Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Experimental study on heating characteristics and parameter optimization T

of transpired solar collectors
Dengjia Wang , Qian Gao, Yanfeng Liu, Yingying Wang, Yaowen Chen, Yuan Liu, Jiaping Liu
⁎

State Key Laboratory of Green Building in Western China, School of Building Services Science and Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an,
Shaanxi 710055, China

HIGHLIGHTS

• The transpired solar collectors were optimized deeply.

• The optimum design parameters for the transpired solar collectors have been obtained.
• The system efficiency of the transpired solar collectors were provided.
• The proportion of heat in each part for the transpired solar collectors was obtained.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: It is necessary to improve indoor air quality while meeting the indoor thermal demand of buildings during
Transpired solar collectors winter. The transpired solar collector (TSC) is a solar energy integration technology in buildings, which usually
Heating characteristics consists of a heat collecting plate with infiltration holes, an air layer, an insulation wall, air outlet and other
Parameter optimization appurtenances. It not only provides preheated fresh air for the indoor environment, but also reduces the cold
Experimental study
wind infiltration heat load in winter. In this paper, the heat transfer process of each component of the transpired
solar collectors was analyzed comprehensively. Findings on, the heat collection efficiency, heat exchange effi-
ciency indexes and optimized parameters of the transpired solar collectors are presented. Moreover, an in-
tegrated and detailed performance test platform for the transpired solar collectors heating characteristics and
optimization parameters was developed. Additionally, a comprehensive and multi-condition experimental study
was carried out. One important finding is that the non-uniform distribution of infiltration holes at the top and
bottom of the transpired solar collectors significantly influence on the preheating effect of fresh air and the
overall efficiency of the system. Moreover, an increase in the uniformity of the infiltration holes, increase the
heat collection efficiency and heat exchange efficiency by 25% and 10% respectively. Furthermore, the heat
collection gain per unit of heat collecting plate area increased by about 34.7 W, and the outlet temperature could
be improved by about 15 °C. These findings provide a critical design reference for the high-performance ap-
plication of the transpired solar collectors in buildings.

1. Introduction
Due to its advantages of being inexhaustible, clean, and pollution-
free [1,2], Solar energy is an ideal renewable energy to reduce the
heating energy consumption in buildings [3]. As a new method to ef-
fectively use solar energy, solar walls have become the focus of atten-
tion in the industry.
Nowadays, the most common solar wall is an internal wind circu-
lation system, which has a transparent cover on the outside, and does
not require the introduction of fresh air into the room. In a previous
study, Zhang et al. [4] used experimental and numerical simulation
methods to investigate the effects of system space heating on indoor air
quality improvement. The experimental results showed that the solar
wall with a transparent cover could enhance the uniform distribution of
temperature and the concentration of pollutants in a dilution chamber.
Similarly, Gao et al. [5] set up a mathematical model for predicting the
thermal performance of a solar wall with a transparent cover, and the
results showed that the solar wall with a transparent cover could ef-
fectively reduce the convective heat loss caused by high air-speed.
Furthermore, based on the energy balance equation, Zheng et al. [6]

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wangdengjia@xauat.edu.cn (D. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.004
Received 15 August 2018; Received in revised form 14 October 2018; Accepted 1 January 2019
Available online 23 January 2019
0306-2619/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Wang et al.
Nomenclature
A area (m2)
Q heat flux (W)
T thermodynamic temperature (K)
X angle factor
H height of heat collecting plate (m)
m mass flow (kg/s)
ρ density (kg/m3)
v air speed (m/s)
c specific heat capacity [J/(kg K)]
Gr Grashof number
Pr Prandtl number
Nu Nusselt number
Re Reynolds number
Bi Biot number
h convective heat transfer coefficient [w/(m2 k)]
I solar radiation intensity (W/m2)
g gravity (m/s2)
Hε heat exchange efficiency
H* ratio of the height of the infiltration hole to the height of
the heat collecting plate
n pitch of perforations (m)
d air layer thickness (m)
D infiltration hole diameter (m)
α absorptivity
developed a mathematical model to investigate the effects of various
key parameters, such as the inlet temperature, ambient temperature,
total air volume flow, radiation intensity, height and width of the solar
wall, and porosity of the heat collecting plate, on the thermal perfor-
mance of a solar wall.
Moreover, Li [7] and Li et al. [8] carried out numerical simulations
and experiments to investigate the heat transfer and airflow char-
acteristics of glass-evaporated solar collectors with slit-shaped per-
forations. The results showed that the heat collection effect of the local
resistance loss and the total pressure drop was greater than the dia-
meter and spacing between the perforations. However, these collector
systems require large glass panels attached to the wall facing south.
Thus, these glass walls not only increase the fire hazard, but are also
expensive and somewhat unattractive. In addition, since about 15% of
the solar radiation is consumed (reflected or absorbed) by the trans-
parent cover, the thermal performance of the solar wall without a
transparent cover is better than that with a transparent cover. Overall,
the heat collection efficiency of solar walls with a transparent cover is
13% lower than those without a transparent cover, and the air tem-
perature is about 3.4 °C lower [9].
However, the rapid development of society, urges significant re-
ductions in the heating energy consumption and better control of the
indoor thermal environment during winter, wherefore buildings have
become increasingly airtight. Consequently, in indoor air quality has
increasingly deteriorated as there is insufficient fresh air indoors. The
poor indoor air quality is detrimental to people's comfort, health, and
work efficiency [10,11]. Considering the demand for fresh air in
classrooms, factories, office buildings and so on, and inspired by solar
air heaters[12], transpired solar collectors (TSC) had been proposed
through the structural transformation of the traditional solar wall, in
recent years [13,14]. TSC has both ventilation and heating functions,
which is an effective means of improving indoor air quality while re-
ducing heating energy consumption [15].
Consequently, a tentative study on the solar wall with fresh air
preheating functions was carried out, and the typical production and
construction of TSC have been conducted in some European and
American countries, by the Conversal Company in Canada and Cardiff
535
Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546
b Boltzmann constant [5.67 × 10−8 w/(m2 k4)]
instantaneous time
η heat collection efficiency
thermal conductivity [w/(m k)]
absorber porosity
µ dynamic viscosity coefficient [kg/(s m)]
thickness (m)
Subscripts
p collecting plate
Greek symbols
ε emissivity
rad radiation
conv convection
cond conduction
o outer surface
i inner surface
a ambient air
ph infiltration hole
w wall
ao air outlet
ai air in the air layer
s suction
University in the United Kingdom [16,17]. However, the key design
parameters for TCS are mainly based on the convenience for production
and construction, and so there is a lack of detailed parameter optimi-
zation. Therefore, the thermal efficiency and fresh air volume may not
be in optimum condition. Hence, some researchers carried out theore-
tical analyses on this type of solar wall. For example, using the steady
state model, Motahar [18] analyzed the effects of the diameter and
spacing of holes in the TSC, sun radiation intensity, and infiltration
velocity on its exergy efficiency. Also, Shukla et al. [19] proposed the
evaluation of the thermal performance standards for the TSC system
and relevant main features. Moreover, Collins and Abulkhair [20] ex-
perimentally verified the results of the numerical model and evaluated
the heat transfer and effectiveness of the heat collecting plate. By de-
veloping a mathematical model, Njomo [21] analyzed the heat ex-
change of the solar wall as a whole, and investigated the effects of the
air inlet temperature, mass flow and air layer thickness on the heat
collecting performance of the heat collecting plate. Furthermore, Gol-
neshan and Nemati [22] established an exergy balance and determined
the exergy efficiency, which can be used to predict the optimal working
temperature of the porous solar wall. Similarly, Rad et al. [23] devel-
oped a mathematical model to analyze the energy and exergy effi-
ciencies of a two-stage solar wall, and verified the model results with
experimental results. Gholampour and Ameri [24] used similar math-
ematical models to investigate the energy and exergy of porous solar
walls. They concluded that exergy analysis is an important factor in the
system design. In addition, Wang et al. [25] developed a simplified
calculation method to evaluate the thermal performance of a porous
solar wall at steady state. Size analysis and data fitting were used to
establish the relationship between the absorber plate temperature and
the heat exchange efficiency.
Further, other researchers investigated the characteristics of TSC
through experimentation on the full-scale systems, whereby simulation
methods were also used. Based on experimental results, Kutscher and
Christensen et al. [26,27] showed that for a solar wall without a cover
plate, when the outdoor air flow rate and the fresh air fan suction speed
were within a certain range, the heat loss caused by the natural con-
vection was small, and the main heat loss was through radiation heat
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

