GENERAL BIOLOGY REVIEWER: b) Glucose + Galactose = LACTOSE

- aka milk sugar

•Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules c) Glucose + Fructose = SUCROSE
- Biological molecules are organic, meaning they - aka table sugar
contain carbon.
- Monomers: building blocks/ basic unit of carbohydrates 3. Polysaccharide
1. Dehydration Synthesis - "to put together while losing - complex kind of carbohydrates that consist of 3 or
water" more sugar units
2. Hydrolysis - polymers are broken down into - Common examples are: starch, glycogen, amylose
monomers in this process and amylopectin.

CARBOHYDRATES GLYCOSIDIC BOND – a covalent bond formed between

- Common example is sucrose a carbohydrate molecule and another molecule.
- Nutrients that provide energy for the body which
enables it to perform work and maintain body process. Storage Carbohydrates:
- 1 carbon; 2 hydrogen; 1 oxygen (CH2O) a. Starch
- Functional groups are ketone and aldehyde - storage molecule in plants
- formed by GLYCOSIDIC BOND b. Glycogen
- Storage molecule in animal liver and skeletal
- Other Terms for Carbohydrates: muscles.
> Polyhydroxy ketone
> Polyhydroxy aldehyde Structural Polysaccharides:
*polyhydroxy means many hydrogen and oxygen a. Chitin
- a polymer generally found in invertebrates as a
Roles of Carbohydrates major composition of exoskeleton of anthropods
- serves as backbone and mollusks serves as a protection
- act as energy storage - found in crabs and scale of fishes
- most common energy food b. Cellulose
- provide raw fuel for muscles and organs - enzyme: cellulose
- it made up the cell wall of plants
3 Subtypes of Carbohydrates - Ruminants: organisms that can digest cellulose.
1. Monosaccharide
- simple sugar which consist of one sugar unit LIPIDS
- These are an organic substance that includes fats
Common Forms and fat – like substances.
a. Glucose (aldose) - low solubility in water
- aka dextrose or blood sugar - high solubility in organic solvent like ether and
- most important fuel sugar for the cells of the brain chloroform
b. Galactose ( aldose) - 2 MAIN COMPONENTS: fatty acid and glycerol
- has same atomic composition as glucose but with - Fatty Acid: Carboxyl group and hydrocarbon
different structure chain
c. Fructose (ketose) - Glycerol: 3 carbon, 5 hydrogen and 4 hydroxyl
- sweetest sugar
- found in fruits such as atis, melon and ripe Roles of Lipids
mangoes - Storage of energy
- Hormonal roles
2. Disaccharide - Insulation
- consist of two sugar units - Protection
- Structural Components
Common Forms
a. Glucose + Glucose = MALTOSE Classification of Lipids
- aka malt sugar 1. Fats and Oils – lipids that contain glycerol and
- raw material to make beer fatty acid molecules
 Fatty Acids Why does seal eat sea blubbers?
- saturated: single bond; solid at room temperature - Blubber is a crucial component of a seal’s body.
- unsaturated: double bond; liquid at room This thick layer of fat provides a natural source of
temperature insulation that helps seals survive in cold water.
Although maintaining body temperature is a key
2. Waxes function of blubber, it plays a role in several other
- are esters of long chain alcohols with long chain important functions that helps seals live and thrive
fatty acids in the world’s oceans.
- for protection
- with hydrophobic nature PROTEINS
- most abundant organic compound in living cells
3. Phospholipids - CHON
- cell membrane - Amino Acids: building blocks/ monomers of
- with phosphate, fatty acids and glycerol protein
- hydrophilic head: hydrophobic tail - wide range of functions: storage, transport and
hormones for regulation
4. Steroids - immunoglobulin – antibodies; produces by WBC
- These are lipids with a carbon skeleton of fused - 2 types: enzymes and hormones
rings.
- have no fatty acids but also insoluble in water Biological Importance of Proteins
- essential in building and repairing body cells and
Cholesterol tissues
- integral part sa katawan ng tao kasi kung wala - aid in speeding up almost all chemical reactions in
yung cholesterol hindi makakapagproduce ng the bodycar
ibang hormones - serve a transport molecule, reserve food and
- found in tissue of animals but not in plants provide protections as antibodies
- add strength to the plasma membrane of animal - hormones as proteins, control the body functions
cells
2 types AMINO ACID
General Formula of Amino Acid
a. Man – made: Corticosteroids
- these are medicines that quickly fight
inflammation in your body Amino group
- Bronchodilators
b. Anabolics
- man made version of testosterone, a male sex
hormone that helps build bigger muscles

5. Triacylglycerols
- major energy reserve and the principal neutral
derivates of glycerol found in animals
- rich in highly reduced carbons and thus yield
large amounts of energy in the oxidative reaction
of metabolisms

Degradation: one of the effects of snake venoms

- has phospholipases: enzymes
- phospholipase have important functions in
membrane integrity, digestion and cell signaling. - amino group (NH2)
- lysolecithin: ruptures rbc - carboxylic group
- hydrogen
Mobdy Dick and Spermaceti: A Valuable Wax from - α carbon
Whale - variable side chain
- cetyl palmitate
 - amino acid linked by peptide bonds Equation for Photosynthesis

Levels of Protein Structure

 it’s important because it can produce malfunction
if not in order
a. Primary
- sequencing

b. Secondary
- coil and fold
3 Stages/ Pathways
Stage 1: Capturing the Light Energy
c. Tertiary
Where does photosynthesis occur?
- interactions between R – group
- Mesophyll – middle part of a leaf
- Stoma – responsible for the exchange of gas and
d. Quaternary
water balance
- results when 2 or more polypeptide chains form
one molecule
Chloroplast
- Thylakoids – disc-shaped membrane-bound
NUCLEIC ACID structure that contains the chlorophyll
- DNA and RNA - Granum – a pile of thylakoids
- made up of nucleotides - Stroma – a fluid surrounding the grana
- nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids
- nucleotides are composed of: sugar, phosphate Chlorophyll – primary pigment; doesn’t absorb green
group and nitrogenous bases light
- guanine; adenine; cytosine and thymine
Stage 2: Light – dependent reaction
Significance of Nucleic Acid -Light is absorbed by chlorophyll and energy is converted
- important in energy metabolism such as ATP into stored chemical energy
- elements of heredity and transfer of -This reaction takes place within and across the
characteristics from parent to offspring membranes of the thylakoids.
-The light dependent reactions produces oxygen,
Nitrogenous bases adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine
- pyrimidine; single carbon nitrogen dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). It is dependent on
- purine; 2 carbon nitrogen ring light energy that will help split the molecules.
- dna contains A, T, G & C
- rna containes A, U, G & C Stage 3: Light – independent reaction
-Takes place in the stroma of the chloroplasts
-Dark reaction
Erwin Chargaaf – all nitrogenous bases have -Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH from light reactions
complementary bases to form sugar
-Calvin Cycle takes place at any time of the day, as long
PHOTOSYNTHESIS as all the raw materials are available, including ATP and
It is the process of making or putting together some NADPH.
substances using light energy.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Autotrophs - organisms that are able to make energy- -Energy releasing process that takes place in all active
containing organic molecules from inorganic raw cells 24 hours a day.
material by using basic energy sources such as sunlight. -Takes place in the cytoplasm and is completed in
Heterotrophs - an organism deriving its nutritional mitochondria
requirements from complex organic substances -A food utilization process
Equation for Cellular Respiration

Stage 1: Glycolysis
-the breaking down of glucose into two molecules of
pyruvic acid ADP – ATP CYCLE
ATP
pyruvic -3 phosphate
sugar < -ribose sugar
pyruvic -adenine base
-store and release energy

Stage 2: Krebs cycle ADP

-also known as Citric acid cycle because the first reaction -adenosine triphosphate
forms citric acid. energy can be stored by adding another phosphate
-Produces 4 ATP but only 2 needed for the next cycle and becoming ATP
the other two will go back to the cycle
-It happens in the matrix of mitochondria WHEN NOT RELEASE?
-The acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-carbon compound -adipose tissue ; triglyceride
oxaloacetic acid to form to form 6-carbon compound
known as the citric acid.
-Products: CO2, NADH, FADH2, ATP

How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

-By breaking the high- energy bonds between the last two
phosphates in ATP

Stage 3: Electron Transport System

-converts ADP to ATP
-It takes place in and across the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion.
-More ATP molecules are produced in this process.
Oxygen plays an important role by picking up electrons
and hydrogen ions to form water.