics of Birds
 Evolutionary History of Birds
 Self Check: Birds
haracteristics of Birds
Birds are endothermic, and because they fly, they require large amounts of energy,
necessitating a high metabolic rate. Like mammals, which are also endothermic, birds have
an insulating covering that keeps heat in the body: feathers. Specialized feathers
called down feathers are especially insulating, trapping air in spaces between each feather
to decrease the rate of heat loss. Certain parts of a bird’s body are covered in down feathers,
and the base of other feathers have a downy portion, whereas newly hatched birds are
covered in down.
Figure 1. Primary feathers are located at the wing tip and provide thrust; secondary feathers
are located close to the body and provide lift.
Feathers not only act as insulation but also allow for flight, enabling the lift and thrust
necessary to become airborne. The feathers on a wing are flexible, so the collective feathers
move and separate as air moves through them, reducing the drag on the wing. Flight
feathers are asymmetrical, which affects airflow over them and provides some of the lifting
and thrusting force required for flight (Figure 1). Two types of flight feathers are found on
the wings, primary feathers and secondary feathers. Primary feathers are located at the tip
of the wing and provide thrust. Secondary feathers are located closer to the body, attach to
the forearm portion of the wing and provide lift. Contour feathers are the feathers found on
the body, and they help reduce drag produced by wind resistance during flight. They create
a smooth, aerodynamic surface so that air moves smoothly over the bird’s body, allowing for
efficient flight.
Flapping of the entire wing occurs primarily through the actions of the chest muscles, the
pectoralis and the supracoracoideus. These muscles are highly developed in birds and
account for a higher percentage of body mass than in most mammals. These attach to a
blade-shaped keel, like that of a boat, located on the sternum. The sternum of birds is
larger than that of other vertebrates, which accommodates the large muscles required to
generate enough upward force to generate lift with the flapping of the wings. Another
skeletal modification found in most birds is the fusion of the two clavicles (collarbones),
forming the furcula or wishbone. The furcula is flexible enough to bend and provide support
to the shoulder girdle during flapping.
An important requirement of flight is a low body weight. As body weight increases, the
muscle output required for flying increases. The largest living bird is the ostrich, and while
it is much smaller than the largest mammals, it is flightless. For birds that do fly, reduction
in body weight makes flight easier. Several modifications are found in birds to reduce body
weight, including pneumatization of bones. Pneumatic bones are bones that are hollow,
rather than filled with tissue (Figure 2). They contain air spaces that are sometimes
connected to air sacs, and they have struts of bone to provide structural reinforcement.
Pneumatic bones are not found in all birds, and they are more extensive in large birds than
in small birds. Not all bones of the skeleton are pneumatic, although the skulls of almost all
birds are.
Figure 2. Many birds have hollow, pneumatic bones, which make flight easier.
Other modifications that reduce weight include the lack of a urinary bladder. Birds possess
a cloaca, a structure that allows water to be reabsorbed from waste back into the
bloodstream. Uric acid is not expelled as a liquid but is concentrated into urate salts, which
are expelled along with fecal matter. In this way, water is not held in the urinary bladder,
which would increase body weight. Most bird species only possess one ovary rather than
two, further reducing body mass.
The air sacs that extend into bones to form pneumatic bones also join with the lungs and
function in respiration. Unlike mammalian lungs in which air flows in two directions, as it
is breathed in and out, airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction (Figure 3). Air
sacs allow for this unidirectional airflow, which also creates a cross-current exchange
system with the blood. In a cross-current or counter-current system, the air flows in one
direction and the blood flows in the opposite direction, creating a very efficient means of gas
exchange.
Figure 3. Avian respiration is an efficient system of gas exchange with air flowing
unidirectionally. During inhalation, air passes from the trachea into posterior air sacs, then
through the lungs to anterior air sacs. The air sacs are connected to the hollow interior of
bones. During exhalation, air from air sacs passes into the lungs and out the trachea. (credit:
modification of work by L. Shyamal)
SUMMARY: CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS
Birds are endothermic, meaning they produce their own body heat and regulate their
internal temperature independently of the external temperature. Feathers not only act as
insulation but also allow for flight, providing lift with secondary feathers and thrust with
primary feathers. Pneumatic bones are bones that are hollow rather than filled with tissue,
containing air spaces that are sometimes connected to air sacs. Airflow through bird lungs
travels in one direction, creating a cross-current exchange with the blood.
Mammals
Characteristics of Mammals
The presence of hair is one of the most obvious signs of a mammal. Although it is not very
extensive on certain species, such as whales, hair has many important functions for
mammals. Mammals are endothermic, and hair provides insulation to retain heat
generated by metabolic work. Hair traps a layer of air close to the body, retaining heat.
Along with insulation, hair can serve as a sensory mechanism via specialized hairs called
vibrissae, better known as whiskers. These attach to nerves that transmit information
about sensation, which is particularly useful to nocturnal or burrowing mammals. Hair can
also provide protective coloration or be part of social signaling, such as when an animal’s
hair stands “on end.”
Mammalian integument, or skin, includes secretory glands with various