transfer. Based on this finding, they developed a simple expression for

the heat collection efficiency. Using the collector cavity as the calcu-
lation domain, and setting the porous plate as the boundary condition
of the continuous fluid, Dymond and Kutscher [28] carried out a CFD
simulation analyses of the solar wall, and determined the temperature
and pressure of the outlet air. Based on Kutscher’s [28] study of the Fan
pitch, the thickness of the heat collecting plate and the fan suction
speed, Decker et al. [29] investigated the heat exchange efficiency of
the heat collecting plate of different infiltration shapes. Also, Gawlik
et al. [30] determined numerically and experimentally the performance
of low thermal conductivity TSC. The results showed that the difference
in the equivalent geometry between the low thermal conductivity ma- Air outlet
terials and the high thermal conductivity materials was small. Croitoru Solar radiation
et al. [31] investigated the effect of the shape of the infiltration hole on
heat transfer and reported that the leaf-like infiltration hole was more
complex, but its effect on the heat transfer was good. Also, Belusko
et al. [32] applied a jet onto a porous solar wall, and showed that the
impact of the jet increased the thermal efficiency of the collector by
21%. Moreover, Chan et al. [33,34] analyzed a two-directional flow of
air and showed that when the temperature of the air in the layer was Infiltration holes Insulation wall
not uniform, the temperature of the vertical flow increased by more
than 40%. So, the heat exchange between the back of the plate and the
air cannot be ignored. Further, a comparison of the flat and infiltration
solar walls showed that the infiltration solar wall reduced the heat loss, Heat collectinng plate Air layer
and the thermal efficiency was 50% higher than that of the flat solar
wall. Using numerical simulations and experiments, Wan et al. [35]
investigated the effect of solar wall on the heat transfer in winter and
determined the variation law with various parameters. The results
showed that the temperature of the outer surface of the outer wall after
installation of the solar wall was significantly higher than that without
the solar wall. Thus, the solar wall reduced the heat transfer capacity of Fig. 1. Physical model and operating principle of TSC.
the outer wall during winter.
The above literature demonstrates that the earliest origin of TSC are
layer, infiltration holes, and an infiltration type heat collecting plate.
actually applications, and the manufacturing process is mainly designed
The heat collecting plate is made of a metal material, and there is a dark
for the convenience of construction and installation. Little considera-
heat absorbing layer and infiltration holes on the surface. There is a
tion is given to the overall efficiency of the system and the effect of
sealed layer of air between the outer wall of the building and the heat
fresh air preheating. Furthermore, previous researchers mainly used
collecting plate. The airflow conveying system consists of fresh air
either a numerical model to simulate the solar wall characteristics, or
ducts, adjustable speed fans, and air outlets. The heat transfer process is
were analyzed under uncontrollable environments (actual outdoor en-
through heat convection, the air in the air layer absorbs the radiant heat
vironment). Therefore, it is difficult to conduct an in-depth study of a
of the heat collecting plate. The heated air in the layer then enters the
single factor in the analysis of the uncontrollable environment. More
room under the action of the thermal pressure and the wind pressure.
importantly, the above studies are mainly carried out with uniform
The physical model and operating principle of the TSC is shown in
infiltration hole diameters with that are uniformly distributed above
Fig. 1.
and below, and did not consider the short circuit problem caused by the
infiltration hole distribution, which is caused by the combined effect of
2.2. Thermal process analysis
thermal pressure and wind pressure.
In this paper, TSC with the non-uniform openings at the top and
In order to simplify the complexity of the thermal process and make
bottom was developed in a controlled experimental environment. This
the calculation easy, some reasonable assumptions have been made
arrangement may improve system efficiency and the effect of air pre-
about the TSC, as follows:
heating. Also, it may be more suitable for mass production and widely
applicable to optimize design and operation parameters. The specific
(1) The outside air flow has little effect on heat loss of the heat col-
research objectives were: (1) To analyze the heat transfer process and to
lecting plate surface [36,37], and the convection losses to the en-
develop equations for calculating the convective and radiation heat
vironment have been assumed negligible [38].
transfer, and system thermal index. (2) To determine the thermal
(2) Since the air speed on the outer surface of the heat collecting plate
characteristics of the TSC during the initial and stationary periods ex-
is faster, no reverse flow has been assumed.
perimentally. (3) To analyze the experimental results and determine the
(3) The temperature of the air entering the air layer through the in-
influence of various factors, as well as the heat collecting character-
filtration hole has been assumed be the ambient temperature.
istics. Fingings would provide a critical design reference for the high-
(4) According to the lumped parameter method [39], since the heat
performance application of transpired solar collectors in buildings.
collecting plate of the TSC is made of a very thin metal plate, it has
been assumed that the thermal properties follow those of the
2. Theoretical analysis
lumped parameter method [33].
(5) Since the front area of the heat collecting plate is far larger than the
2.1. Physical model
area of the side plates of the heat collecting plate and the angle
coefficient is large, the radiation heat exchange between the two
The overall TSC mainly consists of a heat collecting system and an
plates has been assumed negligible.
airflow conveying system. The heat collecting system consists of an air

