John Emmanuel Q.

Cuizon Section 1-D August 15, 2019

2019-70017 Written Assignment on the Cell Biochemistry

The cell is the most basic unit of all living organisms. It has two main types: first is the
prokaryote cell possessed by those of archaea and bacteria, which lacks a membrane-bound
nucleus and are in most cases unicellular; and the eukaryote cell, possessed by plants, fungi,
and animals and can either be unicellular or multicellular, having two parts, the cytoplasm and
defined (meaning membrane-bound) nucleus (Young, O'Dowd, & Woodford, 2014).

The cell has many parts. The different substances that make up the cell are collectively
called the protoplasm which includes the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and all the other
organelles. It is composed mainly of five basic substances: water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates (Hall, 2016).

Water is the principal fluid medium of all cells, wherein many cellular chemicals are
dissolved or suspended as particulates and undergo chemical reactions with each other (Hall,
2016). It has unique physical properties which make it useful for life processes, including the
ability to dissolve a wide range of organic and inorganic molecules due to its dipolar structure
and exceptional capacity for forming hydrogen bonds. Water is also an excellent nucleophile,
which can make it a reactant or product in many metabolic reactions. It also has a slight
propensity to dissociate into hydroxide and hydronium ions, which is exploited by bicarbonate
and other buffer systems to maintain the pH of extracellular fluid between 7.35 and 7.45
(Rodwell et al., 2015).

The ionic forms of mineral elements are collectively called electrolytes. Electrolytes are
so called because of their ability to conduct electricity when dissolved in water. They are atoms
that have gained or lost one or more electrons, making them acquire a net electrical charge.
Positively charged ions are called cations, while negatively charged ions are called anions. They
are vital to cell functions because they are involved in carrying electrical charges across cell
membranes, serving as a source of electrical current in certain cells. They are critical to the
ability of muscle cells and neurons to function in their characteristic ways due to their
involvement in impulse generation and maintenance of the membrane potential (Widmaier et al.,
2019).

Proteins, coming from the Greek proteios which means “of the first rank,” account for
50% of the organic material in the body. They are made of amino acids, which are in turn
composed of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and other elements, most notably sulfur
(Widmaier et al., 2019). They are not only major structural components of cells, but they also
play a role as enzymes, transport and regulatory proteins, and mediate many metabolic
John Emmanuel Q. Cuizon Section 1-D August 15, 2019
2019-70017 Written Assignment on the Cell Biochemistry

processes (Young, O'Dowd, & Woodford, 2014). They are also involved in cell signaling, as
motor proteins they initiate movement, and as defense proteins where they protect against
infections and diseases due to pathogens (Widmaier et al., 2019).

The term “lipids” is a heterogeneous group of substances with the common

characteristic of being insoluble in water and soluble in nonpolar solvents such as ether and
chloroform (Rodwell et al., 2015; Hall, 2016). This includes fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and
related compounds. They are important dietary constituents because fats have high energy
value and essential fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins, and other lipophilic micronutrients are
contained in the fat of natural foods. Fat is stored in the adipose tissue where it also serves as a
thermal insulator and cushioning of some organs (Rodwell et al., 2015). Also examples of
important lipids are the phospholipids and cholesterol, necessary for the formation and
maintenance of the fluidity of the cell membranes, together consisting only about 2 percent of
cell mass (Hall, 2016).

Lastly, carbohydrates function as the main source of energy for cells in general in the
form of glucose. They also function in cell recognition as part of the glycoprotein molecules.
Carbohydrates on average compose only 1% of the cell mass, but may rise to 3% in muscle
cells and up to 6% in liver cells (Hall, 2016). Carbohydrates are involved in glycolysis, the citric
acid cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycogen metabolism, and gluconeogenesis.

Another part of the cell mentioned earlier is the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is an aqueous
solution containing numerous organic molecules, ions, cytoskeletal elements, and a number or
organelles, many of which are membrane-enclosed compartments that carry out specific cellular
function (Koeppen & Stanton, 2018). The jelly-like fluid portion of the cytoplasm is called the
cytosol, containing mainly dissolved proteins, electrolytes, and glucose. It functions in
metabolism and in protein synthesis due to the dispersed free ribosomes in it (Hall, 2016;
Koeppen & Stanton, 2018). The cytoplasm also contains dispersed neutral fat globules,
glycogen granules, ribosomes, secretory vesicles, and five important organelles: the
endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes (Hall,
2016).