functions. Sebaceous glands produce a lipid mixture called sebum that is secreted onto the
hair and skin for water resistance and lubrication. Sebaceous glands are located over most
of the body. Eccrine glands produce sweat, or perspiration, which is mainly composed of
water. In most mammals, eccrine glands are limited to certain areas of the body, and some
mammals do not possess them at all. However, in primates, especially humans, sweat
figures prominently in thermoregulation, regulating the body through evaporative cooling.
Sweat glands are located over most of the body surface in primates. Apocrine glands, or
scent glands, secrete substances that are used for chemical communication, such as in
skunks. Mammary glands produce milk that is used to feed newborns. While male
monotremes and eutherians possess mammary glands, male marsupials do not. Mammary
glands likely are modified sebaceous or eccrine glands, but their evolutionary origin is not
entirely clear.
Figure 1. Bones of the mammalian inner ear are modified from bones of the jaw and skull.
(credit: NCI)
The skeletal system of mammals possesses many unique features. The lower jaw of
mammals consists of only one bone, the dentary. The jaws of other vertebrates are
composed of more than one bone. In mammals, the dentary bone joins the skull at the
squamosal bone, while in other vertebrates, the quadrate bone of the jaw joins with the
articular bone of the skull. These bones are present in mammals, but they have been
modified to function in hearing and form bones in the middle ear (Figure 1). Other
vertebrates possess only one middle ear bone, the stapes. Mammals have three: the
malleus, incus, and stapes. The malleus originated from the articular bone, whereas the
incus originated from the quadrate bone. This arrangement of jaw and ear bones aids in
distinguishing fossil mammals from fossils of other synapsids.
The adductor muscle that closes the jaw is composed of two muscles in mammals: the
temporalis and the masseter. These allow side-to-side movement of the jaw, making
chewing possible, which is unique to mammals. Most mammals have heterodont teeth,
meaning that they have different types and shapes of teeth rather than just one type and
shape of tooth. Most mammals are diphyodonts, meaning that they have two sets of teeth in
their lifetime: deciduous or “baby” teeth, and permanent teeth. Other vertebrates are
polyphyodonts, that is, their teeth are replaced throughout their entire life.
Mammals, like birds, possess a four-chambered heart. Mammals also have a specialized
group of cardiac fibers located in the walls of their right atrium called the sinoatrial node,
or pacemaker, which determines the rate at which the heart beats. Mammalian
erythrocytes (red blood cells) do not have nuclei, whereas the erythrocytes of other
vertebrates are nucleated.
The kidneys of mammals have a portion of the nephron called the loop of Henle or nephritic
loop, which allows mammals to produce urine with a high concentration of solutes, higher
than that of the blood. Mammals lack a renal portal system, which is a system of veins that
moves blood from the hind or lower limbs and region of the tail to the kidneys. Renal portal
systems are present in all other vertebrates except jawless fishes. A urinary bladder is
present in all mammals.
Mammalian brains have certain characteristics that differ from other vertebrates. In some,
but not all mammals, the cerebral cortex, the outermost part of the cerebrum, is highly
folded, allowing for a greater surface area than is possible with a smooth cortex. The optic
lobes, located in the midbrain, are divided into two parts in mammals, whereas other
vertebrates possess a single, undivided lobe. Eutherian mammals also possess a specialized
structure that links the two cerebral hemispheres, called the corpus callosum.
Groups of Mammals
There are three groups of mammals: the eutherians, or placental mammals,