536
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

The thermal equilibrium is based on three components of the TSC: thermodynamic temperature of the air in the air layer in °C. Based on
(1) the heat collecting plate, (2) the air in the air layer, and (3) the the Ref. [26], Nusselt number is given by:
exterior wall of the building. As shown in Fig. 2, under the suction of 1.21Re 0.43 +0.011
the fan, the air on the outer surface of the heat collecting plate enters
Nu pi = 2.75[(n/D) 1 Re1 (vpi/vai)0.48] (5)
into the air layer, where there is convective heat loss in the air layer. where n is pitch of infiltration hole in m, is absorber porosity, vpi is
Hence, the convective heat loss to the environment is negligible velocity of the inner surface of the heat collecting plate in m/s, vai is
[40,41]. The detailed analysis of each thermal equilibrium process is velocity of the air in the air layer in m/s, Re1 is Reynolds number ,
shown below. which can be expressed as:
Re1 = ( 1vph D)/µ 1 (6)
2.2.1. Heat collecting plate heat balance equation
The heat collecting plate total heat balance equation is described by where vph is velocity of the infiltration hole in m/s, μ1 is the dynamic
Eq. (1). The heat composition and calculation formula of each part are viscosity coefficient in kg/(s m), and 1 is the air density for the tem-
respectively shown in Eqs. (2)–(7). perature t1 =
t( ) pi + t( )ai
in kg/m3.
2
I pAp = Q rad.po a( ) + Q rad,pi wi ( ) + Qconv,pi ai ( ) + Qconv,ph a( ) (1) Qconv,ph a ( ) is the convective heat transfer between the air and the
2
heat collecting plate at the infiltration hole of the heat collecting plate
where I is the solar radiation intensity in W/m , p is absorptivity of the in W, and can be expressed as:
heat collecting plate, Ap is the area of heat collecting plate in m2.
Q rad.po a ( ) is the radiant heat transfer from the outer surface of the Qconv,ph a( ) = hph a Ap [t( ) ph t( )a] (7)
heat collecting plate to the ambient air in W, and can be calculated as
where hph a is the convective heat transfer coefficient of infiltration
follows:
hole and ambient air in w/(m2 k), t( ) ph is the thermodynamic tem-
Q rad.po a( )= po Ap b T( ) 4po (2) perature of the infiltration hole in °C, t( )a is the thermodynamic tem-
perature of the inlet ambient air in °C.
where po is emissivity of the outer surface of the heat collecting plate,
−8
b is the Stefen-Boltzmann constant in [5.67 × 10 w/(m2 k4)] and 2.2.2. Air layer heat balance equation
T( )po is the thermodynamic temperature of the outer surface heat The air layer total heat balance equation is described by Eq. (8). The
collecting plate in K. heat composition and calculation formula of each part are respectively
Q rad,pi wi ( ) is the radiant heat transfer between the inner surface of shown in Eqs. (9)–(14).
the heat collecting plate and the wall in W, and can be calculated as
follows: Qconv,pi ai ( ) Q conv,ai wi ( ) = Qm ( ) (8)

b [T( ) 4po T( ) 4wi] Qconv,ai wi ( ) is the convective heat transfer between the air in the air
Q rad,pi wi ( )= 1 pi 1 1 wi
Ap layer and the inner surface of the wall in W, and can be calculated as
+ +
pi Xpi,wi wi (3) follows:
where T( ) wi is the thermodynamic temperature of the inner surface of Qconv,ai wi ( ) = (Nu wi 2/d[t( )ai t( ) wi]Aw (9)
the wall in K, pi is emissivity of the inner surface of heat collecting
where λ2 is the thermal conductivity of air in w/(m k), d is thickness of
plate and Xpi,wi is the angle coefficient between the collecting plate and
air layer in m and Aw is the area of the wall in m2, Nu wi is Nusselt
the wall.
number of the inner surface of the wall, which is calculated as follows:
Qconv,pi ai ( ) is the convective heat transfer of the air in the air layer
and the inner surface of the heat collecting plate in W. It is given by: Nu wi = 0.664Re20.5 Pr20.33 (10)
Qconv,pi ai ( )=(Nu pi 1/D[t( ) pi t( )ai]Ap (4) where Pr2 is Prandtl number, Re2 is Reynolds number , which is cal-
culated as follows:
where Nu pi is Nusselt number of the inner surface of the heat collecting
plate, λ1 is the thermal conductivity of air in w/(m k), D is infiltration Re2 = ( 2 vai H)/µ 2 (11)
hole diameter in m, t( ) pi is the thermodynamic temperature of the
inner surface of the heat collecting plate in °C, t( )ai is the Pr2 = (c2 µ 2)/ 2 (12)

Tao

Ts Qconv ai-wi
Rr,s-po
Ts
Tpo Qconv pi-ai
Rr,po-a Rr,pi-wi Rcd,wi-wo
Ta Tai Twi Two Ta Tpo(Tpi) Twi Two
Tpi Qcond wi-wo
Qrad po-a
Qrad pi-wi
Rc,a-ph
Ta Rc,pi-ai Rc,ai-wi
Qconv ph-a
Tai
Outdoor Indoor
Heat collecting plate Insulation wall
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. (a) Thermal process and (b) Heat transfer network of TSC.

537
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

where H is the height of heat collecting plate in m, μ2 is the dynamic obtained as demonstrated in Eqs. (17)–(19).
viscosity coefficient in kg/(s m), c2 is the specific heat capacity of air in The t max (°C) is maximum temperature difference between air
J/(kg K), and 2 is the air density for the temperature t2 = ai 2 wi in
t( ) + t( )
outlet and ambient temperature.
3
kg/m .
t max = t( )ao t( )a (17)
Q m ( ) is the heat absorbed by the air entering the air layer in W, and
can be expressed as follows: The heat exchange efficiency H is the ratio of the actual tempera-
ture difference of the air before and after passing through the heat
Q m ( ) = m( )cai [t( )ao t( )a] (13)
collecting plate, and the theoretical maximum possible temperature
where cai is the specific heat capacity of air in J/(kg K) , t( )ao is the air difference.
temperature of air outlet in °C and m( ) is the mass flow through the
t( )ao t( )a
infiltration hole in kg/s,which is calculated as follows: H =
t( )p t( )a (18)
m( ) = Aph vph ph (14)
The heat collection efficiency η is the ratio of the total amount of
where Aph is the cross-sectional area of infiltration hole in m2, vph is the heat absorbed by the air passing through the heat collecting plate to the
infiltration velocity in m/s and ph is the air density of infiltration hole amount of solar radiation.
in kg/m3.
m( )cai [t( )ao t( )a]
=
IAp (19)
2.2.3. Insulation wall heat balance equation
The insulation wall total heat balance equation is described by Eq. Through the above theoretical formulas, thermal performance in-
(15). The heat composition and calculation formula for each part are dexes such as heat exchange efficiency, heat collection efficiency and
respectively shown in Eqs. (3), (9), (16). maximum temperature difference can be determined. In this paper, the
thermal performance indexes are obtained by the combination of ex-
Qconv,ai wi ( ) + Q rad,pi wi ( ) = Qcond,wi wo ( ) (15)
perimental tests and theoretical analysis.
Qcond,wi wo ( ) is the conductive heat flow through the wall in W, and
can be calculated as follows: 3. Experimental procedure
w A w [t( ) wi t( ) wo]
Qcond,wi wo ( )= 3.1. Experimental system
w (16)

where w is the thermal conductivity of insulation wall in w/(m k) , An experimental TSC was set up at the State Key Laboratory of
w is thickness of insulation wall in m and Aw is the area of the wall in Green Buildings in Western China in Xi'an University of Architecture
m2, t( ) wi is the inner surface temperature of insulation wall in °C and and Technology, Shaanxi, China. The laboratory measures
t( ) wo is the outer surface temperature of insulation wall in °C. 16 × 14 × 3.1 m (length × width × hight), with the air temperature
maintained at 22.0 ± 2.0 °C.
2.3. Thermal performance indexes The experimental setup consists of a heat collecting system, an air
flow conveying system, and a parameter measuring system. Figs. 3 and
The thermal performance indexes is the maximum temperature 4 show the experimantal system apparatus and the actual photos, re-
difference t max (°C) at the outlet, and is determined by the heat ex- spectively. The sunlight source used in the experiment is a TRM-PD1
change efficiency H and the heat collection efficiency η. Through the matrix simulation light. It is an artificial solar simulator (called artifi-
above analysis of thermal equilibrium process and by combining the cial sun). The simulator light source uses a 12 independent xenon light
above equations with its definitions, simultaneous solution can be source, and the length of the linear xenon lamp tube is 0.6 m. The

