SURVEYING

CIV220

SUBMITTED BY:
SUBMITTED TO:

NAME-: NITISH GULERIA

MR.P.POLU RAJU
SEC -: B5803, RB5803A26
ROLL NO-:A26
REGD NO-:10803446
 ACKNOWLED
GEMENT

I would hereby like to

thank my respective teacher
MR. P.POLU RAJU who gave me all
the necessary information about
my term paper without him it was
not possible and my
Friends who helped me a lot......

I AM HIGHLY THANKFUL TO YOU.

THANKING YOU
NITISH GULERIA
INTRODUCTION and ending at survey
points
Using the station and
offset computation
About using the station and
offset computation

The station and offset

computation can be used for
calculating the coordinates
along a path. A path is
defined as either of the Coordinates can optionally
following: be calculated
perpendicularly, at a specific
• A straight line offset distance left or right of
between two existing the path you've specified.
survey points Offsets to the left must be
entered as negative values,
and offsets to the right must
be entered as positive values.

• A sequence of
connected feature
segments starting
 to the endpoint of the path.

The difference between the

sum of all the distances that
you enter and the path length
is called the distance
misclosure or remainder.
You can choose to
proportion this remainder for
each distance and compute
new coordinate locations for
the points.

Different methods for

computing these coordinates
are available.

They can be computed at

equal distances along the
path, at variable distances, or
so that they divide the given
path into a specific number
of equal lengths.

For more information about

entering point names,
distances, and offsets in the
station offset computation,
see "Computing coordinates
offset left and right from a
line between two points,"
below.
When using the variable
distances method, you can
choose to enter a closing How to use the station
distance. This is the distance and offset (IN
from the last point computed COMPUTER PROGM.)
Computing coordinates 6. Repeat step 4 to
evenly spaced on a line define the to Point
between two existing points and press Tab.
7. Click the
1. Editor menu and click Stationing Type
Snapping. Click Survey drop–down arrow,
Points in the Snapping click Spaced evenly,
Environment window. then press Tab.
2. Click the 8. Type the
Project drop–down number of equal
arrow on the Survey segments you want
Editor toolbar, then to use to divide the
click the survey line and press Tab.
project that should The grid updates
own the with a new row for
measurement, point, each of the new
and computation points.
survey objects. 9. Press Tab to
3. Click the ignore offset
Computation tool distances, press Tab
palette drop–down to accept the default
arrow, move the name, or type a new
cursor to the fourth name and press Tab.
row of buttons on 10. Repeat step 9
the palette, and click for each of the new
the Station and points in each row.
Offset button .
4. Snap to and
click the from point Computing coordinates
on the map. offset left and right from a
line between two points
The name of the
point appears in the 1. Click the
From Point field. Computation tool
palette drop–down
5. If the point is arrow, point the
not visible on the mouse to the fourth
map, type its name row on the palette,
and press Tab. and click the Station
and Offset button distance and offset
. along the line that
2. Snap to and you want to enter.
click the from point
on the map. CONSIDRATION
The point name • When computing coordinates
appears in the from offset from a line, use negative
Point field. values for coordinates to the left
3. If the point is of the line and positive values
not visible on the for coordinates to the right.
map, type its name
in the text box. Press
Tab. Proportioning the remainder
4. Repeat step 2 to when computing points on a
define the to Point line
and press Tab.
1. Start a new
5. Click the
station and offset
Stationing Type
computation.
drop–down arrow
2. Choose the from
and click Variable
point and to point.
distances. Press Tab.
3. Click the
6. Type the
Stationing Type
distance along the
drop–down arrow.
line measured from
Click Variable
the previous point
distances and press
and press Tab (the
Tab.
first distance starts
4. Type the
at the from point).
distance along the
7. Type the first
line measured from
perpendicular offset
the previous point in
distance in the
the Value field and
Offset field. Press
press Tab (the first
Tab.
distance starts at the
8. Accept the
from point).
default name in the
5. Type an offset
point identifier field
value, if required,
or type the new
and press Tab.
name. Press Enter.
6. In the Point
9. Repeat steps 6
identifier field,
through 8 for each
 accept the default vertices that define
name or type the the segment path.
new name and press 3. Start a new
Enter. station and offset
7. Repeat steps 4 computation.
through 6 for each 4. Click the Editor
distance and offset menu on the Editor
along the line that toolbar and click
you want to enter. Snapping.
8. Check 5. Check Edge for
Proportion after you the feature class that
have entered the represents the
closing distance. feature that holds the
feature segment
The points are path.
recomputed; the 6. Make sure the
remainder is from point or to
distributed equally point field has focus,
in each of the snap to it, and click
original distance a segment on the
measurements. path.
7. Click the
Stationing Type
Computing coordinate drop–down arrow,
locations along a feature click the method you
segment path want to use, then
press Tab.
1. Identify the 8. Enter point
connected feature names, distances,
segments along and offsets, if
which you want to required.
create new survey
points.
2. Unless they
already exist,
digitize two new
survey points,
snapping to the first
and last feature
What is Boundary Offset? getting a computer to do it
reliably. The little floating
point round-offs that don't
bother us humans cause
computer programs to trip
and fall face-first on their
little flat-panel screen

Boundary Offset

• handles open and

closed boundaries
• very robust and fast
• used for cutter
2D boundary offset is -- in compensation in CAM
mathematical terms -- the systems and machine
construction of a boundary at controls
a given distance from a
specified open or closed Milling
boundary. In the image
above, the red boundary has • pocketing spiral and
been offset numerous times zigzag
to produce the green offset • profile / finish
boundaries. • leftover material - find
material which the
2D boundary offset is all toolcouldn't remove
around us. Cabinet trim,
picture frames, streets and
highways, art designs,
landscaping, bottle labels,
and neon signs all use
boundary offset. If you look
around you, without a doubt,
you will find other things
which were made using a
boundary offset calculation.

Constructing an offset
boundary by hand is not that
difficult. What is difficult is
The image above shows the
result of a boundary offset
computation. The original
boundary is in red, and the
resulting boundary is green.
Note how the circular "hole"
is offset inward, i.e. away
from the area bounded by the
red curves.
Footings
The three requirements of a
footing course are:
(1) That the area shall be
such that the total load
divided by the area shall not
be greater than the allowable
unit-pressure on the subsoil.
(2) That the line of pressure
of the wall (or pier) shall be
directly over the center of
gravity (and hence the center
of upward pressure) of the
base of the footings.
(3) That the footing shall
have sufficient structural
strength so that it can
distribute the load uniformly
over the subsoil.
When it has been determined
with sufficient accuracy how
much pressure per square
foot may be allowed on the
subsoil , and when the total
load of the structure has been
computed, it is a very simple
matter to compute the width
of continuous footings or the
area of column footings.
The second requirement is
very easily fulfilled when it
is possible to spread the
footings in all directions as
desired. A common
exception occurs when
putting up a building which
entirely covers the width of
the lot. The walls are on the
building line; the footings
can expand inward only. The
lines of pressure do not
coincide. A construction as
shown in the figure will
almost inevitably result in
cracks in the building, unless
some special device is
adopted to prevent them.
One general method is to
introduce a tie of sufficient
strength from a to b. The
other general method is to
introduce cantilever beams
under the basement, which
either extend clear across the
building or else carry the
load of interior columns so
that the center of gravity of
the combined loads will
coincide with the central
pressure line of the upward
pressure of the footings.

Construction where Lines
of Downward and Upward
Pressure on Footings do
not Coincide.
The third requirement
practically means that the
thickness of the footing shall
be great enough so that the
footing can resist the
transverse stresses caused by
the pressure of the subsoil on
the area between c and d.
When the thickness must be
made very great , on account
of the wide offset gh,
material may be saved by
cutting out the rectangle e k
m l. The thickness m o is
computed for the offset g o,
just as in the first case; while
the thickness k m of the
second layer may be
computed from the offset k f.
Where the footings are made
of stone or of plain concrete,
whose transverse strength is
always low, the offsets are
necessarily small; but when
using timber, reinforced
concrete, or steel I-beams,
the offsets may be very wide
in comparison with the depth
of the footing. Calculation of
Footings. The method of
calculation is to consider the
offset of the footing as an
inverted cantilever which is
loaded with the calculated
upward pressure of the
subsoil against the footing. If
Fig. 41 is turned upside
down, the resemblance to the
ordinary loaded cantilever
will be more readily
apparent. Considering a unit-
length (I) of the wall and the
amount of the offset o (= dc
in Fig. 41), and calling P the
unit-pressure from the
subsoil, we have P o l as the
pressure on that area, and its
lever-arm about the point c is
1/2 o. Therefore its moment
= 1/2 P o2 l. If t represents
the thickness b c of the
footing, the moment of
resistance of that section =
1/6Rlt2, in which R = the
unit-compression (or unit-
tension) in the section. We
therefore have the equation:
 stone and concrete, is given
in Table XII.

Table XII. Ratio Of Offset

To Thickness For
Footings Of Various
Kinds Of Masonry
Transverse Stresses in Mod Pressure on
Footing Determining Its ulus Bottom of
Thickness. of Footing (Tons per
Ass Square Foot)
Rupt
ure ume
d
Kind ( Mi
Av
of nim era Saf
Mason um e
ge
ry Val 0 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.
and
ue . 0 5 0 5 0 5
Max 5
Saving of Material in Very imu (R)
Thick Footing. m

1/2Po2l = 1/6Rlt2. Valu

es)
By transposition, 1,20
2 1. 1.
Granit 0- 1,2 1. 1. 1. 0.
130 . 4 2
e 1,36 80 8 1 0 95
5 5 5
5
1 1. 0.
Limest 450- 1. 0. 0. 0.
675 70 . 0 7
(2) one 900 3 9 8 7
8 5 5
135- 1 1. 0. 0. 0.
The fraction - is the ratio of Sandst 0. 0.
1,10 525 55 . 1 9 7 6
the offset to its thickness. one 8 6
0 6 5 5 5 5
The solution of the above
equation, using what are Concr
considered to be ete(pla
conservatively safe values in)
for R for various grades of 1:2:4 400- 440 75 1 1 1 0 0. 0 0.
 . 3 9 8
480 1 dimensions of such footings
9 5 5 5
1
213- 1. 0. 0. 0.
1:3:6 230 40 .
246 0 8 7 6
4
183. Example The load on a
wall has been computed as
19,000 pounds per running
foot of the wall, which has a
thickness of 18 inches just
above the footing. "What
must be the breadth and
thickness of granite slabs
which may be used as a
footing on soil which is
estimated to bear safely a
load of 2.0 tons per square
foot?
Solution. Dividing the
computed load (19,000) by
the allowable unit-pressure
(2.0 tons = 4,000 pounds),
we have 4.75 feet as the
required width of the footing.
1/2 (4.75 -- 1.5) = 1 625 feet,
the breadth of the offset (b).
From the table we find that
for a subsoil loading of 2.0
tons per square foot, the
offset for granite may be
1.25 times its thickness.
Therefore, 1.625 = 1.30 feet
=15.6 inches, is the required
thickness of
1 . 25 the footing.
The computation of the
when they are made of
reinforced concrete is taken
up during the development
of this specialized form of
Masonry in Part III.
Although brick can be used
as a footing course, the
maximum possible offset (no
matter how strong the brick
may be) can only be a small
part of the length of the brick
- the brick being laid
perpendicular to the wall.
One requirement of a footing
course is that the blocks shall
be so large that they will
equalize possible variations
in the density and
compressibility of the
subsoil. This cannot be done
by bricks or small stones.
Their use should therefore be
avoided in footing courses.
Offset Method
Use
This function measures the
effectiveness of a hedging
relationship by comparing
the changes in the value of
the hedged items and the
hedging instruments in a
particular hedging
relationship. The main key
figure is the quotient of the
two values, the hedge ratio.
The offset method is a
retrospective test method,
since it takes into account
value changes that occurred
in the past only. In contrast
to retrospective regression
analysis, this method does
not require the history to
cover a long period, nor does
it use complex statistical
methods.
In its simplest form, the
offset method has the
disadvantage that its result
can fluctuate significantly
when minor value changes
occur. This can cause
effective hedging
relationships to be
incorrectly classified as
ineffective. For this reason,
SAP provides an enhanced
offset method that you can
use to limit the effect that
very minor value changes
have on the effectiveness
test.
Prerequisites
You make settings for the
offset method in
Customizing for Bank
Analyzer by choosing
Processes and Methods ®
Hedge Processes ® Fair
Value Effectiveness Test ®
Valuation ® Environment
and Rules for Effectiveness
Test ® Set Up Offset
Method.
Features
The method used to calculate
the effectiveness key figure
depends on the control
parameters you have defined
in Customizing. For each
effectiveness test rule, you
can choose a noise threshold
value (NT) parameter and a
transition speed (ST)
parameter.
Standardized method
If you do not define a noise
threshold value, the system
uses the standard method to
calculate the hedge ratio HR:
where t is the key date, HA is
the hedge adjustment, HIt is
the hedged item, and HIn is
the hedging instrument in a
hedging relationship
(depending on the hedging
relationship, these can be
complete transactions or
portions of transactions).
Enhanced Method
In contrast to the standard
method, you enter a noise
threshold value when you
use the enhanced method.
This parameter defines the
point at which fluctuations in
value are to be considered
relevant for the analysis of
the hedging relationships.
Besides the noise threshold
value, you can use the
transition speed parameter to
influence selectiveness in the
effectiveness measurement:
● Calculation with noise
threshold value and
without transition speed
where NTA is the noise
threshold value as an
absolute amount in the
reference currency of the
hedging relationship. The
noise threshold value NTA is
added or subtracted in the
numerator so that the sign
(+/-) of the expression does
not change; the respectively
opposite sign is used in the
denominator. If, for example,
the change in the value of the
hedged items ΔHIt is
positive, the system adds the
noise threshold value NTA in
the numerator, and subtracts
it from the denominator.
If the value changes are
large, the formula is the
same as that used in the
standard method (ΔHIt or
ΔHIn dominates). In the case
of minor value changes, the
noise threshold value
(HR≈NTA/NTA=-1)
dominates in the numerator
and denominator. When
NTA=0, formula (B) is the
same as the standard method
formula (A).
In Customizing, you can
enter the noise threshold
value as a percentage NTp of
the total of the nominal
values Nom of the hedged
items, or as an absolute
amount NTA in the reference
currency. If you enter the
threshold value as a
percentage, the system
calculates the corresponding
absolute amount on the basis
of this percentage before
applying the above formula:

where Nom = nominal value

of a hedging relationship;
Nom is defined as the total of
the nominal values of the
hedged items in the hedging
relationship, and the current
remaining debt on the key
date is used as the nominal
value.

● Calculation with noise

threshold value and
transition speed
where ST is the transition
speed. The noise threshold
value NTA is added and
subtracted as above. ΔMP is
defined as follows:

ΔMP is a measurement of the

extent of the value changes
in the hedged items and
hedging instruments. If ΔMP
 is less than NTA, the hedge
ratio is –1. If ΔMP is greater
than NTA, the equation (C) is
the same as the standard
method (A). The calculation
rule (C) conforms to the
standard method (A) and the
enhanced method (B)
without transition speed,
since, when ST =0 or ST =0
and NTA =0, it is the same as
formulas (B) and (A).
You use the transition speed
to influence the transition
area between the area in
which the noise threshold
value dominates and that in
which the noise threshold
value is irrelevant. The
greater the transition speed,
the smaller the transition
area. The following graphic
shows the effect that the
noise threshold value and
transition speed parameters
have on the hedge ratio in
calculation rule (C):
Analysis of the Hedging
Relationship
...
1. Setting of the
retrospective effectiveness
indicator
The system compares the
calculated hedge ratio with
the barriers specified in
Customizing and sets the
retrospective effectiveness
indicator to Effective,
Temporarily Ineffective, or
Ineffective.
In the reporting function for
the fair value effectiveness
test, the system displays the
changes in the value of the
hedged items DHIt and the
hedging instruments DHIn.
This enables you to see how
the system calculated these
values.
2. Check of the number
of tests with the result
temporarily ineffective
In Customizing, you specify
the number of times in
succession that a hedging
relationship is allowed to be
classified as temporarily
ineffective. If this maximum
number is exceeded for a
given hedging relationship,
the system classifies that
hedging relationship as
ineffective.
3. Setting of the start date
of ineffectiveness

Error Handling

● If the changes in the

value DHIt of the hedging
instruments is equal to zero
or approximately zero, the
system issues a warning.

● When calculating the

changes in the value of
hedging instruments, the
system calls the Fair Value
Server. If an error occurs in
one of the required functions,
the system sets the
effectiveness indicator to
Incorrect and writes an error
message in the application
log.
REFRENC
ES
1-
www.civilengineeringportal.co
m

2- -surveying & levelling by

NN Basak