the marsupials, and the monotremes, or metatherians. These groups are divided into two
clades: the eutherians and marsupials comprise the clade of therian mammals, and
monotremes form their sister clade.
Marsupials
Figure 2. The Tasmanian devil is one of several marsupials native to Australia. (credit:
Wayne McLean)
Marsupials are found primarily in Australia, though the opossum is found in North
America. Australian marsupials include the kangaroo, koala, bandicoot, Tasmanian devil
(Figure 2), and several other species. Most species of marsupials possess a pouch in which
the very premature young reside after birth, receiving milk and continuing to develop.
Marsupials differ from eutherians in that there is a less complex placental connection: The
young are born at an extremely early age and latch onto the nipple within the pouch.
Eutherians
Eutherians are the most widespread of the mammals, occurring throughout the world.
There are 18 to 20 orders of placental mammals. Some examples are Insectivora, the insect
eaters; Edentata, the toothless anteaters; Rodentia, the rodents; Cetacea, the aquatic
mammals including whales; Carnivora, carnivorous mammals including dogs, cats, and
bears; and Primates, which includes humans. Eutherian mammals are sometimes called
placental mammals because all species possess a complex placenta that connects a fetus to
the mother, allowing for gas, fluid, and nutrient exchange. While other mammals possess a
less complex placenta or briefly have a placenta, all eutherians possess a complex placenta
during gestation.
Monotremes
There are three living species of monotremes: the platypus and two species of echidnas, or
spiny anteaters. The leathery-beaked platypus belongs to the
family Ornithorhynchidae (“bird beak”), whereas echidnas belong to the
family Tachyglossidae (“sticky tongue”) (Figure 3). The platypus and one species of echidna
are found in Australia, and the other species of echidna is found in New Guinea.
Monotremes are unique among mammals as they lay eggs, rather than giving birth to live
young. The shells of their eggs are not like the hard shells of birds, but are a leathery shell,
similar to the shells of reptile eggs. Monotremes have no teeth.
Figure 3. (a) The platypus, a monotreme, possesses a leathery beak and lays eggs rather than
giving birth to live young. (b) The echidna is another monotreme. (credit b: modification of
work by Barry Thomas)
Evolution of Mammals
Figure 4. Cynodonts, which first appeared in the Late Permian period 260 million years ago,
are thought to be the ancestors of modern mammals. (credit: Nobu Tamura)
Mammals are synapsids, meaning they have a single opening in the skull. They are the
only living synapsids, as earlier forms became extinct by the Jurassic period. The early non-
mammalian synapsids can be divided into two groups, the pelycosaurs and the therapsids.
Within the therapsids, a group called the cynodonts are thought to be the ancestors of
mammals (Figure 4).
A key characteristic of synapsids is endothermy, rather than the ectothermy seen in most
other vertebrates. The increased metabolic rate required to internally modify body
temperature went hand in hand with changes to certain skeletal structures. The later
synapsids, which had more evolved characteristics unique to mammals, possess cheeks for
holding food and heterodont teeth, which are specialized for chewing, mechanically
breaking down food to speed digestion and releasing the energy needed to produce heat.
Chewing also requires the ability to chew and breathe at the same time, which is facilitated
by the presence of a secondary palate. A secondary palate separates the area of the mouth
where chewing occurs from the area above where respiration occurs, allowing breathing to
proceed uninterrupted during chewing. A secondary palate is not found in pelycosaurs but
is present in cynodonts and mammals. The jawbone also shows changes from early
synapsids to later ones. The zygomatic arch, or cheekbone, is present in mammals and
advanced therapsids such as cynodonts, but is not present in pelycosaurs. The presence of
the zygomatic arch suggests the presence of the masseter muscle, which closes the jaw and
functions in chewing.
In the appendicular skeleton, the shoulder girdle of therian mammals is modified from that
of other vertebrates in that it does not possess a procoracoid bone or an interclavicle, and
the scapula is the dominant bone.
Mammals evolved from therapsids in the late Triassic period, as the earliest known
mammal fossils are from the early Jurassic period, some 205 million years ago. Early
mammals were small, about the size of a small rodent. Mammals first began to diversify in
the Mesozoic Era, from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous periods, although most of these
mammals were extinct by the end of the Mesozoic. During the Cretaceous period, another
radiation of mammals began and continued through the Cenozoic Era, about 65 million
years ago.
IN SUMMARY: MAMMALS
Mammals in general are vertebrates that possess hair and mammary glands. The
mammalian integument includes various secretory glands, including sebaceous glands,
eccrine glands, apocrine glands, and mammary glands. Mammals are synapsids, meaning
that they have a single opening in the skull. A key characteristic of synapsids is
endothermy rather than the ectothermy seen in other vertebrates. Mammals probably
evolved from therapsids in the late Triassic period, as the earliest known mammal fossils
are from the early Jurassic period. There are three groups of mammals living today:
monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. Monotremes are unique among mammals as they
lay eggs, rather than giving birth to young. Eutherian mammals are sometimes called
placental mammals, because all species possess a complex placenta that connects a fetus to
the mother, allowing for gas, fluid, and nutrient exchange.
Primates
Characteristics of Primates
Order Primates of class Mammalia includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.
Non-human primates live primarily in the tropical or subtropical regions of South America,
Africa, and Asia. They range in size from the mouse lemur at 30 grams (1 ounce) to the
mountain gorilla at 200 kilograms (441 pounds). The characteristics and evolution of
primates is of particular interest to us as it allows us to understand the evolution of our
own species.
All primate species possess adaptations for climbing trees, as they all descended from tree-
dwellers. This arboreal heritage of primates has resulted in hands and feet that are
adapted for brachiation, or climbing and swinging through trees. These adaptations
include, but are not limited to: 1) a rotating shoulder joint, 2) a big toe that is widely
separated from the other toes and thumbs, which are widely separated from fingers (except
humans), which allow for gripping branches, 3) stereoscopic vision, two overlapping fields of
vision from the eyes, which allows for the perception of depth and gauging distance. Other
characteristics of primates are brains that are larger than those of most other mammals,
claws that have been modified into flattened nails, typically only one offspring per
pregnancy, and a trend toward holding the body upright.
Order Primates is divided into two groups: prosimians and anthropoids. Prosimians include
the bush babies of Africa, the lemurs of Madagascar, and the lorises, pottos, and tarsiers of
Southeast Asia. Anthropoids include monkeys, apes, and humans. In general, prosimians
tend to be nocturnal (in contrast to diurnal anthropoids) and exhibit a smaller size and
smaller brain than anthropoids.
Evolution of Primates
The first primate-like mammals are referred to as proto-primates. They were roughly
similar to squirrels and tree shrews in size and appearance. The existing fossil evidence
(mostly from North Africa) is very fragmented. These proto-primates remain largely
mysterious creatures until more fossil evidence becomes available. The oldest known
primate-like mammals with a relatively robust fossil record is Plesiadapis (although some
researchers do not agree that Plesiadapis was a proto-primate). Fossils of this primate have
been dated to approximately 55 million years ago. Plesiadapiforms were proto-primates
that had some features of the teeth and skeleton in common with true primates. They were
found in North America and Europe in the Cenozoic and went extinct by the end of the
Eocene.
The first true primates were found in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa in the
Eocene Epoch. These early primates resembled present-day prosimians such as lemurs.
Evolutionary changes continued in these early primates, with larger brains and eyes, and
smaller muzzles being the trend. By the end of the Eocene Epoch, many of the early
prosimian species went extinct due either to cooler temperatures or competition from the
first monkeys.
Figure 1. The howler monkey is native to Central and South America. It makes a call that
sounds like a lion roaring. (credit: Xavi Talleda)
Anthropoid monkeys evolved from prosimians during the Oligocene Epoch. By 40 million
years ago, evidence indicates that monkeys were present in the New World (South America)
and the Old World (Africa and Asia). New World monkeys are also called Platyrrhini—a
reference to their broad noses (Figure 1). Old World monkeys are called Catarrhini—a
reference to their narrow noses. There is still quite a bit of uncertainty about the origins of
the New World monkeys. At the time the platyrrhines arose, the continents of South
American and Africa had drifted apart. Therefore, it is thought that monkeys arose in the
Old World and reached the New World either by drifting on log rafts or by crossing land
bridges. Due to this reproductive isolation, New World monkeys and Old World monkeys
underwent separate adaptive radiations over millions of years. The New World monkeys
are all arboreal, whereas Old World monkeys include arboreal and ground-dwelling species.
Apes evolved from the catarrhines in Africa midway through the Cenozoic, approximately
25 million years ago. Apes are generally larger than monkeys and they do not possess a tail.
All apes are capable of moving through trees, although many species spend most their time
on the ground. Apes are more intelligent than monkeys, and they have relatively larger
brains proportionate to body size. The apes are divided into two groups. The lesser apes
comprise the family Hylobatidae, including gibbons and siamangs. The great apes include
the genera Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) (Figure
2a), Gorilla (gorillas), Pongo (orangutans), and Homo (humans) (Figure 2b). The very
arboreal gibbons are smaller than the great apes; they have low sexual dimorphism (that is,
the sexes are not markedly different in size); and they have relatively longer arms used for
swinging through trees.
Figure 2. The (a) chimpanzee is one of the great apes. It possesses a relatively large brain
and has no tail. (b) All great apes have a similar skeletal structure. (credit a: modification of
work by Aaron Logan; credit b: modification of work by Tim Vickers)

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Phylum Porifera

Characteristic Features of Phylum Porifera

 Their bodies are asymmetrical.

 Body shape can be cylindrical, vase-like, rounded or sac-like.

 Spongocoel is the body cavity that is present.

 Sense organs are absent.

 There is an endoskeleton present with calcareous spicules (calcium carbonate) or

 Sexes are not separate.

 Asexual reproduction is seen through budding, fragmentation. Sexual reproduction is

(ii) Small-sized sponges, about 10 cm in height.

(iii) Cylindrical or vase-like in shape.

(v) Osculum provided with oscular fringe.

(vi) Comparatively large collared cells.

(vii) Skeleton represented by free calcareous spicules.

The class Calcarea contains two orders.

(ii) Thin body wall and usually not folded internally.

(iii) Spongocoel is lined with choanocytes.

(ii) Thick body wall and folded internally.

Typical examples are Sycon (= Scypha), Grantia, Leucandra.

Phylum Porifera: Class # 2. Hexactinellida or Triaxonida or Hyalospongiae—(Glass

(ii) Usually cup, vase or urn (vase with foot)-like shape.

(vi) Choanocytes restricted to finger-like simple or folded chambers.

(vii) Wall encloses a spongocoel (- atrium) which opens by a wide osculum.

(viii) Canal system may be either syconoid or leuconoid type.

(ix) There is no cellular dermal epithelium.

(x) Commonly called “glass sponge”.

The typical example is Euplectella (Venus’s flower basket).

Phylum Porifera: Class # 3. Demospongiae:

(vi) Flagellated chambers small and rounded.

It includes three subclasses and 7 orders.

(iii) In certain forms the spicules may be absent.

(iv) Shallow water forms.

It includes three orders:

(ii) Skeleton or spicules are absent.

Examples are Oscarella, Halisarca.

Order 2. Carnosa or Homosclerophora or Microsclerophora:

(ii) Spicules are all similar in size.

Examples are Plakina, Plakortis.

(ii) Megascleres and microscleres are distinctly differentiated.

The typical examples are Geodia, Ancorina, Craniella.

(ii) Spicules are of monaxonial megascleres.

It includes four orders:

(iii) Spongin is absent.

(ii) Microscleres are usually absent.

(iii) Spongin is very scanty.

The example is Halichondria (Crumb- of-bread sponge).

(ii) Microscleres include the C-shaped, curved and bow-shaped types.

The examples of the order are Myxilla, Microciona.

The phylum Cnidaria includes the hydras, jellyfishes, and sea

anemones. Cnidarian s have two main body forms: the cylindrical…

The phylum Cnidaria is made up of four

General Characteristic Features of Phylum Nematoda:

3. Body of of Phylum Nematoda is generally covered with thick, flexible multi-layered

4. Cuticle moulted periodically.

6. Only longitudinal body-wall muscles; no circular body-wall muscles.

9. Mouth of of Phylum Nematoda is surrounded by six lips.

11. Haemoglobin sometimes present in the pseudocoelomic fluid.

13. Dorsal and ventral nerve cords in the epidermis.

16. Tubular gonads are present in of Phylum Nematoda.

17. Amoeboid sperm cells.

18. Fertilization is internal in of Phylum Nematoda.

19. Determinate cleavage (mosaic).

20. of Phylum Nematodaare eutelic animals.

21. Generally complex life history.