Experiment apparatus

Solar radiation

Preheated air
supply

b. Heat collecting c. Insulation wall

a. Solar simulator board back
plate facade

Test instruments

03-28
23:20:30

0.5m/s
TRM-PD1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
• ••• ••• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• •• • • •••• ••
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• •
• • • • •
•

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• •• • • •••• ••
•

• •
•
•
• •
• •
• • • • • • • • • • • ••• ••• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • • •
• ••• ••• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • ENDLESS DATA

• •
• •
1
26.7¡ æ
• •
• • TMD

d. Solar analog e. Radiation f. Solar intelligent g. Personal h.Thermocouple i.Anemometer j. Temperature k. acquisition
launcher system receiver monitoring host Computer automatic recorder instrument

Fig. 3. Schematic of experimental system.

538
D. Wang et al.
Fig. 4. Actual photos of the experimental apparatus.
illuminance of light radiation is adjustable at 500–1200 W/m2. The
heat collecting plate is separated from the solar simulator by 80 cm. The
heat collecting plate is a metal iron plate, which is measures
1.9 × 0.6 m (length × width) with a thickness of 1.5 mm. The surface
of the heat collecting plate was painted black. The plate has different
numbers of infiltration holes, while the row and column spacing is
10 cm. The insulation wall measures 2.3 × 1m (length × width) with a
thickness of 12 cm. A double-sided 4.26 mm thick color steel plate with
a 120 mm thick polyurethane board is used in-between, giving a
thermal conductivity of 0.24 W/(m2 °C). There is a 5 cm air layer be-
tween the heat collecting plate and the insulation wall, which is sealed
on all sides. Hence, air can only enter the air layer through the in-
filtration holes. There is a 150 mm diameter vent at the top of the air
layer. The adjustable axial flow fan (HF-150PZP) is used in the ex-
periment, and the power is 44–54 W.
3.2. Experimental apparatus and locations of sensors
During the experiment, the air temperatures in front of the heat
collecting plate, inside the air layer and at the back of the insulation
wall were measured. Also, the surface temperature and the heat flux
density of the insulation wall, and at the outer surface of the heat
collecting plate were measured. The air speed and the air temperature
at the air outlet and the infiltration hole were tested. The air tem-
peratures inside the air layer, in front of the heat collecting plate, and at
the back of the wall were measured using the DS1922L button tem-
perature recorder and the TR-72ui self-recording thermometer and
hygrometer, with an accuracy of ± 0.2 °C. Other temperatures have
been measured using the four-channel thermocouple CENTER309, with
an accuracy of ± (0.3% reading + 0.1) °C. The heat flux density was
measured using the R70B temperature heat flow cycle acquisition re-
corder. The air speed was measured using the WFWZY-1 universal air
speed and wind temperature recorder, with an accuracy of ± 0.5%. All
the measurements were automatically recorded once every minute. The
locations of the measurement points are shown in Fig. 5.
3.3. Experimental conditions and programs
The main factors affecting the TSC are: hole size [42], hole spacing,
hole density, air layer thickness, heat collecting plate height [43,44],
outdoor solar radiation intensity [33], and fan suction speed [36]. On
this basis, it is found that there are few studies on the effect of the
distribution of infiltration hole openings along the length of the heat
collecting plate on the thermal performance of the solar wall. In the
current experiments, four variables (the infiltration hole diameter, the
height ratio which is the ratio of the height of the infiltration hole to the
539
Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546
height of the heat collecting plate, the fan suction speed, and the solar
radiation intensity), and nine operating conditions are evaluated, as
shown in Table 1. For each operating condition, there are two operating
periods, the initial period and the stationary period.
4. Analysis and discussion of experimental results
4.1. Temperature and heat flux variation of each component
The heat transfer process of the TSC is originate from the ambient
air through the heat collecting plate and the air layer, which is then
emitted as the outlet air. Temperature measurements were carried out
at different infiltration hole diameters, solar radiation intensities,
height ratios, and fan suction speeds. The temperature variations of
different TSC parts under typical conditions is shown in Fig. 6 (in-
filtration hole diameter, D = 4 mm; solar radiation intensity,
I = 700 W/m2; height ratio, H* = 0.6; and fan suction speed,
vs = 0.5–0.55 m/s).
From Fig. 6, demonstrates that the temperature response of the heat
collecting plate is fastest during the first 20 min of operation and sta-
bilizes after the first 20 min. Due to the influence of the solar simulator,
the ambient air temperature increases slightly. The rise in air tem-
perature at the outlet occurs later than that it does in the air layer. This
is because the air in the layer reaches the air supply port through the air
layer and the fan after the heat emitted by the heat collecting plate is
absorbed by the thermal pressure and the wind pressure. After stabili-
zation, the air outlet temperature is 13.7 °C higher than that of the
ambient air. Also, temperature of the air layer is slightly lower than that
of the outlet air. Moreover, the temperature at the bottom of the air
layer is relatively low and unevenly distributed in the vertical direction.
A comparison of the average temperature of the air layer is shown in
Fig. 6.
4.1.1. Temperature and heat flux of heat collecting plate
The variations in average surface temperature and heat flux of the
heat collecting plate with time for different solar radiation intensities
are shown in Fig. 7. As the solar radiation intensity increases, the
average temperature of the outer surface of the heat collecting plate
also increases. After about 20 min of operation, the system reaches a
steady state. At the solar radiation intensity of 700 W/m2, the average
temperature of the heat collecting plate is about 55.6 °C. Subsequently,
the heat flux gradually decreases with time. This phenomenon can be
attributed to the gradual decrease in the temperature difference be-
tween the outer surface of the heat collecting plate and the solar si-
mulator relative to the temperature difference between the outer sur-
face of the heat collecting plate and the environment, that is, the heat
exchange temperature difference is reduced. After about 33 min of
operation, the temperature difference between the outer surface of the
heat collecting plate and the solar simulator becomes even smaller than
the temperature difference between the outer surface of the heat col-
lecting plate and the environment. At this time, the heat flow is re-
versed, that is, the direction of heat transfer is from the outer surface of
the heat collecting plate to the environment. After 36 min of operation,
the heat transfer intensity begins to decrease gradually.
With the increase of the infiltration hole diameter, the air flow area,
expands towards the periphery, increasing flow velocity near the sur-
face of the heat collecting plate. The convective heat transfer on the
outer surface of the heat collecting plate intensifies. The average tem-
perature of the outer surface of the heat collecting plate varied with
time at different infiltration hole diameter as shown in Fig. 8. Overall,
the larger the infiltration hole diameter, the higher the surface tem-
perature. This finding can be attributed to the more dispersed air flow
due to the larger infiltration hole diameter. Although the convective
heat transfer of the outer surface is enhanced, the heat transfer area is
reduced. Further, due to the decrease in the infiltration velocity
through the small holes, the convective heat transfer intensity is
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

Fig. 5. Experimental locations of sensors.