The cell interior is divided into a number of compartments enclosed by membranes, and
along with some other particles and filaments, these compartments are known as the cell
organelles (Widmaier et al., 2019). Among these are the nucleus, smooth and rough
John Emmanuel Q. Cuizon Section 1-D August 15, 2019
2019-70017 Written Assignment on the Cell Biochemistry

endoplasmic reticula, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, endosomes, and

proteasomes.

The nucleus, present in almost all human cells and most notably absent in the mature
red blood cells, is the organelle in charge of storage and transmission of genetic information to
the next generation of cells. It contains the DNA which is also used to synthesize proteins that
determine the structure and function of the cell. Surrounding the nucleus is the double-
membraned nuclear envelope, containing circular openings known as the nuclear pores.
Another structure within the nucleus is the nucleolus, which is a densely filamentous region
without a membrane (Widmaier et al., 2019).

Next is the endoplasmic reticulum, said to be the most extensive cytoplasmic organelle
(Widmaier et al., 2019). It is a network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm,
helping to process molecules made by the cell and transporting them to their specific
destinations inside or outside the cell (Hall, 2016). It has two forms, one is the rough
endoplasmic reticulum containing ribosomes, which are minute granular particles composed of
a mixture of RNA and proteins and function to synthesize new protein molecules in the cell,
attached to its surface. It functions in the translation of mRNA into membrane associated
proteins or for secretion outside of the cell. The other is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum with
no ribosomes attached to it, and is involved in the synthesis of lipids and storage of calcium ions
(Koeppen & Stanton, 2018).

A series of four or more closely opposed, flattened membranous sacs that are slightly
curved and forming a cup-shaped structure lying near one side of the nucleus is called the Golgi
apparatus (Hall, 2016; Widmaier et al., 2019). It is closely related to the endoplasmic reticulum,
with membranes similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It is also prominent in secretory
cells where it is located on the side of the cell from which the secretory substances are
extruded. Small “transport vesicles” continually pinch off from the ER and shortly thereafter fuse
with the Golgi apparatus, wherein the transported substances are then processed to form
lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components (Hall, 2016).

The mitochondria, famously defined as the “powerhouse of the cell,” are composed of
mainly two lipid-bilayer protein membranes: an inner and outer membrane. Cristae are formed
via infoldings of the inner membrane, wherein oxidative enzymes are attached and providing a
large surface area for chemical actions to occur. Basically, the mitochondria are the main sites
John Emmanuel Q. Cuizon Section 1-D August 15, 2019
2019-70017 Written Assignment on the Cell Biochemistry

of energy production and produces ATP for the cell to use. They are self-replicative, and contain
their own DNA (Hall, 2016).

Lysosomes are vesicular organelles that have broken off the Golgi apparatus and
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. They provide intracellular digestion of damaged cell
structures, ingested food particles, and unwanted matter such as bacteria. They contain small
granules that are protein aggregates of as many as 40 different hydrolase enzymes.
Peroxisomes on the other hand, are similar physically to lysosomes but differ in that they are
believed to form via self-replication or by budding off from the Smooth ER instead of the Golgi
apparatus and contain oxidases instead of hydrolases. Some of the oxidases combine oxygen
with hydrogen ions to form hydrogen peroxide, and in association with catalase, is used to
oxidize many substances that would otherwise be poisonous to the cell (Hall, 2016). Other
vesicular organelles are the proteasome, involved in the degradation of intracellular proteins,
and the endosome, involved in cellular reuptake of cholesterol, removal of receptors from the
plasma membrane, uptake of small molecules and water into the cell, and internalization of
large particles (Koeppen & Stanton, 2018).

References
Hall, J. (2016). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (13th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.

Koeppen, B., & Stanton, B. (2018). Berne & Levy Physiology (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.

Rodwell, V., Bender, D., Botham, K., Kennelly, P., & Weil, P. (2015). Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry
(30th ed.). New York: Lange.

Widmaier, E., Raff, H., Strang, K., & Schoepe, T. (2019). Vander's Human Physiology The Mechanisms of
Body Function (15th ed.). New York: McGraww-Hill Education.

Young, B., O'Dowd, G., & Woodford, P. (2014). Wheater's Functional Histology, A Text and Color Atlas
(6th ed.). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone.