MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Music in the Medieval Universities

Author(s): Nan Cooke Carpenter
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Autumn, 1955), pp. 136-144
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for Music
Education
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worka Musss in MedwDa
and Renvisssnce UnF

Musicin the MedievalUniversities

NAN COOKECARPENTER

WHEN THE MEDIEVALuniversities the higher faculties law, medicinel

assumedthe leadership in in- theology. Thus everyonewho went to
tellectuallife and the propagation of the universities for higher learning
highe learning,thew academiccor- studiedthe liberalarts, md everyone
porationscarriedon in the facultyof who got beyond the triviumstudied
arts or philosophytraditionsof higher musicalongwith the othersubjsts of
. . .

studies well establishedby cathedral t.ze quaurlvlum.

and monasticschoolsfrom whichthe Musicas a regularsubiectfor study
universitiesin many instancesdevel- among the liberal arts was supple-
oped the sevenliberalarts and Aris- mented by musicalactivitiesof many
totelian philosophy.Althoughit was diSerent kinds under universitya
the lowest faculty in the medieval pices; for since the medievalunives-
studiumgenerale}the faculty of arts ties srere in eict scholasticguilds
was by far the most important. All very much underthe rule of Mother
students began their university ca- Church}relipous observancesformed
reersin the artsfacity} andmanydid a neYer-ending part of universitylife.
not ped beyondthis faculty.Sev- Amongthew was the openingof each
eral years Mudyin the arts faculty} academicyear mth a Nlass sung in
moreover,and the successfulcomple- the cathedralor universityOurch;and
tion of variouspublic esercises (de- statutesdrawnup underpapalauthor-
termination)leading to the bacca- ity generallyrequiredthe celebration
laureatein arts (with perhaps?addi- of otherMa at specifictimes dur
tional years of study leadingto the ing the year with universityperson-
magisteriumin artibus) were every- nel in attendance.The four nations
whereprerequisite to study in any of formingthe universitasat Paris (2ncl
othersmodeledupon this archetpe)
*The followingdiscussionis the concludingand relied upon music for effective celebra-
summarizingsection of a chapter, 4'Musicin the tion of the feastdays of their patron
Medieval Universities(to 1450)S"in a still larger
saints and for other ceremonies in-
versi"s, now in preparation.This chapter is pre- digenous to the various nations. When
cededby a briefaccountof musicalstudiesamong
the Greelrs,in the Romanrhetoricalschools,and in musical talent Ns lacldng among the
the monasticand cathedralschoolsof the Middle members of the English-GermanNa-
Ages; and it is followedby a detailedinvestigation tion at the Sorbonne,for instance this
of musical studies in some twenty universities
flourishingduringthe Renaissance(1450-16w). A nation imported aliena3 cantores so
final chapterseeks to evaluate the effeets of ulli- thal; their celebrations mi«t pnceed
venity studiesupon e developmentof the art of
music. For detailedaccountsof the cultivationof in a di;fied manner wit} the usual
musicat MedievalPans and Oxford,and at Oxford musical accoutrements; and tbis na-
during the Renaissance,see the author's "The
Study of Musicat the UIiiversityof Odord in the tion also supported an organist at its
MiddleAges,"J2ME, I (Spting1953),11-20;"The own expense. Other academic cere-
Rudy of Music at the Umsersity of Paris in the monies beloved of de medieval mall
MiddleAges,^'JRMEyII (FaJR 1954), 119-133;and
"The Study of Music at the Uxiiversityof Odord of learning depended havily upon
in the Renaissance(f450-1600)>}Mvsscd Quart&rly, music not only for religious overtons
XLI (April195$)}191-214.

136

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 MUSIC IN
but for aural pageantry Thus city
trumpetersheraldedthe processionof
sxcessful candidatesand doctors to
the cathedralfor the elaboratedoc-
toral act, accompanyingthem after-
wards to the banquetwhich followed
this importantdegreeceremony;and
singingby the cathedralchoir was a
part of the ceremonyof investiture.
More informal musical pastimesj-
dancing, singing, playing on instru-
ments were also the inevitablecon-
comitants of medieval student life.
Nese musicalpursuitswerecultivated
so strenuously,indeed?that universities
and collegiatefoundationsoften drew
up rulesprohibitingall such practices
as nuisancesdistractingfromstudy.
As aids in understanding the specifi-
cally academicaspectsof musics cul-
tivation in the universities,definite
reguIations on the statute books,
wheresuch regulationsexist, are most
illuminating;these will generallybe
found in the universitiesorganized
spontaneously and modeleduponsome
archetype.It is somewhatmore d;ffi-
cult to judge the positionof musicin
those universitieswhichevolvedgrad-
ually from schools long in existence
tth their traditionsof hikherstudies
so well establishedthat a set curricu-
lum neednot be wntten down,at least
not for yearsand sometimeseven cen-
turies after the institutionXsconsecra-
tion, underpapal authorityand with
papalprivileges,as a studiumgenerale.
Generallyavailable?fortunately,are
documentsof variousotherkindswhich
deSne the place of music in universi-
ties having no course of studies set
down in the statutes. Documentsof
varioussorts indicatethat instruction
in music in the medievaluniversities
vaned somewhat according to the
meds, interests,and traditionsof the
particularcountryand studium.
In the Italian universitiesmusical
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MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES 137
studiesmust be evaluatedfrom other
sources than university statutes, for
with their long years of evolutionbe
hind them, the studiaat neither Bo-
logna nor Paduarecognizedany need
for listing individualsubjects to be
studied.There is evidencein abund-
ance, however,for a great flounshing
of the liberalartsat both Bolopa and
Padua,and we know that many Ital-
ians as well as Ultramontanes studied
the arts in first one universityand
then the other. In both centers of
learningmathematicalstudies appear
to have been stronglyemphasizedin
medievaltimes,taughtoftenby profes-
sors distinguishedfor their musical
knowledge.The Busica of Boethius
and the condensationof this workby
Johannesde Muriswereboth studied
at Padua in the fourteenthcentury.
Vittorinoda Feltre,responsible through
his pupils for the transmissionof hu-
manisticlearningthroughoutmuch of
Italy, includedBoethius'Musicawith
his teaching of mathematicsduring
his years at Padua,as we know from
the wordsof his adminingpupil from
the north, Johannes Gallicus; and
Prosdocimusde Beldemandis,public
professorin the Universityof Padua
lectureduponand wroteaboutmusica
speculattvaalong with mathematics
and astronomy.Thereare many indi-
cations, too, that musical problems
were investigatedin medicalcoursesa
and occasionallywe find men teaching
musicalong with medicine.Indeed,it
is significantof the strongconnection
of these two fieldsthat the firsttrans-
lation of an importantmusicalsource,
the Problemataattributedto AristotleX
was made by a Paduan philosopher
andastronomerfamousfor his medical
writings,Pietrod'Abano,who also left
a personalcommentaryon this psendo-
Aristotelianwork.
But musicas a mathematical science
 JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION
138
amongthe liberalarts was obviously The Sorbonne,
only one part of the dichotomyof little of indeed, owed not a
its glory duringthe Middle
mazicalstudies:withinthe framework Ages to
of universitystudies music was also who distinguishedmathematicians
illuminedits lectureroomssnth
cultivatedas a livingart. Prosdocimus musical
de Beldemandisdistinguishedmathe- have come dialectics,accountsof which
down to us in students'
matician and astronomer,went far notebooksand
other sources. Oser-
beyond musica speculativa into the shadowingall
realmof artisticproblemsof musice others here is Johannes
de Muris whose mathematicalinter-
practica. Suchtheoristsas Marchettus
ests not only madehim an experton
of Paduaand Jacopoof Bolognawere musica
speculativa but led himto wnte
alsohighrankingcomposers;andsuch a summary
of Boethius'lengthytreat-
famous composersas Giovanni da ise which
supersededBoethiusin the
Ciconiawerehighly skilledin mathe- originalas the
matics and quite competentto pro- many of the textbookto be used in
ducea bulkyworkon musicalmathe- Throughthe medieval universities.
matics. writingsand teachingof
Murisalone, the influenceof musical
Sincethe studiumat ParisdeveloR studiesat the
ed chieflyfrom the CathedralSchool the Universityof Paris in
fourteenthand fifteenthcenturies
of Notre Dame and since in medieval reachedfrom
Poland to Bohemiato
times it remainedclosely integrated Italy,not only
withthis cathedral,the centerof pro- studiesbut dominatingunisrersity
also penetratinginto tu-
gressive musicalculturefor all Europe, torialhumanistic
oneis not surprisedto findindications inItaly. schools, especiall
of strong emphasis upon musical Alongwith massica tAleoretica allied
studiesat Paris.Requirements by uni- withmathematics,musicalstudiesat
versitystatute, it is true, are vague, Pariscompnsedthe
notonly for musicbut for other dis- vationof enthusiasticculti-
musicalartistry,underthe
ciplinesas well; undoubtedlysuch leadership of distinguishedcompos-
regulations were unneceFaryin the ersand musicianswho
earlyyears of the university,backed university lecturedin the
and also underthe inspira-
byits owntraditionsof study.By the tionof such active musicalgroupsa!
fourteenthcentury howeverXthere theNotre Dame
choirand the kings
weremathematicalrequirementsfor personal chapel.A closeconnectionbe-
bothbachelorsandmasters.Evenmth- tween both thesegroupsand the uni-
outotherevidence,one wouldassume versity wasinevitable,for musicaloffi-
that
theseincludedmusic;allda glance cials in the cathedralwereat the same
atstatutes of universitiespatterned time
university officials, and man)
upon the Sorbonnerevealsthe truth singers in the royal choir or masters
ofthis assllmption.Both the Prague ofthe children
of the kingSsprivate
andViennesestatutes, for instance, chapel wereenrolledin the university
settingup a well definedcourse of eitheras studentsor teachers.Notre
studies
based upon the Paris curricu- Dame's choir school actually servecl
lum,specifiedmusicalongwith other as
a preparatoryschool for the uni-
mathematical disciplinesrequiredof versity,
constantlysendingstudentsto
bachelorsstudying for the licentiate the
Sorbonnefor higherstudies,many
andcarefullynoted that four music of
thesechoristerson scholarships.
lecturs
a weekbe givenfor fourweeks. All
erridence
pointsto the factthatinstruc-

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 MUSIC IN
tion in musscaactiva was requiredof
membersof some collegesin the uni-
versity at least, knowledgeof plain
sonand was always available; for
eminent French composers many of
them, like Franco of Cologne,theor-
ists as well were constantly asso-
ciated with the Sorbonne and un-
doubtedlyofferedinstructionto uni-
versitystudents.Indeed,the two great-
est musical figures connected with
Notre Dame in the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries Leoninand Perotin,
whoseinnovationsin organumduplum
and triplumand variousformsof dis-
cantuslaid the foundationsfor all that
has developed sincprobably gave
privatemusicalinstructionunderuni-
versityauspicesalongwith otherParis
musiciknownto us throughtheirwrit-
ings.And of thosewhobuiltup a body
of practicaltheoryto explainthe new
polyphonyand to attempt a solution
of some of its ineluctablerhythmic-
notationalproblems,Francoof Cologne
in the thirteenthcenturyand Johannes
de Muris in the fourteenthachieved
the most widespreadinfluence and
foundthe greatestfollowing.The more
one investigates the cultivation of
music in the university,in fact, the
clearerit becomesthat Paris' leader-
ship in the medievalmusicalworldde-
rivedvery largelyfromthe remarkable
accomplishments of theoristsand com-
posersassociateddirectlyor indirectly
with the Universityof Paris.
The Englishuniversitieswereestab-
lishedad instarstudii Parisiensisand
lively intercoursebetween Paris and
Oxford not only transmittedNotre
Damedoctrineto Englandbut alsoper-
mitted the participationof English
scholars in the developmentof this
theory in Francfor example,John
of Garland.Connectionsbetween St.
Andrewsand the Sorbonnewere in
somerespectseven closerthanthoseof
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MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES 139
Oxford and Cambndge;and it may
have beensomeenterprisingand musi-
cally astutescholarwho broughtfrom
Paris one of the four existingmanu-
scriptcollectionsof Notre Damepoly-
phonperhaps one of the very volu-
mina of music descnbed in such
glowing terms by AnonymousIV-
which for many years belongedto a
collegiate foundationin the Scottish
university. The English universities
early inaugurateda systemof colleges
endowedby royal patronsor wealthy
ecclesiasts,generallyfor the supportof
theologystudents;and practicalmusi-
cal instructionwas an integralpart of
life in these foundationswith their
many Nlasses and other observances
dependingupon music. Many of the
collegessupporteda precentor}master
of the choirboys,andvaryingnumbers
of clerics who could bear a part in
song,while the wealthiercollegeseven
kept an organistamongtheirmembers
(for example,All Souls).Choirboys in
collegiatefoundationscompetenter in-
structedin plainsongand "pricksonge"
regularlyenrolledlater in the univer-
sity proper; in fact?they were often
glven preterencew zen vacancles ln
* ^ * ^
university scholarshipIists occurred.
With such a solid core of musico-re-
ligious activities at the basis of aca-
demiclife and the need for musicalin-
structorsto fill positionsin the col-
leges, it is not surprisingthat music
was singledout fromamongthe other
membersof the quadriviumfor espec-
ial distinction axld that degrees in
musicwereawardeddefinitelyfromthe
fifteenthcenturyand probablyearlier.
During the Renaissancethe graduate
in music was grantedpennissionC'to
lecture in any of the books of Boe-
thius," and this may well have been
true duringthe medievalperiod too;
for Boethius' Musica was a regular
part of the mathematicalrequirement
 JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN hIUSIC
140
at ()sford and by analogyat Cam-
bridge- for bachelorsproceedingto
the magisterium, Mathematicians who
lecturedon music,however,werecon-
cerned as much with problems of
practicalartistryas with problemsof
numericalproportions M and treatises
writtenby Oxfordscholarsreflectthe
usual duofold approachin musical
studies: the mathematicaland the
practical.
In awardingseparate degrees in
music, the Universityof Salamanca
perhaps resembledthe English uni-
versities;at any rate, in Spain and
Italy as well as in England,licenses
to teachthe separateartsseemto have
beengrantedin very early times, al-
thoughthe practicewasgivenup some-
timeduringthe medievalperiodevery-
where except in England. More
remarkablefor Salamanca'srole in
the history of musicalstudies is its
distinction of beingthe firstEuropean
university to establisha chairof music
among its endowed professorships.
Foundedat the mid-thirteenthcen-
tury,this lectureshipstressedmusical
arsas well as scientia by specifying
the teaching of composition (or-
ganum). The chairof musicwasmain-
tainedcontinuouslythroughoutthe
medieval periodandbecameevenmore
firmlyfixed in the fifteenthcentuty
whenit acquiredpermanenttenure
forits incumbent.The strong posi-
tionof musicat Salamaslca with defi-
nite
emphasisuponpracticalmusicwas
related,in part at least to the great
loveof music,patronageof that art,
andoccasionalpersonaltalent on the
partof Spain'smedievalrulerswho
showedcontinualinterestin university
affairs.
It was directly in line, toon
withthe Spanish (Arabic) tradition
whichkept musica activs on a par
with
musicatheoretica(as in the treat-
ises
of Alfarabiand many Paris and
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EDUCATION
Oxfordmusici who cited his divisions
of music)>a traditionwhichpartially
explainsthe smallnumberof treatises
on musicfromSpain?sMiddleAges.
In very earlystatutesof the univer-
sitiesof centralandnorthernEurope
most of them organizedmoreor less
spontaneouslyand patterned upon
pre-existing modelsxact require-
mentsfor graduatesin the artsfaculty
were specified.Of six distinguished
universitiesoriginatingin medieval
timesand still in existencetoday,five
requiredmusic quite plainly in the
statutes and the sixth (}Ieidelberg)
hada mathematical
requirementwhich
undoubtedlyincluded music. Both
PraglleandColognecitedmusicamong
"ordinary"lectures (lectureson all
schooldays exceptreligiousholidays).
Fromits first year, Praguespecified
astextbookthe Musica of Johannesde
MurisX as did Leipzig,whereasVienna
andCologrlemadethe regulationmore
flexibleby simply requiringalxquem
inmusxcaas the basis for the music
lectures.Reflectinga love of careful
precision and minutedetailcharacter-
isticof the Germantemperament,
most
ofthese statutes Bere explicit as to
length of timeto be spenthearingmu-
siclectures-generallythree weeksto
onemonth,althoughViennarequired
sixteenlecturesduringa periodof four
weeksand the fee due the regent
master. Prague appearsto have re-
quiredmusic for both the bacca-
laureateandthemagisterium,although
Muris'
condensationof Boethiuswas
required only for the latter.The musi-
cal
regulationat Vienna,Cologne,and
Leipzig applied to bachelorsseeking
thelicentiate (consecrationof the
master's degree with the license to
teach),
as did Heidelberg's
mathemati-
cal
requirement;but Cracowplaced
the
Muristext quite definitelyamong
books to be "heard"snte gredam
 NtUSIC IN
baccalariatus,differingfromthe others
in this respect.Suchdetailedspecifica-
tions as these in the statutebookstell
us a great deal about musicalstudies
at Paris,the archetypefromwhichall
these studia ultimatelyderived,with
the possibleexceptionof Colognewhich
evolvedgraduallyfromschoolslong in
existencein the city.
One of the schoolsfrom which the
Universityof Colognedevelopedwas
a musicschool a fact whichmay ex-
plain why musica quoad duas partes
is carefully noted in the Cologne
statutes,underlyingthe duofoldstudy
of music.And even wherenot specifi-
cally noted, musical studies in the
northernuniversitiesappear to have
combinedthe practicalwiththe mathe-
matical.Eachof thesestudiawasclose-
ly allied with a largechurchor cathe-
dral whose priests,canons,precentor,
and singers were also students and
teachersin the universityand whose
choirschoolwas supervisedby the uni-
versity.Instructionin technicalaspects
of musicalart, then, wouldalwaysbe
available from professionalmusicians
under university auspices; and that
many students availed themselvesof
this instructionwe know from note-
books and other documents.Treatises
written by magistriactively teaching
in the universitiesdeal more often
with the elementsof practicalmusic,
both plainsongand mensural (poly-
phonic) music, than with purely
mathematicaltheory, whereas notes
and commentariesthat have come
downto us reflectboth aspectsof mu-
sic, based generallyupon the writings
of Johannesde Muris.
Musicalstudiesin the medievaluni-
versitiesof Europe,thus, actuallycon-
tinueda trendnoticeablewith the an-
cient Greeks,carriedon in the Roman
rhetoricalschools, and cultivated in
the monasticand cathedralschoolsof
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MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES 141
the Middle Ages: musicaspeculativa
allied with mathematicsand musica
practicaalliedwith religiousneedsand
uses. For from one point of view, far
from being an independentsubject
worthyof study, music owed its exis-
tence to its membershipin the mathe-
maticalquadriviumof the liberalarts,
to its positionamongthe encyclopedic
disciplines,all of them,since the time
of Augustine,consideredessentialfor
a properunderstandingof the Scrip-
tures. This traditionaccountsfor the
generallack of referencesto individual
subjects of study in early university
statutebooks;and it explainstoo why
a vague mathematical requirement
among other university regulations
would automaticallypresupposethe
study of musicaspeculativa. Like the
restof the arts,musicas a mathemati-
cal disciplinewas generallytaughtby
magistriregenteswho tutored their
students throughthe whole cycle of
the quadriviumand ultimately pre-
sentedsuccessfulones of them as can-
didates for the coveted ius ubique
docendi, the rightto teachanywherein
all Christendom.There is evidence
that failure in music (at the Ger-
man universities,at least) meantfail-
ure to obtain the much sought-after
license. Such strictness in enforcing
musicalregulationsfinds a cogent ex-
planation,however,not only in the
encyclopedicideal of competencein
all fieldsof knowledgebut also in the
custom generally prevailingin Ger-
manyand perhapselsewhereby which
a newly created magisterbegan his
regencywith lectureson music,a par-
allel to the fact that many of the
medievalphilosophers begantheirwrit-
ings with a treatiseon music. Some-
times musica specuZativa advanced
fromthe arts faculty,moreover,to one
of the higherfaculties.In universities
having strong traditions in medical
142 JOURNAL OF ESEUCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION

studiePadua, Viennane finds membersof university communities

muchdocumentary evidencefor musi- who oftentimesowed their scholarly
cal studies allied with medicine,a careersto theirpositionas choristers;
parallelto whichis seen in the close and othersenrolledin the universities
connectionof musicand bodilyhealth could receiveinstructionof this type
writingsfromthe time Irom protesslonamuslclansmcorpor-
r ,* * . *
in philosophical
of Platoonward. ated in the universitiesactudocendiin
There are many indications,how- arte musive,in the wordsof a Paris
ever that instructionin music was document.It follows,of course,that
often given by specialistsin the field universitystudiesapparentlyinfluenced
eitheras publiclecturerson university many to follow musicalcareers;and
stipendsor as tutors on a fee basis; the matriculationrolls show that the
and doubtlesssome megistri required universitiesalso attractedmany who
to teach music became specialists had alreadybecomeprofessionalsing-
throughyearsof dealingwith this dis- ers or choirmasters.Universitytowns
cipline. Nonetheless,the position of blessedwith princelychapels (Paris,
music among the other arts of the Heidelberg)found even more incen-
quadrivium nevervaried;andmanyof tive for the cultivation of musica
our most importantmusicaltheorists practicathan thosewhosemusicalac-
were at the same time astronomers tivities were chiefly religioniscausa,
and mathematiciansProsdocimusat both in universityand cathedral;for
Padua, Johannesde Muris at Paris, singersand choir mastersfrom these
WalterOdingtonat Oxford.But it is chapelswho matriculatedin the uni-
especiallysignificantfor the historyof versities brought additionalmusical
musicalstudiesthat eachof thesemen intereststo their studies and shared
and manyotheruniversityteachers theirown talentsin teachingothers.
as well proceededfrommusicalmath- Treatisesspringingfrom university
ematicsto artisticproblemsof musza studies or used in connectionwith
practica, as witnessinnumerable writ- university teaching amply illustrate
ngs on technicalproblemsof rhythm these varied aspectsof music in the
and notationby universityteachers, medievaluniversities.Reflectingthe
studentnotebookscontainingthis doc- age-oldstudy of musicas one of the
trine,andthe widespread dissemination seven encyclopedicdisciplines,writers
of ever developingtheory explaining of philosophical encyclopediasJohan-
newdevelopments in polyphony,chiefly nes Scotus,Kilwardby,Grosseteste-
Franconiandoctrinein the thirteenth includeddiscussionsof musicwith the
century and the ars-nova theory other liberal arts, generallydrawing
(Philipde Vitry,Johannesde Muris) their materialfrom the usual stand-
for the morecomplicatedmusicof the ard authoritieBoethius, Isidorus7
fourteenth.It seems obvious, then, MartianusCapella.Manyof the medie-
that whetherrequiredby university val allegoriesalso introducethe seven
rulingor not, mathematicians who be- liberal arts with a brief accountof
came highly skilled in the artistic each. Most often these discussions
side of music includedthis aspect in are short hortatoryintroductionsto
their lecturing,public or private.In- musicdesignedfor the studentof phil-
structionin singing,instruments, com- osophy, presentingonly enough in-
positionwasregularlyavailableto, and formationproperlyto establishmusic's
sometimeseven requiredof, younger placein the sum total of knowledgc

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 MUSIC IN MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES 143

generallythe definition,divisions,uses, cussionof the latter. These works,in

and effects of music. More numerous fact, fall into a more or less definite
are treatiseson the science of music pattern in which the usual scholastic
designedfor the studentof music;and eisagoge (definition,division, effects,
these works usually begin with the and explanationof musical propor-
same scholasticformulabut proceed tions) is introductoryto matters of
to a detailed discussionof musical rhythm, notation, and composition.
mathematics chiefly the numerical The compilationof Jeromeof Moravia
proportionsbasic to intervalsand the and the Ars nove musiceof Johannes
derivationof the scale fromnumerical de Murisare typicalexamples.So very
proportions. Even in preuniversity stereotypedis this pattern that one
days, this type of eisagogewas often may use it as a criterionfor judging
followedby a discussionof the eccles- as universitywritingscertaintreatises
iastical modes, a section on practical about whose authorslittle is known.
music, that is, followingthe mathe- The Lucidariumand Pomerium of
maticalpart; and in universitytreat- Marchettusof Padua,for instance,to-
ises devotedto the art of musicalone, gether form a unifled discussionof
prevalentfrom the thirteenthcentury bothaspectsof music'sdichotomy,sim-
onward,this sameunity betweenspec- ilar to other universitytreatises,al-
ulative and practicalaspectsof music thoughMarchettuscannotbe definite-
is consistently maintained. It was ly relatedto the Paduanstudium.
thirteenth-century learning,indeed, a Throughoutthe MiddleAges, then,
centurycharacterized by greatcompre- we find musicin the universitiesclose-
hensivenessas well as unity in all ly integratedwith philosophy,both
branchesof knowledge,that inspired originallyin the service of theology,
the first great musicalSpeculum, the and music gainingindependenceas a
work of Jacquesde Liege translating separateart with its own dichotomy
the philosophicaland theologicalspec- of theory and practice-both studies
uluminto the fieldof one art andcom- originallypursuedad majoramgloriam
bining into one art both speculative Dei. The authoritativemethodgener-
and practicalsides of music. In the ally prevails;the ipse dixit approach,
fourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesother with scholasticdivisionsand subdivi-
treatisesof the comprehensivespecu- sions, is usually followed.But occa-
lum type appeared,representingall sionallythereappearsa differenttype
the musicalknowledgeof the time of treatise, sometimes quite icono-
the worksof Odington,Ugolino,Tun- clastic,whichtakes as point of depar-
stede,andJohannesGallicus;andthere ture another premise than, say, the
is not one of themunrelatedto univer- standard Boethian divisions (musica
sity studies. mundana,humana,instrumentalis)or
As polyphonydevelopedin the thir- which describessecularmusicalforms
teenthcentuty,bringingwith it special (largelyunheardof in scholarlywrit-
problemsof rhythmand notationun- ings until Johannesde Grocheoat the
felt as long as musicwas monophonic, University of Paris consideredthem
a good many of our universitymen worthy of discussionfor their ethical
wrote specializedtreatiseson artistic effects).The mostobviouslyunconven-
aspects of musicapractica,always in tionalof thesc the treatiseof Anony-
harmoniousrelationto musicaspecula- mus IV, certain discussionsof Roger
tiva,and generallyprecededby a dis- Bacon,the Theoriaof Grocheo were

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144 JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION
not onlythe resultof universitystudies
but of Arabic influenceat medieval
Paris and Oxford.Musicalstudiesat
Orleans,famousfor its emphasisupon
rhetoric,wereat least partly respons-
ible for the E>oetDeschamps'very in-
terestingand unconventionaltreatise
relatingmusicto poetry.It is remark-
able7too, that althoughcertainpostu-
lationsof rhythmic-notational doctrine
becamefirmlyentrenched,there were
always theoristswho did not agree
withthis establishedauthority.Jacques
de Liege,for example,in his Speculum
musicaethoroughlydisapproved of the
innovationsof Jean de Murs and
Philipde llitry,andinfinitelypreferred
the olderdoctrineof FrancoandPetrus
de Cruce.All such unorthodoxyleads
to the inevitableconclusionthat musi-
cal studies in the universitieswere
characterizedby a far greaterflexi-
bilityandfreedomof thoughtthanone
might suppose, consideringmusic's
perennialposition under the shadow
of scholasticphilosophyand theology.
And althoughduringthe medieval
period,on the one hand,musicnever
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lost its theologicaland philosophical
connotationson the other,it beganto
emergeas a separateart by the end of
the MiddleAges, alwaysmaintaining
a traditionalbalancebetweentheory
and practice,supportedby its o
corpusof technicaltheory,and allow-
ing secularinfluencesto becomeprom-
inent amongformsof discantuslarge-
ly ecclesiasticalup to now. This new
attitude toward music was under-
lined in the universitiesin many dif-
ferentways by the awardingof special
licensesto teach music alone (Italy,
Spain,England);by carefulattention
to musicalrequirements in the north-
em universities;by the occasionales-
tablishment of a chair of music
(Padua) at the close of the Middle
Ages ( 1450); by the strengtheningof
a musicalendowmentalreadylong in
existence (Salamanca);and by the
translationof musicfroma singleart
amongsevento an independent faculty
amongthe higherfaculties,eachhaving
its own regulations,its own degrees,
in the Englishuniversities.
MontanaState University