Table 1 weakened, resulting in a decrease in the heat exchange.

Infiltration hole diameters, height ratios, fan suction speeds, and solar radiation Fig. 8 illustrates that the increase in infiltration hole diameter in-
intensities for various operating conditions. creases the surface temperature by about 8 °C. The increase in the
Infiltration hole diameters D (mm) 2 4 6 – height ratio makes the air flow distribution on the heat collecting plate
Height ratios H* 0.3 0.6 0.9 – surface more uniform. The convective heat transfer on the outer surface
Fan suction speeds vs (m/s) 0 0.50–0.55 0.70–0.75 0.90–0.95 also increases. The variations of the average temperature of the outer
Solar radiation intensities I (W/m2) 500 600 700 –
surface of the heat collecting plate with time for different height ratios
is shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that for at H* = 0.6, the surface
thermal response of the heat collecting plate is fastest, and the tem-
perature reaches 61.8 °C. Conversely, at H* = 0.3, the temperature

540
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

70 70
Rapid increase period Stationary period

Average heat collecting plate surface tempertature/

Initial stage Stationary stage 65
65
61.8
60 60

55 55

50 50.9 50
Temperature/

49.3
45
45
40
40
37.2 2
35 I=600W/m ,D=2mm
35 2
30 I=600W/m ,D=4mm
30 Ambient air Collector plate surface 2
I=700W/m ,D=2mm
Layer air Air outlet 25 2
25 I=700W/m ,D=4mm
20
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time/min Time/min

Fig. 6. Temperature variations of different TSC parts under typical operating Fig. 8. Average surface temperature of heat collecting plate for different in-
conditions (D = 4 mm, I = 700 W/m2, H*= 0.6, vs = 0.5–0.55 m/s). filtration hole diameters. (vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s, H* = 0.6).

60
Rapid increase period Stationary period 70 Rapid increase period Stationary period

Average heat collecting plate surface temperature/

Average heat collecting plate surface temperature/

55 55.6
53.6
61.8
60
50 49.7 58.1

45 50
46.9

40 40

35
30
*
30 2 H =0.3
I=500W/m *
2 20 H =0.6
25 I=600W/m *
2 H =0.9
I=700W/m
20 10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time/min Time/min
(a) Fig. 9. Average surface temperature of heat collecting plate for different height
ratios. (D = 4 mm, vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s, I = 700 W/m2).
Average heat collecting plate surface heat flux/W.m-2

20 Heat absorbs rapid down

increases by 14.9 °C, and at H* = 0.9, the temperature increases by
3.7 °C. However, further increases in H* beyond this level does not
10 cause any increase in the surface temperature of the heat collecting
Heat collecting plate absorbs heat plate. For the air closer to the upper part of the air layer, under the
0
action of the suction of the fan, the heat exchange between the air and
the heat collecting plate becomes more pronounced.
Heat collecting plate heat release
-10 4.1.2. Temperature of air layer
At the solar radiation intensities of 500, 600, and 700 W/m2, re-
-20 I=500W/m
2
Heat release rapid increase spectively, the temperature of the air layer changed with time under
I=600W/m
2 various air speeds as shown in Fig. 10. As the intensity of solar radiation
2 Heat release slow down increases, the air in the air layer absorbs more heat, causing the air
-30 I=700W/m
temperature in the air layer to rise. The air layer temperature rises
relatively steadily for about 10 min of operation. The increase in tem-
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
perature of the air layer is more rapid at lower air speeds. The tem-
Time/min
perature can reach about 44.0 °C when the system achieves a steady
(b) state. However, continuous increase in fan suction speeds tends to cause
Fig. 7. Average surface temperature and heat flux density of heat collecting a decrease in the temperature of the air layer. This is because although
plate for different solar radiation intensities. (D = 2 mm, vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s, the increase of the air speed enhances the heat transfer, there is in-
H* = 0.3). sufficient time for the heat emitted by from the heat collecting plate to
be transferred to the air. Thus, as the air speed decreases, the air layer
temperature can rise by about 6.0 °C.

541
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

Initial period Steady increase period Fig. 11). It can be seen the various solar radiation intensities have si-
45
milar impacts on the variations in the air temperature at the outlet.
During the first 25 min of operation, the outlet air temperature in-
creases rapidly. However, after the first 25 min, the rate of temperature
Average air layer temperature/

40
increase slows down. Also, as the solar radiation intensity increases, the
air temperature at the outlet increases gradually. For example, as the
35
radiation intensity increases from 500 W/m2 to 700 W/m2, the air
temperature at the outlet increases by about 2.8 °C.
The air temperature difference between outlet air and ambient
30 I=500W/m2, Low air speed
temperature for different fan suction speeds, infiltration hole diameters,
I=600W/m2, Low air speed
and the height ratios with time (are shown in Fig. 12). Fig. 12(a) de-
25 I=700W/m2, Low air speed
monstrates that the air temperature difference at outlet decreases
I=500W/m2, No air speed
during the first 7.5 min of operation. This is because when the system
I=500W/m2, Medium air speed
20 starts to operate, the temperature of the air in front of the heat col-
I=500w/m2, High air speed
lecting plate rises faster than that of the air at the outlet. When the fan
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 is not operating, the air in the air layer reaches the outlet through the
Time/min air supply duct under the action of pure thermal pressure. The pre-
heated air does not reach the outlet due to the resistance in the fresh air
Fig. 10. Average temperature of air layer for different solar radiation intensities
and fan suction speeds. (D = 4 mm, H* = 0.3).
ducts. As the fan suction speed begins to increase, the air temperature
difference at the outlet achieves its most significant value of about
5.6 °C at the low air speed. With further increases in fan suction speed,
Table 2 the air temperature difference at the outlet is not significant anymore.
Air layer temperature for various operating conditions (D = 6 mm, I = 600 W/ This is because the heat from the heat collecting plate is not being
m2).
transferred sufficiently to the air within the air layer. The heat is
Y/m Height Air layer temperature/°C transferred to the outlet air by wind pressure. At medium and high air
ratios H* speeds, the air temperature difference at the outlet is not significant.
Fan suction speeds vs/(m/s)
Hence, the fan suction speed has only minimal effects on the air tem-
No air Low air speeds Medium air speeds perature difference at the outlet, which remains relatively constant at
speeds (0) (0.50–0.55) (0.70–0.75) about 2.8 °C. Fig. 12(b) shows that variations in the infiltration hole
diameters have a significant effect on the air temperature difference at
0.38 0.3 37.1 32.1 31.3
the outlet. For a 4 mm infiltration hole diameter and 700 W/m2 solar
0.6 48.2 40.1 37.8
0.9 47.4 35.5 34.7 radiation intensity, the temperature difference at the outlet is about
13.8 °C. Conversely, for a 6 mm infiltration hole diameter, and 700 W/
0.76 0.3 39.8 33.6 32.7
0.6 47.9 39.7 37 m2 solar radiation intensity, the temperature difference at the outlet is
0.9 47.7 36.4 34.7 8.3 °C. For a smaller infiltration hole diameter, the temperature dif-
1.14 0.3 43.4 34.5 33.6
ference at the outlet can increase by 3–6 °C. This is because as the in-
0.6 51.8 41.3 38.7 filtration hole diameter decreases, the amount of air entering the air
0.9 52.5 39.5 37.5 layer is also reduced. So, the temperature of the preheated air sig-
1.52 0.3 43.6 35.4 34.5 nificantly increases. Fig. 12(c) also illustrates that increases in H* from
0.6 52.5 42.6 39.9 0.3 to 0.6 impacts the air temperature difference at the outlet causing
0.9 52.8 41.6 39.2 an increase in the temperature difference by about 5.8 °C. Nonetheless,
1.90 0.3 44.3 37.2 36.2 as the height of the infiltration hole continues to increase, the air
0.6 52.8 45.9 42.9 temperature difference only increases by 1 °C, which is not significant.
0.9 52.0 43.7 41.4
This can be interpreted as follows: at H* = 0.6, where the height of the
infiltration hole increases continuously, the air intake from the upper
The temperature variation of the air layer in the vertical direction
(Y) with and without fan suction speeds shown in Table 2. Overall, the Rapid increase period Slow increase period
temperature of the air layer increases with H*. The increases in tem- 45
43.7
perature is most significant when H* increases from 0.3 to 0.6. How- 42.4
ever, as H* increases from 0.6 to 0.9, there is no further increase in the 40.9
temperature of the air layer. This can be interpreted as initially due to 40
Air outlet temperature/

the increase in the heat exchange area of the infiltration hole, where the
temperature rises quickly. However, with further increases of H*, al-
35
though the distance between the air outlet and infiltration holes is
shortened, and the heat exchange intensifies under the action of the
wind pressure, the period for which the air stays in the layer is sig-
30
nificantly shortened. Hence, as H* increases from 0.6 to 0.9, there is no 2
I=500W/m
significant increase in the temperature. Thus, the increase in H* causes 2
the temperature of the air layer to rise by about 8.0 °C. Also, the tem- I=600W/m
25 2
perature of the air layer drops significantly when there is air speed as I=700W/m
compared to no air speed. The drop in temperature is about 10.0 °C.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time/min
4.1.3. Difference in air temperature at outlet
There are considerable variations in air temperature at the outlet Fig. 11. Air temperature at outlet for different solar radiation intensities.
with time under different solar radiation intensities (as shown in (D = 2 mm, vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s, H* = 0.3).

542
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

No air speed Low air speed

0.8
Medium air speed High air speed
8
Initial 0.7
period Normal operation period

6 0.6

Infiltration velocity/m.s-1
0.5
Αir temperature difference ∆t/ °C

∆ tmax1=5.6°C 0.4
2
∆ tmax2=3.1°C
Preheating air
0.3
∆ tmax3=2.5°C
0 0.2
∆ tmax4=-0.7°C No air speed y=0.49-0.31*0.94x,R2=0.59
Low air speed y=0.61-0.42*0.83x,R2=0.68
-2 0.1
Medium air speed y=0.68-0.42*0.88x,R2=0.73
0.0
-4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-6 Time/min
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time/min
Fig. 13. Infiltration velocity for different fan suction speeds. (D = 4 mm,
I = 600 W/m2, H* = 0.6).
(a) D = 2mm, I = 500 W/m2, H* = 0.3

4.2. Infiltration velocity at infiltration hole

14
Variations in the infiltration velocity at the infiltration hole with
12 time at different fan suction speeds are illustrated Fig. 13. It can be seen
Initial period that infiltration velocity is slowest when the fan is not operating.
Air temperature difference ∆ t/ °C

10 However, the infiltration velocity shows gradual increases with the fan
suction speed. Increases in the fan suction speed force air from the heat
8 collecting plate into the air layer. Conversely, when the fan is not op-
∆ tmax1=13.8°C erating, the outdoor air can only rely on thermal pressure to flow into
6
the air layer. Overall, the infiltration velocity stabilizes at 0.68 m/s. At
∆ tmax2=10.1°C
2
I=600W/m ,D=4mm
medium air speed, the infiltration velocity increases by about 0.22 m/s.
4 ∆ tmax3=8.3°C
2
I=600W/m ,D=6mm ∆ tmax4=6.3°C
2 2
I=700W/m ,D=4mm 4.3. Heat collection and heat exchange efficiencies
Preheating air 2
I=700W/m ,D=6mm
0 The heat collection and heat exchange efficiencies per unit area
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
under different solar radiation intensities (500, 600, and 700 W/m2),
fan suction speeds (0.50–0.55 m/s (low air speed), 0.70–0.75 m/s
Time/min
(medium air speed), and 0.90–0.95 m/s (high air speed)), infiltration
(b) vs=0.50~0.55m/s, H* = 0.6
hole diameters (2 mm, 4 mm, and 6 mm), and the height ratios (0.3,
0.6, and 0.9) are shown in Fig. 14.
18
Initial Overall, an increase in solar radiation intensity causes the heat
16 period Preheating air period collection and heat exchange efficiencies to increase. At the solar ra-
diation intensities of 600–700 W/m2, the heat collection and heat ex-
14
change efficiencies can be significantly high. For example, at the solar
Air temperature diference ∆t/ °C

12 radiation intensity I = 600 W/m2, heat collection efficiency η = 43%,

and heat exchange efficiency Hε = 33%. By contrast, at the solar ra-
10
diation intensity I = 700 W/m2, heat collection efficiency η = 52% and
8 heat exchange efficiency Hε = 39%. So, as solar radiation intensity in-
∆tmax1=14.8°C
∆tmax2=13.8°C
creases from 600 W/m2 to 700 W/m2, the heat collection and heat ex-
6 change efficiencies increase by 9% and 6%, respectively.
*
H =0.3
4 * ∆tmax3=8.0°C Also, increases in the fan suction speed and the infiltration hole
H =0.6
diameter, caused gradual increases in the heat collection efficiency,
*
2 H =0.9 whereas the heat exchange efficiency decreased gradually. So, overall,
0 the difference between the two efficiencies increases with increasing
fan suction speeds and infiltration hole diameters. At high suction air
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
speeds, the heat exchange efficiency is only 15% while the heat col-
Time/min lection efficiency is 69%. An explanation for this phenomenon is the
(c) D = 4mm, I = 700 W/m2, vs=0.50~0.55m/s increase in the fan suction speed reduces the difference in the outlet air
temperature, but at the same time, the infiltration velocity increases,
Fig. 12. Difference in air temperature at outlet for different fan suction speeds,
infiltration hole diameters, and height ratios.
causing the amount of air entering the air layer to increase. Eqs. (18)
and (19) show that the heat exchange efficiency is only affected by the
temperature difference, while the heat collection efficiency is affected
infiltration hole is closer to the outlet, so there is insufficient time for by both temperature difference and air volume. Also, the heat collection
the heat emitted by the heat collecting plate to be transferred to the air. efficiency increases while the heat exchange efficiency decreases with
For H* = 0.9, the temperature difference is about 14.8 °C. increasing infiltration hole diameter. At the infiltration hole diameter

543
D. Wang et al. Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546

100 100
D=2mm,H*=0.3 D=2mm,H*=0.3 I=600W/m2,H*=0.9 I=700W/m2,D=2mm
90 90
Low air speed I=500W/m2 Low air speed Low air speed
80 80
75%
69%
70 70
61% 63%

60 58% 60
Efficiency/%

Efficiency/%
53% 53%
52% 50%
50 46%
45%
50
42% 43% 43%
39% 39%
40 40
34% 34%
33%
30% 29%
30 29% 30
18%
20 15% 20

10 10

0 0
500 600 700 0.5 0.7 0.9 2 4 6 0.3 0.6 0.9
-1 *
I/w.m-2 VS/m.s D/mm H

Fig. 14. Heat collection and heat exchange efficiencies for different solar radiation intensities, fan suction speeds, infiltration hole diameters, and height ratios.

