University of Santo Tomas

Senior High School

SY 2017-2018
Research Learning Area

HANDOUT FOR RESEARCH: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

PREPARED BY: MS. LORRAINE JOYCE M. DEL ROSARIO

Note to Students:
This handout serves as a supplemental content coverage for the subject Research: Qualitative and
Quantitative. It should be used during guided classroom discussions and in preparation for your
tests and first quarter major examination. It should not be shared, reproduced, disseminated, or
sold to other students or the public unless instructed by your Research subject teacher.
Failure to follow this instruction would result to an investigation on the student’s abuse of the
teacher’s and references’ intellectual property.
The contents include exact and paraphrased discussions from specific pages of the references. The
information is assembled in the order that fits the LEARNING AREA BUDGET PLAN and
CURRICULUM GUIDE. Please be guided that some explanations from the teachers during class
lectures and discussions may vary, and are therefore not included in this handout.
Thank you for your cooperation.

- Ms. Lorraine Joyce M. Del Rosario, B. Sc.

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 Nature of Research and Scientific Inquiry
INTRODUCTION

Research in Daily Life

“Google-ing” is a common daily research we practice as a consumer of information. Sometimes, we research

about topics that range from the weather forecast to the products we plan to purchase.

What does Formal Research involve?

 Questions that are academic in nature and advance a scientific understanding of human society or human
behavior
 Systematic and evaluative screening and collection of information on a topic
 Tasks of systematic and careful data analysis and report-writing

What are the Benefits of Doing Empirical Research?

 Raise appropriate questions

 Assess existing information
 Set goals and make plans to meet the goals
 Collect, analyze, and interpret data
 Use data in a meaningful and appropriate way

What are Some Type of Research in the Academe?

 Empirical research project with secondary data:

 Synthesized literature reviews or review essays
 Theoretical essays
 Positivism
 Constructionism

What are the Procedures for Scientific Research?

The systematic research process begins with a carefully selected topic followed by a thorough and critical
review of existing knowledge on the topic, a process we call “literature reviews”. At the end of the literature
review, you will be able to find a “niche” or some themes and questions about your topic that you feel you
need to investigate further. These will become a set of specific hypotheses or research questions for your
study. Then, you may design your research, a process which includes careful planning of the sample size and
sampling methods, decisions on data collection methods (e.g. questionnaire surveys, experiments, in-depth
interviews, or participant observations), construction of measures for the concepts, and ethical concerns for
safeguarding your participants. You will then put all of these plans together into a research proposal. If your
research involves human subjects or animals, the committee in charge of reviewing research ethics should
approve it. The professor with whom you are working should approve this research proposal. You will then
collect data according to your research design. Data collection should be explained in an actual step-by-
step process of gathering data according to the type of research you will use.

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 Topic

Literature
Reviews

Research
Questions/
Hypotheses

Research
Design

Research
Ethics
Clearance

Data
Collection

Data
Analysis

Report/Pape
r Writing

Figure 1: Research Process

If it is qualitative research, then you have to focus on human instruments such as interviews, observation, and
journal writing. If it is quantitative research, then you have to collect statistically measureable data like survey
and test results. Upon collection, data analysis will be made for interpretation and verification of results with
an inter-rater or a statistician. The report process ends with report writing. This can be made as a paper
submitted to the research teacher, a study to be presented at a conference or seminar, or an article to be
published in an academic journal publication.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research pertains to any systematic investigation of any social or natural phenomena where results and
conclusions are aimed at contributing to generalizable knowledge. As a systematic investigation or inquiry,
research requires that data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted in order to understand, describe, predict, or
control a phenomenon or set of phenomena or to empower individuals in particular texts (Mendoza and
Melegrito, 2017, p8).

Research becomes scientific if it satisfies two requirements.

1. Research contributes to a body of science.

2. Research follows the scientific method (Bhattacherjee, 2012 cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p9).

SCIENTIFIC VERSUS NONSCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired using
“the scientific method”… (Ibid.) Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural science and social
science. Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects,
matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. In contrast, social science is the science of people or

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collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economics, and their individual or collective
behaviors.

Science can also be classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences or pure sciences are those that explain the
most basic objects and forces, relationships between them, and laws of physics, mathematics, and biology.

Scientific inquiry or research falls under empirical approaches or bases for understanding. Scientific inquiry
requires systematic observation as its foundational element and is undertaken by scientist, natural and social
scientists alike. Scientific explanations, therefore, proceed from systematic observations, and are different
from “common sense” explanations that are based on everyday observations.