Table 3
Heat collection per unit heat collecting plate area at various operating conditions.
Types Operating conditions Values Heat collection per unit heat collecting plate area (W/m2) Fresh air volume (m3/h)

Solar radiation intensity I = 500 W/m2 Fan suction speed vs (m/s) 0.50–0.55 50.6–51.5 32–35
Height ratio H* = 0.3 0.70–0.75 31.3–36.5 45–48
Infiltration hole diameter D = 2 mm 0.90–0.95 77. 6–84.2 58–61

Solar radiation intensity I = 600 W/m2 Hole diameter D(mm) 2 86.5–89.3 32–35
Height ratio H* = 0.9 4 108.7–113.4
Fan suction speed vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s 6 134.2–135.1

Solar radiation intensity I = 700 W/m2 Height ratio H* 0.3 67.4–69.3 32–35
Infiltration hole diameter D = 2 mm 0.6 75.9–76.8
Fan suction speed vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s 0.9 102.1–103.9

Height ratio H*=0.3 Solar radiation intensity (W/m2) 500 50.6–51.5 32–35
Infiltration hole diameter D = 2 mm 600 79.6–85.6
Fan suction speed vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s 700 99.1–102.9

D = 6 mm, the heat collection efficiency is about 63% whereas at the
infiltration hole diameter D = 2 mm, the heat exchange efficiency is up
to about 53%. Overall, as the infiltration hole diameter increases from
2 mm to 6 mm, the heat exchange efficiency decreases by about 9.5%,
while the heat collection efficiency increases by 5–12%. This is mainly
due to the difference in air temperature and the amount of air at the
outlet.
Overall, the heat collection and the heat exchange efficiencies show
similar trends with the change in the height ratio. On the one hand, as
the height ratio increases, the heat collection efficiency increases sig-
nificantly, whereby as H* increases from 0.6 to 0.9, the heat collection
efficiency reaches 75%, an increase of 22%. On the other hand, the heat
exchange efficiency only reaches 39%, an increase of 5%. Although the
outlet air temperature difference and the heat collecting plate surface
temperature reach the maximum when the H* is 0.6, the ratio of the
outlet air temperature difference and the temperature difference of the
heat collecting plate surface and ambient air may not be the maximum.
Further, as H* increases, the amount of air increases even more at the
fan suction speed.
4.4. Ratio of heat transfer of each part
The heat collection per unit of heat collecting plate area at different
fan suction speeds, infiltration hole diameters, height ratios and solar
radiation intensities are shown in Table 3. It can be seen that the heat
collection per unit of heat collecting plate area increases steadily with
the infiltration hole diameter, the fan suction speed, solar radiation
intensity and the uniformity of hole distribution, respectively. Maximal
values can reach 134.2–135.1 W/m2 and can provide 58–61 m3/h of
fresh air.
The ratio of the heat transfer by each part of the experimental model
to the total heat collection by the heat collecting plate is shown in
Fig. 15. For the convective heat transfer of the air layer and the inner
surface of the heat collecting plate, it can be seen that the proportion of
heat transfer is largest at 38.5%. Thus, the preheating effect of the air is
significant. The radiant heat of the heat collecting plate to the wall and
the convective heat transfer of the air in the cavity to the wall are re-
latively small at only 2.0% and 2.9%, respectively. The proportion of
heat transfer in other parts is basically equal.
5. Conclusions
An experimental study on heating characteristics and parameter
optimization of transpired solar collectors was carried out. The heat
transfer characteristics of the heat collecting plate, air layer and air
outlet under different operating conditions were analyzed, and the heat