Scientific research is important to the production and accumulation of scientific knowledge. The purpose of
scientific research “is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural or social phenomena, or
in other words, build scientific knowledge, “hence, theories and observations become vital elements of
scientific research (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 3).

Systematic observation is different from the observations that we do in everyday occurrences of our lives. For
instance, you may notice the heavy traffic along Espana in the morning and the length of time the red light is
on, but you are not aware of the system put in place by the government in order to ease this. This system
comes in the form of the traffic light along intersections and the traffic enforcers who help direct car flow.

If scientific inquiry is based on empirical sources of knowledge, nonscientific inquiry, in contrast, is based on
nonempirical sources of or bases for understanding. Yet, similar to empirical sources, some nonempirical
sources are more valid as a basis for understanding and decision-making than others (Black, 1999, 4).

Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of
interest that are acquired using the scientific method. Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors,
while theories are systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior.

Scientific knowledge, in both the natural and social sciences, is built on a standardized set of techniques called
the scientific method. Scientific method refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific
knowledge, such as how to make valid observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalize those
results. The scientific method allows researchers to independently and impartially test preexisting theories and
prior findings, and subject them to open debate, modifications, or enhancements (Ibid., 5). It includes the
procedures and techniques for making valid observations, interpreting results, and generalizing those results.
There are four criteria that the scientific method must fulfill:

Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if
not identical, results.

Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined with such precision that
others can use those definitions to measure those concepts and test that theory.

Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven. Theories that cannot be tested or
falsified are not scientific theories and such knowledge is not scientific knowledge.

Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must always accept the simplest
or logically most economical explanation. This concept is called parimony or “Occam’s razor.” Parsimony
prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or outlandish theories with endless number of concepts and

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relationships that may explain a little bit of everything but nothing on particular (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 5 as
cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p30).

EMPIRICAL VERSUS NONEMPIRICAL SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Empirical indicates that the information, knowledge, and understanding are gathered through experience and
direct data collection… Nonempirical sources of information include forms of introspection vicarious
experiences and other people’s analysis of events (Black 1999, 3-4 cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017,
p24).

COMPONENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. BEGIN WITH A SCIENTIFIC CURIOSITY: Research usually begins with an interest in or a puzzle or a
problem about any social, cultural, or natural phenomena. Hence, research is an interest-driven and a
problem-solving activity. Ask yourself: What it is that you want to discover about this phenomenon or set
of phenomena that you are interested in? Your answer to this question forms the basis for your research
question/s.
2. DRAW OUT THE RESEARCH QUESTION: Exploring and selecting research questions for further
investigation is the first step to doing research. Research questions are “specific questions about a behavior,
event, or phenomena of interest that you wish to seek answers for in your research” and “can delve into
issues of what, why, how, when, and so forth” (Ibid, 21). Your research questions are framed based on
the purpose of your research. Will you conduct an exploratory or descriptive or explanatory research?
3. CONDUCT A LITERATURE REVIEW: These questions would require you to conduct a literature
review. A literature review has a three-fold purpose, namely; “(1) to survey the current state of knowledge in
the area of inquiry, (2) to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and (3) to
identify gaps in knowledge in that research area (Ibid.).
4. PREPARE THE RESEARCH DESIGN/ METHODOLOGY: You begin to search answers for the
research question by planning your path in navigating the unknown. The research design is the entire
strategic plan of how go about finding the answers to your research question. According to Flick (2009,
128 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, pp14-15), research design is a plan for collecting and analyzing
evidence that will make it possible for the investigator to answer whatever questions he or she has posed… and
touches almost all aspects of the research, from the minute details of data collection to the selection of the
techniques of data analysis.”
Research methodology usually includes the rationale for the research design. The rationale provides the
justification for your research. It bridges your ontological and epistemological assumptions or positions
to your choice of data collection and analysis methods and procedures. Ontology pertains to the nature or
object of social reality while epistemology links to the process or act of knowing or acquiring (Hesse-Biber
and Leavy 2011 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, pp14-15).
5. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Once the research direction is clear, you can proceed with gathering,
analyzing, and presenting data. Your conclusions will be drawn from the patterns and themes in the data. The data
collected may be qualitative or quantitative, depending on the data collection and analysis methods used.
6. RESEARCH REPORT WRITING: The final stage of research is writing the research report wherein you identify
key understandings and formulate recommendations based on the conclusions of your research. The final stage also
enables you to share your research report with a wider public who may have the same research interests as yours or
who are interested to read about your research.

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Bhattacherjee (2012) describes in detail the final research report which can take the form of a research paper or
dissertation.
This (research) report should outline in detail all the choices made during the research process (e.g., theory used,
constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.) and why, as well as the outcomes of each phase of
the research process. The research process must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other researchers to
replicate your study, test the findings, or assess whether the inferences derived are scientifically acceptable
(Bhattacherjee, 2012, 23).

KINDS OF RESEARCH

Table 1: Overview of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Dichotomy

Comparison between Basic Research and Applied Research

Basic Research
Primary criterion When it discovers new phenomena or
of success new ideas of general interest.
Aim of research Theoretical, to improve general
understanding… But it is, of course,
not accidental that improved
understanding of the world increases
our ability to act rationally and
efficiently.
Shapes social and political values and
goals.
Social effects of Discovery of new phenomena and new
research ideas of general interest. By shaping
our understanding of the world the
discoveries of basic science become
preconditions for any precise
formulation of political and other
practical problems.
Sometimes basic research has a direct
and dramatic effect by discovering new
threatening problems and thus
immediately setting a new political
agenda.
Source: Roll-Hansen 2009, pp 4-6 in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, pp11-12.
Applied Research
When it contributes to the solution of
specific practical problems.
Funded by government agencies, private
firms, nongovernmental interest
organizations, etc. to further their
respective purposes in terms of social
and medical improvements, economic
profitability, ideological and political
acclaim, etc.
Provides means (instruments) for
solving tasks or problem set by politics.
Solutions to practical problems as
recognized by politicians, government
bureaucrats, commercial entrepreneurs,
etc. It is an instrument in the service of
its patron.
Helps interpret and refine the patron’s
problems to make them researchable,
and then investigates possible solutions.

Types of Research Categories

Table 2 below shows the differences among the types of research categories. Exploratory research “seeks to
investigate an underresearched aspect of social life”; descriptive research “seeks to richly describe an aspect of
social life” and explanatory research “seeks to explain an aspect of social life” (Hesse-Biber and Leavy 2011, 10
in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, pp12-13).

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 Table 2: Overview of Research Categories
Definition and Examples of Exploratory, Descriptive, and Explanatory Research
Exploratory Research
It is often conducted in new
areas of inquiry, where the goals
of the research are: (1) to scope
out the magnitude or extent of a
particular phenomenon,
problem, or behavior, (2) to
generate some initial ideas (or
“hunches”) about that
phenomenon, or (3) to test the
feasibility of undertaking a more
extensive study regarding that
phenomenon.
“If the citizens of a country are
generally dissatisfied with
government policies during an
economic recession, exploratory
research may be directed at
measuring the extent of citizens’
dissatisfaction, understanding
how such dissatisfaction is
manifested, such as the
frequency of public protests,
and the presumed causes of
such dissatisfaction, such as
ineffective government policies
in dealing with inflation, interest
rates unemployment, or higher
taxes.”
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 6 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p12
Descriptive Research Explanatory Research
It is directed at making careful It seeks explanations of
observations and detailed observed phenomena,
documentation of a problems, or behaviors. While
phenomenon of interest. These descriptive research examines
observations must be based on the what, where, and when of a
the scientific method (i.e., must phenomenon, explanatory
be replicable, precise, etc.) and research seeks answers to why
therefore, are more reliable than and how types of questions. It
casual observations by untrained attempts to “connect the dots”
people. in research, by identifying casual
factors and outcomes of the
target phenomenon.
“Tabulation of demographic “Understanding the reasons
statistics by… (census bureaus) behind adolescent crime or gang
or employment statistics by … violence, with the goal of
(labor bureaus), who use the prescribing strategies to
same or similar instruments for overcome such societal
estimating employment by ailments.”
sector or population growth by
ethnicity over multiple
employment surveys or
censuses.”
“Chronicling ethnographic
reports of gang activities among
adolescent youth in urban
populations” “the persistence or
evolution of religious, cultural,
or ethnic practices in select
communities,” and “the role of
technologies such as Twitter
and instant messaging in the
spread of democracy
movements in Middle Eastern
countries.”
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 MISSION-VISION STATEMENT OF AN EFFECTIVE AND ETHICAL THOMASIAN
RESEARCHER

Written by Alcantara, et al (2017) revised by Mrs. Kristina Dichoso-Valerio

Mission:

As product of the University’s virtues and excellence, the Thomasian researcher will dedicate oneself to
innovation and expansion of the boundaries of knowledge while keeping a systematic pursuit of accurate
information, and disseminate nothing but the truth in the form of excellent research.

Vision:

The prudent, ethical and effective Thomasian researcher is enlightened by the virtues of St. Thomas Aquinas
and Jesus Christ when using critical and creative thinking, problem solving strategies, communication skills,
and clear reasoning in the research process.

BRINT’S (2001) QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

1. Virtuosos of the discovery, collection, and interrogation of data: Passionate commitment to finding
out answers and willing to look for answers in places that most people would not think to look.
Example: She is alive with a full range of half and fully-baked ideas. She buttonholes anyone within
arm’s reach to talk about her latest thinking, all the while imploring her companion to tell her verything
she knows about the topic and wondering aloud whether an idea that has just occurred to her sounds
promising. She reaches out with what seems like eight arms to scoop up evidence and reactions to her
ideas. Yet, she is also calm and careful at the workbench. She designs her studies with the care of a
master architect, and she inspects every facet of the resulting data with the practiced and skeptical eye of
a diamond cutter.

2. Persistent disposition and self-discipline: (1) an obsessive concern with finding out the answer to a
question; (2) a willingness to exercise unusual levels of self-discipline in the pursuit of those answers; (3)
a dissatisfaction with incomplete or superficial work—including a propensity to do much more than is
required in finding, analyzing, and interrogating evidence; and (4) a capacity to play with different ways
of looking at a problem.

3. Ingenuity in craft practices: Once students are started on the research process, the will and wile to see
their research to a happy conclusion remain all important qualities. These dispositional qualities can be
greatly aided by a few tricks of the research trade. Tricks of the trade in maximizing involvement and
efficiency with potential resources. (1) cultivating files; (2) scanning the horizon for data resources; and
(3) looking for alternative paths when initial paths are blocked.

4. Associations or building networks: Other people’s research is important in yours. Understanding

research as a social activity means cultivating a disposition to interact in the right spirit and developing
practical habits of association that can improve one’s work. Researchers also have to think strategically
about how to maximize social input that will contribute to their research. Here are three ideas: (1)
stretch your networks, (2) build partnerships with people whose strengths complement your own, and
(3) present work widely.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH ETHICS

As a researcher, you are confronted with the demands of engaging with the ethical dimension of your
research. These demands or challenges are best reflected by the following questions.

1. What moral principles guide your research?

2. How do ethical issues influence your selection of a research problem?
3. How do ethical issues affect how you conduct your research—the design of your study, your sampling
procedure, and so on?
4. What responsibility do you have toward your research subjects? For example, do you have their informed
consent to participate in your project?
5. What ethical issues/ dilemmas might come into play in deciding what research findings you publish?
6. Will your research directly benefit those who participated in the study?
(Hesse-Biber and Leavy, 2011, 59 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p43-44).

Most ethical guidelines that are widely accepted within the scientific community include the requirements
for voluntary participation and harmlessness, anonymity and confidentiality, disclosure, and informed
consent. These ethical norms however may vary from one society to another (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 137-9 as
cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p45).
Voluntary participation and harmlessness covers three aspects.

1. Subjects or respondents in a research project must be aware that their participation in the study is
voluntary.
2. They are free to withdraw their participation from the study at any time and without any unfavorable
repercussions.
3. They are not harmed as a result of their participation or nonparticipation in the research project (Ibid.,
137).

Anonymity and confidentiality seek to project subjects’ identity, and consequently their interests and future well-
being. When researchers guarantee anonymity, there is no way that the researcher or readers of the final
research report can associate a given response to a specific respondent.

Disclosure is sometimes tricky. The questions of how much to disclose and why prove to be difficult as too
much disclosure or too less disclosure can impact on the research.

Informed consent addresses four areas of concern that relate to research subjects’ participation or involvement in
a research. The four areas are:

1. Giving information about the research, which is relevant to subjects’ decision about whether to
participate.
2. Making sure that the subjects understand that information (e.g., by providing information sheets written
in subjects’ language),
3. Ensuring that participation is voluntary (e.g., by requiring written consent), and
4. Where subjects are not competent to agree (e.g., children and even adolescents), obtaining consent by
proxy (e.g., from their parents) (Kent 1996, 19-20 in Silverman 2006, 324).

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 Researchers also have ethical considerations to report accurately and completely how data is analyzed and
reported in their study. According to Bhattacherjee (2012, 139 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p48), this
includes reporting unexpected or negative findings even if they cast some doubt on the research design or the
findings. It is unethical to present findings (discovered after a study is completed) as the product of deliberate
design. It is also unethical to “carve” their data into different segments to prove or disprove their hypothesis
of interest, or to generate multiple papers claiming different data sets. Misrepresenting questionable claims as
valid based on partial, incomplete, or improper data analysis is also dishonest (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 139 as
cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p48).

Burnham, Gilland, Grant, and Leyton-Henry (20104) Five Basic Ethical Principles:

 Beneficence or the avoidance of harm- researchers ought to seek to do good rather than harm
 Veracity or the avoidance of deception- researchers ought to tell the truth and keep promises
 Privacy or autonomy- individuals have a right to limit access to information about themselves
 Confidentiality- closely related to the notion of privacy, the right to control the use of information about
themselves
 Consent- the notion of informed consent is often recommended as an operation principle for the conduct
of research.

Table 3: Ethical Principles in Research

Ethical Principles in Research: Scope and Implications

Respect for persons incorporates at least two fundamental ethical considerations, namely,
a. Respect for autonomy, which requires that those who are capable of deliberation about their personal
choices should be treated with respect for their capacity for self-determination; and
b. Protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy, which requires that those who are
dependent or vulnerable be afforded security against hair or abuse
Beneficence refers to the ethical obligation to maximize benefit and to minimize harm. This principle
gives rise to norms requiring that the risks of research be reasonable in the light of the expected benefits,
that the research design be sound, and that the investigators be competent both to conduct the research
and to safeguard the welfare or the research subjects.
Justice refers to the ethical obligation to treat each person in accordance with what is morally right and
proper, to give each person what is due to him or her. In the ethics of research involving human subjects,
the principle refers primarily to distribute justice, which requires the equitable distribution of both the
burdens and the benefits of participation in research.
Vulnerability refers to a substantial incapacity to protect one’s own interests owing to such impediments
as lack of capability to give informed consent, lack of alternative means of obtaining medical care or other
expensive necessities, or being a junior or subordinate member of a hierarchical group. Accordingly,
special provision must be made for the protection of the rights and welfare of vulnerable persons.
Adapted from the Council of International Organizations of Medical Sciences and the World Health Organization, 2002, pp
17-18 in Guest, et al., 2013, p. 318

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 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Dichotomy
Table 4: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Paradigms

Reference: Mendoza, D. & Melegrito, M.L. (2017). Applied Research: An Introduction to Qualitative Methods and
Report Writing. Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Paradigm Assumptions

Qualitative Assumption/ Question Quantitative
Reality is subjective and multiple as Ontological/ Reality is “objective”, “out there”, and
seen by participants in a study. It is What is the nature of singular, apart from the researcher,
“constructed by the individuals reality? and can be measured objectively by
involved in the research situation.” using a questionnaire or an
Researcher must “report faithfully instrument.
these realities and to rely on voices
and interpretations of informants.”
Researcher interacts with that being Epistemological/ Researcher is independent from that
researched. Interaction may be in the What is the relationshipbeing researched. In surveys and
form of living with or observing of the researcher to experiments, for instance,
informants over a period of time, or that researched? “researchers attempt to control for
actual collaboration. bias, select a systematic sample, and
be “objective” in assessing a situation.
Value-laden and biased wherein the Axiological/ Value-free and unbiased,
researcher admits the value-laden What is the role of “accomplished through entirely
nature of the study and actively values? omitting statements about values from
reports his or her values and biases, as a written report, using impersonal
well as the value nature of language, and reporting the “facts”—
information gathered from the field. arguing closely from the evidence
gathered in the study.”
-Informal Rhetorical / -Formal
-Evolving decisions What is the language of -Based on set definitions
-Personal voice research? -Impersonal voice
-Accepted qualitative words— -Use of accepted quantitative words—
“understanding, discover, and “relationship, comparison, and within-
meaning” group”
-Inductive process Methodological / -Deductive Process
-Mutual simultaneous shaping of What is the process of -Cause and effect
factors research? -Static design-categories isolated
-Emerging design-categories before study
identified during the research process -Generalizations leading to prediction,
-Context-bound explanation, and understanding
-Patterns, theories developed for -Accurate and reliable through validity
understanding and reliability
-Accurate and reliable through
verification
Adopted from Cresswell J (1994 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p35-36).

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 Table 5: Questions to ask when choosing the type of research to be used

Deciding between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Quantitative Qualitative
1. What exactly am I trying to find out? Different questions require different methods to answer them.
2. What kinds of focus on my topic do I want to achieve? Do I want to study this phenomenon or situation
in detail? Or am I mainly interested in making standardized and systematic comparisons and in accounting
for variance?
3. How have other researchers dealt with this topic? To what extent do I wish to align my project with this
literature?
4. What practical considerations should sway my choice? For instance, how long might my study take and do
I have the resources to study it this way? Can I get access to the single case I want to study in depth? Are
quantitative samples and data readily available?
5. Will we learn more about this topic using quantitative or qualitative methods? What will be the knowledge
payoff of each method?
6. What seems to work best for me? Am I committed to a particular research model which implies a
particular methodology? Do I have a gut feeling about what a good piece of research looks like?

Focus on Qualitative Research

DEFINTION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

List of Definitions collected by Namey and Mitchell (2013, 2-3 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p70)

Qualitative research

1. Is the interest in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of
their world and the experiences they have in the world (Merriam, 2009, 13).
2. Is using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive
account of a setting or practice (Parkinson & Drislane, 2011).
3. Involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study
things, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005, 3).
4. Involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values (Guest, Namey, &Mitchell, 2013,
3).
5. It follows the logic of applied research. Similar to applied research, qualitative research’s “primary focus is
on collecting and generating data to further our understanding of real-world problems” and to contribute
to the solution of that problem (Ibid, 2)

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (MERRIAM, 1988, 19-20 IN CRESSWELL

1994, 145)

1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process rather than outcomes or products.

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2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning—how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and
their structures of the world.
3. The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated
through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or
institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting.
5. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and
understanding gained through words or pictures.
6. The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts,
hypotheses, and theories from details.

FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (FLICK, 2009 as cited in Mendoza and Melegrito,

2017, p. 73-74)

 Appropriate methods of research

The goal of qualitative research is less to test what is already known, but to discover and develop the new
and to develop empirically grounded theories…. Qualitative research’s central criteria depend on whether
findings are grounded in empirical material or whether the methods are appropriately selected and
applied, as well as the relevance of findings and the reflexivity of proceedings.

 Perspectives of the participants and their diversity

Qualitative researchers study participants’ knowledge and practices…. It takes into account that
viewpoints and practices in the field are different because of the different subjective perspectives and
social backgrounds related to them.

 Reflexivity of the Researcher and the Research

Qualitative methods take the researcher’s communication with the field and its members as an explicit
part of knowledge instead of deeming it an intervening variable. The subjectivity of the researcher and of
those being studied becomes part of the research process. Researcher’s reflections on their actions and
observations in the field, their impressions, irritations, feelings, and so on, become data in their own
right, forming part of the interpretation, and are documented in research diaries or context protocols.

 Variety of approaches and methods

Qualitative research is not based on a unified theoretical and methodological concept…. Subjective
viewpoints are a first starting point. A second string of research studies the making and course of
interactions, while a third seeks to reconstruct the structure of the social field and the latent meaning of
practices (Flick, 2009, 14-17 in Mendoza and Melegrito, 2017, p. 73-74).

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

 Phenomenology: Both an approach to, and a method of, understanding the behavioral, emotive, and social
meanings of lived experiences of individuals. It emphasizes on individual experiences, beliefs, and
perceptions. It also captures the lived experience of individuals (Guest, Namey & Mithcell, 2013, 11).
According to Nagy, Biber, and Leavy (2011), it is a study wherein human experiences are examined

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 through the detailed descriptions of the people being studied—a study of essences. As a research
method, it seeks to unearth the significance of ordinary lives.

 Ethnography: Focuses on studying shared practices and belief systems (i.e., culture) of a group of people in
their natural context over a prolonged period of time. Traditionally, ethnographic research has involved a
researcher’s total and prolonged immersion within a study community, often for a year or longer. With
the luxury of time, proximity to the field site, and the ability to coordinate data collection in an integrated
and inductive manner, research can be more fluid.

 Inductive Thematic Analysis: Primarily concerns with presenting the stories and experiences voiced by study
participants as accurately and comprehensively as possible. According to Guest, Namey and Mitchell
(2013, 13), “inductive thematic analysis can be characterized as… a rigorous, yet inductive, set of
procedures designed to identify and examine themes from textual data in a way that is transparent and
credible. (The) method… is primarily concerned with presenting the stories and experiences voiced by
study participants as accurately and comprehensively as possible”. Its results in recommendations for
program and policy.

 Grounded Theory: Refers to a set of inductive data collection and analytic methods with the purpose of
constructing theories grounded in the data themselves. It is a set of methods that consist of systematic,
yet flexible guidelines for collecting and analyzing qualitative data to construct theories ‘grounded’ in the
data themselves (Charmaz, 2006, 2 in Guest, Namey, & Mitchell, 2013, 13). According to Guest, Namey,
and Mitchell (2013, 13), the process entails systematically reviewing units of text (often line-by-line, but
units can be words, paragraphs, or larger units of text) as they are collected, creating emergent codes of
those units, and writing memos that expand on created codes and the relationships between codes. This
process is repeated until data collection is completed.
 Case Study: Allows the in-depth investigation of complex issues within a specific context, based on a small
geographical area or a very limited number of individuals as the subjects of study. It permits a researcher
to closely assess the data within a specific context. It selects a small geographical area or a very limited
number of individuals as the subjects of study. In their true essence, case studies explore and investigate
contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions, and their relationships. It is “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not
clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” (Yin, 1984, 23 cited in Zainal,
2007,1).

 Discourse and Conversation Analysis: Studies naturally occurring discourse and extract shared meanings from
such discourse. It is a type of research that “emphasizes the version of the world, of society, events, and
inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse” (Potter, 1997, 146 cited in Bryman, 2008, 500).
Hence, the “language” is not just a way to appreciate the world but illustrated as making the social world.

 Narrative Analysis: Focuses on the narratives (storytelling) used as source of data. It is an approach to the
collection and examination of data that is sensitive to the sense of historical arrangement that people as
tellers of stories about their lives or events around them, discover in their lives and surrounding
occurrences and add into their accounts. The emphasis of attention moves from “What actually

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 happened?” to “How do people make sense of what happened?” It is the gathering of important
historical details of what people perceive about their lives in terms of continuity and process. Hwever,
Bryman (2008) claims that it relates not just life span but accounts relating to episodes and to the
interconnections between them”.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Naturalistic and contextualized Subjective and varied

Researcher determines the standard Tedious and meticulous analysis

Allows in-depth investigation of complex issues Restricts representation of the sample into a small
group

IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (My Reflections)

Qualitative research centers on the meanings constructed by individuals as a collective and as a person. This
includes studies made on religion and faith, society and culture, politics and governance. These studies have
given much light on how we live or ought to live. For instance, studies in Theology have helped us put
intellectual reason behind our Catholic faith. With this claim, we recognize the same depth has been given to
other religions through philosophy. Without these studies, we will be confined to blind faith, which would
make us follow a belief without fully understanding reasons behind practices. This kind of uneducated and
unreasoned faith is dangerous since we can be manipulated easily into living a life we thought of as good, but
in fact is actually morally wrong or misaligned to our faith. This happens to cults or movements whose
leaders manipulate the followers towards their own personal selfish goals. It is occurring in today’s abuse of
the Muslim faith on the jihad where some Muslims disagree with how the ideology behind the jihad is
misinterpreted through kidnap for ransom and coercion of other Muslims through blackmail or murder.
Because of this abuse of faith, the world’s perspective of Islam has been wrongfully distorted from a life of
benevolence into malicious misconduct.

Focus on Quantitative Research

DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
According to Cresswell (1994, 2), quantitative research is “an inquiry into a social or human
problem based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed
with statistical procedures in order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory
hold true”.
According to Babbie (2010), it is “either descriptive wherein subjects are measured once, or
experimental, wherein subjects are measured before and after”. Data is “gathered using structured
instruments. The results are based on large sample sizes that are representative of the population
and can be replicated”. It has “clearly defined research questions to which objective answers are

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sought”. It aims “to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to
explain what is observed”

BRYMAN’S (2008) PREOCCUPATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Measurement is an important factor in quantitative research, which is why reliability and
validity are embedded in its methodology. Reliability speaks of consistency of a measure of a
concept. According to Bryman (2008, 149-150 cited in Melegrito & Mendoza, 2016),
measurement is reliable if it contains the following factors:
a. Stability
b. Internal reliability
c. Inter-observer consistency

2. Validity refers to the issue of whether an indicator that is developed to measure a concept really
gauges that concept. Bryman (2008, 152 cited in Melegrito & Mendoza, 2016) identified ways to
establish validity and these include: face validity, concurrent validity, predictive validity, construct
validity, and convergent validity.
a. Face validity
b. Concurrent validity
c. Predictive validity
d. Construct validity
e. Convergent validity

3. Causality pertains to the proof of causes behind the phenomenon. This is significant since most
quantitative research is concerned about explanation.

4. Generalization refers to the quantitative research findings or results that can be generalized
beyond the margins of a certain context in which the research is undertaken. This area of
concern reveals itself in social survey research, in the attention that is often given to the question
of how one can create a representative sample.

5. Replication is the extent of the research design to be repeated in another context with different
samples or population.

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TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Table 6: Features of Different Types of Quantitative Research
Reference: Baltimore City Public Schools in Melegrito and Mendoza (2016, p 25-26)

The Defining Features of the Different Types of Quantitative Research

Types of Quantitative Defining Features Examples
Research
Descriptive Research • Answers who, what, when, A description of how senior
where, and how high school students celebrate
• To describe what exists and to their birthdays; how parents
gather information about the feel about the K to 12
current status of a certain Curriculum
phenomenon.

Correlational Research • Answers who, what, when, The relationship between

where, and how successful career and
• To define the degree of educational attainment
relationship between two or
more variables using statistical
data.

Survey Research • To gather evidence on people’s Voter preference; Consumer

knowledge, opinions, attitudes, coping behavior; Survey on
and values on various issues sexual violence against women
and concerns. and girls in Quezon City

Causal-comparative/ Quasi-
• To find out the causes of The effect of studying in
experimental Research existing phenomena; To Catholic schools on the moral
ascertain cause-and-effect values systems of those who
relationships among variables graduate from these schools;
which are not manipulated exercising regularly to body
within control and non-control fitness; gender on college
groups. course choices

Experimental Research • True experimentation or The effect of counseling and

laboratory study that applies medical treatment on
the scientific method to prove alcoholism
“the cause-and-effect
relationship among a group of
variables that make up a study”

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 • To identify and impose control
over all other variables except
one; to determine the effects of
manipulated independent
variables on dependent
variables

EXAMPLES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH FOR ABM STRAND

•DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: Research practice in the Accounting profession

•CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: The relationship between successful CPA licensure
examination results and review scores
•SURVEY RESEARCH: applicant skills preferred for management position
•CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE: The effect of authoritative leadership on employee performance
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: The effect of using Singapore’s income tax on Philippine
GNP

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Table 7: Pros and Cons in using quantitative research
STRENGTHS
1. It is useful in generating large amounts of data and 1.
in identifying the patterns of behavior of various
sectors in different settings. Analysis of quantitative
data will determine dissimilarities and similarities
among the identified patterns, which will provide
new patterns. Discovering patterns of behavior 2.
gives us an idea of what people think, want, and
value. These are rich sources of data for future-
related interventions.
2. Quantitative analysis permits the researcher to
organize data for clear data dissemination. Results
3.
are analyzed in percentages and statistics and are
presented in graphs and charts.
4.
3. It is or its:
(a) more reliable and objective,
(b) uses statistics to generalize a finding,
(c) possible to control the effects of extraneous 5.
WEAKNESSES
Many kinds of information are difficult to obtain
through structured data collection instruments,
particularly information on sensitive topics such as
domestic violence or income.
Many groups such as sex workers, drug users, illegal
immigrants, illegal settlers, and ethnic minorities are
always difficult to reach, but the problems are often
greater for quantitative research data collection
method.
Self-reported information obtained from
questionnaires may be inaccurate or incomplete.
There is often no information on contextual factors
to help interpret behavior between households with
similar economic and demographic characteristics.
The administration of a structures questionnaire

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 variables that might result in misleading
interpretations of causality
(d) standardized approaches permit replication
(e) clear documentation can be provided regarding the 6.
content and application of the survey instruments
(f) estimates of the costs and benefits of the
interventions can be obtained
(g) estimates of the magnitude and distribution of 7.
impacts can be obtained
(h) reduces and restructures a complex problem to a
limited number of variables,
(i) looks at relationships between variables and can 8.
establish cause and effect in highly controlled
circumstances,
(j) tests theories and hypotheses, 9.
(k) the subjectivity of the researcher is recognized less
(l) assumes that a sample is representative of the
population, and 10.
(m) less detailed than qualitative research.
11.
creates an unnatural situation that may alienate
respondents.
Studies are expensive and time-consuming, and even
preliminary results are usually not available for a long
period of time.
Research methods are inflexible because the
instruments cannot be modified once the study
begins.
Reduction of data to numbers results in lost
information.
The correlations produced may mask or ignore
underlying causes or realities.
Untested variables may account for program impacts.
Errors in the hypothesis tested may yield
misimpressions of program quality or influential
actors.

12. Errors in the selection of procedures for determining

statistical significance can result in enormous findings
regarding impact.

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE

Quantitative research studies are mostly found in the business section of a broadsheet where stocks and
mergers are reported. It is also evident in financial reports, politics and government ratings, election status,
engineering and architectural feats, even urban planning which require individual, personal, or management
decision-making. For instance, in education, this kind of research is used to identify the progress or
stagnation of the educational policy put in place through the analysis of students’ grades and academic
performance.

References:

Brint, S. (2001). Will and wile: Way of the researcher. Teaching Sociology, 29 (4), 390-402.

Mendoza, D. & Melegrito, M.L. (2017). Applied Research: An Introduction to Qualitative Methods and Report Writing.
Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House.

Melegrito, M.L. Mendoza, D. (2017). Applied Research: An Introduction to Quantitative Methods and Report Writing.
Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House.

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