544
D. Wang et al.
Fig. 15. Ratio of heat transfer of each part of the experimental model to the total heat collection by the heat collecting plate. (D = 2 mm, I = 700 W/m2,
vs = 0.50–0.55 m/s, H* = 0.9).
collection efficiency, heat exchange efficiency indexes and optimized
parameters for the transpired solar collectors are obtained. The fol-
lowing conclusions are drawn:
(1) Solar radiation intensity significantly influences the performance of
transpired solar collectors. High solar radiation intensities enhances
the heat collection and heat exchange efficiencies and, conse-
quently, the preheated air.
(2) Fan suction speed can increase the overall heat transfer of the
system, increase the volume of air entering the room, and increase
the system's heat collection efficiency. However, the outlet air
temperature not effectively raised with the increase of fan suction
speed. Medium air speed (0.70–0.75 m/s) increases the heat col-
lection efficiency by about 18%, and the outlet air temperature
difference decreases by about 3.1 °C, whereas the fresh air volume
increases by about 12.8 m3/h. Therefore, it is necessary to consider
the indoor air demand and the preheating effect comprehensively.
(3) Infiltration holes of larger diameters can improve the heat collec-
tion efficiency effectively, but it is not good for the air preheating
effect. Increases in infiltration hole diametersfrom 2 mm to 4 mm,
and to 6 mm increases the heat collection efficiency by 12%, 5%
respectively. However, the difference in outlet air temperature de-
creases by 3–6 °C. Therefore, the size of the infiltration hole dia-
meter should be properly selected so an ideal preheating effect can
be achieved.
(4) The height of the infiltration hole affects the uniformity of the
airflow near the surface of the heat collecting plate, thus affecting
the heat exchange of the system. An increase in height ratio causes
the difference in outlet air temperature, heat collection efficiency,
and heat exchange efficiency to increase. As the height ratio in-
creases from 0.3 to 0.9, the temperature difference at the outlet
increases by 6.8 °C, the heat collection efficiency increases by 25%
and the heat exchange efficiency increases by 10%.
(5) The non-uniform distribution of infiltration holes at the top and
bottom has a significant influence on the preheating effect of fresh
air and the overall efficiency of the system. Additionally, the in-
fluence of the infiltration hole diameter and the suction speed are
less faint. An increase in the uniformity of infiltration holes at the
top and bottom increases the heat collection efficiency and heat
exchange efficiency increased about by 25% and 10%, respectively,
with a heat collection gain per unit heat collecting plate of about
34.7 W, and an improvement in outlet temperature about 15 °C.
In this paper, an optimization of parameters by single factor and the
545
Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546
regularization of thermal performance indexes are obtained by ex-
perimental methods. The results can be useful to guide the production
and processing of the heat collecting plate and the large-area applica-
tion in the actual production process. Further comprehensive optimi-
zation studies will be carried out under practical engineering condi-
tions.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Key Research and
Development Program [No. 2016YFC0700400]; the National Natural
Science Foundation of China [Nos. 51678468, 51878532]; and the
Shaanxi Youth Science and Technology Nova Project [No. 2017KJXX-
22].
References
[1] Kannan N, Vakeesan D. Solar energy for future world: a review. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2016;62:1092–105.
[2] Kabir E, Kumar P, Kumar S, Adelodun AA, Kim KH. Solar energy: potential and
future prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;82:894–900.
[3] Wieringen JV. Prospects for solar energy for providing low temperature heat. Appl
Energy 1980;7(1):67–81.
[4] Zhang T, Tan Y, Zhang X, Li Z. A glazed transpired solar wall system for improving
indoor environment of rural buildings in Northeast China. Build Environ
2016;98:158–79.
[5] Gao L, Bai H, Mao S. Potential application of glazed transpired collectors to space
heating in cold climates. Energy Convers Manage 2014;77(1):690–9.
[6] Zheng W, Li B, Zhang H, You S, Li Y, Ye T. Thermal characteristics of a glazed
transpired solar collector with perforating corrugated plate in cold regions. Energy
2016;109:781–90.
[7] Li X, Li C, Li B. Net heat gain assessment on a glazed transpired solar air collector
with slit-like perforations. Appl Therm Eng 2016;99:1–10.
[8] Li B, You S, Ye T, Zhang H, Li X, Li C. Mathematical modeling and experimental
verification of vacuum glazed transpired solar collector with slit-like perforations.
Renew Energy 2014;69(3):43–9.
[9] Hollands KGT. Principles of the transpired-plate air heating collector: the solar wall.
Renewable Energy Technologies in Cold Climates 98(Incorporating the 1998).
[10] Huebner GM, Hamilton I, Chalabi Z, Shipworth D, Oreszczyn T. Explaining do-
mestic energy consumption – The comparative contribution of building factors,
socio-demographics, behaviours and attitudes. Appl Energy 2015;159:589–600.
[11] Nie H, Kemp R. Index decomposition analysis of residential energy consumption in
China: 2002–2010. Appl Energy 2014;121(15):10–9.
[12] El-Sebaii AA, Aboul-Enein S, Ramadan MRI, Shalaby SM, Moharram BM. Thermal
performance investigation of double pass-finned plate solar air heater. Appl Energy
2011;88(5):1727–39.
[13] Chen C, Ling H, Zhai Z, Li Y, Yang F, Han F. Thermal performance of an active-
passive ventilation wall with phase change material in solar greenhouses. Appl
Energy 2018;216:602–12.
[14] Harris DJ, Helwig N. Solar chimney and building ventilation. Appl Energy
2007;84(2):135–46.
[15] Ambrosone G, Catalanotti S, Vicari L. Dynamic thermal behaviour of a wall. Appl
D. Wang et al.
Energy 1983;15(2):153–65.
[16] Conserval Engineering Inc. Solar-Wall SW150/SW250 Profile [EB/OL]. [2010-04-
26]. http://solarwall.com/en/products/solar-wall-air-heating/architects-and-
engineers.php.
[17] Conserval Engineering. SolarWall- Résidence étudiante “La Maisel” in; 2010.
[18] Motahar S. An analysis of unglazed transpired solar collectors based on exergetic
performance criteria. Int J Thermodyn 2010:13(4).
[19] Shukla A, Dan NN, Cho YJ, Stevenson V, Jones P. A state of art review on the
performance of transpired solar collector. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2012;16(6):3975–85.
[20] Collins MR, Abulkhair H. An evaluation of heat transfer and effectiveness for un-
glazed transpired solar air heaters. Sol Energy 2014;99(1):231–45.
[21] Njomo D. Unglazed selective absorber solar air collector: Heat exchange analysis.
Heat Mass Transf 2000;36(4):313–7.
[22] Golneshan AA, Nemati H. Exergy analysis of Unglazed Transpired Solar Collectors
(UTCs). Sol Energy 2014;107(9):272–7.
[23] Rad HM, Ameri M. Energy and exergy study of unglazed transpired collector-2stage.
Sol Energy 2016;132:570–86.
[24] Gholampour M, Ameri M. Design considerations of unglazed transpired collectors:
energetic and exergetic studies. J Sol Energy Eng 2014;136(3):031004.
[25] Wang X, Lei B, Bi H, Yu T. A simplified method for evaluating thermal performance
of unglazed transpired solar collectors under steady state. Appl Therm Eng
2017;117:185–92.
[26] Kutscher CF, Christensen CB, Barker GM. Unglazed transpired solar collectors: Heat
loss theory. J Sol Energy Eng 1991;115(3):182–8.
[27] Kutscher CF. An investigation of heat transfer for air flow through low porosity
perforated plates. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, Department of
Mechanical Engineering; 1992.
[28] Dymond, Kutscher. A computer design model for transpired solar collector systems.
In: Proceedings of the ASME/JSME/JSES International Solar Energy Conference.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers New York; 1995; 02: p. 1165–1174.
[29] Decker GWEV, Hollands KGT, Brunger AP. Heat-exchange relations for unglazed
transpired solar collectors with circular holes on a square or triangular pitch. Sol
Energy 2001;71(1):33–45.
546
Applied Energy 238 (2019) 534–546
[30] Gawlik KM, Christensen C, Kutscher CF. A numerical and experimental investiga-
tion of low-conductivity unglazed, transpired solar air heaters. J Sol Energy Eng
2002;127(1):47–55.
[31] Croitoru CV, Nastase I, Bode FI, Meslem A. Thermodynamic investigation on an
innovative unglazed transpired solar collector. Sol Energy 2016;131:21–9.
[32] Belusko M, Saman W, Bruno F. Performance of jet impingement in unglazed air
collectors. Sol Energy 2008;82(5):389–98.
[33] Chan HY, Zhu J, Riffat S. Heat transfer analysis of the transpired solar facade.
Energy Procedia 2013;42(42):123–32.
[34] Chan HY, Zhu J, Ruslan MH, Sopian K, Riffat S. Thermal analysis of flat and
transpired solar facades. Energy Procedia 2014;48:1345–54.
[35] Wan YX. Study on the wall heat transfer of solar wall system in winter. Paper of
Harbin Institute of Technology; 2012.
[36] Gunnewiek LH, Brundrett E, Hollands KGT. A CFD heat transfer analysis of the
transpired solar collector under no-wind conditions. Sol Energy
1996;58(58):227–37.
[37] Gunnewiek LH, Hollands KGT, Brundrett E. Effect of wind on flow distribution in
unglazed transpired-plate collectors. Sol Energy 2014;72(4):317–25.
[38] Arulanandam SJ, Hollands KGT, Brundrett E. A CFD heat transfer analysis of the
transpired solar collector under no-wind conditions. Sol Energy
1999;67(1–3):93–100.
[39] Zhang XM. Heat transfer. Beijing: China Building Industry Press; 2007.
[40] Leon MA, Kumar S. Mathematical modeling and thermal performance analysis of
unglazed transpired solar collectors. Sol Energy 2007;81(1):62–75.
[41] Kutscher CF. Heat exchanger effectiveness and pressure drop for air flow through
perforated plates, with and without crosswind. ASME J Heat Trans
1994;116:391–9.
[42] Wu X. Numerical research on the heat transfer process of the unglazed solar wall.
Paper of Harbin Institute of Technology; 2011.
[43] Gu J, Huang J, Wang XB. Analysis of porous solar wall thermal characteristics and
application. Renew Energy Resour 2012;30(8):20–3.
[44] Buker MS, Riffat SB, Kazmerski L. Building integrated solar thermal collectors – a
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;51(C):327–46.